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Chapter 9: Mollusks
Yeager, Smith (Robert), Remaily, Shaeffer
Mollusks (General) Most mollusks have a soft body covered by a shell made of Calcium Carbonate
 Range in size from microscopic snails to the giant squid
 Mollusks can be found in most marine habitats and exhibit a variety of lifestyles.
 General Molluscan body plan consists of the head-foot, and the visceral mass
 Head-foot contains mouth and sensory organs in the head, while foot is the organ of
locomotion.
 The visceral mass contains other organ systems such as circulatory, digestive, respiratory,
excretory, and reproductive systems.
 The Radula is a structure unique to mollusks.
 Radula is the ribbon of tissue that contains teeth and is in all mollusks except bivalves.
 The Radula is, depending on the species, used for scraping, piercing, tearing, or cutting pieces of
food.
 The characteristics of the radula are key in the classification of molluscan species.
Gastropods
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Exhibit a tremendous amount of diversity
Most have shells
Live in a wide variety of habitats (shore to the ocean’s bottom)
A few gastropod types are used as food, and several different species may be used in the
preparation of escargot.
some gastropods are scavengers, feeding on dead plant or animal matter; others are
predators; some are herbivores, feeding on algae or plant material; and a few species are
external or internal parasites of other invertebrates.
Of the more than 65,000 species, about 30,000 are marine, 5,000 live in freshwater, and
30,000 live on land.
gastropods are predominantly herbivores
Cephalopods
 Means “head footed”
 Use tentacles on head to catch prey
 Usually have small, internal shells
 Nautiloids
o Have large, coiled shells separated by septas
o Septas are filled with gas, which helps maintain buoyancy whilst swimming
o Inhabit only the last chamber, but connected to all of them by a cord of
tissue called the siphuncle
o The siphuncle removes saltwater from the chambers
o Has 60 to 90 tentacles that adhere to whatever they touch and that have
feeling (Chemosensory and tactile)
o Water comes in through incurrent siphon and moves by shooting water out
the excurrent siphon
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They come to the surface at night (Believed to be for food, but after
research, it turns out that’s not the case)
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Coleoids
o Includes cuttlefish, squids, and octopods
o Cuttlefish have eight shorter arms and two larger tentacles
o Their shells have chambers, similar to nautiloids
o The cuttlefish’s shell is embedded into its mantle
o Squids have tube like bodies with fins derived from its tissue
o They have ten appendages, two of them being tentacles
o The arms of a squid has suckers on the under part of them
o Teeth like growths surround the suckers
o Octopods have sack like bodies
o They have eight appendages with everything a squid's arm has except for
the teeth
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All of these animals know not to screw around
Coeloids release an ink like substance called sepia when they are disturbed
Sepia has a high concentration of melanin
The ink cloud could look like another animal, which could scare predators away
Squids, octopods, and other relatives to them can swim via jet propulsion
More slow swimmers swim via fin undulation
Squids and cuttlefish are good swimmers and their bodies are streamlined for
efficient movement
Octopods can walk on the ocean floor
Coleoids have advanced nervous systems
Octopods have good memory and color recognition
Cephaloids can communicate both by the movement of their arms and color change
o They have chromatores to blame for the color change
o When they're dispersed, darker color
o When their condensed, lighter color
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The mimic octopus can make itself look like other animal
Cephalopods are carnivores
They locate prey with their special eyes (my brand)
Octopuses will envelop their prey and inject a venom inside them
The mating process of the cephalopods are usually a type of courtship display
Male squids have a modified arm filled with Spermatophore that it could place it
into the mantle of a female near the opening of the oviduct
The female octopus pumps water onto the octopus eggs until they hatch
Scaphopods-
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Commonly called Tusk Shells
Shape of shell resembles an elephant’s tusk.
Shell is open at both ends, and the foot protrudes from the larger of the openings.
Foot is used to burrow
Live in between the intertidal zone and several thousand meters deep.
Feed primarily on foraminiferans, which are small protists
They use their foot or special tentacles that emerge from the head to capture their prey.
Chitons
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Have flattened bodies that are mostly covered by eight shell plates.
They use their large flat foot to tightly attach to rocks.
Usually live in intertidal zone
When removed from a rock they roll up into a ball for protection
Mainly feed off of algae
Sexual reproduction from external fertilization
Bivalves- molluscs with two jointed shell halves called valves
(clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, shipworms)
I.
