Download Solutions for all History Grade 12 Learner`s Book

Solutions for all
History
Grade 12
Learner’s Book
E Brink C de Nobrega M Malinga
J Verner M Willemse
Solutions for all History Grade 12 Learner’s Book
© E Brink, C de Nobrega, M Malinga, J Verner, M Willemse, 2012
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Contents
Dear Learner .......................................................................................................... iv
Topic 1: The Cold War............................................................................................ 1
The concept and origins of the Cold War ................................................... 6
Extension of the Cold War – Case study: China......................................... 26
Extension of the Cold War – Case study: Vietnam ..................................... 35
Formal assessment.................................................................................... 46
Topic 2: Independent Africa................................................................................. 51
What were the ideas that influenced the independent states?................... 56
Comparative case studies: The successes and challenges faced
by independent Africa .............................................................................. 61
Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa ............ 78
Formal assessment: Test ........................................................................... 86
Topic 3: Civil society protests: 1950s to 1970s .................................................... 91
Overview of civil society protests .............................................................. 97
Case study: The US civil rights movement .............................................. 122
Case study: The black power movement ................................................ 135
Formal assessment.................................................................................. 143
Topic 4: Civil resistance in South Africa: 1970s to 1980s .................................. 147
The challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state .................. 156
The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: Government attempts to reform
apartheid ............................................................................................... 164
The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: Internal resistance to reforms.......... 169
The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: International response .................... 178
The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s: The beginning of the end............... 187
Formal assessment.................................................................................. 190
Topic 5: The coming of democracy in South Africa and coming to terms
with the past......................................................................................... 193
The negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity............... 198
How has South Africa chosen to remember the past? The Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (TRC) ........................................................... 229
Remembering the past: Memorials ......................................................... 240
Formal assessment: Test ......................................................................... 244
Topic 6: The end of the Cold War and a new world order: 1989 to
present .................................................................................................. 247
The end of the Cold War: The events of 1989......................................... 251
A new world order ................................................................................. 262
Conclusion ............................................................................................. 281
Formal assessment.................................................................................. 283
Sample examinations ......................................................................................... 287
Glossary .............................................................................................................. 309
Index ................................................................................................................... 314
Dear Learner
Welcome to another exciting year of learning History! This year you will continue your study of change
and development in society over time, keeping in mind the key question for Grades 10 to 12:
How do we understand our world today?
In Grade 12 you will be studying the following six topics, each with its own key question to focus
the topic:
Topic
Key question
Term
The Cold War
How did the Cold War period shape international
relations after the Second World War?
1
Independent Africa
How was independence realised in Africa in the
1960s and 1970s?
1
Civil society protests 1950s to 1970s
What forms of civil society protest emerged from
the 1960s to 1990?
2
Civil resistance in South Africa 1970s
to 1980s
What was the nature of the civil society resistance
after the 1960s?
2
The coming of democracy in South
Africa and coming to terms with the
past
How did South Africa emerge as a democracy
from the crises of the 1990s, and how did South
Africans come to terms with the apartheid past?
3
The end of the Cold War and a new
world order – 1989 to the present
How has the world changed since the 1960s?
3
The CAPS curriculum requires that assessment in History is always based on content knowledge and
skills. For this reason you will find that this book offers you:
• an excellent foundation by supplying a wealth of content knowledge
• a good balance of a variety of visual and textual sources
• classroom, homework and extra practice activities, as well as Formal Assessment Tasks that give
you ample exercise in applying both your content knowledge and skills of analysing sources and
writing an essay.
Good luck and enjoy the journey!
Note to the teacher:
Please refer to the Teacher’s Guide for sample exam papers, as well as handouts with guidelines for the
learners on analysing sources and writing an essay.
iv
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1
The Cold War
What will you learn about in this topic?
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How and why a Cold War developed
The creation of spheres of interest by the USA and USSR
The concept of containment and how this dominated US
foreign policy
Crises in Berlin and how these led to rival military
alliances
The clash over Cuba
China and the Cold War
Vietnam as a Cold War clash
Let’s talk about this topic
Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa created the
Grand Alliance. But tensions developed among the Allies. At several conferences, the
leaders disagreed about the future of Europe. These disagreements become major
causes of the Cold War.
The picture shown in the background is of the Yalta Conference (February 1945) where
Churchill (Britain), Roosevelt (USA) and Stalin (USSR) met for the last time as allies in
the War. They made agreements about the fate of Eastern Europe after the war –
agreements that Stalin later ignored.
