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AICE International History
1945 -1991
~
The Cold War
Introduction and The Origins
Kevin Sacerdote©
Jacksonville, FL USA
Pictorial Overview
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2
Consider Where You Have Been
Twenty-one years separated the two world
wars, providing their combatants with time to
recover from their losses, restore some
semblance of domestic order, redefine their
national interests, and prepare for future
challenges…but that was not true after
World War II…it was only six months after
the Japanese surrender that Winston
Churchill gloomily proclaimed that an “iron
curtain” had descended across central
Europe
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3
Consider
The Cold War is [was] more than a
sum of events- rather it
underscores [d] how the Cold
War’s symbolic power and the
tension that drove it depended on
local conditions that always
eluded complete control
( by the USA and the USSR)
(pp. xxix-xxx)
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4
AICE International History
Theme Suggestions
1. The Origins of the Cold War after WW II
2. The Globalization of the Cold War
3. The Crisis of Communism and the End
of the Cold War
4. The Nuclear Arms Race, 1945-1991
5. The Development of the International
Economy, 1945-1991
6. The Third World
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Distinct Cold War Phases
(consider ‘marker events’ for each; overviews follow)
1. 1945 - 1953
2. 1954 - 1964
3. 1965 - 1979
4. 1980 - 1991
(Encyclopedia of the Cold War Edited by Ruud van Dijk Routledge: New York: NY)
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6
Cold War Era # 1: 1945 - 1953
• Product of WW II, & its immediate
aftermath (Truman/Stalin Era)
• Shaped from alliances, agreements,
and the geo-political “shake out” from
WWII
• Expanding USA influence in W. Europe
V. the expanding territorial reach of
USSR (esp. in Eastern Europe)
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Cold War # 1: 1945-1953
• Extends beyond Europe into Asia (and
elsewhere)
• It begins to engender a nuclear arms
race
• Domestic politics will influence & will
be influenced by the conflict
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8
Cold War Era # 2: 1954-1964
• Coincides with Khrushchev’s years in
power
Soviet-American competition over
nuclear domination
Fragmentation of the communist and
capitalist blocs
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Cold War Era # 2: 1954-1964
(Continued Impact of Decolonization)
3. Continued expansion of the Cold War
to the expanding Third World (Cuba,
Vietnam, Laos)
4. Emergence of the “non-aligned”
movement
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10
Cold War Era # 3: 1965-1979
• Rise and fall of détente
– Warsaw Pact intervenes in Czechoslovakia
further solidifying the status quo in Europe
– China & USSR fight a border war (Sino/Soviet Split)
– USA begins to normalize relations with China
– Escalation of turmoil in the developing
world i.e. Vietnam , China (Cultural
Revolution), Africa, Central America, and the
Middle East
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Cold War Era # 3: 1965-1979
• Various European countries and activists
begin to question the logic behind the Cold
War
– Ostpolitik (West Germany / Willy Brandt)
– Student protests
– European diplomatic push for détente and
cooperation resulting in the Helsinki Accords
of 1975
– Ends with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
(1979)
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12
Cold War Era # 4: 1980-1991
• Renewed East-West tension including a
new phase in the arms race
• Initial Hardened policies under President
Reagan (“Evil Empire”)
• Poland 1981 (martial law w/ ‘Soviet Backing’)
• Poland: Solidarity Movement (UP,
Underground, Up Again)
• Rise of Gorbachev’s New Thinking, and
Yeltsin
• End of the Cold War 1989 - 1991
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AICE Essay Construction
• Prompts will ask you to agree or refute
a statement
– Take a stand without using the word “I”
– Logically disagreeing with a prompt,
especially if YOU add balance, demonstrates
written sophistication
– Answer the question asked, do not create
your own
• Key to AICE Essays is BALANCE
(always)
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AICE ESSAYS: General
• Essays are commitments on paper!
• Words by themselves prove NOTHING!
– i.e. “This demonstrated that…” (Garbage)
• You must communicate in an explicit manner
via the written word!
You must demonstrate the “This” by
taking advantage of the following
Mantra!
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YOUR AICE Essay Mantra
I will EXPLICITLY explain the HOW and
WHY for each of my thoughts and will
religiously reinforce these thoughts
with real-world examples
Failure to do so will lead to my academic demise. It will
force me to look into my mirror and to gaze at the
ultimate cause of this academic evil…
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Be Forewarned Sailor!
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AICE Essay: ‘Origins’ Theme
• Do NOT get drawn into blaming the ultimate
cause on one side or the other (unless?)
• Leave one-sided emotions out of your thoughts
– Assess the view that neither the USA nor the USSR
wanted a Cold War to develop in Europe in the years
1945-1949 or
– Which of the following has the best claim to mark the
start of the Cold War: Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech,
1946; the Truman Doctrine, 1947; the Berlin
Blockade, 1948-49? Explain your answer (can you
choose one, but balance each of your body paragraphs?)
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AICE International History
1945 -1991
~
The Cold War
Introduction and The Origins
Kevin Sacerdote©
Jacksonville, FL USA
The Cold War
“Each new revelation from Soviet, East
European, and Chinese archives makes it
starkly clear that the history of the Cold war
must be reexamined…we learned that along
with the “hard power” of the spheres of
influence, bombs and missiles, there was the
“soft power” of fear and suspicion, distorted
perceptions that had driven both sides, the
West and the Soviet Union, to continue the
Cold War”
(Zubock,1996, xii, xiii)
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Cold War ‘Origin’ Theories
– Traditional/Orthodox: Stalin was the main
instigator, especially considering his aggressive
behavior in Eastern Europe and his “lies” (from Yalta)
about free and open elections.
– Revisionist: The aggressive anti-communist stance
(especially by Truman) and use of bombs against the
Japanese led some to blame Truman for the start of
the Cold War.
– Post-Revisionist: Both the U.S.S.R. & the United
States were mutually responsible for the origins of the
Cold War.
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Causes of the Cold War
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fear,
Mistrust,
Domestic Politics,
Misinterpretations,
Ideological Differences
the International System,
World-wide Opportunities,
Maintaining a balance of power,
Germany, control one’s destiny,
Russo-Centricism, and McCarthyism
Expansionism & the Geo-political “shakeout” towards the end of WWII!
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22
Cold War: “Origins”
• 1920’s – 1930’s:
Neither the USA or the
USSR was a world
military power
• 1933: FDR
established
formal diplomatic
ties with the
USSR (remember the USA
had backed the Mensheviks
versus the Bolsheviks)
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Cold War: Early Conferences
1. Casablanca:
– January 1943
Casablanca’s Big Two
– FDR & Winston
Churchill meet
– Stalin was not
invited, adds to
his mistrust
– War could only
end with a full,
unconditional
German
surrender
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Next Step: “The Grand Alliance”
2. Tehran, Iran (pledge to free the world of tyranny/war)
•
•
•
November 29-December 1, 1943
FDR, Churchill, & Stalin (decide that the UK & US
Would invade N. France in the summer of 1944)
What to do with Germany after the war (briefly)?
NOTE
In between Tehran (Nov./Dec 1943)
& Yalta ( Feb. 1945) Churchill and
FDR will have another meeting!
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25
Quebec City, Canada
(September 1944)
• Roosevelt & Churchill meet without Stalin
• Discuss:
– Future occupation of Germany
– Lend-lease supplies for Britain
• Eventually exceeds $31 billion
– British naval support against Japan
– Eastern Europe was not discussed
• Even though Romania & Bulgaria were overrun by
the Red Army, and still on the march!!! (Plokhy, p. 25)
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Quebec City, Canada
(September 1944)
• Churchill felt that after Quebec and before the
next meeting of the Big 3 he had to see Stalin in
Moscow!
– FDR could not attend due to his 4th Presidential
campaign
– Churchill feared Stalin would sign a separate
peace with Hitler
– Churchill also had Poland and the Balkans (esp.
Greece) on his mind (sends paratroopers to the
Greek mainland BEFORE he meets with Stalin)
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The British Enter Greece
(Plokhy, p. 145)
• The British “Invasion” of Greece was more
of an occupation for politico-military
objectives
– A few days before Churchill goes to Moscow
(the Brits “inch” into Greece)
– WHY?
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Churchill
Communism raised its head
behind the thundering Russian
battle-front. Russia was the
Deliverer, and Communism, the
gospel she brought !
(Winston Churchill)
(Plokhy, p. 145)
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29
Moscow
(Churchill & Stalin, No FDR: October 1944)
• Conversations start with Poland, then the Balkans
• “Poland was the acid test of Soviet
goodwill…if the Western Allies were
determined to address Poland at Yalta, the
Soviets were reluctant” (Plokhy, p. 153)
• To cement his new relationship, Churchill confided
that he did not like the details of America’s plan for
the new United Nations…secrecy… business behind
FDR’s back? (Greece/Britain, Turkey/ Stalin is Eyeing)
(Plokhy, p.146)
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Moscow
(Churchill & Stalin, No FDR: October 1944)
• Churchill gives Stalin percentage deals (like
Stalin will abide, yeah right Yugoslavia 50%-50%
I don’t think so!)
