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Blood The average human has 5 litres of blood(Average Blood Volume is 4 to 6 liters). This is 8% of body weight. It is a transporting fluid It carries vital substances to all parts of the body Blood is the only fluid tissue. Blood is a complex connective tissue in which living cells, the formed elements, are suspended in the nonliving fluid called plasma. Composition of Blood Formed Elements : Erythrocytes, Leukocytes , Platelets & Plasma. COMPONENTS OF BLOOD Centrifuged blood 55% Plasma: Serum and fibrinogen <1% Buffy Coat: White blood cells (leukocytes) 45% Red blood cells (erythrocytes) Hematocrit: RBC volume = ~45% plasma (55%) red blood cells (5-6-million /ml) white blood cells (5000/ml) platelets Plasma Straw-colored liquid. Consists of H20 and dissolved solutes. Ions, metabolites, hormones, antibodies. Na+ is the major solute of the plasma. liquid part of blood Plasma transports soluble food molecules waste products hormones antibodies RED BLOOD CELLS SPECIALISATIONS 1) biconcave shape 2) no nucleus extra space inside 3) contain haemoglobin the oxygen carrying molecule increases the surface area so more oxygen can be carried HAEMOGLOBIN gives red blood cells their colour can carry up to 4 molecules of O2 contains iron White blood cells the bodies “defence” part of the immune system much larger than RBCs far fewer have a nucleus 4000-13000 per mm3 PLATELETS Also called thrombocytes. Lack nuclei. Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3 Important in blood clotting: Constitute most of the mass of the clot. Release serotonin to reduce blood flow to area. Secrete growth factors Maintain the integrity of blood vessel wall. ANEMIA: A DECREASE IN THE OXYGENCARRYING CAPACITY OF THE BLOOD Anemia results from: Lower # RBCs Deficient hemoglobin Sickle Cell Anemia: Deficient hemoglobin It is the most common genetic disease in the U.S. An estimated 70,000-80,000 Americans have sickle cell disease. Normal red blood cells are round like doughnuts, and they move through small blood tubes in the body to deliver oxygen. Sickle red blood cells become hard, sticky and shaped like sickles used to cut wheat. When these hard and pointed red cells go through the small blood tube, they clog the flow and break apart. This can cause pain, damage and a low blood count, or anemia. HOW IS SICKLE CELL ANEMIA INHERITED? A person with the trait carries one abnormal hemoglobin gene inherited from one parent (S, E, C, etc.) and one normal hemoglobin gene from the other parent ( type A). Typically, sickle cell trait is the presence of hemoglobin AS. If both parents have type AS hemoglobin (one normal and one abnormal), there is: a 25% chance that the child will have sickle cell disease, a 50% chance that the child will have sickle cell trait, and a 25% chance that the child will have neither the disease or trait. These chances are the same for each child. WHO GETS SICKLE CELL? Sickle cell disease affects people of many nationalities including Italians, Latin Americans, Greeks, Arabs, and Asiatic Indians. However, it disproportionately affects people of African descent. All states now screen all newborns for sickle cell. In the U.S., approximately 1 out of 10-12 African Americans has sickle cell trait, and 1 out of 400-500 African American newborns has the disease. Approximately 1 out of 1,000-1,400 Hispanic newborns has the disease. CALCULATE THE FOLLOWING STATISTICS 1. If 1 in 10 African Americans have the sickle cell trait, and 1 in 400 have the disease , how many African Americans have the trait and how many the disease in a population of approximately 35 million? STATISTICS 10% have the trait. 0.1x35 million = 3.5 million 0.25% have the disease. 0.0025x35 million = 87,500 Symptoms of anemia include: Complications of sickle cell anemia include: frequent infections: delayed growth and development: hand-foot syndrome eye problems: eye problems: pulmonary hypertension stroke: priapism: painful erections caused by sickle cells blocking blood flow out of the penis organ failure: skin ulcers on the lower legs: fatigue breathlessness rapid heartbeat headache cold hands and feet paleness chest pain THALASSEMIA MEDITERRANEAN ANEMIA; COOLEY'S ANEMIA; BETA THALASSEMIA; ALPHA THALASSEMIA Thalassemia is a blood disorder passed down through families (inherited) in which the body makes an abnormal form of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The disorder results in excessive destruction of red blood cells, which leads to