Download BIOL0601 Module 4 Assignment 4 (M4A)

BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
BIOL0601 Module 4 Assignment 4 (M4A)
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Introduction
BIOL0601 Provincial Biology
Assignment 2
Instructions:
Type your name in the header On Page 2. (First select “Header and Footer” in
Word’s “View” menu or double click in the header area..)
For each answer, at least one dark blue blank line has been provided. Double-click
on the line and start typing your answer. It will automatically appear in a distinctive
style.
When several blank lines are provided for an answer, clean up by deleting the extra
lines after you have typed your answer.
Sometime you will be asked to perform a lab exercise before you have finished
your text work.
Only submit your work to your tutor when all the work in the assignment has been
completed. If sending your file to your tutor as an email attachment, ensure that it
has a file name that includes the course number, assignment number and your
name.
e.g. BIOL0601_A2_Chiu.doc (with your name in place of “Chiu.”)
Topic
Marks
Diagrams
10
Terms and Definitions
12
Short Answer Questions
5
Matching Questions
16
Long Answer Questions
37
Lab 4A
10
Lab 4B
10
Total marks
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Diagrams
1.
This is a schematic diagram of the human circulatory system.
Draw the major blood vessels that serve (connect) these
regions (2 marks), indicate whether they are arteries or veins (2
marks), and indicate the direction of blood flow (2 marks).
2. Valves help to control the flow of blood in the circulatory
system. Where on the diagram are they to be found? (4
marks)
A set of valves is to be found in the veins returning blood to
the heart. Because the pressure is low in a vein, the valves
prevent the back flow of blood and help to keep it flowing
toward the heart.
There are two sets of valves in the heart. One set, the
semi-lunars prevent blood from re-entering the ventricle
once it has been ejected into the artery. The second sets,
the bi and tri cuspids, prevents blood from flowing back into
the atria when the ventricle contracts.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Terms (12 marks)
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Matching
1. Match the description with the organ system with the name of the system by placing the appropriate
letter in the column marked * (5 marks)
organ system
function of organ system
*
integumentary system
A
involved control of pH and exchange of gases
A
reproductive system
B
provides support and protection for the body, stores minerals
and produces red blood cells
F
lymphatic and immune
system
C
produces chemical messengers to control many body
functions
H
respiratory system
D
involved in the control of fluid balance and protection of the
body against pathogens
C
urinary system
E
to protect the body, control temperature and collect sensory
input
A
skeletal system
F
performs the functions necessary for the survival of the
species
B
nervous system
G
transports materials throughout the body
J
endocrine system
H
processes food to provide the body with the materials required
for maintenance, repair, growth and energy
I
digestive system
I
allows an organism to interact with its environment
G
cardiovascular system
J
involved in control of pH, fluid balance and excretion of
metabolic wastes
E
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Short Answer Questions
1. Chose an organ system and explain how it is involved in homeostasis. (4 marks)
Look for
An appropriate choice of organ system
A statement about what the homeostatic process is
A description of how the homeostatic process is accomplished (feedback mechanisms etc.)
2. There is an exception for each of the following statements. Explain what the exception is. (4 marks)
a. in the circulatory system arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated
blood.
The terms artery and vein indicate direction of flow, not the degree of oxygenation.
The statement is true except for the pulmonary artery and vein. The pulmonary artery carries
deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood.
b. in the circulatory system, blood flows from a capillary network to the heart or from the heart to
a capillary network.
This is true except for the hepatic portal system. Blood flows from a capillary network in the
intestines to another capillary network in the liver.
3. Explain how blood pressure and osmotic pressure are involved in the exchange of materials as
blood flows from an arteriole to a venule through a capillary network. (4 marks)
Blood pressure is derived from the pressure applied by the contraction of the ventricles of the heart.
It decreases as the distance from the heart increases and the size of the arteries decreases. Blood
pressure falls as the blood moves through a capillary system
Osmotic pressure is the pressure derived by virtue of the concentration of certain components of the
blood, principally the blood proteins. These proteins do not leave the circulatory system, therefore
the osmotic pressure of the blood is constant throughout a capillary system. Osmotic pressure tends
to draw water and dissolved solutes into the capillary.
