Download File - Jarrett Friesen

Diminishing Sea Ice Leaves Arctic Wildlife on Thin Ice
Image from Canadian Wildlife Federation, 2012.
Colin Dyck
Jarrett Friesen
October 18, 2012
0
Executive Summary
Climate change is having a substantial impact on Arctic sea ice. Climate change is
caused by an increase in greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. This increase is due to human
pollution, the largest source being carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
This pollution is resulting in a change of climate worldwide. No part of the world feels the
effect of climate change more than the Arctic. Due to this climate change, the Arctic is
experiencing warmer temperatures and an increase in severe weather. These factors are
causing Arctic sea ice to melt at an alarming rate.
The diminishing Arctic sea ice is having several affects on Arctic waters. It is causing an
increase in water temperature and water level. Increasing water temperatures are a result of
open water having a lower albedo than the Arctic sea ice. This increase in water temperature
may result in the stalling of the process upwelling, which brings nutrient-rich waters from the
deep to the surface, and the thermohaline circulation, which carries energy and nutrients
throughout the world’s oceans. The increase in water levels puts all species at risk, as the
coast retreats. These factors will hurt all Arctic wildlife.
Arctic wildlife such as polar bears, ringed seals, and the Arctic cod are struggling to
survive in their changing ecosystem. The impact that the melting of the Arctic sea ice has on
the Arctic wildlife is problematic. These problems include the changing of animal’s habitat,
mating grounds, and food availability. These problems are strongly linked together, putting
these Arctic species at risk. The melting of Arctic sea ice influences where Arctic wildlife can
perform their daily tasks . Actions that need to be taken on a solid surface such as the mating
process and protection of young are put in jeopardy when performed on unstable Arctic sea
ice. The problem with the mating process and protection of young stems from the unknown
thickness and durability of Arctic sea ice.
The government of Canada has started to take action towards this growing problem of the
diminishing Arctic sea ice. Canada has created many new projects to deal with climate
change. These projects are focused at studying the climate changes, as well as helping to
provide security for those forced to adapt. Canada has also been contributing to projects
internationally such as the Copenhagen Accord, which aims at helping all countries to control
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the amount of pollution they produce. Canada is trying to protect its northernmost ecosystem
through these internal and international actions.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary
1-2
1.0 Introduction
5
2.0 Cause of Arctic Sea Ice Melt
5
2.1 Climate Change
5
3.0 Effect of Arctic Sea Ice Melt
6
3.1 Diminishing Arctic Sea Ice
6-7
3.2 Changing of Arctic Waters
8
3.2.1 The Warming of the Arctic Waters
3.2.2 The Rising of the Arctic Waters
3.3 Affect on Wildlife
8-9
9-10
11
3.3.1 Polar Bears
11
3.3.1.1 Habitat Loss
11-12
3.3.1.2 Food Scarcity
12
3.3.1.3 Loss of Denning Sites
13
3.3.2 Ringed Seals
14
3.3.2.1 Loss of Mating Grounds
14
3.3.2.2 Loss of Habitat
15
3.3.2.3 Loss of Protection
3.3.3 Marine Life
15-16
16-17
4.0 What Canada is Doing About Climate Change
4.1 What Canada is Doing About Climate Change: Internally
4.2 What Canada is Doing About Climate Change: Internationally
3
17
17-18
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Graph of Average Monthly Sea Ice Extent
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Figure 3.2: Cycle of Melting Sea Ice
8
Figure 3.3: Thermohaline Circulation
9
Figure 3.4: Graph of Global Mean Sea Level
10
Figure 3.5: Polar Bear Swimming
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Figure 3.6: Polar Bear Cubs in Den
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Figure 3.7: Ringed Seal Surrounded by Water
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Figure 3.8: Arctic Cod in Ice
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Figure A: Overhead Shot of Diminishing Sea Ice per Year
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Figure B: Table of Decreasing Arctic Sea Ice
19
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1.0 Introduction
Climate change is a human produced problem that is affecting the Earth in many ways.
No area of the Earth feels this effect more than the Arctic.
