Download Scientific Prospectus - Life In A Changing Ocean

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
PROVIDING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
building on the success of the
CENSUS
OF MARINE LIFE
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Credit: Jason Bradley (www.bradleyphotographic.com).
Life in a Changing Ocean is an international scientific program to advance
discovery and expand marine biodiversity knowledge to support healthy
and sustainable ecosystems. It will provide a new, integrated global view
of marine life to fill knowledge gaps and answer important questions
needed to effectively manage and sustain ocean ecosystems. Scientific
data, research, and findings will be integrated across three interrelated
and interconnected themes that will enhance knowledge and provide
new, innovative tools to understand Life in a Changing Ocean: Biodiversity
Discovery in Time and Space, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services and
Functions, and Biodiversity and Human Exploitation.
The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the largest of all
living sea turtles, is the only living species in the family Dermochelyidae.
Its image was chosen to represent the challenges and opportunities for
Life in a Changing Ocean and its three cornerstone themes. As a critically
endangered species, the leatherback turtle is an iconic image of the beauty
and aesthetics provided by the global ocean. Its nomadic nature illustrates
how scientists can learn more about where species live and move by
mapping their patterns to identify high-use habitats and the species that
inhabit them, integral elements of the theme Biodiversity Discovery in
Time and Space. Moreover, leatherback turtles can serve as oceanographic
“ships” collecting data, via attached oceanographic sensors and sophisticated satellite tracking and biologging devices, from remote ocean
environments where scientists rarely venture, providing a novel strategy for
ocean observation, a second major objective of this theme. As a secondary
predator that feeds on jellyfish and other animals, sea turtles serve as
potential ecosystem engineers, and understanding their role and impacts
on ecosystem services fits into Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning and
Services. Knowledge of status and spatial movements can lead to action,
and, in this case, fishery closures and gear mitigation techniques during the
turtles’ migration may help to preserve this and other species, a foundation
of Biodiversity and Human Exploitation. As demonstrated by the leatherback
turtle example, these three biodiversity themes are intertwined and reflect
how the Life in a Changing Ocean program will work across themes to
better quantify and understand marine biodiversity to support healthy and
sustainable ecosystems.
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Life in a Changing Ocean
Life in a Changing Ocean is an international scientific program to
advance and expand marine biodiversity discovery and knowledge to
support healthy and sustainable ocean ecosystems. Its research is
designed to establish and enhance global baselines, define the role of
biodiversity in ecosystem functions and services, and understand the
impact of environmental and human-derived changes on biodiversity
and ocean ecosystems.
After a decade of research and discovery, the Census of Marine Life released in 2010 the first global baseline of knowledge of
life in the oceans. This program aggregated new and existing biodiversity data, demonstrated technologies and approaches to surveying and monitoring marine life, and built an international community
of researchers eager to collaborate on new challenges. Leading up to
and since the end of the Census, a Science Planning Committee has
led this international community to design and agree upon a research
plan to move forward. A draft plan was presented at the Second
World Conference on Marine Biodiversity, and input was integrated
into Life in a Changing Ocean so that it now addresses the needs,
scientific challenges, and goals of the international marine biodiversity community. With the scientific and social capacity now in place,
Life in a Changing Ocean will build on the success of the Census of
Marine Life to improve understanding of marine biodiversity, its importance to ocean ecosystems, and how changes in marine biodiversity and ecosystems affect us globally.
Life in a Changing Ocean will be a leading source of the best
available science and expertise on marine species and ecosystems,
globally and regionally through its international network. Critical scientific data are lacking for decisions about how, when, and where to
regulate ocean use. This data gap comes at a time when the ocean,
and Earth’s ecosystems as a whole, face unprecedented pressure
from competing human uses and exploitation and changing environmental conditions. Similarly, the need to monitor the status of marine
ecosystems and predict and mitigate change has never been greater.
Human activities now affect even the deepest and most remote parts
of the world’s oceans, where we have the least information about the
organisms that live there and their ecological roles.
