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Solutions for all History Grade 12 Learner’s Book E Brink C de Nobrega M Malinga J Verner M Willemse Solutions for all History Grade 12 Learner’s Book © E Brink, C de Nobrega, M Malinga, J Verner, M Willemse, 2012 © Illustrations and design Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1978 (as amended). Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable for criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2013 13 15 17 16 14 12 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 Published by Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd Private Bag X19 Northlands 2116 Gauteng South Africa Illustrations by James Whitelaw, Christeen Grant Typeset in 11.5 pt Palatino by Resolution Cover design by Deevine Design Cover image from INPRA, Gallo Images and Museum Afrika The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders. If they have inadvertently overlooked any, they will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. The publishers would also like to thank those organisations and individuals we have already approached and from whom we are anticipating permission. e-ISBN: 9781431024209 WIP: 4484M000 It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book without written permission from the publishers. Contents Dear Learner .......................................................................................................... iv Topic 1: The Cold War............................................................................................ 1 The concept and origins of the Cold War ................................................... 6 Extension of the Cold War – Case study: China......................................... 26 Extension of the Cold War – Case study: Vietnam ..................................... 35 Formal assessment.................................................................................... 46 Topic 2: Independent Africa................................................................................. 51 What were the ideas that influenced the independent states?................... 56 Comparative case studies: The successes and challenges faced by independent Africa .............................................................................. 61 Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa ............ 78 Formal assessment: Test ........................................................................... 86 Topic 3: Civil society protests: 1950s to 1970s .................................................... 91 Overview of civil society protests .............................................................. 97 Case study: The US civil rights movement .............................................. 122 Case study: The black power movement ................................................ 135 Formal assessment.................................................................................. 143 Topic 4: Civil resistance in South Africa: 1970s to 1980s .................................. 147 The challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state .................. 156 The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: Government attempts to reform apartheid ............................................................................................... 164 The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: Internal resistance to reforms.......... 169 The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: International response .................... 178 The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: The beginning of the end............... 187 Formal assessment.................................................................................. 190 Topic 5: The coming of democracy in South Africa and coming to terms with the past......................................................................................... 193 The negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity............... 198 How has South Africa chosen to remember the past? The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) ........................................................... 229 Remembering the past: Memorials ......................................................... 240 Formal assessment: Test ......................................................................... 244 Topic 6: The end of the Cold War and a new world order: 1989 to present .................................................................................................. 247 The end of the Cold War: The events of 1989......................................... 251 A new world order ................................................................................. 262 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 281 Formal assessment.................................................................................. 283 Sample examinations ......................................................................................... 287 Glossary .............................................................................................................. 309 Index ................................................................................................................... 314 Dear Learner Welcome to another exciting year of learning History! This year you will continue your study of change and development in society over time, keeping in mind the key question for Grades 10 to 12: How do we understand our world today? In Grade 12 you will be studying the following six topics, each with its own key question to focus the topic: Topic Key question Term The Cold War How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War? 1 Independent Africa How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s? 1 Civil society protests 1950s to 1970s What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990? 2 Civil resistance in South Africa 1970s to 1980s What was the nature of the civil society resistance after the 1960s? 2 The coming of democracy in South Africa and coming to terms with the past How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s, and how did South Africans come to terms with the apartheid past? 3 The end of the Cold War and a new world order – 1989 to the present How has the world changed since the 1960s? 3 The CAPS curriculum requires that assessment in History is always based on content knowledge and skills. For this reason you will find that this book offers you: • an excellent foundation by supplying a wealth of content knowledge • a good balance of a variety of visual and textual sources • classroom, homework and extra practice activities, as well as Formal Assessment Tasks that give you ample exercise in applying both your content knowledge and skills of analysing sources and writing an essay. Good luck and enjoy the journey! Note to the teacher: Please refer to the Teacher’s Guide for sample exam papers, as well as handouts with guidelines for the learners on analysing sources and writing an essay. iv T c opi 1 The Cold War What will you learn about in this topic? • • • • • • • How and why a Cold War developed The creation of spheres of interest by the USA and USSR The concept of containment and how this dominated US foreign policy Crises in Berlin and how these led to rival military alliances The clash over Cuba China and the Cold War Vietnam as a Cold War clash Let’s talk about this topic Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa created the Grand Alliance. But tensions developed among the Allies. At several conferences, the leaders disagreed about the future of Europe. These disagreements become major causes of the Cold War. The picture shown in the background is of the Yalta Conference (February 1945) where Churchill (Britain), Roosevelt (USA) and Stalin (USSR) met for the last time as allies in the War. They made agreements about the fate of Eastern Europe after the war – agreements that Stalin later ignored. 1. Examine the facial expressions and body language of these leaders. Suggest reasons why none of them look pleased. 2. What does Stalin’s cap suggest about his ideas? Source: Image supplied by AAI Fotostock with the caption: Conference of the Big Three at Yalta; Anonymous; 1945; State Museum of History, Moscow. The Cold War • 1 What do I know already? The divided post-war world In Grade 11 you looked at capitalism and communism and the differences between them. You also looked at the rise of nationalism. These forces now began to play a part in creating a divided world. American nationalism, for example, reinforced the advantages of a democratic capitalist society, rather than a planned communist type of economy. The Russian government also promoted nationalism to encourage its people to make sacrifices so it could compete in the arms race and the space race against the USA. In Grade 9 you looked at the Second World War and how the need to oppose Nazi Germany led to an alliance between the capitalist West, led by the USA and the UK, and communist Russia. There were always tensions within this alliance so it did not last once the common enemies of Germany and Japan had been defeated. The war also ensured that the USA and the USSR were the dominant powers at the end of the war. Britain and France had suffered greatly from the effects of war-time bombing and from the cost of being at war. The USSR had also suffered many deaths, but it was better able to recover, and it became a ‘superpower’ alongside the USA. However, the philosophies and beliefs of democratic capitalism and communism are too different to allow for friendship and so the two powers became rivals in trying to influence the rest of the world. This rivalry between the USA and the USSR, which included both an arms race and the space race, became known as the Cold War. The period 1945 to 1989 is therefore often described as a bi-polar world – a world divided into two sections. One section was dominated by the USSR; the other by the USA. k Chec lf myse 2 • 1. What are the main differences between capitalism and communism? 2. Why will these forces always oppose each other? 3. Why do you think the USA and the USSR did not have an actual war to see which was more powerful? The Cold War Topic 1 Key question for this topic How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War? Important events relating to the Cold War Cold War Date South Africa Yalta and Potsdam conferences 1945 Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech 1946 Miners’ strike Truman Doctrine announced 1947 Berlin blockade and airlift 1948 National Party election victory Germany split into two countries: West and East Germany NATO formed First Soviet A-bomb 1949 Start of policy of apartheid Korean War begins 1950 1952 Defiance Campaign Death of Stalin. End of Korean War 1953 Bantu Education introduced Manila Pact (SEATO) Geneva Conference on Korea and Indo-China 1954 Native Resettlement Act and Urban Areas Act West Germany joins NATO Warsaw Pact 1955 Suez crisis 1956 Mixed trade unions banned Eisenhower Doctrine Sputnik 1957 Khrushchev visits USA Castro takes Cuba 1959 Pan-Africanist Congress formed Tribal universities established U2 shot down Paris summit fails 1960 Referendum on republic Berlin Wall built Bay of Pigs invasion 1961 Sharpeville massacre South Africa becomes a republic Cuban missile crisis 1962 ANC begins the armed struggle USA, UK, USSR sign Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963 Lilliesleaf farm raided: ANC leaders arrested 1964 Rivonia trial of Mandela and others US troops to Vietnam 1965 USA decides to build anti-missile system 1967 Terrorism Act Brezhnev Doctrine 1968 Apollo 11 lands on the moon 1969 Biko forms SASO SALT 1 signed 1972 Black People’s Convention formed The Cold War • 3 Cold War Date South Africa Yom Kippur War 1973 Vietnam War ends with Northern victory 1975 Inkatha revived 1976 Soweto riots over Bantu Education SALT 2 signed 1979 COSAS formed Gorbachev ends aid to satellites 1986 Berlin Wall falls 1989 F W de Klerk replaces P W Botha as President Collapse of Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe 1990 Mandela freed Collapse of USSR Cold War ends 1991 Start of negotiations for a new South Africa Source: Images supplied by INPRA Important role players in this topic Josef Stalin (1879–1953) was the founding editor of Pravda, the communist newspaper in 1912. He was imprisoned for his political views at various times. In 1917 he was one of the central figures of the Bolshevik revolution. He succeeded Lenin as the dominant figure in the Russian government. The new constitution of 1936 gave him absolute authority in the USSR. He eliminated all opposition to him and was revered by the Russian people, at least outwardly. His collectivisation of agriculture and fiveyear industrial plans ensured that the USSR became a major power. He claimed to follow a policy of ‘socialism in one country.’ This meant he isolated the USSR and its East European satellite states from the West by what became known as the ‘iron curtain’. 4 • The Cold War Harry S Truman (1884–1972) became president of the USA when Franklin Roosevelt died in April 1945, but he was later elected president in his own right. He made the decision to use atomic bombs on Japan and took a hard line against communist expansion. His Truman Doctrine looked at containing the spread of communism, but co-existing with it where it already existed. Marshall Aid was introduced during his presidency. Dwight Eisenhower (1890–1969) was US president from 1953 to 1961 and was largely responsible for the idea of the ‘domino theory’ in South East Asia. He issued his Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957, promising US aid to any country in the Middle East threatened by international communism. Topic 1 Source: Images supplied by INPRA John F Kennedy (1917–1963) US President from 1961 until his assassination in November 1963. His presidency was largely concerned with economic and civil rights issues. He is probably best remembered for the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, but ultimately led to improved relationships between Moscow and Washington DC. Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) followed Stalin as First Secretary of the Communist Party. He dominated Soviet politics until his forced resignation in 1964. He was responsible for a policy of ‘destalinisation’ and a thaw in the Cold War as well as the Sino-Soviet split with communist China. He was forced to give way to the USA over Cuba in the 1962 missile crisis. Fidel Castro (1926– ) seized control of Cuba in 1959 after a guerrilla war that began in 1956. He turned to the USSR for support when he failed to develop cordial relations with the USA. He declared himself and Cuba communist. As an ally of the USSR, he agreed to have missile bases stationed on the island which led to the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. He is still alive but has handed over control of the island to his brother Raúl. Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B., A Map History of the Modern World 3rd Edition, Heinemann, London, 1982, p. 147 A dangerous world – the Cold War stand-off The Cold War • 5 Word bank something that is marked by being divided in two distinct and opposing sides, like a bar magnet with its north and south poles determinism: given the conditions, nothing else could happen government in exile: a government that claims the right to rule a country from another country, for military or other reasons inevitable: cannot stop something from happening nationalise: taking over an industry or land by the state (government) in order to control it and to run it for the benefit of the people as a whole plunder: rob or steal, especially during times of unrest or war pragmatic: concerned with practical rather than theoretical issues proxy wars: wars fought by small countries which appear to be fighting on behalf of bigger countries quarantine: to isolate somebody or something, usually in order to prevent the threat of disease; used in the Cuban missile crisis to isolate Cuba to prevent the spread of missile bases satellite states: a country that is greatly influenced by another larger country without being under its direct rule or control Sino-Soviet: China-Russia (Sino always refers to China and Soviet is a useful term for the USSR) bipolar: What do I still need to know? 1 The concept and origins of the Cold War The rivalry that developed between the USA and the USSR in the period after the Second World War (from 1945 to 1989) included an arms race and the space race, as well as attempts to outdo each other in other fields such as medical research. This rivalry became known as the Cold War. It was a period during which the world became bi-polar with countries supporting one of these powers (the two poles). A cold war is a state of tension that exists between countries or groups of countries in which each side tries to discredit the other while trying to strengthen itself. It is fought in the ‘hearts and minds’ of the people. The two sides never move into the open conflict of a ‘hot war’ between themselves, but they might allow satellite states or countries to fight each other so that weapons can be tested. These small, local proxy wars are used to intimidate and show military might without risking too much. Such wars also ensure that the clashes cannot develop into nuclear confrontation. During the Second World War, the USA, the British Empire and the USSR came together in the Grand Alliance against the Axis powers of Germany, Italy and Japan. While Britain and the USA had much in common, for example, their history and their shared language, they were both suspicious of Stalin and the USSR. They viewed communism as a potential threat to their economies and their societies. When their common enemy was defeated, the alliance soon fell apart. 6 • The Cold War Key question What was the Cold War and why did it happen? Topic 1 Key question End of the Second World War Why did the Cold War develop? The Allies invaded Europe on 6 June 1944. This opened a second front against Germany, which was what Stalin wanted. From that time, the defeat of Germany was inevitable, although Germany resisted and the West’s advance towards Berlin slowed down. The Russians were able to ensure that they arrived first in Berlin, which gave them an advantage in later negotiations with Germany. It also meant that the Russians were able to liberate the states of Eastern Europe without US or British assistance. This allowed Stalin to ensure that the Russian army was in charge of the initial administration of these states. Key question How did the USSR and USA create their spheres of influence? Source: Quoted in Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 2 The USSR and USA and the creation of spheres of interest Mutual suspicion between the USSR and the West had been going on since the Russian revolutions of 1917 and the civil war that followed. Communism had been seen as a greater threat than Nazism for much of the 1930s. When Hitler turned on his former ally in June 1941, Russia joined the Allies. The only unifying force in this alliance was the opposition to Hitler’s Germany, so when it was defeated, the collapse of the alliance became inevitable. With the defeat of the Reich and pending the emergence of the Asiatic, the African and perhaps the South American nationalisms, there will remain in the world only two Great Powers capable of confronting each other – the United States and Soviet Russia. The laws of both history and geography will compel these two powers to a trial of strength either militarily or in the fields of economics and ideology. Source: Image supplied by AAI Fotostock The unifying force in the alliance was opposition to Hitler’s Germany but even he himself believed that only the two Great Powers would remain. Installation of Soviet-friendly governments in satellite states There are conflicting ideas about the exact causes of the Cold War. The Polish question caused some important issues. Poland had been occupied by Germany at the beginning of the war and a government in exile was formed in London. After Germany turned on Russia in 1941, a rival Polish government in exile was set up in Moscow. When the Russian army captured Poland from the Germans, they put this communist-dominated government into power. This upset their Allies who had supported the London government in exile. Britain, the USA and Russia met at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. There they agreed that if some of the nonCommunist members of the London government in exile were brought into this Polish government, both USA and Britain would recognise it. They also agreed on a new eastern border of Poland, which allowed Russia to keep the part of Poland it had gained in 1939. However, the question of Poland’s western border was not resolved. The Cold War • 7 Source 1 This is a modern historian’s comment about the start of the Cold War. The Cold War may be said to date immediately after the Yalta Conference, to be precise, from March 1945. In a sense Soviet Russia had waged Cold War since October 1917. The pragmatic alliance from June 1941 onwards was a mere interruption. It was inevitable that Stalin would resume his hostility sooner or later. His mistake was to do so too quickly. It was not that he was impatient, like Hitler. But he was greedy. He was too cautious to follow Hitler’s example of systematically creating opportunities for plunder, but he could not resist taking such opportunities when they presented themselves. His sensible tactic would have been to wait until the Americans had vanished to the other side of the Atlantic. Instead, seeing the Polish fruit was ripe, he could not resist taking it. The critical moment came on 23 March, when Molotov [Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949] announced that the elections [in Poland] would be held Soviet–style. (Source: Adapted from Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 435) Source 2 Source: Based on Cornwell, R.D. (1980) World History in the Twentieth Century New Edition. London: Longman. p.71 and Bown, C. and Mooney, P.J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann, p.11, as well as Bredekamp, H. and Van den Berg, O.A. (1986) A New History Atlas for South Africa. Cape Town: Edward Arnold. p.65 Western and Eastern Europe and Poland’s changing frontiers 8 • The Cold War Topic 1 There was increased tension and disagreement between Russia and the West in the period between the Yalta and Potsdam conferences (February to July) as Russia tightened its grip on Eastern Europe. Source 3 In this extract, a modern historian describes how the USSR took more control over Eastern Europe. In Poland the non-communist political leaders were imprisoned. In Hungary the Russians imposed very heavy reparations on a devastated country, and in March enforced a hasty and unfair land reform. In 1944 there were only about 900 communists in Romania, yet in March 1945 the Russians forced the appointment of a communist as Prime Minister. In Bulgaria the communists seized power when the Russians arrived and all opponents were suppressed. In Czechoslovakia a coalition government was set up in which the key positions were held by communists. In Yugoslavia the resistance movement against the Germans was led by communists under Tito, who arranged with Stalin that the Yugoslavs rather than the Russians, should set up a government after the Germans were defeated. Therefore, in March 1945 a coalition government, largely composed of communists was set up by the Yugoslavs. In Albania communist guerrillas took over the country and declared a republic. In addition, eastern Germany and eastern Austria were occupied by the Russians. Therefore, when the next conference of the three wartime Allies was held in July, the communists, backed by Russian power, held all the important positions in the governments of eastern European countries. (Source: Cornwell, R.D. (1980) World History in the Twentieth Century New Edition. Harlow: Longman. p. 69) Source: Image supplied by Greatstock From 1946 to 1949, tactics such as bullying, terrorism, bribery and corruption ensured election victories in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and finally Czechoslovakia. This led to communist dominance in these countries. Many Westerners feared this extension of communist control. By the time the ‘Big Three’ allies met at Potsdam, Roosevelt had died and Harry Truman had become the president of the USA. During the conference Winston Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee of the Labour Party in a British election. Stalin was the only one of the leaders at Yalta who was still in power at Potsdam. This lack of continuity among the leaders was a reason why there was less agreement at Potsdam than at Yalta. The meeting ended in an atmosphere of distrust and accusation. Wartime unity was over. Harry Truman became the US President after Roosevelt died. The Cold War • 9 Classroom activity 1 Study Source 1 and the map of Europe in Source 2. 1 Why was Poland so important to both Stalin and the Western powers? 2×2 (4) 2 How did the boundaries of Poland change between 1939 and 1945? 3 How do the changes to the map of Eastern Europe support Johnson’s opinion that Stalin was greedy? 2×2 (4) Suggest what is meant by ‘Soviet style’ elections. 1×2 (2) 4 1×2 (2) Study Source 3 then answer these questions. 5 How did the Russians ensure that there were ‘friendly’ governments in the East European countries of Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia? 2×2 (4) 6 How did Yugoslavia escape being a Soviet satellite state? 2×2 (4) 7 How does the fact that all three of these sources are from British publications affect their reliability for us as historians? 2×2 (4) USA’s policy of containment: The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan Source 4 On 5 March 1946 Churchill made the Cold War a public fact when he delivered a speech at the University of Fulton. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Beyond that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe ... what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in many cases increasing measure of control from Moscow. (Source: Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 437–8) Allied armies occupied the defeated Axis countries in Europe. At the Yalta conference it had been agreed that Germany would be divided into definite zones of occupation. Germany and Austria would be separated and their capitals would be divided into occupation zones. When French president De Gaulle insisted that France should be one of the occupying powers, Stalin agreed as long as the French zone was formed from the British and American zones. There were soon tensions between the powers over the way they administered their occupation zones. Greece had a royalist non-communist government after the war, but the local communists threatened to overthrow it (Russia did not actively support them in this). This was prevented by British and American troops. But in February 1947, Britain warned the USA that it could no longer afford to maintain troops in Greece. The US response was quick and definite: the USA would help any country that was threatened by communism. This became known as the Truman Doctrine. 10 • The Cold War Topic 1 Source 5 This is an extract from the Truman Doctrine. Although Truman did not use the words ‘capitalism’ and ‘communism’, he was clearly talking about these two systems. At the present moment in world history, nearly every nation must choose alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The second way of life is based on the will of a minority forcibly imposed on the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms. I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way. (Source: Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 16) In many ways the quotation in Source 5 served as the ‘declaration of war’ for the Cold War. After this definite commitment by the USA to stop communism from growing, Russia moved quickly to strengthen its position in Eastern Europe. It finally staged a coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948. Now, the ‘iron curtain’ that Churchill had described in March 1946 was complete. One of the main ways in which the superpowers have exerted their influence has been by providing aid. Aid could be economic, technical and industrial. Sometimes, if necessary, military aid was also offered. The USA justified this in terms of the Truman Doctrine. Classroom activity 2 Study the comment by Churchill (Source 4) and the extract from the Truman Doctrine (Source 5). 1 Churchill is willing to make it clear that he disapproves of the growth of Moscow’s influence, but Truman is more guarded in what he says. Suggest reasons for their different approaches. 2×2 (4) 2 Comment on the Truman Doctrine’s descriptions of the two ways of life. Were his descriptions accurate? 3×2 (6) The Cold War • 11 Source 6 Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982). A Map History of the Modern World. London: Heinemann. p. 89 The main features of world aid In June 1947 the United States offered aid to Europe to rebuild itself after the war. The idea behind this aid was to restore the economies of Europe. Countries that didn’t feel deprived and hopeless wouldn’t be open to communism. The aid was known as the Marshall Plan, named after US Secretary of State, George Marshall. The aid would only be provided if Europe produced a joint co-ordinated plan for its use. The programme gave over $13 billion to 16 states and the western zones of Germany over a four year period (1948–1952). The aid was distributed through the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). George Marshall, US Secretary of State, after whom the Marshall Plan was named 12 • The Cold War Source: Image supplied by Fotostock Topic 1 Russia had looked carefully at the question of Marshall Aid, but decided against accepting it. Russia also forbade its East European satellite states from taking part. Russia argued that Marshall Aid was American propaganda; this was probably at least partly true, although the offer did originally include Russia. Source: Cartoon supplied by British Cartoon Archive. Artist: David Low (1891–1963) Published: Evening Standard, 9 July 1947. Copyright holder: Associated Newspapers Ltd. /Solo Syndication ‘Madam Molotov’s School for Satellites.’ Molotov was the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs at the time. In this cartoon, he is shown as a stern school teacher who will not allow the pupils (the Eastern European countries) to be tempted by the American hot-dog stand. Source 7 Source: Image based on a cartoon that originally appeared in the Daily Mirror, New York, January 1949 This cartoon shows an opinion about the Marshall Plan and the USSR’s relationship with its satellite states. The Marshall Plan The Marshall Stalin Plan Classroom activity 3 In groups discuss the issues of international aid shown on the map in Source 6. 