The Arctic is becoming
significantly warmer, which is causing the melting of Arctic sea ice at an alarming rate. The
melting of the Arctic sea ice is affecting many aspects of Arctic life; such as water levels,
water temperature, climate, and wildlife. As the Arctic sea ice melts, the Arctic waters are
increasing in temperature and depth. The Arctic climate will also be affected by the melting
of the sea ice by becoming warmer. These changing conditions will result in the destruction
of Arctic wildlife habitats, mating grounds, and food chains. Several Canadian governmental
steps have been proposed to slow down our impact on warming of the Earth and destruction of
the Arctic, but much more needs to be done.
2.0 Cause of Arctic Sea Ice Melt
2.1 Climate Change
The cause of the melting of the Arctic sea ice is attributed to climate change (The
Guardian, 2012). Climate change is caused by the greenhouse gas effect; which occurs
naturally and unnaturally. The natural source of the greenhouse gas affect is from the trapping
of Sun’s radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere, which warms the Earth. This warming makes
life sustainable on Earth. Unnatural greenhouse gas effect is human created and increases the
trapping of Sun’s radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere beyond normal levels. The largest
human factor in the unnatural greenhouse gas effect is the creation of carbon dioxide, which is
formed from many human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels. The affect of
climate change is negatively impacting the Arctic by causing increasing temperature and
severe weather. This change in climate is causing big changes to the Arctic; one of which is
the disappearing of the Arctic sea ice.
5
3.0 Effect of Arctic Sea Ice Melt
The ongoing effects of climate change are especially seen in the Arctic regions of the
world. The warmer temperatures along with extreme weather patterns in the Arctic are
causing the Arctic sea ice to melt at an accelerated rate. Predictions of when the Arctic sea ice
will be completely gone vary. One prediction states that the Arctic sea ice will be completely
gone by 2100 (Weather Underground, 2012).
3.1 Diminishing Arctic Sea Ice
Since the 20th century, the melting of Arctic sea ice in the summer has steadily
increased and in winter the Arctic sea ice is not able to recuperate the loss of sea ice from the
summer. The most daunting part of the Arctic sea ice melting is the type of ice disappearing.
There are two classifications of Arctic sea ice; new ice and multi-year ice. New Arctic sea ice
is thin, while multi-year Arctic sea ice (sea ice that has survived multiple years) can be quite
thick; between 6 and 12 feet (Weather Underground, 2012). The worrying part is that the
multi-year ice is disappearing along with the new ice. “In 1987, 57% of the observed ice pack
was at least 5 years old, and around 25% of it was at least 9 years old. When they surveyed the
Arctic again in 2007, only 7% of the ice pack was at least 5 years old, and the ice that was at
least 9 years old had all but vanished” (Weather Underground, 2012).
Passive microwave satellite data concludes that since 1979, Arctic sea ice has
decreased by about 4 percent per decade (NSIDC, 2012). The Arctic sea ice has set record
lows after the melting period in September in 2002, 2005, 2007, and 2012 (NSIDC, 2012).
Arctic sea ice is not only shrinking because of a greater melting season, the winter recovery of
sea ice has been below average as well.
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Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1: This graph shows the annual Arctic sea ice extent from September
1979 to 2012. The Arctic sea ice extent has been decreasing on average
throughout these years. Graph from NSIDC, 2012.
7
3.2 Changing of the Arctic Waters
The melting of the Arctic sea ice is causing major changes to Arctic waters and global
oceans. The result of the changes to these waters will have a large impact not only in the
Arctic, but its affects will be felt worldwide. The two largest of these impacts are:

warming of ocean waters

rising of ocean waters
3.2.1 The Warming of the Arctic Waters
The Arctic sea ice covers part of the Arctic Ocean,
acting like a reflective barrier to the Sun’s radiation
with its 90% albedo. This reflecting keeps the water
and Arctic cool. But, as more Arctic sea ice melts and
does not return, more of Sun’s radiation is able to hit
the water surface. Water absorbs 90% of the Sun’s
radiation (10% albedo), which results in an overall
warmer water temperature (Weather Underground,
2012). More water surface open to the Sun’s radiation
reinforces the melting of the Arctic sea ice. As more of
Sun’s radiation is able to be absorbed by the water
surface, the water is warmed, and more ice melts. This
warmer water temperature will cause a detrimental effect
Figure 3.2: This image shows the cycle
causing the increased melting of the Arctic
sea ice. Image from Climate Institute, 2010.
to Arctic waters and the thermohaline circulation of the
Earth’s ocean currents.