Life in a Changing Ocean consists of three scientific themes
that will work independently and collaboratively to paint a clearer
picture of marine biodiversity in the global ocean:
Biodiversity Discovery in Space and Time
n Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions and Services
n Biodiversity and Human Exploitation
n
Each theme will address basic scientific research questions and use
the results to provide policy makers and other ocean stakeholders
with needed data, insights, tools, and indicators that can be used to
better regulate and manage ocean resources.
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Looking for marine life, Census researchers instead collected a trawl of trash in
the Eastern Mediterranean. Credit: Brigitte Ebbe / Michael Turkay.
Biodiversity Discovery in Space and Time
The Census of Marine Life established a baseline for what lived and
what is still living in the ocean for numerous regions and ocean
realms. It also identified critical data gaps where knowledge is
much needed. Currently, there are about 250,000 known marine
species, but recent estimates indicate there may be as many as
2.2 million marine species, suggesting that 91 percent of the
species living in the oceans remain undiscovered or undescribed.
This number does not include microbial life that may exceed
this estimate by an order of magnitude. Our taxonomic capacity
remains limited. Barcoding and other DNA-sequencing tools provide
tremendous potential for rapid assessment of biodiversity in space
and time, but these analyses must involve taxonomic experts.
Although our knowledge of remote environments increased in
the past decade, the
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vast majority of the ocean remains unsampled. Because ocean observations are limited in time and space,
many important changes go undetected or are only recognized
long after they occur. The vast majority of what is known about
Maps of all observations in the Census database show the known and
unknown ocean. A map centered on the North Atlantic displays the general
state­—observations are most numerous near surface, near shore, and near
and between rich nations and wide expanses await exploration. Red denotes
comparatively well sampled ocean and blue denotes
poorly sampled ocean. Credit: Ocean Biogeographic Information System.
PROVIDING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
Above. Obtaining robust data on larval ecology and their colonization potential
is essential to understand the maintenance of populations and the relative
isolation of habitats such as canyons, cold-water corals, seamounts, hydrothermal vents, or cold seeps. Larval ecology remains a major challenge,
however, due to the obstacles presented by the microscopic size of larvae and
the complexity of the processes taking place in the vast open sea. Shown are
Lamellibrachia luymesi tubeworms from cold seeps in the Gulf of Mexico. Other
Lamellibrachia species are also found at hydrothermal vents. Credit: Chuck
Fisher, Pennsylvania State University. Left. Management of commercial species
such as lobster depends on knowledge of which populations contribute most
offspring to future generations, requiring knowledge of larval ecology and
ocean currents. Credit: Mike Strong and Maria-Ines Buzeta.
biodiversity comes from studies focused on the coastal zone and
continental shelf near human populations. The number of marine biodiversity observations declines rapidly with distance from
land and the ocean surface, meaning that we are largely ignorant
of the biodiversity in the vast majority of the ocean’s volume. Even
existing biodiversity observations suffer from a lack of integration.
Adding further complexity to the problem, the movements of
organisms, either passively with currents or actively through migration, change throughout their life-history, connect populations,
and play a critical role in ocean ecosystem function. Important
habitats for migratory species frequently overlap with areas of
high human use. Understanding both species composition and
population connectivity will enable us to predict population recovery from exploitation, pollution, habitat destruction, and natural disturbances. We must continuously improve our knowledge of
marine biodiversity, distribution, and abundance in order to develop
effective management solutions for our oceans.
The objectives of this Life in a Changing Ocean theme are to:
Expand biodiversity baselines and observations to a wide range
of organisms (microbes to mammals) and habitats, particularly
remote and poorly known regions, at meaningful time scales, and
link these data to physical and chemical ocean parameters, compatible with the diverse range of legacy data from previous expeditions and observing systems.
n
Maximize global coverage and standardize protocols including
sample processing, species identification, and computer software
and visualizations tools to integrate such global datasets.
n
Improve baseline knowledge regarding the movements and distribution of marine species (e.g., high-use habitats, aggregation areas), and environmental influences on animal behavior and
dispersion.
n
Provide baseline marine biodiversity data to inform and validate
analytical tools (e.g., geospatial mapping and models) that support ocean governance processes.
