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COM114 Midterm Study Guide
Chapter One – An Overview of Communication
1. Define linear model…the linear model argues that communication can only move in one direction, from the
sender to the receiver.
2. Define transactional model…describes communication as an interdependent process where the speaker and the
receiver are simultaneously sending and receiving messages
3. What is communication? The interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding messages.
4. What are the eight parts of the communication process? Define each.
1. People – in integral part of the communication process
2. Message – the thought, feeling, or action that is sent from the source to the receiver using symbols
3. Encoding – the process of putting thoughts, ideas, or feelings into meaningful symbols people can understand
4. Decoding – the process of interpreting or attaching meaning to another person’s message
5. Channel – the vehicle by which the message is communicated from the source to the receiver
6. Feedback – the receiver’s response to the sender’s message; it provides info about the way the message is being interpreted
7. Context – the conditions surrounding communication with others
8. Noise & Interference – any intended or unintended stimulus that affects the fidelity of a sender’s message, disrupts
the communication process
5. Human interaction places the individual in two roles. What are they and their definitions?
1. Source – the person who creates the message
2. Receiver – the person to whom the message is sent
6. What are the two types of noise and their definitions? Give examples of each.
1. External – sounds or stimuli that draw our attention away from the intended message (air
conditioner blowing during a test, ticking of a clock)
2. Internal – our own thoughts or feelings that prevent us from processing a sender’s message
(parent’s divorce, wondering what’s for lunch)
7. Each of us is unique in many ways; our ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, gender, socioeconomic status, age,
values, and many other characteristics. This allows us to create and interpret messages; our unique view of the
world and everything in it. What is this called?
Frame of Reference
8. What two types of conditions surround communication?
1. Physical setting – the location of the communication
2. Psychological climate - the attitudes and feelings we have about ourselves and the other people
involved in the communication
9. What are the five functions of communication?
1. Communication creates and maintains our sense of self or our identity
2. Communication helps us create communities
3. Communication forms and strengthens relationships
4. Part of being in a relationship is the ability to influence the other person
5. Communication conveys and creates information
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10. What are the four types of communication? Define each.
1. Intrapersonal – communication with ourselves
2. Interpersonal – informal exchange that occurs between two or more people
3. Small-group orientation – includes those activities with three to eight people present
4. Public – involves having an individual share information with a large group
11. What is dyadic communication? Interaction between two people
Chapter Two - Perception
1. What is perception? The process of assigning stimuli
2. What is the three-step process of perception? Define each.
1. Selective attention – the process of determining what we pay attention to and what we ignore
2. Organization – we perceive certain items to belong together
3. Interpretation – occurs when we communicate our perceptions to others
3. What are needs? Physical or emotional desires that grow out of circumstances in our immediate environment
4. What are the three ways we organize stimuli?
1. Similarity – stimuli that resemble one another
2. Proximity – closeness to one another
3. Closure – when we are familiar with an idea or topic, we “fill in the gaps” when pieces are missing
5. What is attitude? Give an example to show understanding. A predetermined position regarding a person, event,
concept, or object, affects the way we interpret data. Example: our attitude toward a speaker can determine the way we
respond to that person’s speech.
6. What are personal constructs? Characteristics we use to judge others
7. What are prototypes and what are they used for? They are representatives of our ideal and used as a means of comparison.
8. What is attribution? Involves assigning causation to our behavior and the behavior of others
9. This occurs when we see ourselves in a positive light by blaming others or external forces for problems. Self-serving bias