anemia. There are two main types of thalassemia: Alpha thalassemia occurs when a gene or genes related to the alpha globin protein are missing or changed (mutated). Beta thalassemia occurs when similar gene defects affect production of the beta globin protein. Alpha thalassemias occur most commonly in persons from southeast Asia, the Middle East, China, and in those of African descent. Beta thalassemias occur in persons of Mediterranean origin, and to a lesser extent, Chinese, other Asians, and African Americans. FACIAL DEFORMITIES DUE TO AN INCREASED BONE MARROW SPACE IN A CHILD . EXCESSIVE RBCS (ERYTHROCYTES) Polycythemia - abnormal increase in erythrocytes, caused by: Bone marrow cancer High altitudes Thickens and slows blood, impairs circulation About 5 million Americans need blood transfusions every year, for all sorts of reasons. Sometimes, a transfusion is an emergency (like losing blood after an accident). Sometimes it's expected (as with treatment for cancer). Whatever the reason, blood transfusions are one of the most common hospital procedures. While transfusions are common, there's a lot more to them than just taking blood from one person and using it to help someone else. It's very important to keep the blood supply safe. So, each unit of blood goes through many tests to check for infectious diseases and establish the blood type. Four Blood Groups... It might seem like blood is blood — it all looks pretty much the same to the naked eye. But although all blood contains the same basic components (red cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma), not everyone has the same types of markers on the surface of their red blood cells. These markers (also called antigens) are proteins and sugars that our bodies use to identify the blood cells as belonging in our own system. Blood cell markers are microscopic. But they can make the difference between blood being accepted or rejected after a transfusion. So medical experts group blood into types based on the different markers . The four main blood groups are: 1.Type A. This blood type has a marker known as "A." 2.Type B. This blood type has a marker known as "B." 3.Type AB. The blood cells in this type have both A and B markers. 4.Type O. This blood type has neither A or B The immune system produces proteins known as antibodies that act as protectors if foreign cells enter the body. Depending on which blood type you have, your immune system will produce antibodies to react against other blood types. If a patient is given the wrong blood type, the antibodies immediately set out to destroy the invading cells. This aggressive, whole-body response can give someone a fever, chills, and low blood pressure. It can even lead vital body systems — like breathing or kidneys — to fail. Here's an example of how the blood type-antibody process works: Let's say you have Type A blood. Because your blood contains the A marker, it produces B antibodies. If B markers (found in Type B or AB blood) enter your body, your Type A immune system gets fired up against them. That means you can only get a transfusion from someone with A or O blood, not from someone with B or AB blood. In the same way, if you have the B marker, your body produces A antibodies. So as a person with Type B blood, you could get a transfusion from someone with B or O blood, but not A or AB . Things are a little different for people with Type AB or Type O blood. If you have both A and B markers on the surface of your cells (Type AB blood), your body does not need to fight the presence of either. This means that someone with AB blood can get a transfusion from someone with A, B, AB, or O blood . But if you have Type O blood, meaning your red blood cells have neither A or B markers, your body will have both A and B antibodies and will therefore feel the need to defend itself against A, B, and AB blood. So a person with O blood can only get a transfusion with O blood. Type O-negative blood can be given to people with any blood type. That's because it has none of the markers that can set off a reaction. People with this blood type are considered "universal donors" and are in great demand at blood banks. Because Type AB-positive blood has all the markers, people with this type can receive any blood type. They're called "universal recipients ." Although all blood is made of the same basic elements, not all blood is alike. In fact, there are eight different common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body. Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching. The ABO Blood Group System: There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens – A and B – on the surface of red blood cells: •Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma) •Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma) •Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma) •Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma) RBC Antigens & Blood Typing The most well-known blood types are in the ABO group. They were discovered in 1900 and 1901 at the University of Vienna by Karl Landsteiner in the process of trying to learn why blood transfusions sometimes cause death and at other times save a patient. In 1930, he belatedly received the Nobel Prize for this discovery. All humans and many other primates can be typed for the ABO blood group. There are four principal types: A, B, AB, and O. There are two antigens and two antibodies that are mostly responsible for the ABO types. The specific combination of these four components determines an individual's type in most cases. People with type O blood do not produce ABO antigens. Type O people are universal donors for transfusions, but they can receive only type O blood themselves. Those with type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies. Their blood does not discriminate against any other ABO type. Type AB people are universal receivers for transfusions, but their blood will be agglutinated when given to people with every other type because they produce both kinds of antigens. People with blood group 0 Rh - are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB Rh+ are called "universal receivers." HOW DO WE DETERMINE BLOOD TYPE? It is easy to determine an individual's ABO type from a few drops of blood. A serum containing anti-A antibodies is mixed with some of the blood. Another serum with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining sample. Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the ABO type. If an individual's blood sample is agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the anti-B antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A. WHAT IS THE RH FACTOR Another group of antigens found on RBCs. Rh positive: Have these antigens. Rh negative: Do not have these antigens. Significant when Rh negative mother gives birth to Rh positive baby. At birth, mother may become exposed to Rh positive blood of fetus. Mother at subsequent pregnancies may produce antibodies against the Rh factor. AIM – HOW DO WE INHERIT OUR BLOOD TYPE? Do Now – 1- How many different blood types are there? 2-What are the different blood types? PRACTICE….. In cats, white fur is dominant to brown fur. W=white fur and w=brown fur. Indicate the phenotype of these cats Genotype=WW phenotype=_____________ Genotype =ww phenotype=_____________ Genotype=Ww phenotype=_____________ PRACTICE…. In birds, red feathers is dominant to white feathers. R=red feathers and r=white feathers Indicate the genotype of these birds genotype=_________ Phenotype=red feathers genotype=_________ phenotype=white feathers PRACTICE….. When setting up a Punnett square, the mothers genes/alleles go on one side and the fathers genes/alleles go on the other side. If B=brown hair and b=blonde hair show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring if the mother has blonde hair (bb) and the father has brown hair (Bb) Is the father homozygous or heterozygous? ___________________________ Is the mother homozygous or heterozygous?____________________ GENOTYPES PHENOTYPES PRACTICE…. Genotypes phenotypes For example, in a gene that determines eye color, B=brown eyes and b=blue eyes. Brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive. Determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring if the genotypes of the parents are Bb and Bb MEDIAL SUMMARY 1- what word describes the condition when 2 alleles are the same? Example: 2-what word describes the condition when 2 alleles are different? Example: 3-what is the physical description of an individual called? Example: 4-what word describes the genes/alleles an individual has? Your blood type is inherited. Like eye color, blood type is passed on to you genetically from your parents. Whether your blood group is type A, B, AB or O is based on the blood types of your mother and father. The blood type you have is referred to your phenotype. The genes that give you your blood type are referred to as your genotype. For example, if your phenotype is blood type A, your genotype would be AA. The 4 different