1. Examine the facial expressions and body language of these leaders. Suggest
reasons why none of them look pleased.
2. What does Stalin’s cap suggest about his ideas?
Source: Image supplied by AAI Fotostock with the caption: Conference of
the Big Three at Yalta; Anonymous; 1945; State Museum of History, Moscow.
The Cold War
•
1
What do I know already?
The divided post-war world
In Grade 11 you looked at capitalism and communism and the differences between
them. You also looked at the rise of nationalism. These forces now began to play a
part in creating a divided world. American nationalism, for example, reinforced the
advantages of a democratic capitalist society, rather than a planned communist
type of economy. The Russian government also promoted nationalism to
encourage its people to make sacrifices so it could compete in the arms race and the
space race against the USA.
In Grade 9 you looked at the Second World War and how the need to oppose Nazi
Germany led to an alliance between the capitalist West, led by the USA and the
UK, and communist Russia. There were always tensions within this alliance so it
did not last once the common enemies of Germany and Japan had been defeated.
The war also ensured that the USA and the USSR were the dominant powers at the
end of the war. Britain and France had suffered greatly from the effects of war-time
bombing and from the cost of being at war. The USSR had also suffered many
deaths, but it was better able to recover, and it became a ‘superpower’ alongside
the USA. However, the philosophies and beliefs of democratic capitalism and
communism are too different to allow for friendship and so the two powers
became rivals in trying to influence the rest of the world.
This rivalry between the USA and the USSR, which included both an arms race and
the space race, became known as the Cold War. The period 1945 to 1989 is therefore
often described as a bi-polar world – a world divided into two sections. One section
was dominated by the USSR; the other by the USA.
k
Chec lf
myse
2
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1. What are the main differences between capitalism and
communism?
2. Why will these forces always oppose each other?
3. Why do you think the USA and the USSR did not have an actual
war to see which was more powerful?
The Cold War
Topic 1
Key question for this topic
How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War?
Important events relating to the Cold War
Cold War
Date South Africa
Yalta and Potsdam conferences
1945
Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech
1946 Miners’ strike
Truman Doctrine announced
1947
Berlin blockade and airlift
1948 National Party election victory
Germany split into two countries: West and
East Germany
NATO formed
First Soviet A-bomb
1949 Start of policy of apartheid
Korean War begins
1950
1952 Defiance Campaign
Death of Stalin. End of Korean War
1953 Bantu Education introduced
Manila Pact (SEATO)
Geneva Conference on Korea and Indo-China
1954 Native Resettlement Act and Urban Areas
Act
West Germany joins NATO
Warsaw Pact
1955
Suez crisis
1956 Mixed trade unions banned
Eisenhower Doctrine
Sputnik
1957
Khrushchev visits USA
Castro takes Cuba
1959 Pan-Africanist Congress formed
Tribal universities established
U2 shot down
Paris summit fails
1960 Referendum on republic
Berlin Wall built
Bay of Pigs invasion
1961 Sharpeville massacre
South Africa becomes a republic
Cuban missile crisis
1962 ANC begins the armed struggle
USA, UK, USSR sign Partial Test Ban Treaty
1963 Lilliesleaf farm raided: ANC leaders arrested
1964 Rivonia trial of Mandela and others
US troops to Vietnam
1965
USA decides to build anti-missile system
1967 Terrorism Act
Brezhnev Doctrine
1968
Apollo 11 lands on the moon
1969 Biko forms SASO
SALT 1 signed
1972 Black People’s Convention formed
The Cold War
•
3
Cold War
Date South Africa
Yom Kippur War
1973
Vietnam War ends with Northern victory
1975 Inkatha revived
1976 Soweto riots over Bantu Education
SALT 2 signed
1979 COSAS formed
Gorbachev ends aid to satellites
1986
Berlin Wall falls
1989 F W de Klerk replaces P W Botha as President
Collapse of Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe
1990 Mandela freed
Collapse of USSR
Cold War ends
1991 Start of negotiations for a new South Africa
Source: Images supplied by INPRA
Important role players in this topic
Josef Stalin (1879–1953) was the
founding editor of Pravda, the
communist newspaper in 1912. He was
imprisoned for his political views at
various times. In 1917 he was one of
the central figures of the Bolshevik
revolution. He succeeded Lenin as the
dominant figure in the Russian
government. The new constitution of
1936 gave him absolute authority in
the USSR. He eliminated all opposition
to him and was revered by the Russian
people, at least outwardly. His
collectivisation of agriculture and fiveyear industrial plans ensured that the
USSR became a major power. He
claimed to follow a policy of ‘socialism
in one country.’ This meant he isolated
the USSR and its East European
satellite states from the West by what
became known as the ‘iron curtain’.