– i.e. Bulgaria 75 % Soviet Influence - 25% British
– America will not be told about this % deal
– The irony of Churchill and his Eastern European
percentages should not be lost here!
• Churchill’s infamous Iron Curtain speech is still looming!
• Do you think Stalin truly feels that Britain will be more of a
future player when compared to the USA?
(Plokhy, p.146-148)
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Yalta: The Price of Peace
Written by S. M. Plokhy (published 2010)
Western Dilemma at Yalta
“Was it better to accept the reality of Soviet
military dominance in Eastern Europe and
dissociate themselves politically and morally
from what the Soviets were doing there, or,
on the contrary, should they try to influence
the situation by cultivating the Soviets and
thus implicitly legitimizing their rule?”
(p. 151)
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32
Yalta
• Churchill wants resolution on Poland
• By Feb. 1945 the Soviet Red Army
occupied Poland
• A provisional government was set up by
the pro-communist Polish Committee on
National Liberation (PCNL)
• Talks with the exiled London Poles had
broken down after the Germans reported
the NKVD killings of Poles at Katyn Forest
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Yalta: Day-to-Day Topics
• February 4, 1945 (Day One): Military Concerns
• February 5, 1945 (Day Two): Dismemberment
of Germany/Zones of Occupation, Reparations,
length of stay, future German Government, and
what “unconditional” surrender meant
• February 6, 1945 (Day Three): Creation of a
United Nations, future role of France (esp. after
FDR’s Hint of leaving), Poland, Free Elections,
Borders, (indirectly) a need for a buffer zone for
the Soviets, and the Curzon line (the first communiqué
was ok’d)
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Yalta Topics
• February 7, 1945 (Day Four): Poland,
the United Nations, Eastern Europe, and
Soviet entry into the war against Japan
• February 8, 1945 (Day Five): Iran,
Current Military Fronts and the continued
bombing of Germany
• February 9, 1945 (Day Six): Japan, A
U.N., US Bases in the Far East, Poland,
supplies ( The Declaration on Liberated Europe was brought
forth)
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Yalta Topics
• February 10, 1945 (Day Seven/ The Last Full
Day): Picture Taken, Polish Free Elections,
Nazi War Criminals, Yugoslavia & Tito,
Prisoners of War, and Turkey & control of the
Black Sea (Stalin wants this, like many Soviet
rulers before him)
• February 11, 1945 (Day Eight): Poland,
the UN, and Iran
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Yalta ‘Compromise’ on Poland
• PCNL government would be reorganized
to include democratic leaders (LIE)
• The Brits and Americans agreed to the
“Curzon Line” as the Polish-USSR border
– Moscow’s gains under the auspices of the NaziSoviet pact were now formally recognized
– To compensate Poland for its territorial losses in the
East by adjusting their border with Germany, no exact
locations were discussed
– Russia entering the war against Japan was also
discussed (after Germany surrendered, Russia would
reclaim lands lost in 1904/05 Russo-Japanese War)
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37
The Declaration on Liberated Europe
(Presented by the Americans on Feb. 9th, 1945
signed a short time later by all three nations)
“To foster the conditions in which the
liberated peoples may exercise those
[democratic] rights, all three
governments will jointly assist the
people in any European liberated state
or former axis satellite state in
Europe…to form representative
governments, facilitate free elections,
etc.”
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38
Declaration on Liberated Europe
…a peculiar document. No piece of paper
approved by the Big Three become more
prominent immediately after the
conference…all three powers agreed to
adhere in their treatment of the countries
liberated from the Nazis, which at the time
of signing, the British were openly violating
in Greece and the Soviets in Poland
(Plokhy, p. 263)
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Declaration on Liberated Europe
The problem was that Stalin was not the
only leader to disregard the Declaration.
With his policies in Italy and Greece,
Churchill ignored the principles of the
declaration, just as he had ignored the
Atlantic Charter in Iran…the degree to
which the British violated the declaration
was different, but disregard was plain for
the world to see!
(Plokhy, p. 401)
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40
Yalta
• “By May 1945, in central and eastern Europe, the Red
Army had liberated and re-occupied Hungary,
Poland, and most of Czechoslovakia. The shape of
post-war Europe was dictated in the first instance
not by wartime deals and accords but rather by the
whereabouts of occupying armies when the
Germans surrendered” (Judt, p. 102-103)
• “The truly important issue-arrangements for postwar Germany- were off the table [at Yalta] precisely
because it was so important and intractable”
(Judt, p. 102)
(Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945, Tony Judt, pp. 102-103)
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41
April – July 1945
• April 12, 1945
FDR Dies
• May 7, 1945
Germany
Surrenders & is
partitioned
• May 11, 1945
Truman cuts off wartime
supplies to the USSR
• July 16, 1945
US Atomic Bomb Test
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42
Tripartite Cooperation
• Create a successor to the defunct League
of Nations (VIP for FDR)
– Led to the Dumbarton Oaks Conference
(Aug.- Sept. 1944), and
– The San Francisco Conference (Apr. – June
1945)
• The Moscow Foreign Minister’s Meeting led to
the development of the European Advisory
Commission
– Eventually decides to cut Germany into three zones
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43
The Big Three: Potsdam
• Potsdam, Germanyworn-torn suburb of
Berlin
• July 17–Aug. 2, 1945
• Begins one day after
America tested its first
atomic bomb
Attlee In, Churchill Out
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44
Potsdam ( Via Ambrose and Brinkley)
• At Potsdam, Truman:
– Learned “that the only thing the Russians
understood was force” (p. 66)…[Truman] would
not allow the Russians any part in the control
of Japan…if any nation did become
aggressive…the United States would use the
atomic bomb…the strategy would later be
called massive retaliation” (p. 67)…[but the]
American possession of the bomb had no
noticeable effect on Stalin’s policy in Eastern
Europe…[Stalin] continued to do as he
pleased” (p. 68)
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45
Potsdam, Germany
• Sets the stage for the division of the continent
into East and West
• The difficult lessons of Versailles (1919) were
still fresh in the minds of the leaders in 1945
• Not intended to produce a formal peace treaty,
only lasts 16 days
• Truman’s “immediate purpose was to get the
Russians into the war against Japan ( Ambrose &
Brinkley, p. 64)…[the other major issue] at Potsdam
was Germany” ( Ambrose & Brinkley, p. 65)
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46
Potsdam, Germany
• USA’s wishes about Germany:
–
–
–
–
–
–
A Strong & United Germany
Rid Germany of Nazism
Hold Nazi Trials
Break Apart German Military
Control German Industrial Production
Build a new Germany along Capitalism and
Democracy
– Truman also told not to trust Stalin by FDR’s
people
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47
Potsdam, Germany
• USSR’s wishes about Germany
– A weak government,
– large reparations
• Monetarily,
• raw materials,
• industrial equipment and
• Factories
• Soviet Security from future attacks
( Creation of a “Buffer Zone” )
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A Shift in Soviet Borders
At the Yalta conference he [Stalin] agreed
[to free elections] ‘We can implement it in
our own way later.’ The heart of the matter
is the correlation of forces…the Soviet
Union’s borders were moved several
hundred miles to the west, and the Red
Army installed subservient regimes
throughout the rest of Eastern Europe
(Gaddis, p. 21)
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49
Potsdam Declaration & Beyond
(President Truman)
• July 26 1945 (The Potsdam Declaration)
– Calls for an unconditional Japanese
surrender
• August 6, 1945 Hiroshima Bombing
• August 8, 1945
USSR declares war
on Japan, and invades
Manchuria
• August 9, 1945 Nagasaki Bombing
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50
Atomic Warfare
• Were the bombs primarily used to save
American lives?
– NOT according to British physicist P.M.S.
Blackett
– [it was] “the first major operation of the
cold war diplomatic war with Russia…Its
primary purpose was to keep Russia out of
the Far Eastern postwar settlement rather
than save American lives” (p. 47, Ambrose & Brinkley)
• (Revisionist Ideology as to who started the cold
war)
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Atomic Warfare
“A parallel interpretation claims that the American intention
was to impress the Russians with the power of the bomb
and to make it clear to them that the United States would
not hesitate to use it…America had already deployed the
bulk of her troops out of Western Europe…so that by
August of 1945 the Red Army was the most powerful
force in all of Europe. To those who concerned about a
possible Russian advance across the Elbe River, the
bomb seemed a perfect deterrent”
(p. 47, Ambrose & Brinkley)
Once again this is part of the revisionist theory!