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Anatomy
No head or radula1. Ribbon of tissue with teeth
Foot located ventrally
Laterally compressed
Umbo
1. Oldest part closest to hinge
Adductor muscles control opening and closing of shell
Feeding
Filter Feeders- Plankton
1. Inhalant and exhalant openings
2. Cilia in gills move water into and out of mantle Cavity
Palps
1. Structures that form food particles into masses
2. Move food through mouth and digestive system
Habitat
Everywhere there's water
1. Any depth of water
2. Salt or fresh
3. Seagrass, mangroves, mud, hard surfaces
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5.
Soft Bottom Burrowers
Protected in sand and sediment
Siphon- tubular structure that controls water flow
Draw in food from water
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a.
Hard-surface dwellers
Attached through a byssus
Tough protein secreted through the foot
VI.
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VII.
BORING bivalves
F. Burrow into wood and stone
Shipworms
Unattached
F. Jet propulsion, contract adductor muscles and close valves, force water out
Nematodes: Nematodes (or roundworms) are among the most
numerous animals on earth.
Habitat: There are over 12,000 species of nematodes,
combined they cover every habitat in the ocean.
Feeding: Most Nematodes are scavengers
Reproduction: Some species do not reproduce sexually
while others do.
Annelids: Worms that are divided into components that are
filled with water and can expand and contract to create
movement called the hydrostatic skeleton
Setae: Are the tiny hair that are used for locomotion, digging,
anchorage and protection
Feeding: From the opening of the tube there is a ring of tentacles that come out of the
top of the polychaete, these tentacles have cilia and are used to catch and bring in food.
Reproduction: For some Polychaetes, they reproduce asexually by budding or division,
where part of the body becomes separated and the rest is regenerated. For the
Polychaetes that do not reproduces asexually their body cavities are filled with Sperm or
Eggs. Reproduction takes place when sperm and egg combine to create a gamete and
after the gamete matures, it is discharged either through the breaking skin of the
mother, or through special ducts where the gamete escapes.
Errant Polychaetes: Polychaetes that move freely
Sedentary Polychaetes: Polychaetes do not swim, they either burrow or stay completely still
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They make up 75% of all identified animal species
They have an exoskeleton, which is a hard protective layer
They are composed of protein and chitin, which is a tough
polysaccharide
They go through a process called molting, which is when the old
exoskeleton is shed and a new one is formed
Their body consists of divided segments
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They have highly developed nervous system
There are two major groups, chelicerates and mandibulates
This group of arthropods includes spiders, tickers, scorpions, horseshoe
crabs and sea spiders
They have one pair of chelicerae, this takes place of the mouthparts
and is used for feeding purposes
Horseshoe crabs have evolved a lot and consist of three regions, the
cephalothorax (the largest), the abdomen (smaller than the
cephalothorax, contains the gills) and the telson (tail-like structure used
for steering in the water)
Horseshoe crabs are also covered by a hard covering called the
carapace
Sea Spiders have sensory structures called palps which are used to
capture prey
They have a pair of appendages called mandibles that are located on
their head modified for feeding
They are mostly consisted of crustaceans
o The more important groups are decapods, mantis shrimp, krill,
copepods, amphipods and barnacles
o They have three main body components, the head, thorax, and
abdomen and some species may include walking legs
Crabs, lobsters, and true shrimp are classified as decapods
o A lot of decapods show behaviors and adaptations that help them
survive in their habitat
o They have a wide variety of feeding habits and diets
Hemichordates
HABITAT:
Hemichordates are sessile bottom dwellers. They usually live under stones,
mud and or sand flats.
FOOD: They get their own food by trapping it in their mucus and then transported by cilia,
then it gets to the mouth and from there it is swallowed.
FACTS: At one time the hemichordates/ also known as acorn worms were classified as
chordates because they have similar structures found in chordates.
Tunicates
FACTS: Tunicates are also known as sea squirts because when irritated they will forcefully
shoot out a stream of water from their excurrent siphon. Their bodies are generally round or
cylindrical and have two tubes projecting from them: an incurrent siphon that brings the water
and food in, and an excurrent siphon that eliminates water and wastes.
FOOD: The tunicate food is trapped on the mucous net that is formed in the animal’s
pharynx which is also used in gas exchange. All sea squirts can regenerate damaged body parts.
Another name for tunicates is Sea squirts, they can be solitary, colonial, or compound organisms.
Colonial sea squirts can do asexual reproduction.
Cephalochordates
HABITAT: Cephalochordates are fish like chordates that are also known as lancelets.