4
•
The Cold War
Harry S Truman (1884–1972)
became president of the USA
when Franklin Roosevelt died
in April 1945, but he was later
elected president in his own
right. He made the decision to
use atomic bombs on Japan
and took a hard line against
communist expansion. His
Truman Doctrine looked at
containing the spread of
communism, but co-existing
with it where it already
existed. Marshall Aid was
introduced during his
presidency.
Dwight Eisenhower
(1890–1969) was US president
from 1953 to 1961 and was
largely responsible for the
idea of the ‘domino theory’ in
South East Asia. He issued his
Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957,
promising US aid to any
country in the Middle East
threatened by international
communism.
Topic 1
Source:
Images
supplied by
INPRA
John F Kennedy (1917–1963)
US President from 1961 until
his assassination in
November 1963. His
presidency was largely
concerned with economic
and civil rights issues. He is
probably best remembered
for the Cuban missile crisis of
1962, which brought the
world to the brink of nuclear
war, but ultimately led to
improved relationships
between Moscow and
Washington DC.
Nikita Khrushchev
(1894–1971) followed Stalin
as First Secretary of the
Communist Party. He
dominated Soviet politics
until his forced resignation in
1964. He was responsible for
a policy of ‘destalinisation’
and a thaw in the Cold War
as well as the Sino-Soviet
split with communist China.
He was forced to give way to
the USA over Cuba in the
1962 missile crisis.
Fidel Castro (1926– ) seized
control of Cuba in 1959 after
a guerrilla war that began in
1956. He turned to the USSR
for support when he failed to
develop cordial relations
with the USA. He declared
himself and Cuba
communist. As an ally of the
USSR, he agreed to have
missile bases stationed on the
island which led to the
Cuban missile crisis of 1962.
He is still alive but has
handed over control of the
island to his brother Raúl.
Source: Adapted from
Catchpole, B.,
A Map History of the
Modern World 3rd
Edition, Heinemann,
London, 1982, p. 147
A dangerous world – the Cold War stand-off
The Cold War
•
5
Word bank
something that is marked by being divided in two distinct and opposing
sides, like a bar magnet with its north and south poles
determinism:
given the conditions, nothing else could happen
government in exile: a government that claims the right to rule a country from another country,
for military or other reasons
inevitable:
cannot stop something from happening
nationalise:
taking over an industry or land by the state (government) in order to
control it and to run it for the benefit of the people as a whole
plunder:
rob or steal, especially during times of unrest or war
pragmatic:
concerned with practical rather than theoretical issues
proxy wars:
wars fought by small countries which appear to be fighting on behalf of
bigger countries
quarantine:
to isolate somebody or something, usually in order to prevent the threat of
disease; used in the Cuban missile crisis to isolate Cuba to prevent the
spread of missile bases
satellite states:
a country that is greatly influenced by another larger country without
being under its direct rule or control
Sino-Soviet:
China-Russia (Sino always refers to China and Soviet is a useful term for
the USSR)
bipolar:
What do I still need to know?
1 The concept and origins of the
Cold War
The rivalry that developed between the USA and the USSR in the period after the
Second World War (from 1945 to 1989) included an arms race and the space race, as
well as attempts to outdo each other in other fields such as medical research. This
rivalry became known as the Cold War. It was a period during which the world
became bi-polar with countries supporting one of these powers (the two poles).
A cold war is a state of tension that exists between countries or groups of countries
in which each side tries to discredit the other while trying to strengthen itself. It is
fought in the ‘hearts and minds’ of the people. The two sides never move into the
open conflict of a ‘hot war’ between themselves, but they might allow satellite
states or countries to fight each other so that weapons can be tested. These small,
local proxy wars are used to intimidate and show military might without risking
too much. Such wars also ensure that the clashes cannot develop into nuclear
confrontation.
