Download Unit 4 - Reocities

Unit 4
Function Words
Content Words & Function Words
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Content words (lexical words)
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..carry the principal meaning in a phrase,
clause or sentence.
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
Function words
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..have little or no lexical meaning of their own.
used to indicate various functional
relationships
noun determiners, auxiliaries, modals or
modal auxiliaries, intensifiers, quantifiers,
wh-words or question words, and connectives
Noun determiners
A noun determiner is one criterion that can be
used to identify a noun because it comes before
the noun that it modifies.
There may also be another word or words
occuring between a noun determiner and a
noun.
“an unusually intelligent girl”
Moreover, a noun phrase can contain more than
one noun determiner.
“those two boys”
Types of noun determiners
Noun determiners are of six types :
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Articles (definite and indefinite articles) : a , an,
the
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Demonstratives : this, that, these, those
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Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their,
whose, which, John’s, students’, etc.
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Cardinal numerals : one, two, ninety-nine, etc.
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Ordinal numerals : first, second, third, etc.
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Indefinite determiners : many, much, more,
few, a few, little, some, all, any, every, other,
several, no, both, each, lots of, a lot of, etc.
Note: definite = clearly known, seen, or stated
Exercise 1 Noun Determiners
Exercise 1 A
Inventors have tinkered with methods of air
conditioning for years. Ancient Egyptians
and Romans got some relief from the heat by
hanging woven mats soaked with water across
the entrances to their houses, so that incoming
air would be cooled by evaporation. In the 15th
century A.D., the famous artist and inventor
Leonardo da Vinci built a water-powered fan.
# I, A, A, P, A, O, A, A
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The first machine that kept the humidity low and
cooled the air at the same time was developed in 1902
by Willis H. Carrier, who is often called “the father of
air conditioning”. Carrier built this machine for a
printing plant in Brooklyn, New York, that had
trouble printing in color. Paper stretches when the air
is damp and shrinks when the air is dry. Since each
color had to be printed separately, printings of
different colors on the same sheet of paper did not
line up accurately because the paper changed size
between printings. Carrier’s machine kept the
moisture level of the air constant by drawing the air
over a row of cold pipes that condensed the excess
moisture. This kept the paper at one size and also
made the people in the plant feel cool. Carrier’s
invention marked the beginning of scientific air
conditioning.
# O, D, I, P, C, P; the rest = A; This = pronoun
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With all its many branches, agriculture is the world’s most
important industry. It supplies the food we eat and many of
the materials from which we make our clothing. Modern
agriculture also provides business for many other industries.
Farmers buy tractors, plows, seeders, and many other kinds of
equipment. They buy supplies such as fertilizer, chemical
sprays, and animal feed. The manufacturers from whom they
buy these things in turn buy raw materials from other
industries. Grocery stores and supermarkets, restaurants and
lunch counters, and companies that can and freeze food would
have nothing to sell without agriculture. Railroads and truck
lines that carry farm products to market are among the other
industries that depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.
# I, P, I, A, P, A, A, P, I, I, I, I, A, D, I, A, I
many = pronoun ; that = relative pronoun
Exercise 1
Noun Determiners (p.40)
Exercise 1 B: Indefi. Deter. ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘all’,
‘no’
1.
2.
“Some” is used with a non-count noun or a
plural count noun in an affirmative statement
and in a request or an offer when ‘yes’ is
expected.
“Any” is used with a non-count noun or a
singular or plural count noun in a negative
statement or question. It can also be used in
an affirmative statement when a quantity of
the noun may or may not exist.
3. ‘All’ is used with a non-count noun or a plural count
noun in an affirmative statement or a question.
There may also be another noun determiner
between the indefinite determiner ‘all’ and the
noun.
4. ‘No’ is used with a non-count noun or a singular or
plural count noun in an affirmative statement. (A
negative statement has the element ‘not’ in the main
predicate.
e.g., The children don’t have any homework to do
today.
Helping Verbs: Auxiliaries and Modals
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Auxiliaries: “do”, “have”, “be”
 to show tense, person/number, aspect, voice in agreement
with the subject
I don’t know what he’s looking for.
He has been working for hours.
The children are playing football.
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Modals (Modal Auxiliaries): will, would, can,
could, may, might, shall, should
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help express the meaning in a finite V or VP
do not change form in accordance with the person/number
of the subject
Modals with the past tense form do not always indicate
action in the past.
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Some grammatical terms…
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Tense (past/present/future), Aspect (perfect/
progressive), Voice (active/passive)
Finite verb form  shows a particular tense
Non-finite verb form  does not show a particular
tense or subject, and is either the infinitive or the
participle form of the verb (e.g., ‘go’ in ‘Do you want
to go home?’)
Infinitive  the basic form of a verb
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Infinitive (with ‘to’): ‘to watch’ in ‘I want to watch TV.’
Infinitive without ‘to’: ‘watch’ in ‘Does she watch TV all
day long?’
Exercise 2
Auxiliaries (p.42)
Exercise 2 A
a. It consists of the auxiliary ‘be’ in the present
or past tense form and the verb in the present
participle form.
It functions as the helping verb of the main
verb in a finite VP which is in active voice.
‘be’ + v.ing  Continuous
(both present & past continuous)
b. It consists of the auxiliary ‘be’ in the present
or past tense form and the verb in the past
participle form.
It functions as the helping verb of the main
verb in a finite VP which is in passive voice.
‘be’ + v3  passive voice
(both present & past)
c. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’ in the present
or past tense form and the verb in the past
participle form.
It functions as the helping verb of the main
verb in a finite VP which is in active voice.
‘have’ + v3  Perfect
(both present & past perfect)
d. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’ in the present
or past tense form, the auxiliary ‘be’ in the past
participle form, and the verb in the present
participle form.
They function as helping verbs of the main
verb in a finite VP which is in active voice.
‘have’ + been + v.ing  Perfect Continuous
(both present & past perfect continuous)
e. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’ in the present
or past tense form, the auxiliary ‘be’ in the past
participle form, and the verb in the past
participle form.
They function as helping verbs of the main
verb in a finite VP which is in passive voice.
‘have’ + been + v3  Perfect in passive voice
(both present & past)
f. It functions as the helping verb of the main
verb in the infinitive form without ‘to’.
It can occur in affirmative statements, negative
statements, imperative statements, and
questions.
‘do’ + infinitive without ‘to’  used for
some grammatical functions (both present
& past)
Exercise 2B
Look at the passages on p.44. Let’s do it.
Note: Distinguish between the main verbs ‘do’,
‘have’, ‘be’ and the auxiliaries ‘do’, ‘have’,
‘be’.
Exercise 3
Modals (p.45)