10. What are the three perceptions we have of ourselves and their definitions?
1. Self-concept – how we picture ourselves in a very broad sense (how you “define” yourself)
2. Self-esteem – our measure of self-worth
3. Self-fulfilling Prophesy - occurs when our behavior matches someone else’s expectations
11. The development of our self-concept is also influenced by what/whom?
1. Significant others – those individuals to whom we are emotionally close and allow to influence our lives
2. Reflective appraisal – the overall image of ourselves based on our view of how we believe others see us
3. Family – people you are related to
4. Peers - a group of significant others
12. What involves assigning causation to our behavior and the behavior of others? Attribution
13. What is stereotyping? What other two kinds of stereotyping exist? Provide an example for both.
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Placing or categorizing people, places, objects, or events into groups passed on generalized characteristics
1. Allness stereotyping – we attribute a particular characteristic to a group of people
* All construction workers are “pretty dumb” * All black people love chicken and grape cool-aid
2. Halo and horns stereotyping – based on our observation of an individual in a particular situation or
setting, we develop a positive or negative perception about that person; we then allow our initial
perception to transfer to other situations
* Someone with a degree in a particular field can teach that subject to a group of students
14. Our perceptions of ourselves is strongly tied to… the notion of self-concept.
15. What should be apparent to us (but frequently is not) is that our self-concept is… situational (pg. 34).
16. To perceive ourselves accurately we must… Realistically evaluate our behavior in a given situation and take into
account the feedback we receive from others (pg. 34).
17. Impression management is…how we want other to perceive us.
18. What is perception checking? Perception checking is using questions to clarify our understanding of the message.
Chapter Three – Listening
1. What is the difference between hearing and listening?
Hearing is the ability to perceive sounds. Listening is more complex and demands we concentrate on what others say.
2. What are five factors that interfere with listening?
1. Noise
2. Delivery
3. Language
4. Message overload
5. Perceptions
3. What is jargon? Provide an example.
Highly specialized words used and understood by specific groups of people. Example: a banker discussing a mortgage.
4. Message overload refers to… our attention to details instead of the main ideas of the message.
5. What are the five types of effective listening? Define each.
1. Active – listening with a sense of purpose and involvement
2. Passive – the only party involved in the message is the sender
3. Informational – allows us to focus on the content of the message in order to gain knowledge
4. Critical – asks us to evaluate the speaker’s message and intent
5. Empathetic – the ability to understand what someone else is feeling, involves looking at the situation from the
other person’s perspective.
6. What is an essential part of active listening and why? Remembering; it is necessary for us to retain the message for later use.
7. What the three types of responsive listening skills and perception checking? Define each.
1. Questioning – designed to help us understand another person’s message
2. Paraphrasing – restating another person’s message in our own words
3. Interpreting – similar to paraphrasing; requires that you clarify the meaning but allows you to offer an
alternative perception
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Chapter Four – Verbal Communication
1. Language is… an arbitrary system of symbols that is governed by rules and conveys power.
2. Words are ___________________ that represent things – our feelings, names for the objects around us, and
explanations for behaviors. Symbols
3. Unspoken rules that guide our use of language are called ________________________. Regulative rules
4. What is denotative meaning? Provide an example.
Specific reference of a word; it is what we find in the dictionary. Examples will vary.
5. What is connotative meaning? Provide an example.
That which is determined by someone’s experiences, values, and culture. Examples: aggressive, happy, depressed, etc.
6. What factors influence our language use?
1. Cultural influences
2. Ethnic, Racial, and Social influences
3. Geographic influences
4. Perceptions
7. There are eight problems with language. What are they? Define each if applicable.
1. Vague language – language that lacks directness and specificity; avoids details
2. Abstraction – the use of broad terms to explain ideas or concepts
3. Multiple meanings
4. Technical language or Jargon – specialized terms associated with a particular discipline, skill, or career
5. Slang – used by a specific group; by a culture and can be geographic or generational
6. Doublespeak – Lutz defines it as the language that avoids responsibility (makes the bad seem good, negative
seem positive, something unpleasant seem attractive, language that only appears to communicate)
7. Euphemisms – words that substitute for other words because they are more pleasant
8. Generic language – using “he” to refer to any person or “man” to refer to all people
8. How can we improve our verbal skills? Define each if applicable.
1. Being descriptive – employs specific words that represent observable behavior or phenomena
2. Dating – the use of a specific time reference to clarify a message
3. Indexing – a technique that takes into account the individual differences among people, objects, and places
4. Avoiding vulgar language and profanity
5. Eliminating generic language
Chapter Five – Nonverbal Communication
1. What are symbols? Represent things – our feelings, names for objects around us, explanations for behaviors, and so on.
2. What is the definition of nonverbal communication? What is included in this definition? Encompasses the broad
spectrum of messages we send without verbalizing our thoughts and feelings. Included in this definition are bodily
movements, space, touch, personal appearance, paralanguage, silence, and time.