n
The key questions to answer in meeting these objectives are:
Global biogeography patterns: How do species diversity, distribution, and abundance vary in relation to space and temporally
varying environments?
n
Sentinels of biodiversity change: Can we identify organisms
that can serve as early warning systems of change in an ecosystem that, if accurately identified, might allow time for mitigating
actions to be taken?
n
Species identification: Can species identification efforts be
refined by integrating new technologies such as DNA barcoding for rapid biodiversity assessment with established taxonomic protocols?
n
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Modeling biodiversity
hotspots: Can species distribution, abundance, and biodiversity pattern data from
well-known regions be applied
to model putative biodiversity
hotspots within remote and
unknown areas?
n
Advancing connectivity
knowledge: How do the
dispersal and movement of
species, individuals, or genes
connect populations and ocean
locations?
n
Groundtruth and validate decision support tools
(DSTs): Can we test and apply In the Southern Ocean, Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddellii, and other large marine animals equipped with
innovative predictive models
electronic tags allow scientists to examine the state of the ocean on a continuous basis in near real time, providing
a means to construct past, current, and future models of high use habitats for highly migratory species.
and decision support tools to
Credit: Daniel Costa, University of California, Santa Cruz.
reconcile demands for human
development with ecological
n Assemble an interdisciplinary team of social scientists and
principles? Can we use biodiversity and ocean observation datasets to validate and groundtruth results from DSTs?
economists, biologists and ocean scientists. This will be done by
developing and integrating new projects as well as by building on
The plans for “Biodiversity Discovery in Space and Time”
Census of Marine Life and other existing projects.
include the following activities:
Key deliverables:
n Organize workshops to aggregate data and synthesize information, stimulate and develop new initiatives under the theme’s
Planned deliverables for this theme include new techniques for
umbrella, and collaborate with global stakeholder/user groups,
biodiversity assessment and analysis, including new approaches
including resource managers, industry representatives, and polito enhance and expedite the discovery and description of new
cy makers.
species; common protocols for collection of relevant data and
data integration; predictive species range changes given baseline
n Conduct exploratory efforts that target remote areas or regions
distributions and current changes in environmental factors;
with little or no baseline data.
prioritization, through experiments that can be applied globally,
n Target areas (habitats and geographies) that are threatened or
of which drivers of change are most important for different
that possess unique ecological attributes (e.g., high productivity,
purposes and which environmental drivers should be measured;
high diversity, high endemism).
numerical models to integrate oceanographic, biological, and
n Develop techniques to extrapolate patterns from local and rebiodiversity data to examine current and potential future changes
gional to global scales.
in patterns of biodiversity; an integrated toolbox for measuring
n Provide baseline data from new and innovative technologies
and monitoring biodiversity and ecosystems; maps of species
that acquire and process data to inform ocean spatial planning.
distribution, movement, biodiversity, abundance, and Ecologically
These techniques could involve spatial modeling, cumulative im- and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs); and scientific papers,
pacts assessments, climate change and adaptation models, trade such as on new techniques for observation and discovery, species
off analyses and cost-benefits, and other decision support tools.
and population connectivity, and animal movements.
n
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PROVIDING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Functions and Services
losses, from genes to species, to habitats and ecosystems,
ultimately compromise ocean functions and services.
Marine ecosystems play a key role in ecological and biogeochemical processes at a global scale and provide economic val����
ue through ecosystem services. Little is known about how specific
biodiversity loss relates to marine ecosystem functioning and services, particularly in poorly studied coastal areas in developing
countries, and deep-sea and polar regions.
All biodiversity, from viruses and bacteria to whales, from
abundant to rare species, from populations to ecosystems, are
potentially important in ecosystem function. New evidence, for
example, suggests that synergistic interactions among bacterial species and bacterial composition can determine rates of nutrient recycling, a key aspect of ecosystem functioning. At the other
body size extreme, whale feeding could influence nutrient recycling through cascading top-down effects through the food web.
But we generally know little of how the functions of bacteria and
whales interact, and this knowledge gap applies to most interactions across taxa in marine ecosystems.