During the Second World War, the USA, the British Empire and the USSR came
together in the Grand Alliance against the Axis powers of Germany, Italy and
Japan. While Britain and the USA had much in common, for example, their history
and their shared language, they were both suspicious of Stalin and the USSR. They
viewed communism as a potential threat to their economies and their societies.
When their common enemy was defeated, the alliance soon fell apart.
6
•
The Cold War
Key question
What was the
Cold War and
why did it
happen?
Topic 1
Key question
End of the Second World War
Why did the
Cold War
develop?
The Allies invaded Europe on 6 June 1944. This opened a second front against
Germany, which was what Stalin wanted. From that time, the defeat of Germany
was inevitable, although Germany resisted and the West’s advance towards Berlin
slowed down. The Russians were able to ensure that they arrived first in Berlin,
which gave them an advantage in later negotiations with Germany. It also meant
that the Russians were able to liberate the states of Eastern Europe without US or
British assistance. This allowed Stalin to ensure that the Russian army was in
charge of the initial administration of these states.
Key question
How did the
USSR and USA
create their
spheres of
influence?
Source: Quoted in
Bown, C. and Mooney,
P. J. (1976) Cold War to
Détente. London:
Heinemann. p. 2
The USSR and USA and the creation of spheres of
interest
Mutual suspicion between the USSR and the West had been going on since the
Russian revolutions of 1917 and the civil war that followed. Communism had been
seen as a greater threat than Nazism for much of the 1930s. When Hitler turned on
his former ally in June 1941, Russia joined the Allies. The only unifying force in this
alliance was the opposition to Hitler’s Germany, so when it was defeated, the
collapse of the alliance became inevitable.
With the defeat of the Reich and pending the
emergence of the Asiatic, the African and perhaps
the South American nationalisms, there will
remain in the world only two Great Powers
capable of confronting each other – the United
States and Soviet Russia. The laws of both history
and geography will compel these two powers to
a trial of strength either militarily or in the fields
of economics and ideology.
Source: Image supplied
by AAI Fotostock
The unifying force in the alliance was opposition to Hitler’s
Germany but even he himself believed that only the two Great
Powers would remain.
Installation of Soviet-friendly governments
in satellite states
There are conflicting ideas about the exact causes of the Cold War. The Polish question
caused some important issues. Poland had been occupied by Germany at the
beginning of the war and a government in exile was formed in London. After
Germany turned on Russia in 1941, a rival Polish government in exile was set up in
Moscow. When the Russian army captured Poland from the Germans, they put this
communist-dominated government into power. This upset their Allies who had
supported the London government in exile. Britain, the USA and Russia met at the
Yalta Conference in February 1945. There they agreed that if some of the nonCommunist members of the London government in exile were brought into this
Polish government, both USA and Britain would recognise it. They also agreed on a
new eastern border of Poland, which allowed Russia to keep the part of Poland it had
gained in 1939. However, the question of Poland’s western border was not resolved.
The Cold War
•
7
Source 1
This is a modern historian’s comment about the start of the Cold War.
The Cold War may be said to date immediately after the Yalta Conference, to be
precise, from March 1945. In a sense Soviet Russia had waged Cold War since October
1917. The pragmatic alliance from June 1941 onwards was a mere interruption. It
was inevitable that Stalin would resume his hostility sooner or later. His mistake was
to do so too quickly. It was not that he was impatient, like Hitler. But he was greedy.
He was too cautious to follow Hitler’s example of systematically creating
opportunities for plunder, but he could not resist taking such opportunities when
they presented themselves. His sensible tactic would have been to wait until the
Americans had vanished to the other side of the Atlantic. Instead, seeing the Polish
fruit was ripe, he could not resist taking it. The critical moment came on 23 March,
when Molotov [Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949] announced that
the elections [in Poland] would be held Soviet–style.
(Source: Adapted from Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 435)
Source 2
Source:
Based on Cornwell, R.D.
(1980) World History in
the Twentieth Century
New Edition. London:
Longman. p.71 and
Bown, C. and Mooney,
P.J. (1976) Cold War to
Détente. London:
Heinemann, p.11, as well
as Bredekamp, H. and
Van den Berg, O.A.
(1986) A New History
Atlas for South Africa.
Cape Town: Edward
Arnold. p.65
Western and Eastern
Europe and Poland’s
changing frontiers
8
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
There was increased tension and disagreement between Russia and the West in the
period between the Yalta and Potsdam conferences (February to July) as Russia
tightened its grip on Eastern Europe.