3. Nonverbal communication can be _______________ and ________________. Intentional & unintentional.
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4. Nonverbal messages are ________________. It is very difficult for anyone to accurately interpret the meaning of
nonverbal communication. Ambiguous
5. Nonverbal communication is _______________. We can use our body, voice, and appearance to convey the same
message. Multichanneled
6. What does it mean when it is said that nonverbal communication is culturally bound? The meanings and functions of
nonverbal communication are derived from our culture.
7. What are the five types of bodily movements? What is kinesics? Kinesics – the study of bodily movements
1. Emblems – body motions that take the place of words
2. Illustrators – nonverbal symbols that reinforce a verbal message
3. Affect displays – nonverbal signs of our emotional state
5. Regulators – nonverbal behaviors used to control, or regulate, communication between people
5. Adaptors – nonverbal behaviors individuals use to adjust to or cope with uncomfortable situations
8. What is paralanguage and what does it include?
The vocal aspect of delivery that accompanies speech and other nonverbal utterances
It includes pitch (tone), volume (loudness), rate (speed), and quality (richness of one’s voice).
9. One aspect of paralanguage that people universally find annoying is the use of __________ or ___________________,
sounds used to fill in the gaps between the words that comprise our message. Fillers or vocal interruptions
* like, you know, uh, um, or don’t you think?
10. _______________ is the study of physical space as it relates to human interaction. Proxemics
11. What is personal space? List, define, and provide the specific distances for each time of personal space.
Personal space is the area that exists between ourselves and others.
 Intimate distance – that distance at which it is appropriate for highly personal communication encounters to
occur. Ranges from touching to approximately 18 inches.
 Personal distance – that area most appropriate for interpersonal interactions dealing with personal matters.
Ranges from approximately 18 inches to 4 feet.
 Social distance – that distance most appropriate for communication of a non-personal nature. Ranges from
approximately 4 to 12 feet.
 Public distance – that distance most appropriate for public communication. A distance exceeding 12 feet.
12. _______________ is the space we stake out as our own. Territory
13. The way we _______________ becomes part of the message we sent to others, whether we intend it to or not. Dress
14. The study of how we use time is called ________________. Chronemics
15. What is perception checking? A verbal statement that reflects our understanding of a nonverbal message
16. By using what four suggestions, can we increase our ability to accurately interpret nonverbal messages?
1. Explore all possible meanings of nonverbal messages
2. Look for nonverbal messages that are consistent with verbal statements
3. Use questions and descriptive feedback to achieve accuracy
4. Monitor your own use of nonverbal communication
Chapter Six – Understanding Ourselves and Others
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1. The _______________ is the obvious message (the words or language we use). Content message
2. Define relational messages. Hidden messages embedded in the question, usually sent nonverbally through tone of
voice, body language, or use of space.
3. Define intimacy and list the four types of intimacy.
Intimacy is characterized by a sense of closeness and trust we share with another.
 Physical intimacy
 Emotional
 Intellectual
 Spiritual
4. Define power. List and define the six types of power.
Power is the control, authority, or influence we have over others.
 Coercive power – one’s ability to control another person’s behavior through negative reinforcement
 Reward power – one’s ability to provide things such as money, objects, or love
 Legitimate power – one’s position of authority
 Expert power – one’s superior knowledge in a particular field
 Referent power – one’s feelings of identification with another
5. Complete the chart below by filling in the stages of relationship development.
Stages of Coming Together
Initiating
Relationship begins with one person making “first contact”; safe, surface topics discussed
Experimenting
Allows two people to get better acquainted; topics still considered “small talk”
Intensifying
When two people being to express their feelings for each other, verbally and nonverbally
Integrating
When society sees the two people as a couple
Bonding
Generates support from the family and friends
Stages of Coming Apart
Differentiating
Characterized by the need for independence and autonomy
Circumscribing
Partners communicate less and less
Stagnating
When a relationship stops growing; the partners “go through the motions”
Characterized by aloofness; partners spend little time together, almost all communication ceases
Avoiding
Terminating
Ending the relationship (either quickly or perhaps over weeks or months)
6. What is self-disclosure?
The conscious decision to share personal information about ourselves.