1 2 3 What were the implications of the OEEC that was set up to administer Marshall Aid? Was the OEEC set up because the greatest threat to Western Europe was communism/Russian expansion? Was this new threat the reason that the USA recognised that there ‘is neither peace nor security for America if Europe is in danger’? The Cold War • 13 Classroom activity 4 Study the cartoon of the Marshall Plan (Source 7) on the previous page. 1 2 Explain the point that the cartoonist is making about the difference between the American and Russian approaches to the situation, and the possible results of these policies. 2×2 (4) Identify the chicks in the first nest, and then the smaller birds 3×2 (6) around the second nest in the cartoon. Russian reaction to Marshall Aid Responding to the introduction of Marshall Aid, the East European states of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Romania signed trade agreements with the USSR in 1947. This brought these states closer to Moscow. Later in 1947, the Communist Information Bureau or Cominform was established by the leaders of the communist parties in the USSR, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, France and Italy. It was a way in which Moscow could direct the activities of communists elsewhere. Over the next few months the communists took full control of all these satellite states except Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia’s government was dominated by communists at this point, and in March 1948 communists took complete control of the government. Russia increased control over the satellite states by centralising control of industry and collectivising agriculture. Trade between Russia and its East European satellites increased, while trade and other contacts between the satellite states and the West was reduced. In 1949, Comecon was formed as Russia’s response to the OEEC. Its aim was to co-ordinate the economies of the satellite states. USA and the Far East American influence had been obvious in Greece, Turkey and Europe. But the USA had not been as active in spreading its influence in the Far East. A mainly American army of occupation was stationed in Japan. The USA tried to ensure co-operation with the Japanese by helping to rebuild that economy as well. However, China was largely neglected. The Chinese Nationalists, or KMT, had been allies in the war with the communists led by Mao Zedong, but they were now involved in a civil war against each other. Neither Britain nor the USA was prepared to take an active role in this war, although they gave supplies to the nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-shek. Mao, however, managed to win the support of the peasants and he won the civil war in 1949. Chiang and his followers were forced to flee to the island of Taiwan, where they set up their own government. And so two Chinas emerged. The Far East was to become an issue in the Cold War during the 1950s because of the ‘Domino Theory’, which will be discussed later in this topic. Classroom activity 5 Lenin believed that the USSR and capitalist states would clash. Hitler believed that the laws of history and geography would force the United States and Soviet Russia into a trial of strength. Write an essay in which you suggest reasons for the belief that the two could not live side by side. 14 • The Cold War Topic 1 Berlin Crises from 1949 to 1961 The Truman Doctrine has also been described as a policy of ‘co-existence and containment’ – the USA would live with communism where it existed (in 1947) but would work to stop or contain its spread through the world. At first, the USA wanted to stop the spread of communism in Europe. It had a presence in Germany, which had been divided into four occupation zones at Potsdam: American, British, French and Russian zones. This meant that the USA was directly involved in the situation in Europe. Berlin, as the capital of Germany, had also been divided into four occupation zones even though the city itself lay deep within the Russian zone. America soon realised that it would be advantageous to join the three non-Russian zones of Germany as soon as possible and so invited the other states to join their zone. Britain was the first to agree and these zones joined in 1947. The French joined them in 1949 but the Russians remained separate. Germany (and with it, Berlin) was divided into two distinct zones – East and West. The Berlin blockade and airlift The German state had collapsed at its surrender at the end of World War II – there was no administration to run the country, unless the occupying countries provided it. Refugees, homeless people and shortages of food, fuel, housing and infrastructure were all characteristics of Germany in mid-1945. But Russia still tried to get reparation payments from Germany as had been agreed at the Potsdam Conference. However, Germany simply could not pay the reparations. In February 1948, the Western states agreed to help with the economic and political recovery of the western zones, despite the lack of co-operation from Russia. In April 1948 the western zones of Germany had been included in the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), which organised and distributed Marshall Aid. This improved the economy of the area. In June 1948, a new currency was introduced into the three western zones of Germany to help the growth of their economy. Russia opposed this. Russia had already begun to restrict road and rail movement between Berlin and the West. The day after the new currency was introduced into West Berlin (in June), all rail, road and canal links to West Berlin were closed by the Russians. This was the beginning of the blockade, which ensured that nothing could get into or out of West Berlin. West Berlin, situated in the Russian zone of Germany, was cut off from the western zones. The Cold War • 15 Source 8 Source 8a Germany during the post-war occupation at the time of the Berlin Blockade and airlift: A divided Germany and Berlin Source 8b Source: Adapted from Howarth, T. (1979) Twentieth Century History. The World Since 1900. London: Longman. p. 211 Source: Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 23 The zones of Berlin and the location of the three airports of West Berlin: Tegel in the French zone, Gatow in the British zone and Tempelhof in the American zone 16 • The Cold War Topic 1 Source 8c City Town Airport Air corridor Hamburg Source: Adapted from Bown, C. and Mooney, P.J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 23 West Berlin Hanover Autobahn East Berlin Potsdam P O L A N D W E S T G E R M A N Y E A S T G E R M A N Y Leipzig Herleshausen Map showing the air and road links between West Germany and West Berlin Dresden Topen Frankfurt Hof VA K I A CHOS LO CZE 0 50 100 km Source 8d Source: Image supplied by Greatstock. © Corbis RM with caption: Berlin Airlift Plane Landing Planes dropped supplies into West Berlin over the 11 months of the Berlin Blockade The Cold War • 17 The West had three alternatives: abandon Berlin; attempt to run the blockade with armed convoys; or they could attempt to supply the city by air. An American Commandant, General Clay, suggested using aircraft as a way of supplying the city and, despite initial problems, this was highly successful. It had been estimated that it would take at least 4 500 tons of supplies a day to keep Berlin alive. By the end of the blockade over 6 000 tons a day was being flown into the city. When it became clear to the Russians that the West were prepared to continue the airlift almost indefinitely, they lifted the blockade. Early in May 1949 the first trucks and trains crossed into the Soviet zone heading for Berlin. Source 9 In this extract, General Clay, commander of the American forces, explains why it was so important not to lose contact with West Berlin. We have lost Czechoslovakia. Norway is threatened. We retreat from Berlin. When Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we mean ... to hold Europe against communism, we must not budge. We can take humiliation and pressure short of war in Berlin without losing face. If we withdraw, our position in Europe is threatened. (Source: Quoted in Robertson, C.L. (1966) International Politics since World War II. New York: Wiley. p. 96) The blockade and airlift had two important effects: • It led directly to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), a military organisation made of capitalist, Western powers. The USA was seen to be committed to military aid to Europe if required. • It also led to the creation of two distinct and separate German states: the Federal German Republic of West Germany and the Democratic German Republic in the East. Classroom activity 6 Use the information from the maps and photo in Source 8 to discuss Clay’s comment in Source 9. What did he mean by saying that if America withdrew from Berlin, its position in Europe was threatened? How practical was it to hold on to West Berlin? The Berlin crisis of 1960–1961 and the building of the Berlin Wall The creation of two separate German states in 1949 after the airlift made it less likely that the two areas would reunite. Nikita Khrushchev became leader of the USSR when Stalin died in 1953, and he continued to put pressure on the West. In 1955 the West agreed among themselves that West Germany should join NATO and contribute to its armed forces. On 9 May 1955 West Germany formally became a member of NATO. Russia was unhappy with this and reacted by founding the Warsaw Pact on 14 May. The West did not recognise East Germany, or the Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR), as a sovereign state. Khrushchev decided to force them to recognise the DDR by announcing that he was going to hand over all Soviet control 18 • The Cold War Topic 1 of Berlin and access to it, to the DDR. The West reacted by calling for a summit conference to be held in 1960. But in May 1960, just before the summit conference, the Russians shot down an American U2 spy plane and announced that both the plane and the pilot had been captured. This ended any chance of the summit conference being held. The East Germans had another problem in Berlin. Many of their citizens were fleeing across the city to live in West Berlin as it had a higher standard of living. Walter Ulbricht, the East German leader, had tried to close off access to West Berlin, but Soviet troops had prevented this. More and more East Germans were fleeing to the West. Labour shortages in East Germany started to become an issue. Ulbricht could not attack West Berlin as it would create the risk of nuclear war. So, on 13 August 1961, the East German police sealed off West Berlin with wire fences. Then on 17 August, they began to build the Berlin Wall. They allowed only four points at which people could cross the 50 kilometre border into West Berlin. Source 10 In this extract, modern historians discuss the effects of building the wall. The very presence of Berlin was threatening the fabric of the East German state. Between 1949 and 1958, 2 189 000 East Germans ‘voted with their feet’ and fled to West Germany, and this out of a total DDR population in 1949 of 17 500 000. A high proportion of the fugitives were young, skilled or professional people without whom East Germany could not develop her economy. In addition, this loss was a persistent reminder that the communist regime was not popular in the DDR, no matter what the authorities claimed. In the first six months of 1961, 103 000 people fled from the DDR to West Berlin. The Russians could not allow their client state to be damaged in this way. (Source: Adapted from Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 76) Source 11 Source 11a Source 11b Source: Map based on Poulton, R. (1981) A History of the Modern World. London: Oxford University Press. p. 195 Source: Image supplied by Greatstock Building the Berlin Wall under the watchful eyes of the East German army The position of Berlin in East Germany The Cold War • 19 Source 11c 8 9 4 7 3 6 2 5 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Concrete slab wall Wire mesh fence Control track Lighting system Vehicle pit Wire to guide dog patrols Signal apparatus Observation tower Contact fence A diagram that shows the extra defences that became part of the Berlin Wall Classroom activity 7 With the help of Source 10 on the previous page, explain why West Berlin was such a problem for both the DDR and for Soviet Russia. Comment on how effective their approach to the problem was as shown in Source 11. (20) Opposing military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact The states of Western Europe felt threatened by the advance of communism into Eastern Europe. There was also the threat of a Soviet army that was made up of four million men. The USA was friendly, but had no commitment to Europe other than looking after its occupation zones in Germany and Austria. In March 1948 at a conference in Brussels, the first post-war military alliance was formed. It was called the Brussels Treaty. It became the basis on which NATO was created. The Brussels 20 • The Cold War Source: Adapted from tourist pamphlet Berlin: the Wall Topic 1 Treaty was not strong enough, as it did not include the USA. So, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was created in April 1949. This was the first alliance in which the USA committed itself to defend other states. By doing so, the USA accepted the leadership of the ‘free’ world. The initial members of NATO were the USA, Canada, Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Portugal. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952. By 1950 the USA, Britain and France agreed that West Germany should also contribute to the defence of Europe. But many people were worried about any part of Germany rearming. France proposed a European Defence Community. It would have centralised control over its forces so no nation could threaten others, but this was not accepted. The Russians proposed a unified, neutral Germany but this was also not accepted because there were armed forces in East Germany, but not in West Germany. Eventually it was agreed that a central NATO command structure would control the defence forces of the member states. On this basis, it was agreed that West Germany could join NATO in May 1955. Source 12 The Brussels Treaty (March 1948): The Brussels Treaty of March 1948 concluded a military alliance of Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg which ‘was no longer solely directed against the possibility of renewed German aggression but provided for defence against any aggressor. The signatories also pledged themselves to collaborate in economic, social and cultural fields.’ (Source: Grenville, J.A.S. and Wasserstein, B. (1987) The major international treaties since 1945. London: Methuen. p. 205) Within a week of West Germany joining NATO, the Soviets announced the creation of the Warsaw Pact. This gave Russia the right to keep troops in Eastern Europe. The Pact also allowed Russia to tighten control over its satellite states. The creation of these two power blocs meant that the world had now returned to the old balance-of-power diplomacy. Classroom activity 8 1 2 3 4 5 The Brussels Treaty (Source 12) was the first clear Western alliance against ‘any aggressor.’ What countries did its signatories see as possible aggressors? 2×2 (4) Suggest reasons why the USA was prepared to abandon its traditional isolationist stance and join NATO in 1949. 