At the beginning of the capillary network blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure. This results
in a net outflow of fluid (water and dissolved solutes). At the end of the capillary system, the blood
pressure has dropped off, and osmotic pressure is now greater. This results in a net inflow of fluid
into the capillary. This difference helps to get needed materials from the blood stream into the
intracellular spaces at the beginning of the capillary system and helps to remove excess water and
waste materials at the end of the capillary system.
4. Compare and contrast the structure and function of enzymes and antibodies. (4 marks)
Both are proteins and have areas that can be called active areas. The enzyme has a zone which
binds with the substrate and the antibody has a zone which is capable of recognizing an antigen.
The enzyme is regenerated after it has accomplished the transformation of substrate to product and
can undergo many such cycles. The antibody is destroyed along with the antigen to which it has
attached.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Long Answer Questions
Answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper. Each of your answers should be two to
three paragraphs long. Use your own wording.
1. Name the four cavities of the human body and identify the membranes/structures that separate each
from adjacent cavities or structures. (4 marks)
Dorsal cavity – it is separated from the rest of the body by the meninges, the membranes that
surround the brain and spinal chord
Thoracic cavity - it contains the heart and lungs and is lined with serous membranes. The thoracic
cavity id divided from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
The abdominal cavity contains the intestinal organs, pancreas, liver and gall bladder. It is
surrounded by a serous membrane and is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm.
The pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs.
2. Differentiate between acquired and innate immunity. Discuss how each functions and identify the
structures/cells involved in each. (10 marks)
Innate immunity is the ability to combat disease and pathogens. There are aspects to innate
immunity. There are barriers to entry. These include physical barriers, such as the skin, which
provide a direct barrier to entry to the bosy. There are also chemical barriers, such as lysozyme, an
anti-bacterial protein found in tears.
Acquired immunity is more complex. Once a pathogen has entered the body, it is usually identified
by proteins on its surface. These proteins are called antigens. The two major arms of the acquired
defense system are B cell and T cells (B and T lymphocytes)
The B cells are involved in what is called the clonal selection model. Many different types of B cells
with antibodies on its surface are in circulation. When a B cell antibody comes into contact with an
antigen in circulation, the B cell becomes activated, with the help of helper T cells, begin to produce
many copies, or clones of itself. These clonal B cells begin to produce large quantities of the
antibody to neutralize the antigen in circulation. This process may take a week to two to develop a
full response to an invasion by an antigen (a virus for example). When the invasion has been
stopped, the cloning of the B cells subsides, but some of the B cells remain in the form of memory B
cells. They lie in the lymphatic system, waiting for a reoccurrence of the antigen., If this happens they
are ready to launch a full scale response to the antigen, and usually prevent the disease from
re-occurring. This is how vaccinations work. The vaccination produces a very mild form of the
sickness (it is usually asymptomatic) and the memory B cells are formed a ready to defend against
another instance of the antigen.
T cells are involved in what is called a cell mediated response. T cells, produced in the thymus, have
receptors on their surface, just like B cells. The T cells however, cannot recognize an antigen without
help. The antigen must be presented to them by a cell like a macrophage. The macrophage has
engulfed the pathogen and broken it down in a lysosome. It then presents a piece of the pathogen to
the T cell using a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on the surface of the cell. (the MHC
proteins are the proteins that establish the immunological identity of the individual) A T cell interacts
with this complex and carries out a comparison of “self” and “foreign”. This helps to safeguard
against cells destroying it own cells. The T cell identifies the foreign antigen, is activated and
undergoes clonal expansion. Its clones go on to destroy cells carrying this foreign protein. This
would include virus infected cells and cancer cells. They also form memory T cells that are ready to
spring into action in response to a re-occurrence. The cells which destroy other cells are called
cytotoxic T cells.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
3. Two types of mechanisms which are used to control the internal environment of the body are positive
and negative feedback. Compare and contrast these two types of controls. Give an example of each
type from everyday life (non-biological) and a biological example of each. Explain why each control
mechanism is appropriate for each biological example. (8 marks)
The negative feedback system is designed to maintain a particular quantity within a specific range.