Source 3
In this extract, a modern historian describes how the USSR took more control over
Eastern Europe.
In Poland the non-communist political leaders were imprisoned. In Hungary the
Russians imposed very heavy reparations on a devastated country, and in
March enforced a hasty and unfair land reform. In 1944 there were only about
900 communists in Romania, yet in March 1945 the Russians forced the
appointment of a communist as Prime Minister. In Bulgaria the communists
seized power when the Russians arrived and all opponents were suppressed. In
Czechoslovakia a coalition government was set up in which the key positions
were held by communists. In Yugoslavia the resistance movement against the
Germans was led by communists under Tito, who arranged with Stalin that the
Yugoslavs rather than the Russians, should set up a government after the
Germans were defeated. Therefore, in March 1945 a coalition government,
largely composed of communists was set up by the Yugoslavs. In Albania
communist guerrillas took over the country and declared a republic. In
addition, eastern Germany and eastern Austria were occupied by the Russians.
Therefore, when the next conference of the three wartime Allies was held in
July, the communists, backed by Russian power, held all the important
positions in the governments of eastern European countries.
(Source: Cornwell, R.D. (1980) World History in the Twentieth Century New Edition.
Harlow: Longman. p. 69)
Source:
Image supplied by
Greatstock
From 1946 to 1949, tactics such as bullying,
terrorism, bribery and corruption ensured
election victories in Romania, Bulgaria,
Hungary and finally Czechoslovakia. This
led to communist dominance in these
countries. Many Westerners feared this
extension of communist control. By the
time the ‘Big Three’ allies met at Potsdam,
Roosevelt had died and Harry Truman
had become the president of the USA.
During the conference Winston Churchill
was replaced by Clement Atlee of the
Labour Party in a British election. Stalin
was the only one of the leaders at Yalta
who was still in power at Potsdam. This
lack of continuity among the leaders was a
reason why there was less agreement at
Potsdam than at Yalta. The meeting ended
in an atmosphere of distrust and
accusation. Wartime unity was over.
Harry Truman became the
US President after Roosevelt died.
The Cold War
•
9
Classroom activity 1
Study Source 1 and the map of Europe in Source 2.
1
Why was Poland so important to both Stalin and the Western powers? 2×2 (4)
2
How did the boundaries of Poland change between 1939 and 1945?
3
How do the changes to the map of Eastern Europe support Johnson’s
opinion that Stalin was greedy?
2×2 (4)
Suggest what is meant by ‘Soviet style’ elections.
1×2 (2)
4
1×2 (2)
Study Source 3 then answer these questions.
5 How did the Russians ensure that there were ‘friendly’ governments in the
East European countries of Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia? 2×2 (4)
6 How did Yugoslavia escape being a Soviet satellite state?
2×2 (4)
7 How does the fact that all three of these sources are from British
publications affect their reliability for us as historians?
2×2 (4)
USA’s policy of containment: The Truman Doctrine and
Marshall Plan
Source 4
On 5 March 1946 Churchill made the Cold War a public fact when he delivered a
speech at the University of Fulton.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended
across the continent. Beyond that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of
Central and Eastern Europe ... what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are
subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and
in many cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.
(Source: Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
pp. 437–8)
Allied armies occupied the defeated Axis countries in Europe. At the Yalta conference
it had been agreed that Germany would be divided into definite zones of occupation.
Germany and Austria would be separated and their capitals would be divided into
occupation zones. When French president De Gaulle insisted that France should be
one of the occupying powers, Stalin agreed as long as the French zone was formed
from the British and American zones. There were soon tensions between the powers
over the way they administered their occupation zones.
Greece had a royalist non-communist government after the war, but the local
communists threatened to overthrow it (Russia did not actively support them in this).
This was prevented by British and American troops. But in February 1947, Britain
warned the USA that it could no longer afford to maintain troops in Greece. The US
response was quick and definite: the USA would help any country that was
threatened by communism. This became known as the Truman Doctrine.
10
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
Source 5
This is an extract from the Truman Doctrine. Although Truman did not use the
words ‘capitalism’ and ‘communism’, he was clearly talking about these two
systems.
At the present moment in world history, nearly every nation must choose
alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. One way of life
is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions,
representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty,
freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The
second way of life is based on the will of a minority forcibly imposed on the
majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio,
fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms. I believe that it must
be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting
attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.