Ocean life is changing, often dramatically and often as the
unintended consequences of human activity. These changes produce shifts in ecosystem function, changing the delivery of ecosystem services and values we derive. To minimize and potentially
reverse declines in ocean and human health and increase ocean
sustainability, we must understand biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning and services relationships, and therefore, ultimately, relationships to human health and wellbeing. The goal of this
research is to predict “which,” “when,” and “where” biodiversity
The objectives of this Life in a Changing Ocean theme are to:
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Elucidate global patterns in ecosystem functioning and services that marine organisms provide, and how they vary among
ecosystems;
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Clarify generality and specificity in relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and services; and
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Produce scenarios on how these relationships might be modified by global climate change and other drivers.
n
The key questions to answer in meeting these objectives are:
Variability: How does the relationship between biodiversity and
ecosystem functioning change across different habitats at a global scale? What is the specific functional value of contrasting habitat types in the world’s ocean? Are biodiversity hot spots such as
coral reefs also hot spots of ecosystem functions?
n
Interactions: How is biodiversity linked to ecosystem services? What is the functional role of rare species? How do small and
large species (from viruses to whales) interact in delivery of services? How do species interactions across ecosystems (from the shallow ocean to the deep) contribute to the functioning of each other?
How are connections between ecosystem functions and services
related? For example, bioturbation (mixing of sediments by living
organisms), a key function, could influence fisheries productivity
and many other services, but are these links strong and direct?
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Humans and living organisms often utilize the same parts of the ocean, as illustrated by this map showing known biodiversity patterns and human impacts.
Credit: National Geographic / Tittensor, et al. (2010) / Census of Marine Life.
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Vulnerability: How can we effectively monitor loss of functions or services in marine ecosystems to understand how far
we can erode standing stocks of a species before collapsing
the functions they provide? Which aspects of ecosystem functions and services are most vulnerable to collapse, and which
can be restored (and how) when lost? Can a given ecosystem
remain functional in alternative states, and what are the reference points to determine when an ecosystem functions properly
and when it does not?
n
Socio-economic implications: What is the global (economic
and non-monetary) value of various habitats from the intertidal to the deep sea and to what extent does this value depend
on biodiversity? How does regional variation in culture and resource use affect the relationship between ecosystem function
and services?
n
In addition to being highly productive and
diverse ecosystems, coral reefs provide habitat
and food for a wide variety of marine life. Reefs
also serve as important barriers that help
protect the coast from the effect of waves,
storms, and even tsunamis. Shown here are
views of coral reefs at Los Roques, off the coast
of Venezuela. Credit: Eduardo Klein,
Universidad Simón Bolívar.
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The plans for “Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions
and Services” include the following activities:
Organize workshops to synthesize current knowledge on
biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships in marine systems,
to find gaps in our knowledge and technologies, and build bridges
between natural and socio-economical sciences.
n
Develop several concurrent experiments that undertake globallyreplicated experiments in well-studied systems (such as reefs
and seagrass beds); integrate new, standardized technologies to
undertake a broad-scale analysis of biodiversity (from microbial to
macrobial species) and functions at different spatial scales with
a particular focus on poorly known ecosystems; and include new
integrated socio-economic studies on ecosystem functions and
services to close knowledge gaps across different regions.
n
PROVIDING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
Undertake ecosystem modeling to evaluate and generate
future scenarios on real-world biodiversity-ecosystem function
relationships in the world’s oceans, and apply socioeconomic
models to understand spatio-temporal variability in ecosystem
services across the world’s oceans.
n
Key deliverables:
Planned deliverables for this theme include global maps on
variability and vulnerability of biodiversity-ecosystem function
in the global ocean (public outreach through the web); sciencebased evaluation of ecosystem services in different regions;
determination of tipping points of ecosystem functions and
services with global and local environmental changes; future
projections on ecosystem service changes under different
economic scenarios; guidelines on ecosystem management for
stakeholders and policy makers; and scientific papers on topics
such as biodiversity and ecosystem function, technological
capabilities and new applications, valuation of different
habitats, and functional impacts of food web alterations.