Normally, the warm surface water is pushed away by wind and replaced by deep,
dense, cold water. The warm surface water is then forced to sink as the deep cold water has
taken its place. This process is known as upwelling. This process brings up nutrient-rich
waters from the deep, which promotes healthy marine life. As more of Sun’s radiation is
absorbed by the surface waters, the waters become warmer and less dense. This will cause the
warmer surface waters to be less likely to sink and be replaced by cold, nutritious water
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(Marinebio.org, 2012). This means that there will be less nutrient-rich waters to sustain
diverse marine life.
On the global level, the increase in water temperatures could change the oceans’ density
levels, causing a decrease in the magnitude of the thermohaline circulation (Weather
Underground, 2012). The thermohaline circulation is induced by density differences in the
ocean waters. As warm ocean waters move north and cool, they become denser and move to a
greater depth. These once warm surface waters are then replaced by the deep, cool, nutrientrich waters. This process mixes and moves ocean waters globally, while transporting energy
and nutrients. Increased water temperatures could slow the thermohaline circulation process.
The thermohaline circulation may also be affected by a lower concentration of salinity in the
waters as a result of the melting of the
freshwater Arctic sea ice. This will cause a
decrease of the density. The decrease in
ocean water density may cause the
thermohaline
circulation
process
to
potentially slowdown or shutdown all
together (Weather Underground, 2012).
Arctic waters may become inhospitable to
native Arctic marine life as the nutrientrich waters will not surface in the Arctic.
This
could
affect
the
entire
Figure 3.3: This image shows the thermohaline circulation.
It travels around the world, carrying energy and matter.
Image from Climate Institute, 2010.
Arctic
ecosystem by disconnecting Arctic food
chains.
3.2.2 The Rising of the Arctic Waters
Another frightening effect that the melting of the Arctic sea ice has on Arctic waters is
its affect on sea levels. The melting of the Arctic sea ice has caused the global sea levels to
rise about 1.5 mm per year during the 20th century. Over the past decade, increased melting of
Arctic sea ice has resulted in this number has increased to 3.1 mm per year (Climate Institute,
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2010). Melting of Arctic sea ice is a very small direct factor in the rising of the sea level, as
the sea ice is already positioned in the water (Weather Underground, 2012). The more
influential impact the melting of the Arctic sea ice has on the rising of the sea level is an
indirect factor: the reduction of the Arctic’s albedo effect (Climate Institute, 2010). This
reduction of the Arctic’s albedo will cause an increase in global absorption of Sun’s radiation
and induce melting of snow and ice on land, which will flow into bodies of water and
contribute to the rising sea level.
The rising sea level will have a substantial impact on Arctic coastal environments.
Wildlife in the Arctic will be at risk as their habitats on the Arctic sea ice will be destroyed
from the coast retreating because of rising sea levels and the melting of sea ice (Climate
Institute, 2010).
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4: This graph shows the global mean sea level rising from
years 1992 to 2008. Graph from Climate Change, 2008.
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3.3 Affect On Wildlife
Arctic wildlife is dependent upon the existence of Arctic sea ice. Animals such as
polar bears, ringed seals and Arctic marine life need it for survival. With the degradation of
Arctic sea ice, Arctic animal’s habitats, food sources, and mating periods are put in jeopardy.
This leaves the very existence of the fragile Arctic ecosystem at risk.
3.3.1 Polar Bears
Arctic sea ice and polar bears are strongly linked. The survival of polar bears depends
upon the survival of Arctic sea ice. A research project was done on a group of polar bears in
Hudson Bay. It showed that “earlier melting of the sea ice in Hudson Bay is the major driving
force behind the population decline” (Actionbioscience, 2008). The research team calculated
that polar bears in Hudson Bay were experiencing decrease in health, reproduction, and
survival. This resulted in a “22% reduction in subpopulation size between 1987 and 2004”
(Actionbioscience, 2008).
3.3.1.1 Habitat Loss
Although polar bears live on land as
well as sea ice, most of their time is
spent on sea ice. Loss of the Arctic sea
ice results in a direct loss of the polar
bear’s habitat. The problem of polar
bear’s habitat loss does not stem only
from the loss of Arctic sea ice. The
spatial relationship between sea ice and
land can cause problems for polar bears
that need to travel between land and ice
(Actionbioscience, 2008).