3×2 (6) Explain what is meant by a ‘balance-of-power diplomacy.’ 1×2 (2) Why did the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact bring this about? 2×2 (4) What are the dangers of a balance-of-power diplomacy? 2×2 (4) The Cold War • 21 An example of containment and brinkmanship: The Cuban Crisis Cuba had been a Spanish colony that had gained its independence as a result of the Spanish–American War of 1898. Its closeness to the United States had ensured a lot Key question of American investment over the years, How was the especially in its sugar and tobacco industries. Cuban Crisis an But there were many economic problems example of because of the world-wide depression of the containment and 1930s. This led to a successful military coup in brinkmanship? 1933, which overthrew the corrupt government of Gerardo Machado. Later that year Fulgencio Batista made himself chief of the army, and so Source: Image supplied by INPRA became the ruler of Cuba. Because he with caption: Fidel Castro (1926– ), left, Cuban introduced a programme of social reform and political leader, state control of the sugar industry, he was photographed in 1961 with Ernesto 'Che' popular with the Cuban people and an Guevara (1928–1967), acceptable leader to the neighbouring states. In Argentinean revolutionary leader 1944 he was defeated in an election and went into voluntary exile, but in 1952 he illegally regained power and kept it through a brutal dictatorship until 1959. In 1959 he was deposed Fidel Castro and by Fidel Castro who had led a guerrilla war Che Guevara against him since 1953. Castro came to power on New Year’s Day 1959. He was committed to industrialisation, land reform, educational expansion, free speech and an end to corruption. Castro was faced with a bankrupt state and as nobody was willing to lend him money, he began to nationalise foreign (mainly American) owned industries. The USA retaliated by refusing to buy Cuban sugar, so Castro turned to the USSR for help. They agreed to buy Cuban sugar and to supply Cuba with oil. When the Shell and Esso refineries in Cuba refused to process Soviet oil, they were nationalised. Soon the USA stopped exporting nonessential supplies such as medicines to Cuba and on 3 January 1961, they cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba. Meanwhile supporters of Batista managed to gain American support. In April 1961 they launched an attack on Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. 22 • The Cold War Anti-Castro forces tried to invade Cuba in 1961 during the Bay of Pigs incident. Source: Image supplied by the British Library with caption: Anti-Castro forces commanded by Jose Miro Cardona launching an attack during the Battle of the Bay of Pigs in 1961. ©De Agostini/The British Library Board Topic 1 This badly planned and poorly led invasion was quickly repelled. But it led to Castro looking to Russia for further aid. Slowly Russian influence grew and by 1961 Castro declared himself a Communist. Russia judged the new young American President, Kennedy, by the Bay of Pigs invasion, which had been a disaster. The USSR decided to use Cuba as a base for missiles that could be used to attack the USA if war ever broke out. Russian ships had been seen arriving in Cuba in August 1962 and unloading unidentified cargo. Kennedy ordered a constant air watch by U2 spy planes. The planes brought back photographs of missile launching bases from which every city in the USA within 4 000 kilometres of Cuba could be targeted. Kennedy needed to take action, but was uncertain of just what action to take: Should he bomb Cuba? Confront Khrushchev of the USSR? Confront Castro? Or another option? Source 13 Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982) A Map History of the Modern World. London: Heinemann. p. 125 Potential threat to the USA from the missiles in Cuba The Cold War • 23 Source 14 Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982) A Map History of the Modern World. London: Heinemann. p. 125 The Cuban missile crisis of October 1962 Eventually on 22 October Kennedy decided on a quarantine, or isolation, of all shipping heading for Cuba. The US navy moved into position and prepared to stop and search all ships heading for Cuba. Kennedy backed this with the threat of nuclear war. The world stood on the brink of a nuclear war until on 27 October the Russians backed down and agreed to remove the missile bases. Although the Cuban missile crisis brought the world close to a nuclear war, it ultimately led to improved relations. The White House and the Kremlin established the ‘hot line,’ a direct telephonic link between the two centres of power. Classroom activity 9 1 2 3 Find out more about Batista, Castro and Che Guevara (one of the most important supporters of Castro during the guerrilla war). 3×2 (6) Use Sources 13 and 14 to help you to debate the options facing Kennedy when the missile bases were discovered. 3×2 (6) Discuss the issue of international spying in a group – can the use of spy planes like the U2 be justified when countries are not at war? Who was to blame for the Cold War? The idea of blaming somebody for the Cold War is to oversimplify a complex situation. The early historians of the period tended to blame the other side: • Russian historians blamed the USA. They accused the USA of trying to build an economic empire that dominated the world. • American historians blamed Russia for trying to create communist domination of the world. 24 • The Cold War Key question Who was to blame for the Cold War? Topic 1 Russian point of view The Russians were suspicious of the West and upset by Britain and America’s refusal to recognise the Soviet-sponsored governments in Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania. The Russians were also suspicious of American intentions behind the Truman Doctrine. They believed it was a veiled threat to attack any country that supported the Soviet Union. They also saw Marshall Aid as a threat as it was an attempt to bind the economies of Europe to the American economy. This Russian cartoon shows an opinion on Marshall Aid. The rope spells ‘Marshall Aid’ and the lifebelt is labelled ‘Aid to Europe’. The padlock on the lifebelt shows that money (the $ sign on the padlock) will lock Europe to the US economy. Source: Cartoon from Walsh, B. (2001) Modern World History. United Kingdom: Hodder Education. American point of view The Americans were suspicious of Russia’s reluctance to demobilise its army at the end of the war. They didn’t believe Stalin’s claims that the army was purely to defend Russia against invaders such as Napoleon in 1812 and Hitler in 1941. The West saw Stalin’s policy of ‘Socialism in one country’ as simply a propaganda slogan. They argued that Stalin had shown his desire to expand Soviet influence by setting up communist-dominated governments throughout Eastern Europe. General comment In truth neither side can be blamed nor can they be totally pardoned. Both sides were greedy and ambitious. They both had a different approach to politics. One side represented a democratic capitalist society with an emphasis on the individual. The other side represented a communist society with an emphasis on state control and the subordination of the individual to the state. Because of these great differences, there had to be a clash. Both Lenin and Hitler foresaw this clash happening. Peaceful co-existence could only be achieved if both sides were prepared to compromise. Extra practice activity 1 1 2 3 4 Research the history of the origins of the Cold War. Suggest reasons why historians give different views about the origins of the Cold War. 3×2 (6) To what extent would you agree that the Russians were justified in seeing Marshall Aid as an attempt by the USA to buy political support in Europe? 3×2 (6) Explain why the Berlin blockade happened. Discuss why the success of the airlift changed the political situation in Europe. 3×2 (6) Imagine you are a reporter on a Cuban daily newspaper. Tell the story of the missile crisis as you would report it. 3×2 (6) The Cold War • 25 Word bank annexation: bipolar: counter-revolutionary: Cultural Revolution: détente: Great Leap Forward: embargo: Vietcong: Vietminh: takeover of territory having two poles or extremes someone who is opposed to the principles of a revolution a programme in China under Mao to make Chinese people more passionate about revolutionary changes an understanding to ease tensions between states an experiment that was meant to modernise China refusal to trade with a country in the hope that the country will change its policies the South Vietnamese communists the communist party of North Vietnam What do I still need to know? 2 Extension of the Cold War Case study: China Events leading up to 1949 and the establishment of communist China By 1900 China had been weakened by foreign invasions and internal problems. In 1911 a revolution took place led by a nationalist organisation called the Kuomintang (KMT). This was a political party started by Sun Yat-sen in China. Its ideals were nationalism, democracy and socialism. The KMT overthrew the emperor and created a republic. In the early years of the republic, the KMT and the newly formed Chinese Communist Party worked closely together, but in 1927 the communists were expelled from the party. The republic faced many problems at the beginning. It did not have great support outside of the major cities. When World War I began, Japan seized the opportunity to get involved in parts of China. This included control of the economies of Manchuria and Shantung. The following year the Chinese president, Yuan Shih-kai died and a period of confusion began. Various Chinese war lords claimed control over parts of China and there was no effective central government until about 1928. Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the KMT, was able to impose his authority over most of China. The communists, led by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, helped him to achieve this. China’s weakness was made clear when the Japanese created an incident on the South Manchurian Railway line in 1931. Japan then used this as an excuse to invade and occupy the Chinese province of Manchuria. China appealed to the League of Nations, but the Japanese remained in China. Chiang was now fighting against both the communists (who also wanted control over China) and the Japanese. Then his army rebelled against him. This meant he had to sign an agreement with the communists to join forces with them against the Japanese (the Sian agreement of 1936). However, there was little real co-operation between the 26 • The Cold War Key question How did China rise as a world power after 1949? Key question How was communist China established? Topic 1 Source: Image supplied by AfriPics Source: Image supplied by AAI Fotostock two sides. Once the Japanese were defeated a full scale civil war broke out between them. The civil war lasted until 1949 when the KMT was forced out of China to the island of Formosa, which was renamed Taiwan. There were now two Chinas, a situation which continues today. Mainland China, however, does not recognise Taiwan as an independent state. Nationalist China (Taiwan) had been granted a permanent Security Council seat in the new United Nations Mao Zedong, leader of communist Chiang Kai-shek, leader of Organisation in 1945. It kept this seat China Nationalist China or Taiwan until 1971, when it passed to communist China. Taiwan lost its membership of UNO and is still denied membership today because communist China has veto power. The United States of America refused to recognise communist China and it vetoed any attempt to replace Nationalist China (Taiwan) with communist China in the United Nations until 1970. In 1970, President Nixon’s administration formally recognised communist China and accepted the idea of two Chinas. Communist China still regarded Taiwan as a province of China and refused to recognise its independence. This has led to ongoing tension between the two Chinas. Key question What did the Cultural Revolution in China entail? Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/File:Destroy_the_ old_world_Cultural_ Revolution_poster.png Cultural Revolution Mao Zedong had led the Communists to power and dominated the government as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. From 1958 to 1961, he implemented the Great Leap Forward, a programme to modernise China through collectivisation and industrialisation. It was not a success, and led to great food shortages resulting in the death of many Chinese people. After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, Mao allowed other people to have more control in China. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took over a lot of the daily tasks and began to introduce more liberal economic policies. This alarmed Mao who tried to re-impose his authority over both the party and the nation through the Cultural Revolution. In 1965 Mao called on the youth to purge China of the ‘Four Olds’ – old customs, old culture, old habits and old ideas. Mao wanted young people who were passionate but not educated to join the This Chinese poster says ‘Destroy the old world, build a new world.’ The worker is crushing religious symbols with his hammer. The Cold War • 27 Red Guards, a group of people who would destroy the old system in order to create a new one. Some of the Red Guards were still in their early teens. The Red Guards attacked temples, churches, mosques and anybody thought to be counter-revolutionary, usually the better educated, and China descended into chaos. Liu Shaoqi was expelled from the Communist Party in October 1968. This is usually seen as the end of the Cultural Revolution as Mao was then back in control. However, unrest continued into the 1970s. For a decade, schools did not function, and priceless artefacts, antiquities and texts were destroyed. The Cultural Revolution was primarily a way of getting rid of anybody who opposed Mao. Source 15 This extract provides a modern historian’s view of the Cultural Revolution. ‘Cultural Revolution’ was the misleading name for a reign of terror accompanied by the most revolting cruelty. It had its sources in internal and external problems – economic planning, the handing over of power, consolidation versus forcing the pace of progress, attitudes to the Russians – which had troubled the party in the 1950s and disrupted it in the 1960s. The revolution split the party at all levels. Hundreds of thousands of leaders, from President Liu Shaoqi to much humbler officials, lost their posts or were tortured and killed. Inevitably the army advanced in power. (Source: Adapted from Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education. pp. 136–7) Classroom activity 10 1 2 3 Use the text to help you to explain what Source 15 means by saying that the Cultural Revolution ‘had its sources in internal and external problems – economic planning, the handing over of power, consolidation versus forcing the pace of progress, attitudes to the Russians’. 3×2 (6) Explain why the Cultural Revolution split the Communist Party. 1×2 (2) a) Suggest why Mao called this attempt to regain his authority the ‘Cultural Revolution.’ b) Why is the idea of an imposed Cultural Revolution difficult to achieve? 