Adult lancelets can grow up to 4-8 centimeters. They are benthic animals who burrow in coarse,
shelly, current swept sands, and usually in shallow nearshore areas.
FOOD: Their heads project above the sand into the shallow water, from which they filter
suspended food particles.
FACTS: Their life cycles are complex, including a benthic adult and planktonic swimming
larva.
Echinoderms
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All echinoderms have spiny skins because of an endoskeleton that lies below
the epidermis.
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The skeleton is made of calcium carbonate formed into structures called ossicles.
The spines extend from these.
The water vascular system ensures that echinoderms can move, feed,
perform gas exchanges and excretion.
Tube feet aka podia: Each podia has a hollow end and sac-like ampulla. Ampulla are
suckers at the end of each podia, protruding at the opening along the arm called the
ambulatorial groove.
Starfish
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STRUCTURE: All stars share the same basic structure, a central disc and
five arms/rays.
 On each ray is the abulatorial groove where the tube feet are.
 All stars have the ability to regenerate rays if one is lost. Some
can purposely cast off injured rays and grow replacements.
MOBILITY: Water is pumped into the tube feet from the ampullae, causing
them to project. Suckers at the end tend to hold firmly onto solid surfaces.
However, muscles in the tube feet contract, which brings water back into the
ampullae.
FEEDING: A majority of stars are either carnivores or scavengers. Some
locate prey in sediments and others sense chemicals that are released into the
water.
 Tube feet have a role in feeding as well. For instance, when feeding
on a bivalve, the starfish will grasp its prey and pry the two halves
apart.
 All starfish feed by everting a portion of its stomach onto/into its prey.
Within each of its rays are digestive glands that supply digestive
enzymes. When the star is finished feeding, it draws its stomach back
into its mouth and moves away.
Echnoids
STRUCTURE: Their bodies are enclosed by a
hard endoskeleton, known as a test. These also
have tube feet which can extend past the spines,
again serving as locomotion with some help from
the spines. Some species have venom in their
spines - the tip will break off and lodge into
whatever disturbed it and cause a severe burning
sensation.
Regular: Regular echinoids are sea urchins. These
have long, movable, spines, most of which are 6 to 12
centimeters in diameter. More often than not, they’re
found in shallow water on solid surfaces.
Irregular: Bilateral/irregular echinoids include
heart urchins and sand dollars. These are adapted
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for burrowing in sand. Their spines are much smaller,
which is used for locomotion and keeping sediment
off of the body.
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FEEDING:
 In regular: a majority of urchins are grazers, scraping the
surfaces they live on with their teeth. Each urchin’s mouth
contains five teeth in a chewing structure called Aristotle’s
lantern.
 In irregular: these are selective deposit feeders, which feed on
organic material in the sand in which they burrow.
Cucumbers
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STRUCTURE: achieve gas exchange through respiratory trees.
These are located on the left and right side of the digestive tract.
Because of their round and elongated shape, they usually lay on one
side and move slowly by contracting their tube feet.
 FEEDING: Cucumbers feed through oral tentacles - which are
just modified tube feet. They usually feed on small particles of
food trapped with these tentacles, which are coated with sticky
mucus. Cucumbers leave behind fecal-mud castings behind.
Fishes- outline
Jawless Fish
Jawless Fish are a species of fish with skeletons composed entirely of cartilage.
There are two main types of jawless fish; Hagfish and Lampreys
Hagfish
Location
· Bottom dwelling fish found throughout the world with the exception of the Atlantic
and Antarctic Oceans
· They are typically found about 600 meters below sea level and in the tropics
· They are found in the intertidal zone in places such as South Africa, Chile and New
Zealand
Feeding:
· Hagfish extend a feeding apparatus composed of termed dental plates called horny
cusps
· Dental plates grasp the flesh of the prey
· They eat small invertebrates
· They also consume large, dead mammals (whales) by entering through the mouth or
anus and eating the creature from the inside, out.
Function/ Protection:
· They produce a milky gelatinous fluid when they are disturbed
· It is also produced when feeding but mostly for protection
· When seized, the slime suffocates the predator and encourages it to release
· Hagfish can remove the slime by tying itself in a knot and sliding it off
Reproduction:
- 70 species of Hagfish alone
- Ovaries and testes are both present on the animal but only one is functional
- Females outnumber the male by 100 to 1
Fun Fact: The demand for hagfish skin is very high because it is often used for leather
products.