Polar bears
Figure 3.5: A polar bear swimming in the growing gap
between sea ice and land. Image from Wikimedia
Commons, Arctic, 2012.
perform most of their hunting on sea ice and create their den on land. Polar bears will hunt
on sea ice that is located relatively close to their denning sites. It can be a lot of work for
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polar bears to find proper denning sites near the sea ice needed to hunt (National Geographic,
2007).
Thinning Arctic sea ice has been contributed to the increased speed of Arctic sea ice
drifting (Actionbioscience, 2008). Arctic sea ice drifting creates a slow moving treadmill-like
situation for the polar bears as they try to stay in their preferred habitat. When Arctic sea ice
becomes thinner, it is easier for it to be manipulated by wind and water currents
(Actionbioscience, 2008). This increases the speed of the “treadmill” for the polar bears.
This faster sea ice speed forces polar bears to travel longer distances to ice or to land. This
process burns much needed energy that the polar bear could use for growth and reproduction
(Actionbioscience, 2008).
3.3.1.2 Food Scarcity
Polar bears get most of their sustenance from hunting on sea ice as polar bears mostly
eat seals and other fatty marine mammals (National Geographic, 2007). This makes the loss
of Arctic sea ice very problematic for polar bears. Since polar bears live across the Arctic
area, some polar bears have been more negatively affected by this loss of Arctic sea ice than
others. Polar bears that live on sea ice must travel onto land in search of food during the
summer melting periods (National Geographic, 2007). Land does not have the sufficient fatty
food types that a polar bear needs to go long periods without food (National Geographic,
2007). Polar bears have shown their desperation for food in their boldness to approach human
settlements in a desperate attempt to find food (National Geographic, 2007). The summer
leaves polar bears in between a melting habitat of sea ice and human settlements that do not
want dangerous predators roaming around. This problem is only becoming larger by further
sea ice melting. As Arctic sea ice begins to melt sooner each summer, polar bears will be
forced to travel ashore earlier and face food shortages before they have stored enough fat to
last through the season (National Geographic, 2007). This will lead to a vicious cycle where
polar bears will gain less sustenance before each summer and less polar bears will be able to
survive on the meager food supply that is found on land.
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3.3.1.3 Loss of Denning Sites
Polar bears create denning sites for hibernation and birthing (USGS Newsroom, 2007).
Denning for hibernation is less important for polar bears as there are winter food sources that
they can consume. However, denning for the birthing of cubs is incredibly important as polar
bear cubs need protection from the harsh arctic weather (USGS Newsroom, 2007).
Some polar bears create dens on the
land, while others create dens on sea ice
(USGS Newsroom, 2007). Pregnant polar
bears den mainly on sea ice. Recorded
denning sites have been found up to 400
miles offshore (USGS Newsroom, 2007).
Due to the melting of multi-year ice and
the late forming pack ice, finding a safe
den site on sea ice is growing progressively
harder for polar bears (USGS Newsroom,
Figure 3.6: Polar bear cubs enjoying the safety of a
den. Image from Duke University, N.d.
2007). On two different surveys in the Alaskan Arctic, “they found that the proportion of
dens on sea ice versus coastal land dens declined from 62 percent in 1985-1994 to 37 percent
in 1998-2004” (USGS Newsroom, 2007).
These findings done by the United States
Geological Survey suggested “that sea ice change offers the most plausible explanation for the
observed shift in maternal denning sites” (USGS Newsroom, 2007). This could be a result of
the thinning Arctic sea ice becoming unreliable for denning sites; making it dangerous for
hibernating polar bears and newborn cubs (USGS Newsroom, 2007). Denning sites on the
mainland can be affected by the decline of Arctic sea ice. “Pregnant females foraging offshore
in summer must wait up to a month longer than they did even 10 years ago for new sea ice to
form so they can travel to denning areas on land. Their only other two options are to traverse a
great expanse of open water, or create a den on possibly unstable sea ice” (USGS Newsroom,
2007).