I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in
their own way.
(Source: Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London: Heinemann. p. 16)
In many ways the quotation in Source 5 served as the ‘declaration of war’ for the
Cold War. After this definite commitment by the USA to stop communism from
growing, Russia moved quickly to strengthen its position in Eastern Europe. It
finally staged a coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948. Now, the ‘iron curtain’ that
Churchill had described in March 1946 was complete.
One of the main ways in which the superpowers have exerted their influence has
been by providing aid. Aid could be economic, technical and industrial.
Sometimes, if necessary, military aid was also offered. The USA justified this in
terms of the Truman Doctrine.
Classroom activity 2
Study the comment by Churchill (Source 4) and the extract from the Truman
Doctrine (Source 5).
1
Churchill is willing to make it clear that he disapproves of the growth of
Moscow’s influence, but Truman is more guarded in what he says.
Suggest reasons for their different approaches.
2×2 (4)
2
Comment on the Truman Doctrine’s descriptions of the two ways of life.
Were his descriptions accurate?
3×2 (6)
The Cold War
•
11
Source 6
Source: Adapted from
Catchpole, B. (1982). A
Map History of the Modern
World. London:
Heinemann. p. 89
The main features of world aid
In June 1947 the United States offered
aid to Europe to rebuild itself after the
war. The idea behind this aid was to
restore the economies of Europe.
Countries that didn’t feel deprived
and hopeless wouldn’t be open to
communism. The aid was known as
the Marshall Plan, named after US
Secretary of State, George Marshall.
The aid would only be provided if
Europe produced a joint co-ordinated
plan for its use. The programme gave
over $13 billion to 16 states and the
western zones of Germany over a four
year period (1948–1952). The aid was
distributed through the Organisation
for European Economic Co-operation
(OEEC).
George Marshall, US Secretary of State,
after whom the Marshall Plan was named
12
•
The Cold War
Source:
Image supplied by
Fotostock
Topic 1
Russia had looked carefully at the
question of Marshall Aid, but
decided against accepting it.
Russia also forbade its East
European satellite states from
taking part. Russia argued that
Marshall Aid was American
propaganda; this was probably at
least partly true, although the
offer did originally include
Russia.
Source:
Cartoon supplied
by British
Cartoon Archive.
Artist: David Low
(1891–1963)
Published:
Evening
Standard, 9 July
1947.
Copyright
holder:
Associated
Newspapers Ltd.
/Solo Syndication
‘Madam Molotov’s School for Satellites.’
Molotov was the Soviet Minister of
Foreign Affairs at the time. In this
cartoon, he is shown as a stern school
teacher who will not allow the pupils (the
Eastern European countries) to be
tempted by the American hot-dog stand.
Source 7
Source:
Image based on a
cartoon that originally
appeared in the Daily
Mirror, New York,
January 1949
This cartoon
shows an
opinion about
the Marshall
Plan and the
USSR’s
relationship
with its
satellite states.
The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Stalin Plan
Classroom activity 3
In groups discuss the issues of international aid shown on the map in Source 6.
1
2
3
What were the implications of the OEEC that was set up to administer
Marshall Aid?
Was the OEEC set up because the greatest threat to Western Europe was
communism/Russian expansion?
Was this new threat the reason that the USA recognised that there ‘is
neither peace nor security for America if Europe is in danger’?
The Cold War
•
13
Classroom activity 4
Study the cartoon of the Marshall Plan (Source 7) on the previous page.
1
2
Explain the point that the cartoonist is making about the difference
between the American and Russian approaches to the situation,
and the possible results of these policies.
2×2 (4)
Identify the chicks in the first nest, and then the smaller birds
3×2 (6)
around the second nest in the cartoon.
Russian reaction to Marshall Aid
Responding to the introduction of Marshall Aid, the East European states of
Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Romania signed trade
agreements with the USSR in 1947. This brought these states closer to Moscow.
Later in 1947, the Communist Information Bureau or Cominform was established
by the leaders of the communist parties in the USSR, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, France and Italy. It was a way in which
Moscow could direct the activities of communists elsewhere. Over the next few
months the communists took full control of all these satellite states except
Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia’s government was dominated by communists at
this point, and in March 1948 communists took complete control of the government.
Russia increased control over the satellite states by centralising control of industry
and collectivising agriculture. Trade between Russia and its East European
satellites increased, while trade and other contacts between the satellite states and
the West was reduced. In 1949, Comecon was formed as Russia’s response to the
OEEC. Its aim was to co-ordinate the economies of the satellite states.