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52
Japanese Surrender
• August 14th, 1945
Japan Surrender
• September 2nd , 1945 Formal Surrender
USS Missouri
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Dean Acheson 1893-1971
• Mainly Synonymous with Truman but also:
– 1941-1944 Handled Lend-Lease aid to
Britain
– 1944 leading State Dept. official @ Bretton
Woods (IMF, World Bank, and failed WTO)
– 1945 Was Washington’s coordinator for
Gen. Marshall’s attempt to broker a deal
between Nationalists and Communists in
China
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54
Dean Acheson: “The Getting
Tough with the Soviets Period”
• 1946: After Stalin’s
“Two Camps”
speech He asks
George Kennan in
Moscow to evaluate
Soviet policy
• Kennan’s “long
Telegram” and the
policy of
Containment would
be born
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Getting Tough with The Soviet
Period
• What would the “revisionists” say, and
Why?
– BUT he did head General Marshall’s failed attempt
to broker a deal between the Nationalists and
Communists in the Chinese Civil War
– What soviet actions in 1946 caused Acheson to
adopt a firmer plan against Moscow? (Stay Tuned)
– He also helped negotiate an end to the Berlin
Blockade.
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56
WW II Odds & Ends
• Britain heavily in debt
• USSR heavily in debt, over 20 million dead
– Agricultural & Industrial Economies in
Ruin
– Must avoid further military action
• USA exits the war as the leading world power
– GNP: (1939) $90 Billion
Billion
(1945) $211
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Acheson (continued)
• 1947: Criticizes the U.S.S.R. for not
leaving Iran
• He begins his push for the Truman
Doctrine due to soviet involvement in
Turkey, he later pushes for the Marshall
Plan
• 1949: Follows Gen. Marshall (sick) as Sec.
of State, and finalizes the creation of
N.A.T.O. (incl. Art #5 – promise to defend
each other
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58
Acheson
• President Truman goes after Senator Joe
McCarthy
– Claims the Department of State is SOFT on
communism, and were “harboring
communists” as well.
– Source: The Encyclopedia of the Cold War
(Volume 1) edited by Roud van Dijk. Rutledge
Taylor and Francis Group (2008, pp. 4-6)
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Acheson
• 1949 Soviets test their “bomb”
• Mao raises the Red Flag in Beijing
(10/1/1949)
• Truman/Acheson blamed for “losing
China”
• Asks Truman to issue NSC-68
– Increase military spending—plus
• June 25th, 1950 North Korea invades S.K.
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1946
• January
– Ernest Bevin, British Foreign Minister
– Speaks out against about the USSR intimidation in
Turkey and Iran
• February 3rd
– Reports of a Soviet Spy ring sending US atomic bomb
secrets to Moscow
• February 9th Stalin’s “Two Camps” Speech
(implies our world’s are incompatible)
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61
STALIN INSTALLS
PUPPET GOVERNMENTS
• Stalin installed
“satellite” communist
governments in the
Eastern European
countries of Albania,
Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Romania,
Yugoslavia and East
Germany
• This after promising
“free elections” for
In a 1946 speech, Stalin said communism and
Eastern Europe at the
capitalism were incompatible – and another
Yalta Conference 62
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1946
• February 22
– Kennan’s 8,000 word Telegram
– USA must drop isolationism and
CONTAIN the USSR
• February 28th
– Sec. of State Brynes condemns the USSR
for not getting out of Iran
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 starter activity

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64
Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” Speech, 1946
“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has
descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of
the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe … Police governments
are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in
Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy … Except in the British
Commonwealth, and in the United States, where communism is in its
infancy, the Communist parties or fifth columns constitute a growing
challenge and peril to Christian civilization … there is nothing they
[Russians] admire so much as strength, and there is nothing for which
they have less respect than for military weakness. For that reason the
old doctrine of a balance of power is unsound.”
Contextualizations
1.
2.
3.
4.
British Motive: Churchill wanted to prevent U.S. return to pre-war
isolationism
Soviet Response: Stalin accused Churchill of issuing a “call to war with
the Soviet Union”
U.S. Response: Wall Street Journal: “The country’s response to Mr.
Churchill’s Fulton speech must be convincing proof that the US wants no
alliance or anything that resembles an alliance, with any other nation.”
African American Protests: speech delivered at segregated Westminster
College in Fulton, Missouri
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THE IRON CURTAIN.
(THE FULTON SPEECH MARCH 1946 – CHURCHILL).
“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the
Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern
Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these
famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all
are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many
cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.”
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66
SOVIET REACTION TO CHURCHILL’S SPEECH.
Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech was never published by the Soviet press -only in May 1998 did it appear in Russian in a historical archival journal. Stalin
himself informed his people about it in Pravda. He compared Churchill to Hitler and
described him as "a warmonger" who aimed at "Anglo-Saxon ... racial“ world
domination. At the same time, he claimed that the Soviet Union, despite recent war
losses, was capable of waging and winning another war.
Stalin's harsh reaction was calculated, not emotional. After the fall of 1945, the
Soviet dictator had begun preparations for a possible confrontation with the West.
In addition to atomic and other military projects, he launched a campaign to disabuse
his lieutenants of any "illusions" about the West's -- and Churchill's -- good will. The
"Iron Curtain" speech gave him a pretext for mobilizing the Soviet people against
their former allies.
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67
SOVIET REACTION - COMINFORM
The Soviet Union hated Marshall aid (see Source D). Stalin
forbade Communist countries to ask for money.
Instead, in October 1947, he set up Cominform. Every
Communist party in Europe joined.
It allowed Stalin control of the Communists in Europe.
Source E
'Can he block it?' This cartoon of 1947 about Cominform
shows Stalin trying to stop the basketball of 'Marshall aid'
scoring the basket labelled 'European recovery'.
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68
THE CZECHOSLOVAKIA CRISIS 1948
At first, the American Congress did not want to give the money for Marshall
Aid. But then, in February 1948, the Communists took power in
Czechoslovakia, followed on 10 March by the suspicious suicide of the popular
minister Jan Masaryk. Congress was scared, and voted for Marshall Aid on 31
March 1948.
Source F
A British cartoon of June 1947 shows Truman and Stalin as two taxi-drivers
trying to get customers. The 'customers' are labelled 'Turkey', 'Hungary',
'Bulgaria', 'Austria'.
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69
WESTERN VIEWS OF COLD WAR IN EUROPE
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70
REALITIES OF THE ‘IRON CURTAIN.
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1946
March 5th
1. Byrnes ORDERS the USSR out of Iran
2. Churchill gives his Iron Curtain speech
April 14
•
Stalin promises to be out of Iran by May
1946
Late Spring/Early Summer The USSR begins to
isolate themselves (Stalin’s
Industrialization and Collectivization plans)
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1946
• December 2nd
– The United States, Great Britain, and
France merge their German occupation
zones to create what would eventually
become West Germany
• “The Americans and British agreed at the
end of 1946 to fuse the economies of their
two occupation zones into a so-called
‘Bizone.”
(Postwar: A history of Europe Since 1945, Tony Judt)
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73
1947: A Crucial Year in Europe
• Since wars end, repairs and reconstruction
consumed Europeans but:
– The fundamental problem of food supply was yet
not overcome, caloric intake kept falling (1,500 to
1,050)
– Droughts & Poor harvests in eastern Europe
impact the western food supply
– The winter of 1947 was the worst since 1880,
snows melted leading to floods
– The summer of 1948 was one of the driest and
hottest
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George F. Kennan d. 2005
• State department officer based in Moscow
– During and after World War II
– Profoundly influenced American foreign policy
– Authored the “long telegram” that analyzed the
communist outlook on world affairs
– Later published in Foreign Affairs magazine by “X”
( The Sources of Soviet Conduct - July 1947)
– The relationship was one of “innate antagonism”
– The Soviet Union did not have a firm timetable and
thus we need: “a long-term, patient, but firm and
vigilant containment”
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George F. Kennan d. 2005
• Regarded as the intellectual father of
containment
– The American Cold War strategy of blocking Soviet
advances beyond Eastern and Central Europe
• His ideas were influential in the formation of the
Truman Doctrine in 1947, and the strategy of
NSC-68 in 1950
• He began to distance himself from the practical
implementation of his recommendations
– He insisted that his ideas were exaggerated and
militarized buy U.S. Policy makers
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George F. Kennan d. 2005
• He left the diplomatic corps in the early
1960’s
– He began a second career as a scholar
criticizing U.S. Cold War policies
– When he saw the first draft of Truman’s
speech in 1947, he was alarmed at the
dramatic and emotional language used and
the implications to fight communist
challenges on a global as opposed to regional
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1947
• January
– Former General George Marshall replaces
James Byrnes as Truman’s Secretary of
State
– The “Greek Question” is getting hotter
• The Soviets had complained numerous
times to the UN that the Brits were
interfering in Greece’s sovereignty
• Greek civil war is raging
• Soviets Pressing Turkey for access to
the straits
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1947: Britain Cuts Back
Security Commitments
• February 21st 1947
– Britain tells the USA that they can NO longer be
the guardian of Turkey & Greece
• March 12th 1947 (Truman Doctrine Speech)
– Truman addresses Congress
• Stresses growing Cold War tensions in a very
dramatic speech
• Requests $400 million in aid
• Eventually Stalin decides not to play with
Turkey, and warns Tito/Yugoslavia not to start
a war over Greece
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Truman Doctrine:
Containment in Action
• March 12, 1947
• Official Title: “Truman’s Special Message to the
Congress on Greece and Turkey”
• Feels the youthful United Nations could not solve the
concern
• It was the first such formal Presidential statement
since the Monroe Doctrine
• “It was an unprecedented commitment on the part of
the U.S.A….[we] pledged ourselves politically,
strategically, and financially to two threatened
countries in a region of the world that was not in our
hemisphere and outside of a time of a hot war.”