Biodiversity and Human Exploitation
Studies of oceans past have shed substantial new light on the
problem of shifting baselines and show us that everywhere
we look there is potential to know much more about the
past. Regional studies around the world performed under the
Census of Marine Life showed all studied regions faced the
same threats to biodiversity, with overfishing and pollution as
the main threats and with additional impacts from invasive
non-native species, temperature changes, acidification,
and hypoxia. Effective science-based marine management
requires information on historical baselines (species diversity,
distribution, and abundance), as well as an understanding of the
nature and dynamics of driving forces over different time-scales
(annual, decadal, centennial, millennial). Therefore, we need
historical perspectives to elucidate temporal trends to forecast
scenarios of when and where change might occur and which
changes will cause the most profound impacts.
Recent research suggests greater impacts of human
pressures when they act in concert and with natural forces of
change, rather than individually, but little is known about how
these threats interact to impact marine populations, species,
and ecosystems. Human populations will continue to grow in
the coming decades, increasing demand for living and nonliving resources from the sea. This theme will address how to
meet this demand while maintaining marine populations and
ecosystems and aiding the recovery of depleted species.
Possibly up to a billion kinds of microbes inhabit the global ocean, and by
weight, comprise up to 90 percent of marine biomass. Their roles in ecosystem
functions and services are many and varied, most importantly their roles in key
nutrient cycles in the global ocean, with much more to be learned about how
they help to maintain balance. This photosynthetic filamentous cyanobacterium
Lyngbya –about a half millimeter long­– serves as an example of the beauty,
variety, and uniqueness of the ocean’s hidden majority. Credit: David Patterson,
MBL, used under license.
The objectives of this Life in a Changing Ocean theme are to:
Analyze past and present data to help determine how humans
have, and are, impacting biodiversity in the world’s oceans; and
n
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efine what management strategies might best assist in ensuring sustainable utilization of global marine resources.
n
The key questions to answer in meeting these objectives are:
Change: How have marine ecosystems changed since first
human impacts? How do the effects of anthropogenic activities vary among different populations, species, assemblages, and
ecosystems?
n
Processes/mechanisms: What are the nature and scale of processes /mechanisms behind the reorganization of marine community
structure and assemblages associated with biodiversity changes, and
are they driven by human pressures on marine ecosystems?
n
Anthropogenic impacts: How can we utilize available data to
evaluate individual and cumulative anthropogenic impacts on marine ecosystems and their services?
n
Sustainibility: What is needed to achieve sustainability? Why
do some management strategies succeed where others fail to recover depleted populations and modified ecosystems? How do recovery strategies vary for different species and ecosystems, and
are there any general patterns? How does the number and identity
of species in an ecosystem influence the ecosystem’s capacity to
resist or recover from human disturbances?
n
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Marine polar biodiversity is under
growing pressure from both climate
change and resource development.
A decrease in ice cover is already
diminishing the habitat of polar
bears, Ursus maritimus, and further
decreases will allow more shipping
along the Northwest Passage and
subsequent increases in the potential risk of oil spills, introduction
of alien species, and the exploration and exploitation of seafloor
resources. These last pristine areas
are under threat and our knowledge
of species and ecosystem function
and resilience is very limited.
Without better knowledge, it will be
difficult to craft sound management
actions for these under-explored
regions. Credit: Rolf Gradinger,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks.
The plans for “Biodiversity and Human Exploitation” include
the following activities:
Conduct collaborative studies in marine environmental history
to track the nature and scale of reorganization of marine biodiversity as a result of human impacts.
n
Analyze the impacts of interacting, synergistic, and cumulative
human activities across regional marine ecosystems.
n
Extract and synthesize knowledge on sustainability and recoveries of marine populations and ecosystems.
n
Apply modeling tools to forecast scenarios of impacts of various external factors on marine ecosystems, including on ecosystem functions in collaboration with the theme on “Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Functions and Services” and on poorly studied regions
and marine ecosystems, so as to build a global understanding and
synthesis.
n
Key deliverables:
Planned deliverables for this theme include publications on “Oceans
Past” from two global conferences in 2012 and 2014; scientific
papers and books based on marine population case studies in the
North, Baltic, Mediterranean, and Black Seas and New Zealand;
regional and global synthesis publications, such as on past-presentfuture biodiversity in European Seas, recovery of depleted
populations and ecosystems globally, a set of ecological
indicators applied across multiple fished ecosystems to assess
ecosystem status and examine combined effects of human
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impacts; indicators of recovery /depletion of populations and
ecosystems, including changes in biodiversity, linked to
management strategies and decisions, and models elucidating
the comparative recovery /depletion of several selected marine
ecosystems.