types of blood are called alleles, which are different versions of a gene. You have 2 of these alleles for your blood type gene. NOW A BLOOD TYPE EXAMPLE Predict the genotype and phenotype of offspring if the mother has AA and the father has BB genotypes: Phenotypes: A SECOND EXAMPLE: A second example: The mother has AO and the father has BO Genotypes: Phenotypes: The 4 alleles that determine an individuals blood type are said to be codominant and dominant and recessive. A and B are codominant with each other and both are dominant to O Codominance-A condition in genetics in which the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed thereby resulting in offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive. APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE…..FILL OUT THE CHART PHENOTYPE TYPE A TYPE B TYPE AB TYPE O GENOTYPE CHALLENGE QUESTION!!! Would it be possible for a child to have type B blood if the genotypes of his parents were AB and AO? Explain your answer SUMMARY 1-how many genotypes will result in the phenotype of type A blood? Type O blood? 2-what is the purpose of a punnett square? 3-Why are blood type A and B codominant? EXAMPLE #1 The mother has blood type AB and the father has blood type AO Genotypes phenotypes EXAMPLE #2 The mother has blood type OO and the father has blood type BB Genotypes phenotypes EXAMPLE #3 The mother has blood type AB and the father has blood type AB Genotype phenotype EXAMPLE #4 The mother has blood type AB and the father has blood type AA Genotype: Phenotype: HOW DO WE INHERIT OUR BLOOD TYPE? Complete the Punnett square and determine phenotypic and genotypic ratios C ADDITIONAL PROTEINS AND PROBABILITY Additional enzymes and proteins have been found in the blood, which are important for identification purposes. They include M and N proteins. Type % US population Type A 42 Rh + 85 B 12 Rh - 15 AB O % US population Type % US Population MM 30 3 MN 48 43 NN 22 PROBABILITY AND BLOOD TYPES Solve the following problems and show all work: 1. What % of the US population would have A+ blood? 2. What % of the population would have O-MN? SOLUTIONS 1. type A = 42%, Rh+ = 85% 0.42 x 0.85 = 0.357 = 35.7% 2. type O = 43%, Rh- = 15%, MN = 48% 0.43 x 0.15 x 0.48 = 0.031 = 3.1% Only 3 out of 100 people would have Type O-MN blood. This would make the suspect population very small. By identifying additional proteins, the size of the suspect population may be decreased even more. Example: Type A x N x Hp-1 x Rh- x PGM-2 = 0.42 x 0.22 x 0.14 x0.15 x 0.06 = 0.000116 This is 1 out of 8,600 people in the US RBC ANTIGENS: HOW DO YOU INHERIT YOUR BLOOD? Each person inherits 2 genes that control the production of ABO groups. Type A: May have inherited A gene from each parent. May have inherited A gene from 1 parent and O gene from the other. Type B: May have inherited B gene from each parent. May have inherited B gene from 1 parent and O gene from the other parent. Type AB: Inherited the A gene from one parent and the B gene from the other parent. Type O: Inherited O gene from each parent. TRANSFUSION REACTIONS People with Type A blood make antibodies to Type B RBCs, but not to Type A Type B blood has antibodies to Type A RBCs but not to Type B Type AB blood doesn’t have antibodies to A or B Type O has antibodies to both Type A & B If different blood types are mixed, antibodies will cause mixture to agglutinate TRANSFUSION REACTIONS If blood types don't match, recipient’s antibodies agglutinate donor’s RBCs Type O is “universal donor” because lacks A & B antigens Recipient’s agglutinate RBCs antibodies won’t donor’s Type O Type AB is “universal recipient” because doesn’t make anti-A or anti-B antibodies Won’t agglutinate donor’s RBCs Insert fig. 13.6 BLOOD CLOTTING ( Hemostatic mechanisms) Is cessation of bleeding Promoted by reactions initiated by vessel injury Breakage of endothelial lining exposes collagen proteins causing: Vasoconstriction. Platelet plug. Web of fibrin. In peas, the gene for green color is dominant and the gene for yellow color is recessive. G=green and g=yellow. What are the genotype and phenotypes of the offspring when GG is crossed with Gg? Genotypes phenotypes A second example: the mothers genotype is Bb and the fathers genotype is Bb What is the genotype and phenotype of the offspring? In peas, the gene for smooth texture is dominant and the gene for wrinkled texture is recessive. S=smooth and s=wrinkled. What are the genotype and phenotypes of the offspring when gg is crossed with Gg? Genotypes phenotypes