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80
Truman Doctrine
• The president was aware that this action would
not be where containment ended
• Communists in Yugoslavia, Albania, and
Bulgaria funded Greek communist led rebels
against Royalists & anti-communists
• Truman held two White House meetings with
Congressional leaders, and Acheson helped
the president convince the leaders to vote
yes
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81
Truman Doctrine
• It “publicly defined and clarified the strategy of
CONTAINMENT”
• Bipartisan passage
• Bill passed both houses by a 3-1 margin
• “The Truman Doctrine is a comprehensive
statement of Truman’s understanding of
the Cold War as a total battle with political,
ideological, strategic, military, economic
and moral elements”
• Liberal democracy v. Communist Totalitarianism
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82
Truman Doctrine
• Critics claim the president over
exaggerated the Soviet’s intentions
• Secretary of Commerce/Journalist Henry
A. Wallace of the New Republic continued
criticizing the administration for months
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83
Truman Doctrine V. the
Marshall Plan
• The Truman doctrine money was
explicitly for political and military
reasons
• The Marshall Plan was mainly for
political and economic aid
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Alternatives To Containment
1. A Retreat into the traditional pattern of
US Isolation From European
diplomacy
•
•
Feb. 21, 1947 Britain acknowledges its exhaustion
– Had fought Philip II of Spain
– Napoleon I
– Kaiser Wilhelm II
– Adolf Hitler
Tells the U.S.A. they can not afford to police Greece
and Turkey
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85
Significance of the Truman
Doctrine
• Breaks the American tradition of isolationism
• Premise for the Marshall Plan
• Act of Collective Security (UN) – but issue of aid
never brought to the UN
• Enflames the fear of the spread of Communism
• Communists in Greece were not supported by
Stalin – supported by Yugoslavia
– Stalin recognized Britain’s position in Greece
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86
Alternatives To Containment
2. Start a “preventative war” while the USA
still had an “atomic monopoly”
– This would allow the US to establish a Pax
Americana (or world empire)
– To launch an atomic “Pearl Harbor” would be
contrary to American tradition and universal
standards of morality
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Alternatives to Containment
• The bomb signaled a significant change:
“historically the principal task of military
armaments had been to win wars; from
now on their main purpose would be to
DETER them.”
Source: American Foreign Policy Since World War II: Hook
& Spanier, pp. 43.
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Alternatives to Containment
• Because neither option was feasible the US had
to conduct a protracted conflict alien to its style
(Hook & Spanier, p. 43)
• “The Cold War that followed was characterized
by long-term hostility and by a mutual
determination to avoid a cataclysmic military
showdown .” (Hook & Spanier, p. 44)
• “As it took over Britain’s role as the keeper of the
balance of power, the U.S. had to learn politics.”
(Hook & Spanier, p. 44).
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1947
• April 1947
– Sec. of State Marshall visits Europe
– Shocked at devastation, food & fuel shortages
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General George Marshall
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91
The European Recovery Plan
a.k.a.
The Marshall Plan
“[it] marked a pivotal moment in the
emergence of the Cold War. The failure
on the part of the U.S. to bring the Soviet
Union and its satellite states into the
recovery program all but made the
division of Europe and the Cold War a
forgone conclusion”
(van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 574)
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92
June 5th, 1947
• Sec. of State George Marshall at Harvard
announces the European Recovery Plan
(ERP) becomes better known as The Marshall
Plan
– Marshall Plan or European Recovery
Program, project was instituted at the
Paris Economic Conference (July, 1947)
– In Apr., 1948, President Truman signed the
act establishing the Economic
Cooperation Administration (ECA) to
administer the program
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93
European Recovery Plan
A.K.A. The Marshall Plan
– In Apr., 1948, President Truman signed the
act establishing the Economic
Cooperation Administration (ECA) to
administer the program
• Available to all nations, even communist
• Meetings in Paris, Soviets & their Allies walk
out
• Would serve democracy and establish
European markets
• Truman asks for $17 Billion, $13.5 Billion
allotted
• Tito of Yugoslavia gets $151 Million
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Marshall Plan: December 1947
• Truman requests 17 Billion
• Congressional debate lasts for weeks, but:
– February 1948 Communist Coup in
Czechoslovakia
• Edvard Benes is out and Klement Gottwald is in
• It was the last democracy in eastern Europe
• Heightened fears about the stability of Europe
– June 24th, 1948 The Berlin Blockade
begins (more information to follow later)
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Soviet Union Reacts
• Creation of the Cominform to organize
communist parties around the world
– Provoke strikes in non-communist nations
– Solidify existing communist countries
– Unsuccessful and is disbanded in 1956
• Comecon (council for Mutual Economic
Assistance)
– Trade networks made in Eastern Europe
– Forced to buy Soviet products
– Raw materials sold at high prices to Eastern Europe
while their goods were sold back to Russia at low
prices (ends in the 1970s)
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96
1947
• July
– The National Security Act is passed
• Creates the National Security Council (NSC)
• Creates the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
– George Kennan’s- Mr. “X” article published in
Foreign Affairs Magazine (CONTAINMENT)
• September
– Latin American Rio Meeting (19 countries Call
for Am. Aid) Next time in Bogota est. OAS
– The Molotov Plan is released
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97
ADD HERE
• Add a Note Here about the First
successful Airlift over the HUMP for the
Chinese Nationalists, p. 35 Daring Young
Men
• Also add a quick note about the leadership
of Lucius Clay and the MAT’s head
William Tunner
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A Divided Berlin
Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Vol. 1
(pp. 82-89) Routledge Press
&
Daring Young Men
(pages as noted) Simon & Schuster
(Sources)
Berlin & The
Blockade/Airlift
(1948-1949)
Operation Vittles
v.
The War of Erosion
The Potsdam Conference 1945
• President Truman, Premier Stalin, and P.M. Attlee meet.
• The intent was to ultimately govern Germany together.
• The agreements fell apart soon after they were made.
– France did not feel bound because it did not participate
– Cold war tensions and vague wording resulted in different
interpretations
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101

In July 1945, Truman met with Stalin and Churchill at Potsdam.
Think of suitable thought bubbles for Stalin & Truman
Think of a US /USSR caption for this photograph.
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102
Four Occupational Zones
• Germany was subdivided
into 4 zones
• Berlin was also divided into
4 similar zones
• The Soviet zone became
the German Democratic
Republic (East Germany)
• French, British, and
American zones united to
form the Federal Republic of
Germany (West Germany)
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103
Russian Soldiers “Liberate” Berlin
• 90,000 women reported
being raped in Berlin
• “Can’t you understand it if
a soldier who has
crossed thousands of
kilometers through blood
and fire has fun with a
women or takes a trifle?”
– Stalin responding to
complaints of Red Army
atrocities in Yugoslavia
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104
East Germany
Check Point Charlie
Courtesy of Stephen Windsor
• Established an
authoritarian government
with a centralized
command economy.
• Became the wealthiest
and most advanced
country in the Eastern
bloc but still well below
western standards.
• Political freedoms were
denied
• Mass defections to the
West prompted the
development of the GDR
border system.
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From: Dornbusch R., H. wolf, and L. Alexander 1992
105
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106
Memorial of the Berlin
Wall
This is a portion of
the Berlin Wall which
has been turned into
a memorial.
Notice the “no-mans
land” between the
concrete.
Kevin
Sacerdote (Copyrighted
Source:
Becky Content)
Smith
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Libr 500: Foundations of Information Technology
107
West Germany’s
“Wirtschaftswunder”
• West Germany
developed a capitalist
“social market
economy” and a
democratic
parliamentary
government.