1×2 (2) 1×2 (2) Chinese relations with the Soviet Union and the USA from 1949 to 1973 Clash of ideologies rather than individual events Relations between the Chinese Communists and the USSR were complex. At first both the CCP and the KMT had sought help from the Russians who encouraged the CCP to work with the KMT. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the USSR had given its support to the KMT. Russia hoped that a strong China would help it 28 • The Cold War Key question What form did Chinese relations with the Soviet Union and the USA take from 1949 to 1973? Topic 1 stop a Japanese threat to its eastern borders. Once Mao was in control of a communist government in China, relations improved: • Mao visited Moscow in 1950 and a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance was signed. • The two communist states both supported North Korea in its war against South Korea. • After the death of Stalin, several Soviet leaders visited Peking in 1954. However, there were tensions between the two countries over various issues: • They had different attitudes towards the possibility of nuclear war. • They disagreed on how to encourage developing nations to build a communist state. • There were disputes about areas on their mutual border. • Mao and Khrushchev disliked and distrusted each other. Sino-Soviet relations grew increasingly tense. In 1961, China formally declared that the Soviet version of communism was not true communism. This is known as the Sino-Soviet split. China became friendlier with the USA after this, and its relationship with the USSR did not improve until the late 1980s. Source 16 Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982) A Map History of the Modern World. London: Heinemann. p. 135 Communist China and its neighbours The Cold War • 29 China’s changing relationships with neighbouring states China’s early communist rulers tended to keep China isolated. This was partly because Chinese rulers had always adopted a traditional self-centred isolation and also that they had little knowledge of the outside world. Within a year of Mao’s victory in the civil war, the Korean War broke out. This started as a civil war: forces in the north favoured communism, while the south favoured capitalism. The two groups fought for power in Korea, but ended up splitting into two countries: North and South Korea. China sent ‘volunteers’ into the war to support North Korea. They were successful in their battles. This encouraged China to take a more active and aggressive role in foreign affairs. The conciliatory side of Chinese foreign policy was shown by Zhou Enlai at the 1955 Bandung Conference of Afro-Asian states. He was moderate and reasonable and showed a less hostile attitude towards Taiwan. He was also prepared to negotiate with Indonesia and Malaysia over the status of their Chinese populations. Tibet Tibet was an accepted part of the Chinese empire, although it was fairly independent. Tibet effectively became an independent state in 1911, when the imperial government was overthrown. The Chinese still claimed that Tibet was part of its territory. China invaded Tibet in 1950 and gained control over most of the country. An agreement was reached between the Dalai Lama (the Tibetan leader) and China. In this agreement, Tibet agreed to Chinese rule in return for Tibet being allowed to exist as an autonomous province. Chinese attempts to modernise aspects of Tibet led to riots and a military intervention. The Dalai Lama fled to India and tensions between the two areas continue. Many Tibetans demand independence – some have even set themselves on fire in protest. Source 17 In this extract, a modern historian explains the concept of ‘annexation by demography’. After Mao’s death Deng and the Dalai Lama exchanged proposals for discussions about the future of Tibet on the basis that nothing except complete independence should be ruled out in advance. But in the years that followed China was less energetic in pursuing proposals than in despatching to Tibet enough Chinese settlers to outnumber its six million Tibetans. This annexation by demography was added to by the destruction of Tibetan institutions and culture, particularly thousands of monasteries and convents whose inmates were forced to disperse back to their villages or escape to India. (Source: Adapted from Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 149) India At first relations between China and India were friendly. India had been among the first countries to recognise Mao’s government in 1949. It did not object to the Chinese occupation of Tibet, formally recognising Chinese rule over Tibet in 1954. 30 • The Cold War Key question What was China’s relationship with its neighbouring states after 1949? Topic 1 However, tensions between the two states developed after the Dalai Lama was given refuge in India. This, and some border disputes, led to an Indo-Chinese War in 1962. Although this war was short, it was indecisive and tensions continued with some fighting taking place in Sikkim during 1967. There have been ongoing disputes between India and Pakistan. China tended to favour Pakistan, which did not help Indo-Chinese relations. However, there was little real conflict between the two countries since the 1962 war. Vietnam China supported the Vietminh under Ho Chi Minh in their war against France after World War II. China later gave aid to the Vietcong in their struggle against the USA. (We will look at the Vietnam War in a later section in more detail.) China did not want a strong united Vietnam which could threaten its influence in the area. After the Sino-Soviet split, Chinese concerns grew. It saw Chinese dominance of South East Asia under threat, especially as US-Vietnamese relations were improving after the war. China’s hostility grew because of the treatment of the Chinese population of Vietnam. In 1977, many of them left Vietnam, and China saw this as an expulsion. Tension also grew between these two states over the islands in the Gulf of Tonkin, which were claimed by both Vietnam and China. Both believe that there might be oil under the sea in the area. Taiwan Taiwan had been a Japanese possession since the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Japan was meant to return Taiwan to China as part of the peace process at the end of World War II. But, before that happened, the KMT took over Taiwan at the end of the Chinese Civil War and has remained there. Communist China has never recognised Taiwan as an independent state and does not accept the idea of two Chinas. The USA was not prepared to abandon its ally and stationed a fleet in the Taiwan Straits (the sea between Taiwan and China) to prevent any aggression by either China or Taiwan. The tensions over this area eased when China was less aggressive at the 1955 Bandung Conference. At this conference, the USA and communist China reached some agreement over Taiwan’s position. When the USA eventually recognised communist China as the rightful government of China, it paved the way for China to replace Taiwan in the UN Security Council. Much of mainland China’s hostility towards Taiwan improved. China and Taiwan co-exist today without outright hostility, but communist China firmly believes that it will eventually rule Taiwan. Key question To what extent was China established as a superpower by the time of Mao’s death? To what extent was China established as a superpower by the time of Mao’s death? By the time Mao died in 1976 China could be called a superpower. It had a unified government, a growing economy, a large army equipped with nuclear weapons and it held a permanent seat on the United Nations Security council with the right of veto. China also provided aid to African states like Tanzania, which ensured it a The Cold War • 31 strong following among the Afro-Asian bloc and the Non-Aligned Movement. This showed that China followed an independent line in the Cold War, which gave it more influence in times of crisis. Source 18 In this extract, a modern historian explains Mao Zedong’s influence and power. Mao broke down the sharp distinction between the rulers and the ruled of old China. ... His was a complex and contradictory personality: an intense nationalist, he was traditionally Chinese in many ways, yet his views on continuous revolution struck against the ideals of harmony and compromise that are strong in the Chinese mind. He was an untiring revolutionary and thinker, a skilled strategist both in war and politics, and a brilliant tactician. Mao Zedong was to China what both Lenin and Stalin were to Russia. (Source: Adapted from Cornwell, R.D. (1980) World History in the Twentieth Century (new edition.) Harlow: Longman. p 458) Classroom activity 11 With the help of the map in Source 16 discuss why China’s relationships with Tibet, Taiwan and Vietnam were more complex than its relationships with some of its other neighbours such as Burma. 4×2 (8) Would you agree that China’s policy towards its neighbours was determined to a large extent by how useful China saw them in furthering its own interests? Use examples to support your argument. 2×2 (4) Source 17 talks of ‘annexation by demography’. Explain what this means in your own words. 1×2 (2) Why was this method of solving the problem of Tibet attractive to China? 1×2 (2) From what you have learnt of China and Russia, to what extent can the comment in Source 18 that Mao ‘was to China what both Lenin and Stalin were to Russia’ be justified? 2×2 (4) 1 2 3 4 5 Why China tried to improve relations with the USA after 1970 Many things had changed for China by the end of 1970. Relations with the USSR continued to get worse after the original Sino-Soviet split in 1960, mainly because of Khrushchev’s American policy. In the 1960s, there were various border clashes between the two such as over islands in the Ussuri River in 1969. On the positive side, more Western countries had opened diplomatic relations with China. More importantly, communist China had replaced Taiwan as the permanent member of the UN Security Council at the end of 1970 and this changed its relationship with the USA. 32 • The Cold War Key question Why did China try to improve relations with the USA after 1970? Topic 1 As a part of the UN Security Council, China could interact with the USA on more equal terms than before. This meant it was in a position to try to improve their relationship. In 1971 President Nixon officially abandoned the ‘two Chinas’ policy and gave China full diplomatic recognition. China then invited a US ping-pong (table tennis) team to China in 1971, and Nixon visited Beijing in 1972. US trade embargoes against China were also relaxed in the early 1970s. Deng publically called for a Sino–Japanese–US alliance against the USSR. China was also encouraged to improve its relations with the USA when the Americans began their withdrawal from Vietnam. China continued to foster its relations with the USA especially in commercial terms and the USA became a major trading partner. Both countries were active in trying to improve the relationship. The USA overlooked various human rights abuses by China so that it could continue its economic relationships. Source 19 In this extract, a modern historian comments on the significance of improved relations between China and the USA. The Mao–Nixon détente was a political demonstration made possible by the ending of the Vietnam War and valuable to both countries as a means of addressing a warning to the USSR – by the Americans, not to take the Russo–American détente for granted; by the Chinese, not to make trouble on the Sino–Soviet frontiers. The demonstration had no precise content ... but it jolted thinking about international affairs at the great power level. There was now another piece on the board and it served to confuse a game which, by all the rules of a bipolar world, allowed for two players only. (Source: Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 130) Classroom activity 12 Source 19 suggests that the attempts at friendship between the USA and communist China were not so much in the interest of bringing these two countries closer but for them each to warn Russia that it needed to rethink its relationships with both the USA and with China. 1 Why would these countries feel a need to warn Russia about their relationships? 1×2 (2) 2 What was the main outcome of the US–Chinese détente? 1×2 (2) Key question What impact did China’s economic liberalisation have on its current relations with the rest of the world? Conclusion: Impact of China’s economic liberalisation on relations with the rest of the world from Mao’s death until the present Hong Kong became a British territory in 1842. This area was very wealthy and held in terms of lease agreements from China. Its economy was capitalist and based largely on trade. According to the agreements, it became part of China in 1997. Hong Kong had to keep some of its capitalist practices after being taken back into The Cold War • 33 China politically, or its value would decrease. The Chinese authorities were aware of this and this helped to free aspects of their own economy. As the Chinese economy grew, it became a manufacturing economy, which depended mainly on exports to grow. This economic growth made China ease many of its restrictions in terms of foreign investment and contacts with the outside world. It looked to Africa for sources of raw materials and markets. But by the end of the century, the USA accounted for almost 40% of Chinese exports. To maintain a growing economy, trade relations were necessary. This led to improved political relations. China has opened itself to the world in many different ways such as hosting the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China is today a superpower and very much involved in world politics and economics as the second largest economy in the world. Extra practice activity 2 1 2 3 4 5 Research the extent to which China was able to play an independent role in the Cold War during the rule of Mao Zedong. 2×2 (4) The position of Tibet and its leader, the Dalai Lama, has caused tensions in many areas of the world including South Africa. Examine the issues around this problem and suggest ways forward to solve it. 3×2 (6) Research the Bandung Conference of 1955 and try to assess its importance in the history of the Cold War. 3×2 (6) Explain the causes of tension between communist China and Taiwan. 2×2 (4) Why has the economic growth of China helped it to play an important role in world politics? 1×2 (2) Word bank aerial bombardment: containment: defoliants: drafted: napalm: 34 • The Cold War bombing using aeroplanes the act of stopping something from spreading, e.g. the USA was determined to contain or limit the number of communist states in the world through confinement chemicals that remove the leaves from trees and plants Used during warfare, it allows troops to see more when fighting in jungle or tropical regions conscripted; called to serve in the army a jelly-like substance that is contained in bombs; it sticks to anything that it touches and burns skin and flesh Topic 1 What do I still need to know? Key question How was a small country like Vietnam able to win a war against the USA (1954 to 1975)? 