(fig 4.15 is a good diagram) A control centre has the ability to monitor the level of a substance. In
response to a lowering of the level of the substance, the control centre will cause the production of
the substance to increase. When the level of the substance rises above a certain level, then the
control centre will cause the production of the substance to fall. In this way the level of the substance
in the blood can be maintained at a relatively constant level. This is the most common type of control
mechanism in the body. Maintaining the constant level is called homeostasis. (the household
thermostat maintaining a constant temperature is another example of a negative feedback system)
A positive feedback system does not maintain a constant level and cannot be used for homeostasis.
In fact it causes an amplification of the effect. (in chemical reactions this can lead to explosions)
There are two well know circumstances where the body uses positive feedback. When a baby is
ready to be delivered, and contractions occur, the hormone oxytocin causes a nerve stimulus, which
stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin, which increases uterine contractions. This
results in contractions increasing in amplitude and frequency aiding in the delivery of the baby.
Oxytocin is also involved in a positive feedback for breast feeding. The cry of a baby can, through the
hypothalamus, cause the pituitary to release oxytocin which causes breast milk to be expressed.
4. Use the ABO and Rh blood type systems to show how the terms antibody and antigen are related.
Explain how this relates to blood transfusions. Explain how there can be universal donor and
universal recipient blood types. (9 marks)
There are about several blood types, the ABO and Rh systems being just two of them. The blood
type derives from an antigen attached to the surface of the red blood cell. If there is an antibody
to this antigen, then the red blood cell will be destroyed.
The ABO system refers to two antigens attached to the surface of the red blood cell. They give
rise to the A and B blood types.
Blood type
antigen on surface of RBC
antibody in plasma
A
A
anti B
B
B
anti A
AB
neither
both anti A and anti B
O
both
neither anti A or anti B
Ideally blood types are matched for a transfusion. If they are not matched there is the possibility
that all the infused red blood cells will be destroyed in a process called agglutination. However
under circumstances in which the right blood type may not be available, other blood types may
be used. Blood type O is called the universal donor. It has no antigens on the surface of red blood
cells. It does have antibodies, but these become diluted and cause a minimum of damage. AB is
considered the universal recipient because there are no antibodies in the plasma.
In the Rh system, there is an antigen on the surface of the red blood cell. The presence of the
antigen gives rise to the Rh positive blood type. For the Rh negative blood type the antigen is
missing. Rh becomes a concern especially when an Rh negative woman married to an Rh
positive man gets pregnant for the first time. When the baby is born, there may be mixing of the
blood types. If the baby is Rh positive, there is the possibility that the mother could become
sensitized to the Rh antigen and begin to produce anti Rh antibodies. In subsequent
pregnancies, if the fetus is Rh positive, the Rh antibodies could begin to cross the placenta and
start to destroy the r3ds blood cells. This is called haemolytic disease of the newborn.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
5. The pituitary gland is sometimes called the master gland. Explain why this is (was thought to be) an
appropriate name for this gland. (6 marks)
The pituitary gland is the main endocrine gland of the body. It is a small structure in the head. It is
called the master gland because it produces hormones that control other glands and many body
functions including growth. The pituitary consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary.
The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that influence growth, sexual development, skin
pigmentation, thyroid function, and adrenocortical function. These influences are exerted through
the effects of pituitary hormones on other endocrine glands (parathyroids, adrenal gland, pancreas,
gonads, thymus and pineal gland). Growth hormone however, acts directly on cells.
The effects of hypofunction or under function of the anterior pituitary include growth retardation
(dwarfism) in childhood and a decrease in all other endocrine gland functions normally under the
control of the anterior pituitary (except the parathyroid glands). The results of overfunction of the
anterior pituitary include overgrowth (gigantism) in children and a condition called acromegaly in
adults.
The posterior pituitary secretes the hormone oxytocin which increases uterine contractions and
lactation and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which increases reabsorption of water by the tubules of the
kidney, producing a lower urine output and more concentrated urine. Underproduction of ADH
results in a disorder called diabetes insipidus characterized by inability to concentrate the urine and,
consequently, excess urination leading potentially to dehydration and a loss of electrolytes.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Lab 4A: Tissues
Introduction
In Module 1 you considered the organization of life. In that system, tissue was defined as a group of cells
with the same structure and function. In the human there are four tissue types: connective, muscular,
nervous and epithelial.