7. Complete the Johari Window below like figure 6.2 on page 109.
1.Open 2.Blind
3.Hidden 4.Unknown
8. What are the benefits of self-disclosure?
1. An increased understanding of ourselves
2. The relief we experience from letting our feelings out
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3. The increased likelihood that the other party will begin to share his or her feelings and concerns with us
9. ________________ is a prerequisite for self-disclosure in relationships. Trust
10. Schutz’s ____________________________________ argues that people have certain needs that affect their
communication in interpersonal relationships: the need for ________________, the need for ________________, and
the need for ________________. Interpersonal needs theory: inclusion, control, and affection
11. Complete the chart below.
Inclusion Needs
Undersocial
individuals
Oversocial
individuals
Ideal individuals
Control Needs
Abdicrats
Autocrats
Democrats
Affection Needs
Underpersonal
individuals
Overpersonal
individuals
Personal individuals
Deal with our desire to be part of a group
Find it difficult to participate in groups, usually because they feel they are not capable of
effective social interaction
Feel extremely uncomfortable in social interactions; push full speed ahead as a means of
compensating for their anxiety
Feel comfortable enough to participate in social groups, but do not feel a need to participate
in all groups
Refer to our desire to have power, influence, or responsibility for our social environment
Find it extremely difficult to participate in the decision-making process because they are afraid
of the possible consequences that accompany some decisions
An individual who also may feel uncomfortable with decision making, but whose anxiety
manifests itself in the opposite way
Can cope with the responsibilities of decision making, yet they do not feel the need to have
the final say in every decision-making session
The desire for intimacy
Will shy away from developing close, intimate relationships with others
Try to compensate for their anxiety by establishing many relationships
Feel comfortable with their ability to handle close personal relationships
12. What is the cost-benefit theory? Suggests that people choose to maintain or exit relationships based on the rewards
they receive within those relationships.
13. Interpersonal conflict is… “an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive
incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other parties achieving their goals.”
14. Factors that contribute to conflicts…
Denial
Suppression
Aggression
Passive Aggression
Status
We refuse to acknowledge that a problem exists
We acknowledge a problem, but we minimize its importance
We are hostile toward the other party and try to intimidate him or her into a resolution
We appear to be agreeable but then act in a subtle, covert, aggressive manner
Either we or the other party uses status to intimidate
15. List the five skills that can help us deal with conflict within relationships.
1. Deal with feelings
2. Find a special time to meet
3. Keep the discussion focused on the problem
4. Use perception checking and empathetic listening
5. Find a solution for both parties: be flexible
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16. What is empathy? Able to look at something from someone else’s viewpoint
Chapter Seven – Creating a Positive Communication Climate
1. _________________________ is a person’s reaction, either verbal or nonverbal, to a communication situation in
which he or she feels personally threatened or uncomfortable. Defensive communication
2. Defense mechanisms:
Avoidance
Psychological Withdrawal
Distancing
Reaction formation
Sarcasm
Outdoing others
Overly critical communication
Formula communication
We retreat from a problem in a relationship
We feel uncomfortable in a particular situation, yet feel forced to be physically present
We prevent others from getting close to us
We behave contrary to the way we really feel
We use a biting sense of humor to keep people at a distance and to maintain control
We feel the need to top the achievements of others
We judge or criticize the behavior of others
We engage in superficial dialogue as a means of self-protection
3. The emotional atmosphere known as the ______________________________ includes such factors as (1.) our
feelings toward the person(s) with whom we are interacting, (2.) our attitude about the subject under discussion, and (3.)
how we feel about ourselves in the particular interaction. Communication climate
4. A _________________________ inhibits the interaction between individuals. Defensive climate
5. A _________________________ is one that encourages a free and open interaction between individuals. Supportive
climate
6. Evaluative behavior is _______________; it attacks the individual rather than that person’s actions. Judgemental
7. Define descriptiveness. The ability to focus on observable behavior.
8. Describe the difference between control versus problem orientation.
Control - a means of making the other party conform to our way of thinking.
Problem orientation – parties involved realize that several people contribute to the problem and that
adjustment of behavior is necessary on all fronts.
9. Describe the difference between strategy versus spontaneity.
Strategy – efforts to manipulate interactions between people
Spontaneity – refers to an open discussion of feelings
10. Describe the difference between neutrality versus empathy.
Neutrality – implies indifference toward another individual
Empathy – the ability to look at something from some else’s perspective
11. Describe the difference between superiority versus equality.
Superiority – communicates an attitude that an individual is better, more important, or more valuable than
someone else.