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3.3.2 Ringed Seals
Ringed seals are a big part of the Arctic life. Ringed seals are having trouble adapting
to the shrinking Arctic sea ice. Diminishing Arctic sea ice and snow cover are the greatest
challenges to the survival of the ringed seal (Status Review of the Ringed Seal, N.d.). This is
because “ringed seals are regarded as heavily ice-associated; they use ice year-round, for
mating, birthing and pup rearing, molting and even haul-out resting” (Ringed Seals and
Climate Change, N.d.). Once ringed seals population decreases from the loss of Arctic sea
ice, low-level threats, such as ocean acidification and changes in populations of prey,
predators and parasites, may become more detrimental to the ringed seals than before (Status
Review of the Ringed Seal, N.d.).
3.3.2.1 Loss of Mating Grounds
Loss of sea ice can have a catastrophic effect on the mating grounds of the ringed seal
(Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.). The ringed seal mates on the sea ice so “both ice
and snow must be stable enough in the spring season to successfully complete the six week
period of lactation. If the ice breaks up too soon, pups may be separated prematurely from
their mothers, resulting in high pup mortality” (Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.). As
the Arctic sea ice is thinning, ringed seal population may decrease drastically.
The concern is not only about sea ice thickness for the pup’s birth, but also the
snowfall on top of the sea ice. Snow located on top of the sea ice is used by the ringed seal to
dig out dens suitable for housing young. The protection that the dens provide for the ringed
seal pups is essential for their survival against predators, as pups are fairly helpless when first
born (Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.). It is predicted that within the next hundred
years, there will not be sufficient snowfall for proper birth dens of 50 cm deep (Status Review
of the Ringed Seal, N.d.).
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3.3.2.2 Loss of Habitat
Ringed seals habitat is under increased
duress because of diminishing Arctic sea ice.
Ringed seals mate and give birth on sea ice.
Global warming’s effect on the Arctic Ocean
is also decreasing the ability for ringed seals to
survive. A status review done by the Alaska
Fisheries Science Center stated that an
increased level of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere will lead to the increase of
acidification of Arctic waters (Status Review
of the Ringed Seal, N.d.). This will cause a
Figure 3.7: A ringed seal surrounded by water.
Image from Wikimedia Commons, 2012.
negative effect on ringed seals habitats housed in these waters. Ocean acidification will also
negatively affect ringed seals’ ability to find prey.
3.3.2.3 Loss of Protection
The disappearance of Arctic sea ice would result in the loss of protection that sea ice
and the snow covering the sea ice provide for ringed seals. Dens dug in the snow on top of the
sea ice are paramount for adult ringed seals and ringed seal pups. Dens provide protection
from the predation of gulls and ravens on newborn pups (Status Review of the Ringed Seal,
N.d.). For the ringed seals to dig out snow dens, enough snow must be present. Without
enough snowfall, these dens would be impossible to build and the ringed seals would have
less protection from the Arctic elements as well as predators (Status Review of the Ringed
Seal, N.d.).
Arctic sea ice has been a big factor in keeping people from using the arctic as a
shipping route. With the melting of the Arctic sea ice, there has been an increase in access for
shipping routes and oil drilling. This may disturb and further degrad ringed seals’ habitats
(Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.). This degradation could come in multiple forms; oil
spills from drilling stations, leaks from boats, and pollution from increased human use.
15
Increasing Arctic temperatures promote conditions suited for parasites and pathogens
that would plague ringed seals (Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.). The stress of
finding increasingly scarce suitable habitats will put a strain on the ringed seals immune
systems and thus increase their already raised exposure towards parasites and pathogens
(Ringed Seals and Climate Change, N.d.).
3.3.3 Marine Life
Data compiled by Census of Arctic Marine Life concluded that a “change in
temperature of just a few degrees will see the loss of sea ice cover and with it the sea ice
algae, small animals and crustaceans which depend on it” (The Guardian, 2009). Since this
change is already happening and the Arctic sea ice is melting, marine species are being
negatively affected. The introduction of invasive species as a result of warmer waters can
drastically change the ecosystem that is now present in the Arctic (The Guardian, 2009). As
waters become warmer further north, the Arctic is becoming more suitable to invasive,
southern species (The Guardian, 2009). Small organisms that make up the bottom of the food
chain (Arctic ice algae) are being affected by warmer waters and the destruction of their
habitats: the Arctic sea ice. This will have negative implications further up the food chain
(The Guardian, 2009).