1. Connective Tissue
a. fibrous connective tissue
b. cartilage*
c. bone*
d. blood (fluid)*
e. lymph (fluid)
2. Muscle Tissue
a. skeletal muscle*
b. smooth muscle*
c. cardiac muscle*
3. Nervous Tissue
a. neurons*
b. neuroglia
4. Epithelia Tissue
a. simple epithelium
i. squamous epithelium*
ii. cuboidal epithelium
iii. columnar epithelium*
b. pseudostratified epithelium
c. transitional epithelium
d. glandular epithelium*
Each of these levels is recognized by a particular cell type. In this lab you will examine some of these types
of tissues in order to become familiar with the general structure and function of each tissue.
Method
Because the pocket microscope has only a low magnification, you will be using the Microscope CD to look
at examples of human tissue types. For each of the following cell types, draw a diagram in the space
provided.
There may be many cells in the microscopic field. The general shape and organization of the cells is most
important. You need only draw any internal detail (if visible) for two or three of the cells. Under key
observations note the special features visible under the microscope that allow for the identification of each
tissue type.
The slides should pick up the main characteristics of each of the particular tissues. The written description
could be just as important as the drawing.
Drawings need not be detailed but should emphasize the key points listed in the right hand column.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Results
these are the micrographs included on the CD
Key observations
cartilage
pictures on page 67 of text
hyaline cartilage – 100x
Key observations
bone
pictures on page 67 of text
bone – 100x
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Key observations
human blood smear – 400x
Key observations
skeletal muscle
pictures on page 70
skeletal (striated) muscle –
400x
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Key observations
smooth muscle
pictures on page 70
smooth muscle – 400x
Key observations
cardiac muscle
picture on page 70
cardiac muscle – 400x
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Key observations
squamous epithelium
picture on page 72
Key observations
columnar epithelium
picture on page 73
Congratulations, you have now completed Lab 4A
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Lab 4B: Respiration
Please note that you do not need to submit your lab work to your tutor. You do need to
submit the completed tables in the Results section and your answers to the questions in
the Thinking About the Results section.
Introduction
1. External respiration is the term commonly used to refer to what we call breathing – the act of
inhalation and exhalation. We are also aware that the amount of air that we breathe in and out will
vary depending on the circumstances.
Part A
We are going to use a model to study how inspiration and expiration happen. You will see the model being
built in the video and its functioning will be demonstrated. Optionally, you may make a model yourself.
OPTIONAL
Materials
2 L plastic pop bottle and lid
a large diameter straw
two balloons (preferably round)
masking tape (or duck tape if you are a Red Green fan)
plasticene (or any mouldable material)
Method
1. Collect together all the required materials and prepare your laboratory space.
2. Carefully cut the bottom from the pop bottle. Make the edge as smooth as possible.
3. Select a balloon shoes diameter is about the same as the diameter of the cut end of the bottle.
4. Cut one of the balloons at its widest point. Tie a knot in the neck of the balloon. Place the balloon across
the cut end of the pop bottle and secure it in place with tape. This needs to be fairly secure as you will be
pulling on the neck of the balloon to stretch it.
5. Small round balloons tend to be rather tough to blow up. Soften the balloon up by blowing it up and
releasing the air several times. If you can get balloons that are easier to blow up to start, then this part will
be easier. Using tape, fasten a small balloon to the end of a straw. Try to make sure the seal is airtight.
6. Insert the balloon, attached to the straw through the neck of the bottle so that it is situated in about the
centre of the bottle. Use plasticene to seal the opening.
(At this point our model only has 1 “lung”. You may choose to insert two straws with balloons attached to
make the model more like the human system. Two “lungs” are not necessary for the model to work
properly)
7. The model is now complete.
8. The purpose of this model is to demonstrate the process by which the air enters and leaves the lungs.
Gently pull on the neck of the balloon stretched across the large end of the bottle. Notice what happens to
the “lung” as you do so. Release the balloon and again notice what happens to the “lung”. Record these
observations in Table 4.2.1
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
Results
1. Table 4.2.1
They should describe that as the balloon is pulled down, the small balloon inside the bottle will try to inflate.
This process will be reversed when the balloon is released
Thinking About the Results
1.
the left half of the following table, draw a labelled diagram of the model (either from the video or your own
model). In the right column of the table draw a diagram of the human respiratory system.