Equality – treating others on a par with ourselves
12. Describe the difference between certainty versus provisionalism.
Certainty – one who believes that others cannot possibly contribute new knowledge to the situation
Provisionalism – a willingness to explore new ideas
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Chapter Nine – Communicating in Small Groups
1. What is small-group communication?
Involves a small number of people who share a common goal or objective and usually interact face-to-face
2. What are the four types of small groups?
1. Knowledge-gaining groups – come together to learn or experience new things
2. Personal growth groups – focus on the individual and his/her personal well-being
3. Social groups – not to solve problems or accomplish specific tasks, but to interact with others
4. Problem-solving groups (aka task-oriented groups) – come together to answer a question or provide a
solution to a problem
3. What five variables affect group communication? Define each.
1. Norms – rules that dictate how group members ought to behave
2. Roles – a set of expected behaviors each member of the group must follow
3. Cohesiveneses – a demonstrated sense of purpose within a group
4. Commitment – the motivation of members to meet the goals of the group
5. Arrangement – the physical placement of the individuals within the group
4. What are task roles? When we are concerned about meeting the group’s goal or objective
** Make sure you know the different types of task roles
5. What are maintenance roles? Deal with the relationships within the group
** Make sure you know the different types of maintenance roles
6. What are individual roles? Hinder the group’s ability to meet its goal or objective.
** Make sure you know the different types of individual roles
7. What are the phases of a small-group discussion?
A time for establishing a comfortable communication climate and becoming familiar with the topic
1. Orientation phase
2. Conflict phase
Disagreements surface; tension is a natural by-product
3. Emergence phase
There is ag radula shift toward an apparent decision
4. Reinforcement phase
Consensus is achieved; dissent all but vanishes
8. What three small-group communication skills are recommended?
1. Verbal participation
2. Nonverbal participation
3. Maintain a positive communication climate
Chapter Ten – Solving Problems Using Small Groups
1. What are the seven steps in the process of problem solving?
1. Assessing the question
2. Formulating the question
3. Gathering material
4. The agenda
5. Establishing criteria for the solution
6. Developing possible solutions
7. Choosing the best solution
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2. What are the three types of questions and their definitions?
1. Question of fact – the group argues whether a statement is true or false
2. Questions of value – the group must determine the morality of an issue, that is, whether something is good or
bad, right or wrong
3. Question of policy – the group must decide if any specific action is in order
3. When formulating a question, what three steps should be taken?
1. Is the question clear? Use concrete language. Construct a question that contains one idea.
2. Is the question neutral? The question should avoid “taking sides”.
3. Does the question promote discussion? Controversy may stimulate discussion.
4. Provide three examples of a primary source. Letter, manuscript, interview
5. What is a secondary source? Interpretations of a primary source
6. Define agenda. An outline of the points to be discussed.
7. Define criteria. The minimum requirements a solution must have to be acceptable.
8. ____________________ encourages creativity and the free flow of ideas. Brainstorming
9. Leadership is… the ability to exert influence on a group by providing a sense of direction or vision.
10. What is trait perspective? A leadership suggests that certain individuals are born leaders because they possess such
qualities as a forceful personality, marked intelligence, and dynamic communication skills.
11. What is situational perspective? Each group creates a new situation and this situation dictates which type of
leadership is most appropriate
12. What is functional perspective? Leadership focuses on the kinds of leadership behaviors that any member of the
group can exhibit that collectively results in the group’s making progress
13. A/an _________________________ gives minimal direction or instruction to group members; rather, members have
complete freedom to make decisions. Laissez-faire leader
14. A/an _________________________ demonstrates his or her confidence in the group by involving group members in
decision-making matters. Democratic leader
15. A/an _________________________ is a more domineering presence; individual usually decides what direction the
group will take. Autocratic leader
16. Task-related leadership behaviors include…
Those actions designed to keep the group focused on the problem or question.
17. Summarizing a discussion accomplishes two things. What are they?
1. It clarifies the various points by restating them.
2. It brings into sharp focus what has already transpired, and by doing so, points out what remains to be done.
18. Process-related leadership behaviors are…
Those behaviors concerned with maintaining a positive climate within the group.
19. What is the role of the gatekeeper? Attempt to regulate the flow of communication within the group.
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