Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Cell culture wikipedia , lookup
Cell theory wikipedia , lookup
Monoclonal antibody wikipedia , lookup
Human embryogenesis wikipedia , lookup
History of anatomy wikipedia , lookup
Homeostasis wikipedia , lookup
Regeneration in humans wikipedia , lookup
Human genetic resistance to malaria wikipedia , lookup
Developmental biology wikipedia , lookup
BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 BIOL0601 Module 4 Assignment 4 (M4A) Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 1 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Introduction BIOL0601 Provincial Biology Assignment 2 Instructions: Type your name in the header On Page 2. (First select “Header and Footer” in Word’s “View” menu or double click in the header area..) For each answer, at least one dark blue blank line has been provided. Double-click on the line and start typing your answer. It will automatically appear in a distinctive style. When several blank lines are provided for an answer, clean up by deleting the extra lines after you have typed your answer. Sometime you will be asked to perform a lab exercise before you have finished your text work. Only submit your work to your tutor when all the work in the assignment has been completed. If sending your file to your tutor as an email attachment, ensure that it has a file name that includes the course number, assignment number and your name. e.g. BIOL0601_A2_Chiu.doc (with your name in place of “Chiu.”) Topic Marks Diagrams 10 Terms and Definitions 12 Short Answer Questions 5 Matching Questions 16 Long Answer Questions 37 Lab 4A 10 Lab 4B 10 Total marks Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM /100 2 / 18 /100 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Diagrams 1. This is a schematic diagram of the human circulatory system. Draw the major blood vessels that serve (connect) these regions (2 marks), indicate whether they are arteries or veins (2 marks), and indicate the direction of blood flow (2 marks). 2. Valves help to control the flow of blood in the circulatory system. Where on the diagram are they to be found? (4 marks) A set of valves is to be found in the veins returning blood to the heart. Because the pressure is low in a vein, the valves prevent the back flow of blood and help to keep it flowing toward the heart. There are two sets of valves in the heart. One set, the semi-lunars prevent blood from re-entering the ventricle once it has been ejected into the artery. The second sets, the bi and tri cuspids, prevents blood from flowing back into the atria when the ventricle contracts. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 3 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Terms (12 marks) Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 4 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Matching 1. Match the description with the organ system with the name of the system by placing the appropriate letter in the column marked * (5 marks) organ system function of organ system * integumentary system A involved control of pH and exchange of gases A reproductive system B provides support and protection for the body, stores minerals and produces red blood cells F lymphatic and immune system C produces chemical messengers to control many body functions H respiratory system D involved in the control of fluid balance and protection of the body against pathogens C urinary system E to protect the body, control temperature and collect sensory input A skeletal system F performs the functions necessary for the survival of the species B nervous system G transports materials throughout the body J endocrine system H processes food to provide the body with the materials required for maintenance, repair, growth and energy I digestive system I allows an organism to interact with its environment G cardiovascular system J involved in control of pH, fluid balance and excretion of metabolic wastes E Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 5 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Short Answer Questions 1. Chose an organ system and explain how it is involved in homeostasis. (4 marks) Look for An appropriate choice of organ system A statement about what the homeostatic process is A description of how the homeostatic process is accomplished (feedback mechanisms etc.) 2. There is an exception for each of the following statements. Explain what the exception is. (4 marks) a. in the circulatory system arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood. The terms artery and vein indicate direction of flow, not the degree of oxygenation. The statement is true except for the pulmonary artery and vein. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood. b. in the circulatory system, blood flows from a capillary network to the heart or from the heart to a capillary network. This is true except for the hepatic portal system. Blood flows from a capillary network in the intestines to another capillary network in the liver. 