Table 4.2.1
lung model
human respiratory system
look for a good diagram of the human respiratory system
2. Why does air move into the lungs in inspiration? How does the model demonstrate this?
As the diaphragm contracts the volume of the thoracic cavity increases. This decreases the pressure
inside the thoracic cavity and inside the lungs. The higher air pressure outside forces air into the lungs and
they expand.
Pulling down on the balloon is like the contraction of the diaphragm. The pressure inside the bottle
decreases. Higher air pressure outside forces the air into the balloon.
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
3. Why does air move out of the lungs during exhalation (expiration). How does the model demonstrate this?
The movement of the air out of the lungs is a passive process and is due to the elastic properties of the
lungs. The model may not be very good at demonstrating this. It depends on how inflated the balloons
inside the bottle are.
4. What of these processes is active and which passive. Explain.
Under normal circumstances, inhalation is active (involving the contraction of the diaphragm) and
exhalation is passive (due to the elastic contraction of the lungs)
Part B
In this experiment you will measure two parameters of lung function: tidal volume and vital capacity.
Materials
2 L plastic pop bottles and lid, or 4 L milk bottle and lid.
a large diameter tube or straw
a large basin (dishwashing basin or sink will do)
lots of water
Method
1. Prepare your lab space for this experiment. It involves lots of water and could result in some spilling. If
possible arrange to do the experiment in the kitchen sink. A second set of hands might also be helpful , so
if possible, arrange for an assistant.
Tidal Volume
2. Place about 5 cm of water in the sink or basin. Fill a bottle completely with water (no air bubbles) and place
the cap on the bottle. Invert the bottle with the cap under water. Remove the cap. As long as the mouth of
the bottle remains below the surface of the water, the water will remain in the bottle.
3. Breath normally as you would at rest. Notice the amount of air that you inhale and exhale each time. This
is your tidal volume and is the amount of air that we want to measure. Keeping the mouth of the bottle
under water, place one end of the tube into the mouth of the bottle. Intro the other end of the tube, blow the
amount of air that represents your tidal volume. This will displace water from the bottle. Place the cap back
on the bottle and remove the bottle from the basin. In order to measure the amount of air in the bottle, use
a measuring cup and measure the amount of water needed to fill the bottle to the top. This is the volume of
your tidal volume. Repeat the measurement 2 more times. Record the results in Table 4.2.2
Vital capacity
4. The vital capacity is the total volume of your lungs. Exhale as much air as you possibly can (force it all out),
then inhale as much as you possibly can. This represents the vital capacity of your lungs and is what we
want to measure. You will employ the same method as before, displacing water from bottles and
measuring how much water was displaced. The vital capacity varies from one individual to another, but
can range from just under 4 L to just over 5 L. Be prepared for this large volume and have bottles with
enough volume prepared before you begin to exhale.
5. With the bottles filled and inverted in the sink or basin, inhale as much as you can, then, blowing through
the tube into the bottles, exhale as much as you can. Use the measuring cup to measure the amount of
water that was displaced. In Table 4.2.3 record this volume as your vital capacity.
Results
1. Table 4.2.2
tidal volume (mL)
typically around 500 mL
trial 1
trial 2
trial 3
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BIOL0601Provincial Biology: Module 4: Human Physiology and Anatomy 1
average tidal volume
2. Table 4.2.3
vital capacity (L)
typically between 4 L and 5.5 L
trial 1
trial 2
trial 3
average vital capacity
Numbers will vary but generally
Tidal volume is somewhere around 500 mL:
Vital capacity can be 4 L to 5 L
Thinking About the Results
1. Look up Figure 9.1, it shows the human respiratory tract. On the way to the lungs, the air must pass
through the nasal cavity, the trachea, bronchus, and bronchioles. There is no gas exchange in these
structures. What does this mean for your tidal capacity?
These structures are not involved in has exchange. Only the air that actually reaches the lungs in involved
in gas exchange, so the oxygen that we use is derived from a fraction of the 500 mL vital capacity
2. Vital capacity is often used as a measure of the health of the lungs. What conditions could negatively affect
your vital capacity?
Any disease of the lungs will negatively impact the vital capacity like pneumonia, cancer, emphysema, ….
Congratulations, you have now completed Lab 4B.
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