Lampreys
Basics:
· Out of 38 species of Lampreys, only 9 are found in the ocean.
· Petromyzon Marinus spend their life feeding on other fish (Main function)
Feeding:
· They use an oral disk and rasping tongue containing horny tentacles to grasp the
prey
· They create a hole in the preys body and suck out all of the tissue and fluids
Reproduction:
· Males arrive first (freshwater) and create a nest for females in shallow riffles of
stone
· Females attach to rock, male attaches to female to shed eggs and sperm
· Adults die after fertilization and eggs hatch in two to three weeks
Anadromous- Migrating to freshwater to spawn
Ammocoetes- The larvae
Bony Fish
Body Shape:
· The shape of the fish’s body is determined by it habitat.
· Fishes That are very active swimmers have a Fusiform Body shape which has a very
high and narrow tail Ex: Marlin, Shark
· Fish that live in see grass or coral reef have a laterally compressed or deep body that
helps navigate through their complex environment. Ex Butterfly Fish, Angelfish
· Bottom Dwelling Fish have a flattened body or depressed body. Ex: Left Eye
Flounders
· Fish that exhibit a more sedentary life style have a Globular body and their pectoral
fins are usually enlarged to help support the body. Ex: oyster Toad Fish, Scorpion fish
, Anglerfish
Coloration and Pattering
· Fish coloration and patterning is helpful for many reasons
· Helps prey blend into their environment
· Predators use coloration and patterning to conceal themselves
· Two Basic types: Pigments (biochromes) & Structural Colors.
· Pigments are color compounds found in chromatophores.
· Iridophores are Specialized Chromatophores that reflect light using crystals
· Many fish have the colorization known as Obliterative countershading, which is a
dark colored back with a white belly.
· Many species of coral reef fish exhibit disruptive coloration, which is when vertical
lines interrupt the background color of the body. This helps to break up the pattern
and make it more difficult for predators to see.
· Coral fish may also Exhibit Poster Colors, which show bright color patterns. These
colors can be seen as a warning sign, or aposematic coloration to advertise that they
are venomous .
· Cryptic coloration is used by some fish to blend with their environment. They hide
from their predators.
Locomotion
· Fish move about by drifting with the current, burrowing, crawling on the bottom,
gliding, and swimming
· When fish swim the trunk muscles propel the fish through the water
· The Trunk muscles are arranged as a series of muscle bands that look like the letter
W
· Fish swim different ways. Elongated fish use their whole body to swim while
smaller fish only use the posterior portion of the body.
· Some fish use only their fins to swim.
Respiration/ Osmoregulation/ Cardio Vascular System of bony fish
Respiration:
* Fish use gill to filter out oxygen out of the water, as well as to balance the salt level
in the body.
* Counter current multiplier system: Blood flows in opposite direction as the water ->
80% of oxygen can be filtered out instead of just 10%, when the blood is flowing with
the water.
* 2 different methods: Gill pump and Ram ventilation
Osmoregulation:
* Process by which an organism maintains the proper concentration of solutes and
water in it's body fluids.
* The salt concentration in the body is about 1/3 of the salt concentration of the sea.
Cardiovascular system:
* Heart, arteries, veins and capillaries
-> Deoxygenated blood is collected from veins through thin walled chamber, the sinus
venosus, and passed though another thin walled chamber, the atrium, to the muscular
ventricle. Here the blood is lead to the gill capillaries, and from there collected by the
dorsal aorta. The blood is passed through the body by veins and capillaries, fulfilling
the cycle.
* Fish have low blood pressure because the blood isn't returned to the heart after the
oxygenation
Bony fish
Nervous system
· The olfactory receptors of sharks are very well developed and located in sacs or pits
usually located in front of the mouth
· Have sensory lateral line system consisting of canals running along the length of the
animals body and over the head, within the canals are sensory receptors called
neuromasts that can detect vibrations in the fluid that fills the canal
· Fish use the lateral system to locate prey and avoid potential predators
Digestion system
· · Many finned fish have blind sacs called pyloric caeca that secrete digestive
enzymes and a few lack a true stomach
· The intestine of a shark and their relatives is relatively short, but has a spiral valve
that increase the surface area for nutrient absorption
· The liver is well formed in fishes but pancreatic tissue, depending on the species, is
dispersed to different areas about the digestive system
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Cartilaginous - Having a skeleton composed either entirely or mainly of cartilage, as
vertebrates of the class Chondrichthyes, which includes the sharks, rays, and skates.