3 Extension of the Cold War Case study: Vietnam Vietnam was part of the French empire in South East Asia and part of what was generally called French Indo-China. The area was captured by Japan during World War II. After the defeat of Japan, France tried to regain control of its empire but the Vietnamese resisted fiercely. The war later developed into a major conflict where the USA tried to ensure the containment of communism, but failed. It was never a full-scale direct war between the USA and Vietnam, so the full force of the US military strength was never involved. The division of Vietnam into North and South was an artificial division, forced on the country by major powers at a conference in Geneva in 1954. So the war in which the USA became involved was basically a civil war waged between the north and the south in the southern part of Vietnam. Key question What form did the struggles against colonial powers take before the Second World War? Background: Overview of the struggle against colonial powers prior to the Second World War Growing nationalism in Vietnam led to revolts against the French, especially in the years after World War I. There was an attempt to assassinate the French GovernorGeneral in 1929, followed by a revolt against French rule in 1930. The revolt was led by Ho Chi Minh, a nationalist and communist who had been a member of the French Communist Party in 1921 and who had spent time in Moscow and China. The French were able to put down this uprising and Vietnam remained relatively peaceful for the next decade. But when Germany defeated France, the French hold over the empire was weakened and the Japanese captured French Indo-China with ease. Japan also took control of the British and Dutch colonies in South East Asia, after just a few months of fighting. Key question What developments took place in Vietnam immediately after the war? The period immediately after the war in Vietnam Source 20 In this extract, a modern historian gives his opinion of the Indo–China War. The Indo–China War, which began soon after the collapse of the Japanese occupation and continued into the 1980s, has been surrounded by more mythology than any other post–war event. It was complicated enough to baffle any Western statesman, as it eventually baffled the Chinese. (Source: Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 611) The Cold War • 35 Within weeks of the Japanese surrender, Ho Chi Minh, with American support, took power in Vietnam in the ’August Revolution.’ But this did not last. President Truman wanted to support France and he understood that France needed to regain its prestige by recapturing its empire. France drove Ho Chi Minh out and brought the old emperor, Bao Dai, back. France then created three separate states in IndoChina – Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam – as independent states within a French Union. The US recognised these states, but Russia and China recognised Ho Chi Minh as the ruler of Vietnam. Conflict became inevitable. France tried to gain local support but was unpopular and conflict broke out. Bao Dai was also unpopular in the southern part of Vietnam, where he had his capital. The increasingly complex struggle meant that France had to look at the conflict in Indo-China as an anti-communist struggle in order to gain allies. France had to accept financial and material help from the USA. All French hopes were eventually ended when they were defeated at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Classroom activity 13 Source 20 on the previous page speaks of the complexity of the war in Vietnam. This complexity is reflected in the role of the USA in this war. 1 Suggest reasons why the USA was at first prepared to support the nationalists under Ho Chi Minh, even though Ho Chi Minh was a communist. 2×2 (4) 2 Why would President Truman see it as important to support France in Europe? 1×2 (2) 3 If the USA supported France, why could it not continue to support Ho Chi Minh? 2×2 (4) 4 If France wanted to re-establish control over its colonies in IndoChina, suggest reasons why it brought back Bao Dai as ruler. 1×2 (2) 5 Why do you think the USA supported Bao Dai and his successor, Ngo Dinh Diem at first? 2×2 (4) 36 • The Cold War Topic 1 Key question Stages in the war What were the stages in the Vietnam War? Source 21 (Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982) A Map History of the Modern World. London: Heinemann. p. 127) Vietnam in the Cold War 1957 to 1965: Struggle in Vietnam between the South Vietnamese army and the communist-trained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong) An international conference met in Geneva to discuss the situation in Korea and Indo-China in April 1954. About two weeks later, the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu changed the situation. The conference agreed to divide Vietnam along the 17th parallel (a line of latitude). Ho Chi Minh would be in control of the north and Bao Dai in control of the south. Elections were to take place within two years on the issue of unification, but they were never held. France withdrew fully from IndoChina, leaving Laos and Cambodia independent. The USA at this time believed in the ‘domino theory’ – if one part of South East Asia fell to communism, the rest would follow like a row of dominoes falling (as shown in Source 22 on the next page). For this reason they were prepared to help support the government of Bao Dai in the South. The domino theory gave the conflict in Vietnam an importance it did not deserve. The Cold War • 37 Source 22 Communist Viet Cong m Vietna South Laos Cambodia Thailand Burma India Bangladesh The domino theory said that if one country in South-East Asia ‘fell’ to communism, the others would too. The struggle in Vietnam started first between the South Vietnamese army and the communist-trained rebels (known as the Vietcong). Bao Dai was overthrown by his prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, who turned South Vietnam into a republic with himself as president. Diem, however, was unpopular, corrupt and a Roman Catholic in a mainly Buddhist country. He faced increasing opposition; in 1960 this opposition formed the National Liberation Front (NFL). This was a formal organisation of the southern communist opposition, the Vietcong. The NFL was supported by Ho Chi Minh who in turn was supported by both China and the USSR to different degrees. The USA cut off its aid to Diem and encouraged a coup against him. This brought about a series of short-lived military governments. The USA wanted to ensure that Vietnam did not become communist, but it also did not want to commit its forces to a war in Asia. However, President Kennedy of the USA decided to commit more men and material to Vietnam, but not combat troops. He did authorise some airborne combat missions, although he later ordered a full retreat. 1965 to 1969: North Vietnamese–USA struggle Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 at a time when the Vietcong were extending their control over South Vietnam. They were able to do this because the South Vietnamese government was weak and both North Vietnam and China provided them with aid. When the US destroyer Maddox was attacked in the Bay of Tonkin in July 1964, President Johnson gained cabinet approval for the US to use combat forces in Vietnam. The Americans decided on a major aerial bombardment of North Vietnam. But Russia provided aid to North Vietnam and ensured its defence. Under Johnson, the USA increased both their military commitment and their control over the direction of the war. In response the North Vietnamese began to send soldiers south to help the Vietcong. Thus, although it was never a declared war, the struggle was between the USA and North Vietnam. As the use of aerial bombardment increased, the use of napalm, poison gas and defoliants became common. Television coverage of the war reached the USA 38 • The Cold War Source: Adapted from Catchpole, B. (1982) A Map History of the Modern World 3rd Edition. London: Heinemann. p.127 Topic 1 without any government censorship. People in the USA were horrified by what they were seeing, and a major anti-war movement was formed in the USA. There was a lot of opposition to the war in universities, where students were most likely to become the next groups drafted to serve in Vietnam. Source 23 Source: Image supplied by INPRA with caption: General Nguyen Ngoc Loan, chief of the South Vietnamese National Police, executing a captured Vietcong officer with a single shot in Saigon, 1 February 1968. Photograph by Eddie Adams of Associated Press. This photo shocked the world. It shows a Vietnamese police officer shooting a Vietcong prisoner. At the beginning of 1965 there were about 23 000 US troops in Vietnam. This number rose to 550 000 by the beginning of 1968. They were supported by allied and South Vietnamese troops and a powerful air force. However, the North Vietnamese commander, General Vo Nguyen Giap, was a brilliant guerrilla leader and prevented them from advancing. American prestige was badly damaged by the 1967 massacre of the village of My Lai. Here about 300 civilians were killed by a US army unit. The massacre led to a criminal trial and conviction in the USA. It highlighted the emotional problems that the war was creating among American servicemen. In January 1968 the North Vietnamese launched the Tet offensive which, although it did not succeed in capturing Saigon, led to a new American attempt to start negotiations for peace and a reduction of the aerial bombardment. The negotiations took place in Paris and included the USA, North Vietnam, the South Vietnamese government and the Vietcong. The talks achieved nothing and Johnson announced that he would not seek re-election as president. The Cold War • 39 Source 24 In this extract, a modern historian comments on Johnson’s position on Vietnam. North Vietnam had discovered that the Americans really wanted to get out and either turn the war over once more to the South Vietnamese (whose army was brought up to a strength of over one million and given the most modern equipment) or end it. Johnson could neither win a victory, since he was not prepared to use nuclear weapons, nor negotiate a peace, since North Vietnam preferred waiting to negotiating. He was pursuing incompatible aims – to get out and to secure the existence of a separate, non-communist South Vietnam. (Source: Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 541) The nature of the Vietnamese war against the USA The Vietcong used guerrilla tactics against the USA. They used their knowledge of the local terrain and the fact that the Americans could not tell the difference between Vietcong and local peasants loyal to the South Vietnamese government. The Vietcong used a variety of booby traps to catch unwary US troops. They had a complex system of underground tunnels which made it difficult for the Americans to fight them effectively. There were many variations on the basic trap they used, which was built from sharpened bamboo spikes and was known as a Panji trap. It was cheap to make and very common, consisting of a small hole covered with leaves. At the bottom of the holes, the sharpened sticks were arranged point up so that the victim’s foot was pierced when he fell into the hole. To make matters worse the spikes were often covered in human excrement, which would ensure an infection in the wound. Source 25 A typical booby trap. This kind of trap would be placed over a hole in the ground and covered with leaves so that it was not visible. When a soldier stood on it, he would fall into the hole and the trap would swing around so that the spike on the trap would injure the soldier. This trap is in a museum in Ho Chi Minh City. 40 • The Cold War Source: Image supplied by AfriPics with caption: A see saw booby trap at Ben Dinh, Cu Chi, near Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), Vietnam Topic 1 Booby traps were not only responsible for many of the casualties but they also caused great stress. The fear of such traps created a psychological barrier that often detracted from the efficiency of the American and allied forces. Many of the Americans faced severe problems in returning to civilian life when they returned to America after the war. The North Vietnamese forces tended to be more conventional in their warfare but their task was mainly to support the Vietcong. Supplies were often taken south through Cambodia along what became known as the Ho Chi Minh trail (see the map in Source 21 on page 37). Classroom activity 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Look at the map in Source 21. What makes the Vietnam area strategically important to the USA? 1×2 (2) Source 22 on page 38 shows the American fear of the domino theory. In small groups discuss the validity of this fear. 2×2 (4) Technically America was not at war with North Vietnam. Why then was the main thrust of US action directed against North Vietnam? 3×2 (6) The horror of the war was shown to American television audiences by scenes such as that captured in Source 23 on page 39. How did this impact on American support for the war? 1×2 (2) Look carefully at Source 24 on the previous page and explain why Johnson’s two aims were incompatible. Suggest reasons why North Vietnam preferred waiting to negotiating. 2×2 (4) Study Source 25 on the previous page and explain how such traps worked and why they had such a strong psychological effect on US troops. 3×2 (6) Look carefully at the two visual sources 23 and 25. They show different aspects of the horrors that were happening in the war in Vietnam. Why did Source 23 ‘shock the world’ while the picture of the trap (Source 25) aroused very little reaction? 2×2 (4) The war from a Vietnamese and US perspective Ho Chi Minh and his colleagues were determined that the entire area of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia should be free of foreign domination and interference. People supported Ho Chi Minh and his ideals as Ho was firstly a nationalist and then a communist. The USA was drawn into the clash by two factors: • The need to help France to regain prestige in Europe, which involved rebuilding its empire • The fear of any communist expansion. Although the USA did not want to get involved in South East Asia, the fear of communism and the domino theory led to a growing involvement which was difficult to stop. The war ended Johnson’s political career and created a strong antiwar media campaign which affected domestic politics. The media opposition made the American presidents hesitant to commit enough troops and use effective tactics to win the war. Aerial bombing seemed to be an acceptable policy to the US government because it would lessen the number of possible US casualties. The Cold War • 41 Source: Image supplied by AfriPics with caption: Demonstration against the war in Vietnam, 1972 Protesters at marches carried banners demanding that the US government ‘stop bombs in Vietnam.’ Source 26 In this extract, a modern historian comments on the different positions of the USA and Vietnam. Americans showed little understanding of a general Vietnamese desire to be independent of foreigners. They also showed little understanding of what was mainly a peasant’s economy. Strategically they were slow to recognise the need to gain support at village level, too readily assuming that the war could be won in the cities and towns and that some taste of capitalist wealth there would wean the people from communism. (Source: Watson, J.B. (1984) Success in Twentieth Century World Affairs: From 1919 to the 1980s. London: John Murray) The war as a global issue The war became a major Cold War issue as it was fought to contain communism. The domino theory was applied to give a local context to the Truman Doctrine of containment. Both the USSR and communist China gave support to North Vietnam while the USA was supported by its allies. Military support for US actions in Vietnam came mainly from Australia and New Zealand, while its NATO allies gave some moral support. This support diminished, however, as the media campaigns against the war grew. The media became important as this was the first war where uncensored television coverage was possible and the media made the most of this. Images were broadcast 42 • The Cold War Topic 1 around the world showing atrocities and implying that these were more widespread than they were. Media attention was also expanded when a number of films were made that used the war as a background. Some were based on fact, but most were simply action movies which often showed the US forces in a bad way. This helped to create antagonism towards the American war effort, both at home and abroad. The American commitment in Vietnam was so costly that it forced the USA to reduce some of its commitments in other areas. Classroom activity 15 1 2 Use Source 26 to help you to decide why the USA and the North Vietnamese governments saw the war from such different perspectives. Discuss the role of the media in building hostility towards the Americans’ role in Vietnam. 2×2 (4) 3×2 (6) 1969 to 1975: USA withdrawal from Vietnam When Nixon became US president, he promised to end the war but it took some years before he was able to do so. During his first term of office, Nixon reduced the number of American forces in Vietnam from 550 000 to 24 000 and spending from $25 billion a year to just under $3 billion a year. He also pursued peace negotiations with North Vietnam. Nixon also took advantage of the Sino-Soviet split to work towards an agreement with communist China. This new China policy helped to make peace with the North Vietnamese government in Hanoi possible. Eventually, after years of negotiations (often in secret) between US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho of North Vietnam, a treaty was signed in January 1973. Once American forces withdrew, the North Vietnamese became stronger and invaded the south. Fighting between North and South Vietnam continued until April 1975 when a unified, communist Vietnam emerged. There was still fighting between Vietnam and Cambodia (renamed Kampuchea) for some years. By 1980 the whole of IndoChina had been temporarily united under a communist North Vietnamese military dictatorship, but no further ‘dominoes’ fell. The impact of the Vietnam War on USA politics It is difficult to evaluate the impact that the Vietnam War had on American politics as it was only one of many forces that affected the political situation. The main issues of domestic policy during the years of the Vietnam War were civil rights and education. The war was blamed for the slow rate of improvement in both these fields. There was opposition to the war among university students, which became more important when the voting age was lowered to 18 in 1971. Many of these people became critical of the government, and many people distrusted the government. The draft was very unpopular, and for this reason it has not been used in the USA since the Vietnam War. The Cold War • 43 Student movements There was a movement to create more places in universities in many western countries in the 1960s and 1970s. The USA was no exception. The number of colleges and universities in the USA rose from 2 040 in 1960 to 3 055 in 1975. Student enrolment grew from 3.6 million to 9.4 million. Protests and activism increased among this growing student population. Student activists were initially more concerned with civil rights issues and the status of African-American people. Then, just after Kennedy’s assassination, the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed. This meant that the position of African-American people began to improve. (You will learn more about this in Topic 3.) In the same year, the US involvement in Vietnam increased and the first combat troops were sent there. As the war escalated, so did the student protests. Students were among those likely to be called up to serve in Vietnam and few of them wanted that. The protests were first greeted as a sign of awareness and maturity, but they became increasingly violent and widespread. In 1965 about 25 000 students went to Washington to protest against the Vietnam War. The ‘campus riot’ became a common occurrence at universities. The most infamous student protest movement was the one at Kent State University. Students were protesting over Nixon’s announcement of the invasion of Cambodia by American troops. Government troops then opened fire on students, killing four and wounding others. Conclusion: How the war is remembered today in the USA and Vietnam The war is remembered in museums and through memorials in both countries. The USA has two main memorials – the Veterans’ Memorial and a Women’s Memorial – which commemorate the people who were involved in the war. They also have compilations of the songs of the time, both military tunes and protest songs. On particular anniversaries, parades of veterans are held but these will probably become less common as there are fewer and fewer surviving veterans. In Vietnam there is a major memorial in Hanoi near the tomb of Ho Chi Minh. Both countries are determined to focus on the present and future and so look to the memorials to remind them of lessons to be learnt from the past, rather than to dwell in the past. Source 27 The Vietnamese memorial in Hanoi. It was constructed in 1993, in a mixture of traditional Vietnamese and communist architectural styles. The memorial commemorated men and women who sacrificed themselves during the Vietnam war. 44 • The Cold War Source: Image supplied by AfriPics with caption: Unknown Soldier monument, Hanoi, Vietnam Topic 1 Classroom activity 16 1 2 3 4 How did Nixon manage to reduce American commitment in Vietnam? 1×2 (2) Suggest reasons why student protests against the Vietnam War became more concerned with the civil rights movement than the war. 1×2 (2) Why did the withdrawal of American troops in 1973 not end the 1×2 (2) war? Comment on the design of the Hanoi memorial (Source 27). Extra practice activity 3 1 2 3 4 Research the French Indo-Chinese War of 1946 to 1954 and show why the French could not win it. 2×2 (4) Explain why President Eisenhower committed the US to a policy of supporting the South Vietnamese government. 1×2 (2) Why did Kennedy agree to increase US involvement in Vietnam, knowing it could mean having to commit more and more troops to the war? 2×2 (4) What factors made it particularly difficult for the American troops in Vietnam to be effective in supporting the government of South Vietnam? 1×2 (2) Summary • • • • • • • • • • • The Cold War started after World War II and involved the two biggest superpowers at the time, the USA and USSR. The USSR set up communist-friendly governments in Eastern Europe and the USA responded with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. The Berlin airlift was necessary because West Berlin had been blocked off and they needed to get food and other supplies in. The Berlin Wall was built in the early 1960s to stop the flow of people from East Berlin to West Berlin. The Western allies formed a military alliance known as NATO while the USSR and other satellite states formed a military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact. The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 showed how the USA and the USSR became involved in other countries during the Cold War. The Cold War extended to other countries, for example, China and Vietnam. China emerged as a second major communist power and played a large role in the Cold War. China had difficult relations with its neighbours, Tibet, India, Vietnam and Taiwan. China’s relationships with the USA changed after 1970 when it was admitted to the UN Security council. China had a huge impact on world politics and played a large role in world economic, social and political arenas. The Cold War • 45 • • • • • • France wanted to regain power and control over its territories in Indo-China. The USA became involved to help France regain control over Vietnam after France was defeated at Dien Bien Phu. The Vietnam War began as a civil war between South Vietnam and North Vietnam. The arrival of US troops in the South and the greater military involvement of North Vietnam caused the war to become an international war rather than a civil war. The US media played a large role in the Vietnam War as there was no censorship and they broadcast images of the war across the world. These broadcasts affected people’s views of the war. America withdrew from Vietnam, and North Vietnam, which was now dominant, took over South Vietnam. Formal assessment Source-based task Study the following sources, then answer the questions that follow. Key question How did the creation of spheres of interest intensify the tensions of the Cold War? Source A Political changes in Central Europe 1945–1948 Source: Adapted from Bown, C. and Mooney, P.J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p.23 46 • The Cold War Topic 1 Source B This cartoon gives an opinion about the Marshall Plan and Russia’s relationship with its satellite states. Source: Image based on a cartoon that originally appeared in the Daily Mirror, New York, January 1949 The Marshall Plan The Marshall Stalin Plan Source C In this extract, General Clay, who commanded the American forces in Germany, explains why it was so important not to lose contact with West Berlin. We have lost Czechoslovakia. Norway is threatened. We retreat from Berlin. When Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we mean ... to hold Europe against communism, we must not budge. We can take humiliation and pressure short of war in Berlin without losing face. If we withdraw, our position in Europe is threatened. (Source: Quoted in Robertson, C.L. (1966) International Politics since World War II. New York: Wiley. p. 96) Questions 1. Look at Source A. 1.1 What areas of Central Europe does this map show as being within the Soviet sphere of influence? 1.2 The map shows that Poland annexed German land. Why was this significant? 1.3 Germany and Austria were both divided into four occupation zones, as shown on the map. Why was this done? 1.4 The map shows that Berlin was also divided into four zones. Why did this happen? 2. Look at the cartoon in Source B. 2.1 This cartoon refers to the Marshall Plan. Explain what the Marshall Plan was and how it worked. 2.2 Who do the chicks in the nest in the picture on the left represent? 2.3 What was Comecon intended to do? 2.4 In the picture on the right of the cartoon the big bird is sitting in the nest. Why has the cartoonist done this? 2×2 (4) 1×2 (2) 2×2 (4) 2×2 (4) 3×2 (6) 1×2 (2) 1×2 (2) 1×2 (2) The Cold War • 47 2.5 Whom do the smaller birds represent and why are they shown in this way? 2×2 (4) 3. Read the text in Source C. 3.1 This refers to how the West should react to the Berlin Blockade. Why was General Clay so determined to hold Berlin? 3.2 How did the Western states decide to ‘hold Berlin’ and with what result? Extended writing question 4. Write a paragraph in which you explain the extent to which all the tensions of the Cold War were reflected in events in Germany in the period 1945 to 1950. 2×2 (4) 3×2 (6) (10) [50] Essay task 1. Examine the role of China in the Cold War and comment specifically on how the following three events impacted on China’s influence in the Cold War: • Bandung Conference 1955 • Sino-Soviet split 1960 • acceptance as a permanent member of UN Security Council 1970. OR 2. In looking at the history of Vietnam since 1945, why was it important that Ho Chi Minh was a nationalist first and a communist second? [50] Key question Formal assessment Research assignment The Cold War was characterised by conflict through proxy wars, the manipulation of more vulnerable states through extensive military and financial aid, espionage, propaganda, rivalry over technological, space and nuclear races, and sport (CAPS document). Consider the issues of rivalry in technology, the space race and sport in order to research the extent to which these rivalries affected the relationships of the two superpowers. You will be expected to sort your research into areas such as: • the space race • medical research • the race for Olympic gold. In each section you will be expected to look at such issues as: the first successful satellite launch the first human in space the first person on the moon organ transplants cures for diseases training methods and successes. • • • • • • 48 • The Cold War To what extent was the Cold War fought in nonpolitical spheres of interest? Topic 1 Include sources to support your responses. Critically comment on the sources that you choose. You could compare sources, comment on any bias or prejudice that they show, or comment on how useful they are as sources. You could use primary or secondary sources, but you must make sure that you write down where you found the source. Some useful steps to follow in your research 1. Start your research generally. Source information and read around the topic before you start writing about different areas. This will give you an overview. 2. Start making notes about what you are reading. One method of making notes is to put the different areas or sub-topics on different pages and make notes on each sub-topic as you find information. 3. As you make your notes, record where you found the note. This is very important as you do not want to be penalised for plagiarism. It is also difficult to find sources when you are putting together your bibliography at the end of the project, so be methodical about keeping note of your sources as you are working. 4. Once you are satisfied that you can discuss each sub-topic or area, start writing your paragraphs about each sub-topic. 5. The last paragraph should be a discussion of your key question, so you need to spend a lot of time and thought on this one. This concludes your project and you need to interpret and analyse the research for the other sub-topics for this one. 6. Once you have finished your first draft, edit it for language and content: check that your spelling and language are correctly used and that your arguments are logical and well developed. 7. Write out your final draft. Schedule of work This is a long process, and you will not be able to produce good work at the last minute. Work out a schedule of dates like this one: Step 1. Start reading around the topic. 2. Start making notes. Record sources as you work. 3. Complete first draft of sub-topics. 4. Complete first draft of last paragraph. 5. Edit first drafts for content and language. 