3. Explain how blood pressure and osmotic pressure are involved in the exchange of materials as blood flows from an arteriole to a venule through a capillary network. (4 marks) Blood pressure is derived from the pressure applied by the contraction of the ventricles of the heart. It decreases as the distance from the heart increases and the size of the arteries decreases. Blood pressure falls as the blood moves through a capillary system Osmotic pressure is the pressure derived by virtue of the concentration of certain components of the blood, principally the blood proteins. These proteins do not leave the circulatory system, therefore the osmotic pressure of the blood is constant throughout a capillary system. Osmotic pressure tends to draw water and dissolved solutes into the capillary. At the beginning of the capillary network blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure. This results in a net outflow of fluid (water and dissolved solutes). At the end of the capillary system, the blood pressure has dropped off, and osmotic pressure is now greater. This results in a net inflow of fluid into the capillary. This difference helps to get needed materials from the blood stream into the intracellular spaces at the beginning of the capillary system and helps to remove excess water and waste materials at the end of the capillary system. 4. Compare and contrast the structure and function of enzymes and antibodies. (4 marks) Both are proteins and have areas that can be called active areas. The enzyme has a zone which binds with the substrate and the antibody has a zone which is capable of recognizing an antigen. The enzyme is regenerated after it has accomplished the transformation of substrate to product and can undergo many such cycles. The antibody is destroyed along with the antigen to which it has attached. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 6 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Long Answer Questions Answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper. Each of your answers should be two to three paragraphs long. Use your own wording. 1. Name the four cavities of the human body and identify the membranes/structures that separate each from adjacent cavities or structures. (4 marks) Dorsal cavity – it is separated from the rest of the body by the meninges, the membranes that surround the brain and spinal chord Thoracic cavity - it contains the heart and lungs and is lined with serous membranes. The thoracic cavity id divided from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The abdominal cavity contains the intestinal organs, pancreas, liver and gall bladder. It is surrounded by a serous membrane and is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm. The pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs. 2. Differentiate between acquired and innate immunity. Discuss how each functions and identify the structures/cells involved in each. (10 marks) Innate immunity is the ability to combat disease and pathogens. There are aspects to innate immunity. There are barriers to entry. These include physical barriers, such as the skin, which provide a direct barrier to entry to the bosy. There are also chemical barriers, such as lysozyme, an anti-bacterial protein found in tears. Acquired immunity is more complex. Once a pathogen has entered the body, it is usually identified by proteins on its surface. These proteins are called antigens. The two major arms of the acquired defense system are B cell and T cells (B and T lymphocytes) The B cells are involved in what is called the clonal selection model. Many different types of B cells with antibodies on its surface are in circulation. When a B cell antibody comes into contact with an antigen in circulation, the B cell becomes activated, with the help of helper T cells, begin to produce many copies, or clones of itself. These clonal B cells begin to produce large quantities of the antibody to neutralize the antigen in circulation. This process may take a week to two to develop a full response to an invasion by an antigen (a virus for example). When the invasion has been stopped, the cloning of the B cells subsides, but some of the B cells remain in the form of memory B cells. They lie in the lymphatic system, waiting for a reoccurrence of the antigen., If this happens they are ready to launch a full scale response to the antigen, and usually prevent the disease from re-occurring. This is how vaccinations work. The vaccination produces a very mild form of the sickness (it is usually asymptomatic) and the memory B cells are formed a ready to defend against another instance of the antigen. T cells are involved in what is called a cell mediated response. T cells, produced in the thymus, have receptors on their surface, just like B cells. The T cells however, cannot recognize an antigen without help. The antigen must be presented to them by a cell like a macrophage. The macrophage has engulfed the pathogen and broken it down in a lysosome. It then presents a piece of the pathogen to the T cell using a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on the surface of the cell. (the MHC proteins are the proteins that establish the immunological identity of the individual) A T cell interacts with this complex and carries out a comparison of “self” and “foreign”. This helps to safeguard against cells destroying it own cells. The T cell identifies the foreign antigen, is activated and undergoes clonal expansion. Its clones go on to destroy cells carrying this foreign protein. This would include virus infected cells and cancer cells. They also form memory T cells that are ready to spring into action in response to a re-occurrence. The cells which destroy other cells are called cytotoxic T cells. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 7 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 3. Two types of mechanisms which are used to control the internal environment of the body are positive and negative feedback. Compare and contrast these two types of controls. Give an example of each type from everyday life (non-biological) and a biological example of each. Explain why each control mechanism is appropriate for each biological example. (8 marks) The negative feedback system is designed to maintain a particular quantity within a specific range. (fig 4.15 is a good diagram) A control centre has the ability to monitor the level of a substance. In response to a lowering of the level of the substance, the control centre will cause the production of the substance to increase. When the level of the substance rises above a certain level, then the control centre will cause the production of the substance to fall. In this way the level of the substance in the blood can be maintained at a relatively constant level. This is the most common type of control mechanism in the body. Maintaining the constant level is called homeostasis. (the household thermostat maintaining a constant temperature is another example of a negative feedback system) A positive feedback system does not maintain a constant level and cannot be used for homeostasis. In fact it causes an amplification of the effect. (in chemical reactions this can lead to explosions) There are two well know circumstances where the body uses positive feedback. When a baby is ready to be delivered, and contractions occur, the hormone oxytocin causes a nerve stimulus, which stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin, which increases uterine contractions. This results in contractions increasing in amplitude and frequency aiding in the delivery of the baby. Oxytocin is also involved in a positive feedback for breast feeding. The cry of a baby can, through the hypothalamus, cause the pituitary to release oxytocin which causes breast milk to be expressed. 4. Use the ABO and Rh blood type systems to show how the terms antibody and antigen are related. Explain how this relates to blood transfusions. Explain how there can be universal donor and universal recipient blood types. (9 marks) There are about several blood types, the ABO and Rh systems being just two of them. The blood type derives from an antigen attached to the surface of the red blood cell. If there is an antibody to this antigen, then the red blood cell will be destroyed. The ABO system refers to two antigens attached to the surface of the red blood cell. They give rise to the A and B blood types. Blood type antigen on surface of RBC antibody in plasma A A anti B B B anti A AB neither both anti A and anti B O both neither anti A or anti B Ideally blood types are matched for a transfusion. If they are not matched there is the possibility that all the infused red blood cells will be destroyed in a process called agglutination. However under circumstances in which the right blood type may not be available, other blood types may be used. Blood type O is called the universal donor. It has no antigens on the surface of red blood cells. It does have antibodies, but these become diluted and cause a minimum of damage. AB is considered the universal recipient because there are no antibodies in the plasma. In the Rh system, there is an antigen on the surface of the red blood cell. The presence of the antigen gives rise to the Rh positive blood type. For the Rh negative blood type the antigen is missing. Rh becomes a concern especially when an Rh negative woman married to an Rh positive man gets pregnant for the first time. When the baby is born, there may be mixing of the blood types. If the baby is Rh positive, there is the possibility that the mother could become sensitized to the Rh antigen and begin to produce anti Rh antibodies. In subsequent pregnancies, if the fetus is Rh positive, the Rh antibodies could begin to cross the placenta and start to destroy the r3ds blood cells. This is called haemolytic disease of the newborn. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 8 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 5. The pituitary gland is sometimes called the master gland. Explain why this is (was thought to be) an appropriate name for this gland. (6 marks) The pituitary gland is the main endocrine gland of the body. It is a small structure in the head. It is called the master gland because it produces hormones that control other glands and many body functions including growth. The pituitary consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that influence growth, sexual development, skin pigmentation, thyroid function, and adrenocortical function. These influences are exerted through the effects of pituitary hormones on other endocrine glands (parathyroids, adrenal gland, pancreas, gonads, thymus and pineal gland). Growth hormone however, acts directly on cells. The effects of hypofunction or under function of the anterior pituitary include growth retardation (dwarfism) in childhood and a decrease in all other endocrine gland functions normally under the control of the anterior pituitary (except the parathyroid glands). The results of overfunction of the anterior pituitary include overgrowth (gigantism) in children and a condition called acromegaly in adults. The posterior pituitary secretes the hormone oxytocin which increases uterine contractions and lactation and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which increases reabsorption of water by the tubules of the kidney, producing a lower urine output and more concentrated urine. Underproduction of ADH results in a disorder called diabetes insipidus characterized by inability to concentrate the urine and, consequently, excess urination leading potentially to dehydration and a loss of electrolytes. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 9 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Lab 4A: Tissues Introduction In Module 1 you considered the organization of life. In that system, tissue was defined as a group of cells with the same structure and function. In the human there are four tissue types: connective, muscular, nervous and epithelial. 1. Connective Tissue a. fibrous connective tissue b. cartilage* c. bone* d. blood (fluid)* e. lymph (fluid) 2. Muscle Tissue a. skeletal muscle* b. smooth muscle* c. cardiac muscle* 3. Nervous Tissue a. neurons* b. neuroglia 4. Epithelia Tissue a. simple epithelium i. squamous epithelium* ii. cuboidal epithelium iii. columnar epithelium* b. pseudostratified epithelium c. transitional epithelium d. glandular epithelium* Each of these levels is recognized by a particular cell type. In this lab you will examine some of these types of tissues in order to become familiar with the general structure and function of each tissue. Method Because the pocket microscope has only a low magnification, you will be using the Microscope CD to look at examples of human tissue types. For each of the following cell types, draw a diagram in the space provided. There may be many cells in the microscopic field. The general shape and organization of the cells is most important. You need only draw any internal detail (if visible) for two or three of the cells. Under key observations note the special features visible under the microscope that allow for the identification of each tissue type. The slides should pick up the main characteristics of each of the particular tissues. The written description could be just as important as the drawing. Drawings need not be detailed but should emphasize the key points listed in the right hand column. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 10 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Results these are the micrographs included on the CD Key observations cartilage pictures on page 67 of text hyaline cartilage – 100x Key observations bone pictures on page 67 of text bone – 100x Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 11 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Key observations human blood smear – 400x Key observations skeletal muscle pictures on page 70 skeletal (striated) muscle – 400x Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 12 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Key observations smooth muscle pictures on page 70 smooth muscle – 400x Key observations cardiac muscle picture on page 70 cardiac muscle – 400x Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 13 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Key observations squamous epithelium picture on page 72 Key observations columnar epithelium picture on page 73 Congratulations, you have now completed Lab 4A Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 14 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Lab 4B: Respiration Please note that you do not need to submit your lab work to your tutor. You do need to submit the completed tables in the Results section and your answers to the questions in the Thinking About the Results section. Introduction 1. External respiration is the term commonly used to refer to what we call breathing – the act of inhalation and exhalation. We are also aware that the amount of air that we breathe in and out will vary depending on the circumstances. Part A We are going to use a model to study how inspiration and expiration happen. You will see the model being built in the video and its functioning will be demonstrated. Optionally, you may make a model yourself. OPTIONAL Materials 2 L plastic pop bottle and lid a large diameter straw two balloons (preferably round) masking tape (or duck tape if you are a Red Green fan) plasticene (or any mouldable material) Method 1. Collect together all the required materials and prepare your laboratory space. 2. Carefully cut the bottom from the pop bottle. Make the edge as smooth as possible. 3. Select a balloon shoes diameter is about the same as the diameter of the cut end of the bottle. 4. Cut one of the balloons at its widest point. Tie a knot in the neck of the balloon. Place the balloon across the cut end of the pop bottle and secure it in place with tape. This needs to be fairly secure as you will be pulling on the neck of the balloon to stretch it. 5. Small round balloons tend to be rather tough to blow up. Soften the balloon up by blowing it up and releasing the air several times. If you can get balloons that are easier to blow up to start, then this part will be easier. Using tape, fasten a small balloon to the end of a straw. Try to make sure the seal is airtight. 6. Insert the balloon, attached to the straw through the neck of the bottle so that it is situated in about the centre of the bottle. Use plasticene to seal the opening. (At this point our model only has 1 “lung”. You may choose to insert two straws with balloons attached to make the model more like the human system. Two “lungs” are not necessary for the model to work properly) 7. The model is now complete. 