* Cartilaginous fish can be divided into two major groups. Holocephalans, and the
Elasmobranches.
Sharks
* Sharks are the top predators of the oceans food webs.
* Megamouth sharks, and basking sharks are zooplanktivorous, which means that they
filter out very small planktonic animals from the water column
* Sharks can vary from 16 to 20 centimeters, but they also can exceed 14 meters (46
feet) in length, and weigh over 5,500 pounds.
* Most of sharks have streamlined bodies and rare excellent swimmers, using their
massive trunk muscle, sharks swim with powerful sideway seeps of the caudal fin.
* Sharks are found in all oceans, they are found in habitats that are tropical waters of
less than 2000 meters ( 6600 feet ), only a few species of sharks can inhabit ocean
depths as low as 3,500 meters. Skates and Rays
* Skates and rays have different
* Skates and rays differ from sharks by having flattened bodies, and having greatly
enlarged pectoral fins that attach to the head, reduced dorsal and caudal fin, eyes and
spiracles on top of their heads.
* They have evolved a variety of defenses, an example is the Electric Ray, they have a
pair of electric organs in their head that can deliver up to 220 volts
Lobefins
* Coelacanths are classified as Lobiefins, because of their rod-shaped bones
surrounded by thick muscle in their pelvis and and pectoral fins.
* Live at the depths of 150 to 250 meters ( 495 to 825 feet ) in rocky areas of the
Indian Ocean with steep lava slops that contain caves.
* They produce about 5 to 26 live young after a gestation period of about 13 months
* Population of about 500 or maybe fewer.
Ray-Finned Fishes
* More than 26,000 names species seawater
* They are the most numerous and dominant group of vertebtrates in the ocean
* Most forms can be characterized by the presence of a swim bladder, fin rays, bony
skeleton,
Chapter 11 Reptiles and Birds
I. Marine Reptiles Special Qualities/ Features: ● Amniotic Egg
- an egg covered by a protective shell and containing a liquid- filled sac called the amnion. ●
Amnion - a liquid filled sac that contains the developing embryo of some vertebrate animal. ●
Yolk sac
- a sac like structure in amniote eggs that contains a supply of food in the form of yolk. ●
Allantois
- is an embryonic support membrane found in some vertebrates that functions in the elimination
of wastes. ● Chorion
- is an embryonic support membrane found in some vertebrates that functions in the gas excha
nge. ● The circulatory system of reptiles is more advanced than that of fishes. ●
Circulation through the lungs is basically completely from the circulation in the rest of the body.
Since the circulation of oxygen is separated from the rest of the body, it helps supply the air to t
he animals tissues and helps support their active lifestyles. ●
The kidneys in their body are very efficient in the elimination of waste and conservation of water
, allowing them to inhabit dry regions and the salty environment. ●
Covered in scales and generally lack glands this adaption decreases body water loss in marine
environment. ● Reptiles live both on land and in the ocean. II. Shorebirds Structure- ●
Covered in feathers to insulate the bird ●
Maintain constant body temperature (homeothermic) ●
High rate of metabolism to supply the large amounts of energy needed for active flight and to m
aintain a rapidly functioning nervous system for flight control ●
Have adaptations, such as strong muscles, quick responses, and coordination ●
Advanced respiratory system and circulatory system that provide more oxygen to muscles to su
pport the high metabolic rate that flying demands ● Keen sight and hearing ●
Large brains that allow them to process more sensory information more effectively
Habitat●
Include coastal, saline, and freshwater wetlands, flooded agricultural fields, interior grasslands,
and arctic tundra Niche- ●
Small differences in foraging behavior and beak shape allow each bird species to find its own ni
che Feed- ● Feed on the abundance of marine life in the intertidal zone ●
Consume large amounts of salt with the food they eat and salt water they drink ●
Have salt glands above each eye, capable of producing a solution of sodium chloride that is twi
ce the concentration in seawater ●
The salt solution is released from the internal or external nostrils, so seabirds appear to have c
onstantly runny noses Reproduction- ● Must return to land to breed ●
Shorebirds generally lay a clutch of 4 eggs, which hatch between 21-25 days III.
Gulls and
Pelicans IV.