• Prolonged economic
growth fuelled the
“economic miracle” of
the FRG.
• The economy was
primarily built upon
industrial activities.
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108
Berlin
(overview)
• Located 100 miles inside of the Soviet Zone
(1 of 4 zones)
• From the Berlin Blockade (1949) until the fall
of The Wall (1989) this divided city
functioned as the symbolic capital of the
Cold War
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109
Soviet Harassment in the Skies
Around Berlin (before the airlift)
April 5th, 1948
A Soviet YAK-3 (fighter plane) collided with a
British Viking Airliner, killing all nineteen
passengers and crew aboard as well as the
Yak pilot (Daring Young Men, Reeves, p.23)
The Soviets claim the
Airline deliberately
Rammed the Yak
(Reeves, p. 23)
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The Berlin Blockade/Airlift
June 24, 1948 – May 12, 1949 (Blockade)
June 26, 1948 – September 30, 1949 (Airlift)
• June 18, 1948 a quarrel over a new W. German
currency & and a pending election initiates the quarrel
– Communists are rumored to take a beating in the election
• Soviet Blockade begins June 24, 1948
• Airlift (“Operation Vittles”/ The West v. “War of
Erosion”/ USSR) Begins June 26, 1948
– 2.3 million Germans in West Berlin
– Eventually Flights land at Tempelhof and Gatow
Airports every ninety seconds
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Berlin Airlift
The maximum effort of the airlift was the “Easter Parade”
on April 16, 1949 when 1,398 sorties (one landing in Berlin
every minute) delivered 12,940 short tons.
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112
Airlift Flights
• USA
• UK
• France
189,963
87,841
424
586,901 flying hours were flown
*Thirty-two Americans Died
*Thirty-Nine Brits Died
*Nine – 12 Germans Died
*
Items: Coal, Flour,Toothpaste, food, newspapers, medical
supplies, steamrollers, equipment for generating electrical
power
Source: USAFE -Berlin Airlift & Daring Young Men (Reeves)
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113
Number of Passengers
Taken in or out of Berlin
Passengers
In
Out
• USA
25,263
37,486
• UK
3,815
130,091
• France
10,000 *
– (in & out combined)
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114
Berlin Airlift
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115
B-29 Squadrons
• The USA also sent three B-29 bomber squadrons (sixty
aircraft) to England to stress how determined the
Western allies were to resist Soviet pressure.
– B-29’s were capable of carrying atomic bombs and
were within easy reach of the USSR
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116
Berlin Blockade/Airlift: Conclusion
(1948-1949)
Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 by Tony Judt
•
Like most of Stalin’s diplomatic adventures
the Berlin blockade was an improvisation
(p146)
•
•
He proposed an end “in exchange for a
postponement of plans for a West German
state (p. 146)
Of course, the western allies had no
intentions of doing this---but did meet!
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117
Berlin Blockade/Airlift: Conclusion
(1948-1949)
Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 by Tony Judt
•
Thus he ended the blockade for a
meeting that accomplished nothing
– In fact as the meeting was going on
(May 23- June 20th, 1949) the West
German Parliamentary Council was
establishing a W. German
government.
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118
Berlin Blockade/Airlift: Conclusion
(1948-1949)
Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 by Tony Judt
• The new West German constitution was
approved on September 21, 1949
• Combined the three West German zones into
the Federation Republic of Germany
– Bonn was selected as the capital
– Konrad Adenauer (Christian Democrat) becomes the
first Chancellor
– Rebuilt with the Marshall Plan, the economy was built
along capitalistic lines
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119
Berlin Blockade/Airlift: Conclusion
(1948-1949)
• Stalin later responds by announcing
the creation of an East German state
formally created on October 7th, 1949.
– The German Democratic Republic was
created
• East Berlin its capital
• Communist Walter Ulbricht headed its
government
• Remained under STRONG Soviet influence
• Berlin remained divided into four sectors (3 of
which operated as liberal democracies)
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120
Berlin Blockade/Airlift: Conclusion
(1948-1949)
• “The imposition of the Soviet Blockade did not mean
that West Berlin was cut off from all sources of
supply other than the airlift” (van Dijk, ed. p. 85)
– Continue to travel into the Soviet Zone to trade with farmers
– The Soviets offered to supply rations (5% said yes….p. 85)
• “The experience of the Airlift helped transform the
relationship between West Berliners and the Western
powers, from victor and vanquished to friends and
allies…this first Western victory in the Cold War
depended on Berliners’ own networks of survival”
(van Dijk, ed. p. 86)
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121
Significant Outcomes of the Berlin
Blockade/Airlift (1948-1949)
Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 by Tony Judt
1. It led directly to the creation of two
German states, an outcome none of the
allies had sought four years earlier (p. 146)
2. [It] committed the United States for the
first time to a significant military
presence in Europe for the indefinite
future (p. 146)
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122
Significant Outcomes of the
Berlin Blockade/Airlift (1948-1949)
Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 by Tony Judt
3. [It] led directly to a reappraisal of Western
military calculations. If the West was going
to protect its German clients from Soviet
aggression then it would need to give itself
the means to do so
•
The Americans had stationed strategic
bombers in Britain, these were equipped to
carry atomic bombs
–
The USA had 56 Atomic bombs at this time but we
did NOT have a policy of if and when we would use
them (p. 146)
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123
The Bridge between East & West
This bridge joins
former West Berlin
with Potsdam in
former East
Germany.
It was divided by the wall and the
work to paint it was even divided.
As a result this bridge is two
different colors of green!
Source: Becky Smith
Libr 500: Foundations of Information
Technology
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124
Potsdam
Cecilienhof
Palace
• Location of the Potsdam
Conference in 1945.
• At the conference Churchill,
Truman and Stalin discussed the
future of Germany.
• Today it is a museum and hotel.
Source: Becky Smith
Libr 500: Foundations of
Information Technology
Uprising in East Germany, 1953
(June 16th & 17th)
The First Major Upheaval Behind
The Iron Curtain
(Ostermann, ed.)
Eastern German Crisis –
Worker’s Strike (1953)
• This is indicative of how the Cold War
would progress:
– The superpowers will almost come to blows due to
the actions of the local actors throughout the Cold
War
– After the East/West split each half of Berlin will have
their own Mayors and city councils
– Subways and suburban rail continued to cross (eastwest) sector boundaries until 1959
– Over 50,000 East Berliners worked in W. Berlin
– Millions leave the east
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East German Crisis (1953)
June 17, 1953
– First uprising of the Cold War in the Soviet’s
sphere of influence
• 3 years before the 1956 Hungarian Revolt
• East German workers strike
• East German leaders retreat to the Soviet
headquarters
• Spreads to many other cities
• Soviet tanks and troops put it down
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128
Khrushchev’s Berlin Ultimatum
The Berlin Crisis
(1958-1962)
GIVES THE WEST SIX
MONTHS TO GET OUT
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129
Khrushchev’s Berlin Ultimatum (1958)
Khrushchev Tells the Western Allies
to leave
West Berlin (Nov. 27th, 1958)
– The Berlin Ultimatum: 6 month time-line
– The west ignores his “request”
– Crisis will not peak until 1961 when East Germany
begins putting up the wall
– June 1963: JFK tells the world to “Come To Berlin,”
in order to understand Soviet communism
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130
Khrushchev’s Berlin Ultimatum (1958)
• On paper, Khrushchev calls for transformation of
Berlin from a divided city to a “free city”
• If the West did not comply, Khrushchev would “hand
over Berlin’s sovereign rights to East Germany
– Does he really feel the West would stand by and do nothing if all
of Berlin goes to the East? (van Dijk, Vol. 1, p.86)
• Why did Khrushchev take this action? (Really, WHY?)
– Perhaps he felt the west was not together as to what to do with
Berlin
– Perhaps Khrushchev wanted the world to recognize that in his
opinion, the USSR was now the world’s second superpower
– Perhaps E. Germany pushed Khrushchev into this move
– Perhaps he was after surprise and shock
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The Berlin Crisis (1958-1962)
• Combined with the Cuban Missile Crisis, some
consider these events the “high point and even
culmination of the Cold War” (ibid, p. 89)
• “The alarming situations in Berlin and Cuba touched off a
new round in the arms race and reinforced the
significance of the two military alliances, NATO and the
Warsaw Pact. But the crisis period also established the
preconditions for a later détente” (ibid, p. 89)
• Lessons were learned by both sides, and some refer to
the crisis as the “hour of birth of the ‘new’ Ostpolitik (ibid, p.
89)
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132
The Berlin Crisis
(1958-1962)
Conclusions from:
VLADISLAV M. ZUBOK
Working Paper No. 6
Washington, D.C.