6. Hand in final draft. Date to be completed The Cold War • 49 Assessment Your teacher will assess your project using the following assessment tool. 50 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level +7 Design of research No pattern to research Only covered one aspect but logically Covered two of the three aspects in some sort of pattern Covered all three aspects, but no attempt to link them All three aspects covered and linked to each other All three aspects covered and linked and some mention of their impact on relationships All three aspects covered and linked to each other. Constant reference made to changing relationships as things developed Content Minimal and disjointed One aspect Two covered aspects adequately covered adequately Three aspects covered adequately or two covered well All three aspects covered with some linking of them to the issue of relationships All three aspects covered well, linked to each other and to the issue of relationships The main focus is on the relationships between the powers and how this was affected by the technology Focus on Not sure Looks only rivalry who fought at one of relationships the Cold the major War powers Looks at both powers but not at the changing relationships Intermittent look at the changes in relationship Reasonable grasp of the changing relationships Good understanding of relationships and their impact on allies Understands relationship changes, impact on allies and on rest of the world Overall understanding Adequate Average Good Excellent Outstanding • None The Cold War Poor T c opi 2 Independent Africa What will you learn about in this topic? • • • • • • • How ideas of African socialism, capitalism, democracy and one-party states were implemented after independence How the Congo was used as a tool in the Cold War African socialism in Tanzania The political, economic, social and cultural successes and challenges that Tanzania and the Congo experienced after independence, including the legacies of colonialism The role of African leaders like Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu Sese Seko and Julius Nyerere The impact of internal and external factors on Africa after independence The role of the Cold War in Africa, using Angola as a case study Let’s talk about this topic The picture on this page shows a number of protesters marching through London. They were protesting the murder of the Congolese independence leader, Patrice Lumumba, in 1961. Their placards demand that Belgian troops be expelled from Congo. In groups of three, discuss the following questions: 1. Why do civil society protests take place? 2. With specific reference to Africa, why do you think people decided to protest? 3. How effective is the form of protest shown in the picture? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this form of protest. Source: Image supplied by Mary Evans Library with caption: February 1961. In response to the murder of Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba on 17 January 1961, a group of protesters march through a street in London holding placards calling for Belgian troops to be expelled from Congo. Marx Memorial Library /Mary Evans Independent Africa • 51 What do I know already? Nationalism In Grade 10 and 11 you learnt about different forms of nationalism and how these changed after World War II. Nationalism was an important force in Europe before World War II. When Africans went to fight for the European powers in World War II, they were exposed to ideas of nationalism. Nationalism grew in Africa because European empires had colonised many countries in Africa and destroyed their national identities. In the 1900s, nearly the whole continent of Africa was ruled by European countries. This changed the lives of the African people as colonisation served the interests of colonial (European) powers at the expense of the colonies. The colonisers used local labour to extract valuable minerals, raw materials and agricultural products. They took these raw materials from the colonies and then sold them back to the colonies as manufactured goods. These manufactured goods were sold at huge profits. The process of colonisation also meant that the European powers spent very little money developing the colonies. The only infrastructure that was developed was for transporting goods to the harbour to be sent to European countries. The fight for independence took different forms in different parts of the world. Independence struggles in Africa were long and drawn-out because some European powers were reluctant to give up states that possessed such enormous wealth. African nationalism was a system of self-defence in which African people aimed to unite and strengthen themselves. National struggles in many African regions were influenced by the Cold War. Ghana was the first country in Africa to gain independence in 1957. (You learnt about Ghana in the section ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana in Grade 11.) This led to the process of decolonisation throughout the continent. By the 1970s, most African countries were independent. You will learn more about the state of independent countries in this topic. Source 1 In this extract, Kwame Nkrumah is speaking before the House of Assembly on 10 July 1953, while it was still under British rule. The right of a people to decide their own destiny, to make their way in freedom ... is an inalienable right ... which they cannot have when the forces that are stronger than themselves take this right away from them. If there is a way to tell whether or not people are prepared for self-government, then I say it is their readiness to assume their responsibility of ruling themselves, for who but a people themselves can say they are prepared? Self-government which we demand, therefore, is the means by which our people can develop their abilities and develop their potentialities to the full. (Source: Adapted from Wray, D. (2003) Africa in the 20th Century. Learners’ support material. GIED) k Chec lf myse 52 Work in groups of three or four. Read Source 1 and answer the following questions. 1. Why did African people fight for independence? 2. According to the source, why did the process of gaining independence take a long time? 3. How did African people feel about gaining independence? Quote from the source to support your answer. 4. Kwame Nkrumah was an African nationalist. Do you agree with this statement? Support your answer using your own knowledge as well as evidence from the source. • Independent Africa Topic 2 Key question for this topic How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s? Map of independent Africa Source: Adapted from http://www.mapsof world.com/africapolitical-map.htm The countries of Africa and the year in which each nation became independent Independent Africa • 53 Important events relating to Independent Africa Event Date Consequences Berlin Conference 1884 European powers agree to divide Africa into spheres of interest. The outbreak of World War II 1939 African people fought in the war and were exposed to ideas of democracy and liberty. Brazzaville Conference 1944 It recommended political, social and economic reforms in French colonies. The end of World War II 1945 Africans returned from the war with ideas of liberty and democracy. This influenced their fight for independence. Pan-Africanist Congress 1945 It demanded an end to colonial rule and an end to racial discrimination, while it carried forward the broad struggle against imperialism, for human rights and equality of economic opportunity. The beginning of the Cold War 1945 This had a positive impact on Africa’s fight against colonial rule as the superpowers put pressure on the colonial powers to grant independence. 54 Independence of Ghana 1957 This was the first West African country to gain independence and influence other countries to fight colonial rule. All-Africa Conference 1959 It was a conference of political parties and other groups in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Africa. It was attended by delegates from areas still under European colonial rule. Belgians withdraw from the Congo 1960 After independence the Congo became a tool for the Cold War. Tanganyika (later to become Tanzania) gains independence 1961 Tanzania implemented African Socialism after independence and gave a justification for a one-party state. Organisation of African Unity was formed 1963 It was formed to unite Africans and to fight for independence from colonial rule. Rivonia Trial in South Africa 1964 Mandela and other ANC leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment. Chinese aid to Africa increases 1970 Start of the TANZAM railway. Addis Ababa Agreement 1972 This ended the north-south civil war in Sudan. Revolution in Portugal 1974 Ended the Portuguese African empire, giving these colonies independence. Rhodesian independence as Zimbabwe 1980 Mugabe turns against Nkomo. Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in Angola 1987 Led to South African withdrawal from Angola and Namibia. Cold War ends 1990 De Klerk unbanned ANC, SACP and PAC. First democratic elections in South Africa 1994 ANC came to power; Mandela became president. • Independent Africa Topic 2 Important role players in this topic Kwame Nkrumah He organised the Pan Africanist Congress in which he looked at different strategies for gaining independence in Ghana (then Gold Coast). He attracted local support and formed a strong organisation, the Convention People’s Party. His party led Ghana to independence in March 1957 and became an example of what other African countries could achieve. Patrice Lumumba Patrice Lumumba was the first prime minister of the Republic of the Congo. He was the leading figure when the Republic of the Congo gained independence from Belgium. Belgium had ruled the Congo since the late nineteenth century. When Lumumba was murdered in 1961 he became a symbol for the struggle for independence in Africa. Julius Nyerere Julius Nyerere was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first president of Tanzania when it gained independence in 1961. He introduced African Socialism to the continent. Source: Images supplied by Afripics Marcus Garvey Marcus Garvey was born in Jamaica in 1887. He was a good speaker who influenced the Black Nationalist and PanAfricanist movements. Garvey was a self-educated social activist who promoted black people and the resettlement of African Americans in Africa. He promoted social, economic and political freedom for black people. Harold Macmillan British Prime Minister between 1957 and 1963. In 1960 he visited South Africa where he gave a speech that influenced nationalist movements throughout Africa. This speech was called the ‘Winds of Change’ speech, and was delivered to the South African parliament in Cape Town. This signalled the British decision to grant independence to British African colonies. Mobutu Sese Seko He was the president of the Congo from 1965 to 1997. He renamed the country Zaire. While in office, he formed an authoritarian regime, gained huge personal wealth and tried to get rid of all colonial cultural influence. He favoured capitalism and his stance gained him Western allies. Independent Africa • 55 Word bank African nationalism: the desire of African people to rule themselves colonise: when one country captures another country or territory and keeps it under political and economic control coup: a sudden violent or illegal takeover of government decolonisation: the granting of independence to a colony dictator: a ruler who is not restricted by the constitution or laws of the country inalienable right: a right that cannot be taken away independence: the state of being free from another’s control infrastructure: the basic physical systems, service and facilities (such as buildings, roads, power supplies, public transport) that is necessary for a country, region or society to function properly nationalism: the sense of belonging to a nation that people feel because they share similar backgrounds and common cultural characteristics, which often gives rise to a policy of national independence socialism: an economic theory or system in which the means of production, distribution and exchange are owned by the community collectively, usually through the state urbanisation: the migration of rural dwellers to the cities What do I still need to know? 1 What were the ideas that influenced the independent states? Initially, African organisations focused on improving the living conditions in the colonies, rather than achieving independence. The focus of national independence changed after World War II (1939–1945) when Africans were exposed to independence movements from other parts of the world. World War II was a turning point in the history of colonialism as many African countries gained independence after the war. However, not all countries gained independence in the same way and at the same time. Some colonial powers were reluctant to grant independence to their colonies. Many factors led to the rise of African nationalism and independence. The influence of World War II African countries participated in World War II. Black soldiers fought alongside white soldiers and African economies were expanded to meet the war needs. The war was fought against countries like Germany, where democracy was not allowed. This made people more critical of colonialism, which was also not a 56 • Independent Africa Key question What were the ideas that influenced the independent states? Topic 2 democratic system. African soldiers returned after the war with Western ideas of liberty and democracy. It seemed unfair that they had fought to protect democracy overseas, but were not living in democratic countries themselves. World War II also drained the economies of the colonial powers. They did not have the strength or finances to carry on running the colonies after the war as they had to rebuild their own economies after the destruction caused by the war. They realised that they needed to change the colonial system. Education, urbanisation and liberal ideas Many Africans were also being educated and thereby exposed to liberal ideas. Most of these people had studied in overseas universities. Education helped to produce leaders that were critical of colonial rule and aimed to unite African people. For example, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya were educated nationalists. African intellectuals resented the fact that colonial powers exploited African people. They were also influenced by other movements in the world like the Universal Negro Improvement Association, which was started by Marcus Garvey in 1914. This movement fought for the independence of black people throughout the world. There was also a growth in urbanisation. Many people came to work in the cities, where they formed an urban working class. These people put more pressure on the colonial powers to grant independence to African states. When the war ended, these ideas of liberty grew. There was more racial tolerance after the war. The colonial powers found it difficult to justify why they had fought for freedom and democracy during the war if they were not willing to give it to their colonies. In 1945 the United Nations Organisation was formed. Its aim was to promote peace and independence throughout the world. The UNO also put pressure on colonial powers to grant independence to their colonies. Source 2 This is a resolution passed at the fifth Pan-Africanist Congress, 1945, which condemned colonialism. Kwame Nkrumah was one of the organisers of this congress, which was held in Manchester, England. We are determined to be free. We want education. We want the right to earn a decent living, the right to express our thoughts and emotions, to adopt and create forms of beauty. We demand for Black Africa autonomy and independence. We will fight in every way we can for freedom, democracy and social betterment. (Source: Govender, S. et al. (2007) New Generation History, Durban: New Generation) The Cold War Another event that influenced the process of decolonisation was the Cold War. After World War II, focus shifted to fighting the Cold War. The West needed African states as allies against communist Russia. The USA and the USSR also put pressure on the colonial governments to give independence to their colonies. These Independent Africa • 57