A good example of the impact a
smaller organism has on the Arctic food
chain is the Arctic cod and its
relationship to the Arctic fisherman.
Although Arctic cod are not the main
catch of commercial fisheries, they are
important for supporting larger fish
(Yale
Environment
360,
2012).
Fisheries are attempting to preserve the
Arctic cod population, as Arctic cod
could be a main food source for fish that
Figure 3.8: An Arctic cod swimming through a small
gap of water in the ice. Image from Wikimedia
Commons, Alaska, 2012.
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could be sold on the market by the fishermen (Yale Environment 360, 2012). “A key concern
[for fish advocates] is the so-called 1.1 million-square-mile “donut hole” in the central Arctic
ocean that does not fall under any country’s jurisdiction” (Yale Environment 360, 2012).
Until recently this hole in the sea ice did not exist. Since 2007, when sea ice cover in the
Arctic was at a record low, 40 percent of the “donut hole” was opened (Yale Environment
360, 2012). Since this hole of water does not fall under any one countries jurisdiction, no
country has made any significant attempts to stop overfishing in what could soon be a new
commercial fishing spot for fisheries. Henry Huntington, a science director for Pew’s Arctic
Program, stated: “Everywhere else in the world, fisheries have rapidly expanded into
accessible waters. Rather than see a repeat of the sad history of fisheries in most of the world
— when we were left to wonder where the fish went and start some science and management
later — we have a chance to get the science and management in place before fishing begins.”
(Yale Environment 360, 2012).
4.0 What Canada Is Doing About Climate Change
The government of Canada is attempting to deal with the melting Arctic sea ice. This
is achieved through decreasing Canada’s affect on climate change.
At the federal and
provincial level, Canada has already achieved half of its proposed goal of dropping
greenhouse gas emissions by 17% by 2020 (Canada's Action on Climate Change, 2012). The
Canadian government is providing funds to many different climate change and adaption
programs, internally and internationally (Canada's Action on Climate Change, 2012).
4.1 What Canada Is Doing About Climate Change: Internally
The Canadian government is working on many different programs to deal with climate
change in Canada. A few specific global warming programs that the government of Canada
has committed to for the next five years are:
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• Environment Canada’s Climate Change Prediction and Scenarios Program
• Department of Fisheries and Oceans’ Aquatic Climate Change Adaptation Services
Program
• Parks Canada towards Understanding Climate-Driven Ecological Changes in Canada’s
North
• Health Canada’s Climate Change and Health Adaptation for Northern First Nations and
Inuit Communities
• Public Health Agency of Canada for Preventative Public Health Systems and Adaptation to
a Changing Climate
• Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada’s Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Program for Aboriginals and Northerners
• Natural Resources Canada towards Enhancing Competitiveness in a Changing Climate
(Canada’s Action on Climate Change, 2012)
The majority of these programs are to deal with the study and prevention of climate
change and the adaption of species and people to the new environment that climate change is
creating (Environment Canada, 2011). In terms of climate change, Canada is looking towards
the future and preparing for it, whatever that future may be.
4.2 What Canada is doing About Climate Change: Internationally
Internationally Canada is involved in the Copenhagen Accord which is proclaimed to
be “a significant breakthrough in the global effort to address climate change” (Canada’s
Action on Climate Change, 2010). The Copenhagen Accord includes all major pollution
emitting countries and aims at cutting back global green house gas emission (Canada’s Action
on Climate Change, 2010).
From 2010 to 2012, between all of the countries in the
Copenhagen Accord, 30 billion resources have been collected to help smaller, less fortunate
countries in pollution prevention (Canada’s Action on Climate Change, 2010). With less
pollution being produced around the world, climate change will hopefully be slowed down. If
climate change can be slowed down, the rate of diminishing Arctic sea ice would slow down
as well.
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Additional Tables and Figures
Figure A: This overhead picture shows
the Arctic Sea Ice anomaly in September
from 2002 to 2011. It shows Arctic sea
ice has decreased in the concentration of
anomaly and overall area. Image from
NSIDC, 2012.
Figure B: This table
shows a decreasing
minimum ice extent in
million square miles
and kilometers in
September 2007 to
2011. Table from Ideas,
Inventions, and
Innovations, 2012.
19
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IMAGES:
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