8. The purpose of this model is to demonstrate the process by which the air enters and leaves the lungs. Gently pull on the neck of the balloon stretched across the large end of the bottle. Notice what happens to the “lung” as you do so. Release the balloon and again notice what happens to the “lung”. Record these observations in Table 4.2.1 Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 15 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 Results 1. Table 4.2.1 They should describe that as the balloon is pulled down, the small balloon inside the bottle will try to inflate. This process will be reversed when the balloon is released Thinking About the Results 1. the left half of the following table, draw a labelled diagram of the model (either from the video or your own model). In the right column of the table draw a diagram of the human respiratory system. Table 4.2.1 lung model human respiratory system look for a good diagram of the human respiratory system 2. Why does air move into the lungs in inspiration? How does the model demonstrate this? As the diaphragm contracts the volume of the thoracic cavity increases. This decreases the pressure inside the thoracic cavity and inside the lungs. The higher air pressure outside forces air into the lungs and they expand. Pulling down on the balloon is like the contraction of the diaphragm. The pressure inside the bottle decreases. Higher air pressure outside forces the air into the balloon. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 16 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 3. Why does air move out of the lungs during exhalation (expiration). How does the model demonstrate this? The movement of the air out of the lungs is a passive process and is due to the elastic properties of the lungs. The model may not be very good at demonstrating this. It depends on how inflated the balloons inside the bottle are. 4. What of these processes is active and which passive. Explain. Under normal circumstances, inhalation is active (involving the contraction of the diaphragm) and exhalation is passive (due to the elastic contraction of the lungs) Part B In this experiment you will measure two parameters of lung function: tidal volume and vital capacity. Materials 2 L plastic pop bottles and lid, or 4 L milk bottle and lid. a large diameter tube or straw a large basin (dishwashing basin or sink will do) lots of water Method 1. Prepare your lab space for this experiment. It involves lots of water and could result in some spilling. If possible arrange to do the experiment in the kitchen sink. A second set of hands might also be helpful , so if possible, arrange for an assistant. Tidal Volume 2. Place about 5 cm of water in the sink or basin. Fill a bottle completely with water (no air bubbles) and place the cap on the bottle. Invert the bottle with the cap under water. Remove the cap. As long as the mouth of the bottle remains below the surface of the water, the water will remain in the bottle. 3. Breath normally as you would at rest. Notice the amount of air that you inhale and exhale each time. This is your tidal volume and is the amount of air that we want to measure. Keeping the mouth of the bottle under water, place one end of the tube into the mouth of the bottle. Intro the other end of the tube, blow the amount of air that represents your tidal volume. This will displace water from the bottle. Place the cap back on the bottle and remove the bottle from the basin. In order to measure the amount of air in the bottle, use a measuring cup and measure the amount of water needed to fill the bottle to the top. This is the volume of your tidal volume. Repeat the measurement 2 more times. Record the results in Table 4.2.2 Vital capacity 4. The vital capacity is the total volume of your lungs. Exhale as much air as you possibly can (force it all out), then inhale as much as you possibly can. This represents the vital capacity of your lungs and is what we want to measure. You will employ the same method as before, displacing water from bottles and measuring how much water was displaced. The vital capacity varies from one individual to another, but can range from just under 4 L to just over 5 L. Be prepared for this large volume and have bottles with enough volume prepared before you begin to exhale. 5. With the bottles filled and inverted in the sink or basin, inhale as much as you can, then, blowing through the tube into the bottles, exhale as much as you can. Use the measuring cup to measure the amount of water that was displaced. In Table 4.2.3 record this volume as your vital capacity. Results 1. Table 4.2.2 tidal volume (mL) typically around 500 mL trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 17 / 18 BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1 average tidal volume 2. Table 4.2.3 vital capacity (L) typically between 4 L and 5.5 L trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average vital capacity Numbers will vary but generally Tidal volume is somewhere around 500 mL: Vital capacity can be 4 L to 5 L Thinking About the Results 1. Look up Figure 9.1, it shows the human respiratory tract. On the way to the lungs, the air must pass through the nasal cavity, the trachea, bronchus, and bronchioles. There is no gas exchange in these structures. What does this mean for your tidal capacity? These structures are not involved in has exchange. Only the air that actually reaches the lungs in involved in gas exchange, so the oxygen that we use is derived from a fraction of the 500 mL vital capacity 2. Vital capacity is often used as a measure of the health of the lungs. What conditions could negatively affect your vital capacity? Any disease of the lungs will negatively impact the vital capacity like pneumonia, cancer, emphysema, …. Congratulations, you have now completed Lab 4B. Document1 2017-05-05 4:04:00 PM 18 / 18