Integration and Communication
of Life in a Changing Ocean Results
for Scientific and Societal Benefit
The three Life in a Changing Ocean themes will work individually
and in concert to achieve their scientific objectives. They will
utilize a variety of approaches that include workshops, new field
studies and laboratory experiments, and data integration, analysis
and synthesis. Workshops will set research priorities, identify
approaches for field studies and laboratory experiments to be
conducted under the themes, compare and apply data integration
and modeling tools, and synthesize results. Each theme level
will develop information and tools for non-academic users of
scientific information, as well as to be reported in peer-reviewed
publications.
Life in a Changing Ocean will bring together the global
community to develop and advance common goals, generate
analyses that span from regional to global scales, and consider
oceans past, present, and future. In addition to the theme-level
deliverables identified above, the program will develop integrated
“state of the ocean” documents at regular intervals, such as every
three years to coincide with the World Conferences on Marine
PROVIDING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
Biodiversity. These reports, which will be written for a diverse
stakeholder audience, will summarize the state of knowledge and
articulate unknowns about ocean biodiversity, emphasizing the
advances achieved through Life in a Changing Ocean activities.
Results from research and analyses performed in each
thematic component and the integrated products will be
communicated for a broad audience of users of marine biodiversity
information, such as policy makers, resource managers, industry,
and the general public. An ongoing dialogue with user groups will
be initiated at the outset of the Life in a Changing Ocean program.
This dialogue, as well as presentation of the information and
products, will be facilitated through national and international
partnerships with other scientific organizations, conservation
organizations, and governmental and intergovernmental agencies.
Partnerships will utilize existing expertise and networks in
reaching various mission-focused organizations and enhance the
value and use of Life in a Changing Ocean’s scientific information
toward sustainable ocean practices.
The Census of Marine Life demonstrated the value of a
strong outreach component. Life in a Changing Ocean will use
those lessons to develop a strategic outreach program that
communicates a cohesive, integrated program, develops targeted
products to meet public user needs, and leverages visuals of the
multitude of ocean life to reach millions around the world. The
outreach team will incorporate communications and outreach
specialists and policy experts to make sure activities and
messages are appropriate and effective.
SCIENCE PLANNING COMMITTEE
Paul Snelgrove Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada, chair
Patricia Miloslavich
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Venezuela, vice-chair
Linda Amaral-Zettler
Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, United States
Philippe Archambault
Université du Québec-Rimouski, Canada
S.T. Balasubramanian
Annamalai University, India
Richard Brinkman
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Australia
Roberto Danovaro
Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy
Xinzheng Li
Institute of Oceanology, China
Masahiro Nakaoka
Hokkaido University, Japan
Henn Ojaveer
University of Tartu, Estonia
Eva Ramirez-Llodra
Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Spain
Lynne Shannon
University of Cape Town, South Africa
George Shillinger
Center for Ocean Solutions, United States
In 1958, after an excursion on a Key
West (Florida, USA) charter boat, a
family of recreational fishers displayed their trophies, especially large
groupers, subfamily Epinephelinae.
In 2007, the size of the fish displayed
by the same charter enterprise had
plummeted, and the mix of species
had changed.
Credit: Monroe County Library (left)
and (below) Loren McClenachan,
Simon Fraser University.
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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Life in a Changing Ocean
info @ lifeinachangingocean.org
www.lifeinachangingocean.org
Life
in a
Changing
Ocean
building on the success of the
CENSUS
OF MARINE LIFE
Moon jellies, Aurelia aurita, Sado Island, Japan, July 2008. Credit: Koji Nakamura, Galatée Films.
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