Tubenoses and Penguins Penguins- ●
Most highly adapted to life in the sea ●
Only 2 of 17 species life in Antarctica (emperor and adeline) ●
14 other species live on rocky, barren islands in the Antarctic sea and along the shores of south
America and south africa ● Galapagos penguins live as far north as the equator ●
Able to survive because of the cold food rich waters of the Humboldt Current ●
Penguins are well adapted to swimming in the cold waters ●
Their bodies are covered in an outer layer of feathers that streamline the body which helps to w
aterproof Petrels- ● Storm petrels are small birds with long legs ●
Erratic flight- fluttering moth ● Storm petrels are the most abundant seabirds ●
Their feet paddle rapidly below the surface of water (which makes it look like they can walk on
water) when feeding ● Extremely long lifespan ●
Long term partners and return to the same nesting area each year ●
Breeding does not take place until age 4-5 (considered late for a bird of this size)
● Breed seasonally laying only one egg ●
Diving petrels have the nostrils, beak and stomach glands of tubenoses they look like the auks
of the northern hemisphere ● Have the ability to spot small crustaceans and fish from the air ●
Perform head long dives and continue to chase their prey “flying” underwater ●
Without missing a wing beat the bird leaves the water with the food in its beak
Albatrosses- ● super gliders (3.5 meter 11 feet wingspan) Largest of any bird ●
wandering albatrosses- master of the skies and the largest of all ●
barley the flick of the wing allows hours of gliding ●
light sea winds keep them aloft Tubenoses- ● obvious tubular nostrils on their beaks ●
fly low over the ocean; their nostrils prevent salt spray entering their nasal cavities ●
large nasal glands that secrete a concentrated salt solution and it also keeps the salt solution a
way from their eyes ● aid in decreasing the strength of air currents ●
structure of their stomach- large gland that produces oil made out of liquified fat and vitamin A
●
yellow oil is fed to newborns because it has a strong unpleasant odor that is used as a defense
mechanism Gulls Niche- cleans garbage from beaches and coastal waterway Habitatshore of Europe and North America Reproductionfemales lay 2-3 eggs and eggs hatch in 3-4 weeks; takes
chicks 8 weeks to learn how to fly
Interesting Facts -possess oil glands which waterproof feathers -webbed feet - feed on floatin
g debris in water - so useful to keeping ocean and beaches clean that they are protected by law
in certain cities -noisy and aggressive -efficient scavengers/predators -gather in colonies of
hundreds of thousands
-pick up clams, muscles, and oysters then drop them on rocks to break the shells -can lay eggs
3-4 times per year -chicks are primary prey for predators Pelicans Nicheconsumes living and nonliving fish, clearing the ocean of dead fish Habitatprimarily the west coast Reproductionlay 2 eggs between April and June; eggs hatch in 3-4 weeks and chicks flee at 8 weeks Interes
ting Facts - Use their large throats as nets for fishing - Consume 4 lbs of fish per day Biggest predator of chicks is other gulls/pelicans Lack oil glands which allows them to dive to great depths to catch fish Population declining due to polluted/drained waters
Chapter 12 Outline
Sea Otters and Polar Bears
Pinnipeds:
* Pinniped means feather footed
* Divided into families within the order carnivora, eared seals true seals and walruses
* True seals and walruses lack external ears and are more streamlined for swimming
under water
* Pinnipeds are fast swimmers and can achieve speeds 25
* Eared Seals- Sea Lions and Fur Seals
* Phocids (true seals) the forelimbs are set closer to the head and are smaller than the
hind limbs
* They eat fish
Sirenians
Baleen Whales
Toothed Whales:
Spy Hopping: when whales stick their heads straight out of the water to survey
surroundings
Breaching: whales completely or almost completely leave the water
Slapping: slapping fins on surface to create a huge splash
Echolocation: Allows whales to search for food, navigate the sea, and avoid attacks.
Whales have modified ears to hear underwater vibrations.
Sperm Whales
* The giant of toothed whales, third largest animal on earth
* They are aggressive, attacking their prey
* Polygynous- males are always accompanied by many females
* Mainly found in tropical and temperate waters
White whales
* White color and can bend neck, includes narwhal and beluga
* Live in northern and polar seas
* Main predators are killer whales and polar bears
* They feed on crabs, cuttlefish, flounder and halibut
Porpoises
* Resembles a small dolphin
* Have a rounded head with no beak
* Found in the north Atlantic ocean
* Feeds on schooling fish
Dolphins
* No more than 3 meters long
* Can be found in all oceans
* Feed on schooling fish
Killer whales
* Largest of the dolphins, upper and lower jaws have large teeth
* Feed on homeothermic animals
* Have a dorsal fin and distinct colors
* Most common in arctic and Antarctic seas