May 1993
COLD WAR INTERNATIONAL HISTORY PROJECT
This and many other great sources located on the web at:
http://cwihp.si.edu
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The Berlin Crisis (1958-1962)
Conclusions
• Why did KHRUSHCHEV decide to
press this lever in 1958-1961 and to
what ends?
1. To block the nuclearization of West Germany
2. To restore his authority at home—
– an authority buffeted by setbacks in Soviet
agricultural policies, in its missile buildup, and in its standing in the communist
bloc resulting from Albania's defiance and
the growing split with Communist China
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The Berlin Crisis (1958-1962)
Conclusions
3. Pressures from the "hawks" in the Kremlin
and from the GDR leader Walter Ulbricht
4. The Soviet motives were largely
defensive
5. Khrushchev mistakenly felt the Soviets
were now ahead in the nuclear balance
and that the Berlin Crisis "was a Soviet
exercise in atomic diplomacy
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The Berlin Crisis (1958-1962)
Conclusions
6. Even a viewpoint (E.Barker) that
Khrushchev did not have any designs or
strategy, but was carried away by the
dynamics of Cold War confrontation
• NOTE: Unlike the West, which refused to recognize the
GDR, Khrushchev had to deal with two German states,
Ulbricht's (Communist) German Democratic Republic and
the Federal Republic of Germany. His German policy
therefore had always been two-pronged: propping up
the East German regime and containing the FRG (pp. 57)
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Potpourri: Berlin
June 1967
• The Shah of Iran, Reza Pahlavi visits West
Berlin
– The Shah’s secret police (Savak) joins up with
the West Berlin/German police to put down a
student protest
– Human rights violations in Iran and Vietnam
fuels the student’s frustrations in Germany
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The Emergence of NATO
Overview
Creation of N.A.T.O.
Its Development is Aided by the
Berlin Blockade/Airlift!
Background to NATO
• 1947: The French & British signed the
Dunkirk Treaty
– Committed themselves to mutual support
against any future GERMAN aggression
• 1947 (March 10th – April 24th )
– The Moscow Conference of the Foreign
Ministers looking for a final agreement on
Germany & Austria
• Allies no longer after a single German admin.
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Background to NATO
• “It was the Moscow Conference of
1947…which really rang down the Iron
Curtain” (Judt, p. 124)
– From this point forward the Americans sought
economic unification of the western zone of Germany
and the encouragement of German self-government
– “For the Americans especially, Germans were
rapidly ceasing to be the enemy.” (Judt, p. 125)
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Background of NATO
• January 1948: Prague coup Benes out and the
Communist Gottwald was in. THE USA began rethinking
our idea of isolationism due to this event (Europe goes
on heightened security. It was in this environment
that the USA passed the Marshall Plan)
• March 17th, 1948: The Brussels Pact was signed:
– Great Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, and
Luxembourg form the Western European Union
(WEU)
• For Mutual Military Assistance, the USA is NOT
involved. It was a 50 year treaty signed mainly to
protect these nations from Germany. Bevin
seeks discussions to bring the USA on board.
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Background of NATO
• W. Europe did NOT have a postwar
military agreement with the USA
– The Marshall Plan primarily focused on
economic and political issues
– The US had a history of isolationism
– Key events in 1948 and 1949 helped
Truman’s ability to get involved in a
Western European military alliance:
• The Berlin Blockade & Gottwald’s communist
coup in Czechoslovakia
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Background to N.A.T.O.
• Bevin goes to Washington
– The Brits, Canadians and Americans meet
TEN days after the start of the Berlin Airlift
and immediately following the expulsion of
Yugoslavia from Cominform
– Talks were opened to the other members of
the Brussels pact
– The French are not happy because the AngloAmerican were arranging ‘behind their back’
(Judt. p.149)
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144
Article Eleven of the
North Atlantic Treaty
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization
•
April 4th, 1949 – The treaty is signed!
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
The Five WEU countries
Iceland
Norway
Denmark
Canada
Portugal
Italy
United States (Senate ratification in July)
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NATO & The Americans
• Article 5: An attack on any one of the member
nations would be considered an attack on all
– “U.S. military assistance in Europe was thus
ensured…The treaty was the first peacetime
alliance for the United States since its treaty with
France in the late eighteenth century”
(Hanes, p. 38)
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N.A.T.O.
• Recognizing the value of US economic aid
in the Marshall Plan, “Brit” Ernest Bevin
sought US aid in the defense of the west
as well
• NATO was the primary political and
military organization dedicated to
collective security for the Western
Alliances, led chiefly by the U.S.A.
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N.A.T.O.
• For over forty years it served as a
balancing mechanism between:
– The Western and the Soviet strategic bloc
and;
– Prevented large-scale nuclear war (van Dijk, p 646)
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N.A.T.O.
“Ironically, NATO witnessed a greater flurry
of military activity in the fifteen years after
the Cold War than it did during the forty
years of the conflict that gave birth to the
organization” (van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 648)
• 1994: Peacekeeping mission in the Bosnian War
(former Yugoslavia)
• 1995: Helps bring Serbia to peace talks in Dayton, OH.
• 1999: Kosovo War (region of Serbia) first ever largescale military operation
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N.A.T.O.
• 2001: Declares that the September 11th
terrorist attacks could be considered an
attack on ALL N.A.T.O. countries
– First invocation of Article Five
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N.A.T.O. & Article Five
Even though Article 5 was put into play:
“NATO member–states responded ambivalently to
consequent American strategies for the invasion
of Afghanistan and Iraq. American military efforts
in the conflicts dwarfed those of the U.S.’s
NATO allies, suggesting that at the beginning of
the twenty-first century the U.S. was still the
central partner in the alliance”
(van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 648).
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The Warsaw Pact
• The Soviets responded to the
expansion of NATO by creating the
Warsaw Pact in 1955.
– Set up a mutual military alliance between
the USSR and their Soviet satellite eastern
bloc countries, including East Germany
(list of countries follows: Note: Tito’s Yugoslavia
is NOT a member)
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The Warsaw Pact
• TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP, CO-OPERATION
AND MUTUAL ASSISTANCE'
• Between the People's Republic of Albania, the
People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Hungarian
People's Republic, the German Democratic
Republic, the Polish People's Republic, the
Rumanian People's Republic, the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics, and the
Czechoslovak Republic, May 1, 1955
•
Source: Modern History Sourcebook
– http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1955warsawpact.html
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N.A.T.O.
“For more than fifty years, NATO has proved
to be one of the most successful military
alliances in history…The eagerness of
Eastern European countries to join the
organization after the cold war, though,
testified to the symbolic success of NATO
as more than a military alliance: by the
1990’s it was seen as synonymous to the
prosperous and powerful “West.”
(van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 648)
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Europe 1970
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The Cold War Expands To Asia
• China slowly isolates from the sixteenth
century and beyond, especially the 17th
and 18th
• 1911: Revolution ends the empire
– Arrival of Dr. Sun Yatsen, the Kuomintang
(KMT) a.k.a. the Nationalists
– KMT 1930’s- 1949: Chiang Kai Shek (18871975) is backed by the USA, civil war w/ Mao
– Communists 1930’s – 1949: Mao Zedong
(1893-1976) Agricultural base (peasants)
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The Cold War Expands To Asia
• Japan invades China in 1937
– Mao & Chaing Kai-Shek call for a truce
in the civil war
– Japan surrenders in August, 1945
ending WW II. The USA ends the
occupation in 1952.
• China’s Civil War Resumes !
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The Cold War Expands To Asia
• Chiang Kai-shek had a reputation for
corruption and oppression
• U.S. Officials consider Mao a puppet for
Stalin
– In November of 1945, Truman sends
George Marshall to China to work out a
settlement between the Nationalist and
communist factions, No Go!
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The Cold War Expands To Asia
• The Communists win the civil war
– Mao raises the communist flag October 1,
1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
– Chiang flees to Formosa, and renames the
island Taiwan, the Republic of China
(ROC)
• US 7th Fleet protects Taiwan
– 2/14/1950: PRC & Soviets sign the SinoSoviet Treaty
• Soviets loan the Chinese $300 million
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Japan
• After Japan’s surrender, General Douglas
MacArthur was put in charge of Japan’s
political, economic, and social revolution
– A new constitution was partially written by the
Americans
– Japan becomes an important base for
American military operations in the West
Pacific
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Indochina
• Late 1940’s: Communist liberation
movement in Vietnam was escalating
under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh
• Indochina includes:
– Cambodia,
– Laos,
– Myanmar
– Thailand, and
– West Malaysia
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Nguyen Tat Thanh
(a.k.a.) Ho
Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• Founded the Indochinese Communist
Party in 1930
– Brought Communism to Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Laos
• All three became Cold War battlefields
– First Indochina War (1946-54)
– Second Indochina or Vietnam War ( 1959-1975)
• “Son of an impoverished scholar, who did not
hold an official appointment because he did not
get along with the French Colonial Adm.” (Dijk, Vol.
1 p. 409)
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Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• 1911 left Vietnam and traveled extensively
– Ends up in Paris near the end of WW I
• “In 1919, using the name Nguyen Ai Quoc
(Nguyen the Patriot), he presented a
petition to the Paris Peace Conference
requesting greater political rights, though
not complete independence, for Vietnam.
This was ignored.” (van Dijk, Vol. 1 p. 409)
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Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• 1920 he joined the Comintern (Communist
International)
– Became a founding member of the French
Communist Party
– Went to Moscow in 1923, met Zhou Enlai
– Studied at the University of Toilers of the East
in Moscow
– Delegate at the Fifth Congress of the
Comintern , urged more attention for colonial
issues
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Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• 1924 the Comintern sends him to Canton
( Guangzhou)
• 1925 founded the Thanh Nien (Youth League)
and presided over the founding of the
Indochinese Communist Party (just a few
members from Laos and Cambodia in the early
days)
• Late 1930: Involved in the Nghe An and Ha Tinh
peasant rebellions in north-central Vietnam
which was crushed by the French
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Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• Arrested, and kept 1931-1933 by the
British in Hong Kong
• Later he received money and supplies
from both China and the USSR to help him
with his war against America
– He accomplished this during the Sino-Soviet
split
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Vietnam / Indochina War 1 (1946-54)
• France back in Vietnam
– Resources rubber, and rice
– Ho Chi Minh Soviet trained, battles the
French
– Proclaims the establishment of the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1946)
• Recognized by the Chinese and Soviet
government in January 1950
• US supports the French
• French lose the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954)
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Dien Bien Phu: France Loses!
March 13 - May 8, 1954
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Dien Bien Phu
• Dien Bien Phu fell to the Viet Minh on May
7.
• At least 2,200 members of the French
forces died during the siege -- with
thousands more taken prisoner.
• Of the 50,000 or so Vietnamese who
besieged the garrison, there were about
23,000 casualties -- including an estimated
8,000 killed
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Dien Bien Phu
• The fall of Dien Bien Phu shocked
France and brought an end to French
Indochina.
• Following the French withdrawal, Vietnam
was officially divided into a communist
North and non-communist South -setting the stage for U.S. involvement.
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Geneva Conference, 1954
• The Genera Agreements (Accords) theoretically
ended the war between French Union forces
and the Vietminh in Laos, Cambodia, and
Vietnam.
• These states were to become fully independent
countries, with the last-named partitioned near
the 17th parallel into two states pending
reunification through "free elections" to be held
by July 20, 1956.
• The United States and Vietnam are not
signatories to these agreements (Containment)
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17th Parallel
Ho Chi Minh Trail
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A Plan for Security: NSC 68
• April 1950: New Foreign Policy
– “National Security Council Document 68”
– Top Secret Report
– Massive arms buildup to deal with “the
Kremlin’s design for world domination” (van Dijk,
Vol. 2, p. 650)
• Containment PLUS a dramatic increase in military
funding, including an unwritten rule that includes
“Keeping up with the Jones’”
– A rise from 14 billion a year to $50 billion a year
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NSC-68
(April 1950)
“Viewed as the U.S. blueprint for waging the Cold
War, NSC 68’s impact was far reaching,
affecting not only the Cold War, but other
postwar developments as well”
“The impetus for NSC-68 came from two ‘hammer
blows that shook the world in the latter half of
1949”
• Soviet acquisition of the atomic bomb (August),
• Communist victory in China’s decades old civil war
(Oct.1)
(Both quotes from: van Dijk, Vol. 2, p. 650)
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NSC-68
(April 1950)
“The authors of NSC 68 used heavy doses
of apocalyptic imagery, which remains one
of the documents most fascinating
aspects”
– World War II had left “ two centers of powers
in the world ….animated by a new fanatic faith
[the Soviet Union] sought to impose its
absolute authority over the rest of the world”
( van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 651)
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NSC-68 (April 1950)
“ One historian has characterized NSC 68 as a report that
explained ‘why and how the U.S. will fight the Cold War’
(Walter LaFeber)…it pushed the Cold War to new
heights, expanding the conventional and nuclear arms
races, solidifying bipolarity, intensifying hostile
rhetoric (and the propaganda associated with it on both
sides), and all but putting an end to the idea of
peaceful coexistence” (van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 652)
“It also committed the United States to meeting the
Communist challenge wherever it arose. The
consequences would be felt in Korea, Guatemala,
Vietnam, and beyond” (van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 652)
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American Red Scare II
(c.a. 1948 – 1955)
• World events of 1948-1949 caused
Americans to be alarmed of a pending
world-wide wave of communism
– Coup in Czechoslovakia, Berlin Blockade, the
Communist Success of Mao in China,
communist advances in Indochina
– August 29th, 1949 Soviets successfully test
their first atomic bomb
• Rumors of theft of nuclear secrets fuel the scare
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American Red Scare II
• America’s atomic monopoly is over
– America now ponders the development of a
stronger bomb based on nuclear fusion
• The Hydrogen Bomb
• Truman ok’s funding by 1950 for the bomb instead
of further development of tactical weaponry
• The Soviets also start development of an “H” bomb
• The Arms Race in action !!!
• We are heading towards Mutual Assured
Destruction (MAD)
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Senator Joe McCarthy
1908-1957
Sen. Joe McCarthy (Grand Chute, WI)
• Seen as the personification of a political witch
hunt during the 1950’s
• He feared that American Communists and their
sympathizers were involved in treasonous
activities in support of the Soviet Union
• McCarthyism was a term first popularized by the
Washington Post cartoonist Herblock
• McCarthy did not invent anti-communism, he
was more of an opportunist (van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 555)
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Sen. Joe McCarthy (Grand Chute, WI)
• “The controversy around McCarthyism and
his witch hunt did highlight the factionalism
within the party”
• “Although the McCarthy era is commonly
depicted as a reign of terror, his period of
prominence was relatively brief…he had
little to do , however, with the exposure of
genuine spies”
(van Dijk, Vol. II, pp. 555-56)
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McCarthyism
• Fear of the Soviet Union fuels the political
pending witch hunt of Republican Senator
Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin
• Took office in 1947, uneventful and
ineffective early career, jumps on the anticommunist bandwagon
– 1950 announces that he has a list of 200
names of people working in and out of the
government who were communist or
communist sympathizers
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McCarthyism
• His accusations become more outrageous
as he gains popularity
– Never really put forth any hard evidence
– Spreads fear to the mob during an era of antiSoviet hysteria
• He even questioned the allegiance of Sec. of State
George Marshall in 1951
• “McCarthyism” refers to the suspicion,
hostility, and often groundless accusations
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McCarthyism
• Other politicians involved in this hysteria
included:
– Richard M. Nixon (Future VP, and President)
– He also became nationally famous after
successfully seeking the conviction of Alger
Hiss (a former official of the U.S. State
Department)
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The Korean Conflict
Post WW II:
Does the US care about Korea?
1. Early 1950, Sec. of State Dean
Acheson commented that Korea lay
outside the US perimeter of defense
2. THE US does NOT try to reinstate
Chiang Kai-Shek in Mainland China
•
Does this send a message to the Soviets?
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Korean Conflict Overview
• One of the most important Cold War
battlegrounds
• Between 1945 –1948 the country was divided
and occupied (North= USSR, South=USA)
• In 1948 it was divided into two separate,
“mutually antagonistic states” (van Dijk, Vol II, p. 516)
• The actual war occurred between 1950-1953
• After the war both the USA and USSR pumped
hundreds of millions of dollars into each in order
to show off their respective ideologies
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Korean War Conflict Overview
“By the end of the Cold War, South Korea was
reaping the benefits of democratization…despite
the dictatorial nature of South Korea’s military
regimes…North Korea, however, has struggled
since the Cold War ended. Unable to appeal to
China or the Soviet Union on the basis of
international socialist solidarity…[it] has become
increasingly desperate and has taken
provocative measures aimed at getting aid for its
deteriorating economy” (van Dijk, Vol II, p. 518)
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The Korean War (1950-1953)
• A surprise invasion of South Korea on
June 25, 1950.
– Eventually Kim Il Sung received the Soviet
Backing, and China’s troops as backing
– The USA went to the United Nations for
support
• The permanent veto of the Soviets was not
used because they were in the midst of a UN
boycott
• The UN would not recognize Mao’s government
as the Chinese delegation
• Originally the US had little interest in Korea
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38th Parallel
• North under Soviet watch, and South under
the USA
– The Russians leave a lot of equipment for Kim Il
Sung, the US is weary of giving Syngman Rhee
too much afraid he will invade the north
• Elections and UN actions failed to unify the
country, so divisions formed:
– The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(DPRK) in the North under Kim Il Sung
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38th Parallel
• The Republic of Korea (ROK) was
established in the south led by
Syngman Rhee
– Rhee had lived in the US for over 30 years
– Staunch anti-communist
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Korean War (Undeclared War)
• Korea becomes the first HOT spot during
the Cold War
– NSC 68 kicked in
– Korea becomes a symbolic test of the U.S.
policy to confront communist expansion
worldwide, rather than in Europe directly
– The US did NOT have any Treaty or alliance
with Korea that justified a military response to
the North Korean invasion
– Truman to the UN : 16 Nations “involved”
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Korean (Undeclared) War
• N. Korea has early advantage, push deep into
the south
• June 27, 1950 Truman authorized the use of
US Naval and air forces on behalf of the
United Nations in a “police action”
• Sept. 15 (post Japanese surrender)
MacArthur counterattacks
– Amphibious landing at Inchon (outside Seoul,
South Korea)
– Other “UN” forces land behind enemy lines,
cutting the N. Korean forces in half….quick retreat
north of the 38th parallel
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General Douglas MacArthur
• Drives north to the Chinese border
(Yalu River)
– China is very annoyed, sends in waves of
hundreds of thousands of troops (Nov.
1950)
– MacArthur driven back south of the 38th,
asks Truman “what about nukes?”
– Truman fires MacArthur, (April 11, 1951) a
highly unpopular move- he’s welcomed
home as a war hero
• “Ticker-Tape” Parade in NYC, and a speech in
Congress
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Korea 1950-1953
• Spring 1951: 38th parallel is secure
– July 1951: Truman talks peace with China
– Fall of 1952: American public is tired of the
war
– By 1952: The Democrats had been in charge
of the Presidency since 1933
– Some Republicans favor isolationism want
Robert A. Taft (Ohio), but internationalist
Republicans call on former General Dwight
“Ike” Eisenhower
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Eisenhower
• Served as supreme commander of
Allied Forces in Europe (WW II)
• Defeats the Democrat Adlai Stevenson
in the 1952 election
• Armistice signed June of 1953
– 54,246 Americans and 3.6 million Koreans
killed, 1,000,000 Chinese either died or
were wounded
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Implications of the Korean War Era
The “Four Point Plan”
1. Announced Jan. 1949 (Truman)
2. Approved by Congress June, 1950 (two
days after North Korea’s initial invasion
into south Korea)
3. Abolished by Eisenhower in 1953
4. The Four Point Program
•
•
Health Care, Farming, Irrigation, and
Transportation
Goal: To fight the spread of communism in
impoverished less developed countries
•
Including: India, Paraguay, Iran, Liberia and later Israel,
and Taiwan
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Other Implications of the
Korean War Era
5. America aggressively signs agreements with Pacific
area countries to increase our presence
• Japan 1951- restoring its sovereignty
(occupation ends April 28, 1952)
• Australia, New Zealand (the ANZUS Pact), and
the Philippines
6. U.S. Defense Spending Dramatically Increased
7. Number of U.S. Military Personnel Rose
• From 1.5 million (1950) to 3.5 million (1954)
• Number in foreign lands rose from 280,000 to
One million
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Other Implications of the
Korean War Era
8. North Korea’s invasion fueled American
fears that similar attacks could happen in
Europe
–
The U.S. decides to rearm West Germany &
send more troops there
9. The U.S. Congress approved an expansion
of NATO
•
•
•
Greece in 1951
Turkey in 1952 and
West Germany in 1955
10. The U.S. also extended diplomatic relations
to Spain (Franco) and Yugoslavia (Tito)
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Implications of the Korean War Era
11. Stalin increased his military from 2.8 million
(1948) to 5 million (1953)
12. Some claim the Truman-Stalin Era of 1945 –
1953 was THE most intense period of
global rivalry, but change is evident:
•
Stalin Dies in March of 1953
•
•
Two year struggle: Khrushchev v. Malenkov ensues
Dwight Eisenhower is elected in 1952, and
seated in 1953
13. “The legacy of the Cold War endures in Korea as
much as it does anywhere else” (van Dijk, Vol. II, p. 518)
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Conclusion of the Cold War Origins
• Red Scare of 1917-1919
– US backs the Mensheviks
– Opposite Ideologies
• Political & Economical
– Broken Promises
• Opening of a New Front in WW II (long Delayed)
• Free Elections in Eastern Europe (Post WW II)
– Ulterior Motives
• IMF, World Bank, Marshall Plan
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Conclusion of the Cold War Origins
• Geopolitical: The Location of Soviet troops in
Eastern Europe in 1944 & 1945
• Misunderstanding of each other’s Goals
• Fear & Misinterpretation
• Mistrust
– Cutting off Lend Lease in May of 1945
• Failure to Communicate
• Creation of Western Germany, and then
NATO
• Domestic Political Pressures
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Bibliography
Ambrose, S.E. & Brinkley, D.G., (1993). Rise to globalism:
American foreign policy since 1938, 8th ed. . New York, New
York: The Penguin Press.
Gaddis, J.L. (2007). The Cold War: A new history. New York, NY:
Penguin Books.
Hanes, S.M. & Hanes, R.C. (2004). Cold war almanac: Volume 1.
Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale.
Hanes, S.M. & Hanes, R.C. (2004). Cold war almanac: Volume 2.
Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale.
Hook, S.W. & Spanier, J. (2007). American foreign policy since
World War II. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.
Judt, T (2005). Postwar: A history of Europe since 1945. New York,
New York: The Penguin Press.
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Bibliography
Plokhy, S.M. ( 2010). Yalta: The price of peace. New York, NY:
Viking.
Reeves, R. (2010). Daring young men: The heroism and triumph of
the Berlin Airlift, June 1948-May 1949. New York, NY: Simon &
Schuster.
Van Dijk, R. (ed. 2008). Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Volumes I &
II, New York, NY: Routledge.
Zubock, V. & Pleshakov, C. (1996). Inside the kremlin's cold war:
From Stalin to Khrushchev. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
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Cold War: Almanac (Volumes I & II)
by, Sharon M. Hanes and Richard C. Hanes
Stretching from the end of World War II to 1989, the
Cold War between the Western powers and the
Communist bloc shaped national alliances around
the world. In 15 chapters, the Almanac treats the
historic causes of the tension; the mutual suspicions
that fueled the conflict for more than 40 years; the
ideological clash between communism and
democracy; and the policies that marked the long
standoff -- the Marshall Plan, Truman's Point Four
program, the nuclear arms race, economic aid, the
Berlin Wall, detente; and much more. Also covered
are the times when the Cold War burst into armed
conflict in such areas as Korea, Cuba and Southeast
Asia.
Thomson Gale Publishing (2004)
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Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945
by, Tony Judt
World War II may have ended in 1945, but according to historian
Tony Judt, the conflict's epilogue lasted for nearly the rest of the
century. Calling 1945-1989 "an interim age," Judt examines what
happened on each side of the Iron Curtain, with the West nervously
inching forward while the East endured the "peace of the prison
yard" until the fall of Communism in 1989 signaled their chance to
progress.
Though he proposes no grand, overarching theory of the postwar
period, Judt's massive work covers the broad strokes as well as the
fine details of the years 1945 to 2005. No one book (even at nearly a
thousand pages) could fully encompass this complex period, but
Postwar comes close, and is impressive for its scope, synthesis,
clarity, and narrative cohesion.
•
ISBN-13: 9780143037750 (Paper)
Pub. Date: September 2006
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Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War
(Vladislav Zubock & Constantine Pleshakov)
Zubok and Pleshakov's groundbreaking work reveals how
Soviet statesmen conceived and conducted their rivalry with
the West within the context of their own domestic and global
concerns and aspirations.
The authors persuasively demonstrate that the Soviet leaders
did not seek a conflict with the United States, yet failed to
prevent it or bring it to conclusion. They also document why
and how Kremlin policy-makers, cautious and scheming as
they were, triggered thegravest crises of the Cold War in Korea,
Berlin, and Cuba.
Taking us into the corridors of the Kremlin and the minds of
its leaders, Zubok and Pleshakov present intimate portraits of
the men who made the West fear, to reveal why and how they
acted as they did.
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Berlin Crisis #1- Worker’s Strike
• This is indicative of how the Cold War
would progress:
– The superpowers will almost come to blows due to
the actions of the local actors throughout the Cold
War
– After the East/West split each half of Berlin will have
their own Mayors and city councils
– Subways and suburban rail continued to cross (eastwest) sector boundaries until 1959
– Over 50,000 East Berliners worked in W. Berlin
– Millions leave the east
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