USA and the Far East
American influence had been obvious in Greece, Turkey and Europe. But the USA
had not been as active in spreading its influence in the Far East. A mainly American
army of occupation was stationed in Japan. The USA tried to ensure co-operation
with the Japanese by helping to rebuild that economy as well.
However, China was largely neglected. The Chinese Nationalists, or KMT, had
been allies in the war with the communists led by Mao Zedong, but they were now
involved in a civil war against each other. Neither Britain nor the USA was
prepared to take an active role in this war, although they gave supplies to the
nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-shek. Mao, however, managed to win the support of
the peasants and he won the civil war in 1949. Chiang and his followers were
forced to flee to the island of Taiwan, where they set up their own government.
And so two Chinas emerged. The Far East was to become an issue in the Cold War
during the 1950s because of the ‘Domino Theory’, which will be discussed later in
this topic.
Classroom activity 5
Lenin believed that the USSR and capitalist states would clash. Hitler believed
that the laws of history and geography would force the United States and Soviet
Russia into a trial of strength. Write an essay in which you suggest reasons for
the belief that the two could not live side by side.
14
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
Berlin Crises from 1949 to 1961
The Truman Doctrine has also been described as a policy of ‘co-existence and
containment’ – the USA would live with communism where it existed (in 1947) but
would work to stop or contain its spread through the world. At first, the USA
wanted to stop the spread of communism in Europe. It had a presence in Germany,
which had been divided into four occupation zones at Potsdam: American, British,
French and Russian zones. This meant that the USA was directly involved in the
situation in Europe.
Berlin, as the capital of Germany, had also been divided into four occupation zones
even though the city itself lay deep within the Russian zone. America soon realised
that it would be advantageous to join the three non-Russian zones of Germany as
soon as possible and so invited the other states to join their zone. Britain was the
first to agree and these zones joined in 1947. The French joined them in 1949 but the
Russians remained separate. Germany (and with it, Berlin) was divided into two
distinct zones – East and West.
The Berlin blockade and airlift
The German state had collapsed at its surrender at the end of World War II – there
was no administration to run the country, unless the occupying countries provided
it. Refugees, homeless people and shortages of food, fuel, housing and
infrastructure were all characteristics of Germany in mid-1945. But Russia still tried
to get reparation payments from Germany as had been agreed at the Potsdam
Conference. However, Germany simply could not pay the reparations. In February
1948, the Western states agreed to help with the economic and political recovery of
the western zones, despite the lack of co-operation from Russia.
In April 1948 the western zones of Germany had been included in the Organisation
for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), which organised and distributed
Marshall Aid. This improved the economy of the area.
In June 1948, a new currency was introduced into the three western zones of
Germany to help the growth of their economy. Russia opposed this. Russia had
already begun to restrict road and rail movement between Berlin and the West. The
day after the new currency was introduced into West Berlin (in June), all rail, road
and canal links to West Berlin were closed by the Russians. This was the beginning
of the blockade, which ensured that nothing could get into or out of West Berlin.
West Berlin, situated in the Russian zone of Germany, was cut off from the western
zones.
The Cold War
•
15
Source 8
Source 8a
Germany during the post-war occupation at the time of the Berlin Blockade
and airlift:
A divided Germany
and Berlin
Source 8b
Source: Adapted from
Howarth, T. (1979)
Twentieth Century History.
The World Since 1900.
London: Longman. p. 211
Source: Bown, C. and
Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War
to Détente. London:
Heinemann. p. 23
The zones of Berlin and
the location of the three
airports of West Berlin:
Tegel in the French
zone, Gatow in the
British zone and
Tempelhof in the
American zone
16
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
Source 8c
City
Town
Airport
Air corridor
Hamburg
Source:
Adapted from Bown, C.
and Mooney, P.J. (1976)
Cold War to Détente.
London: Heinemann.
p. 23
West
Berlin
Hanover
Autobahn
East
Berlin
Potsdam
P O L A N D
W E S T
G E R M A N Y
E A S T
G E R M A N Y
Leipzig
Herleshausen
Map showing the air
and road links
between West
Germany and West
Berlin
Dresden
Topen
Frankfurt
Hof
VA K I A
CHOS LO
CZE
0
50
100 km
Source 8d
Source:
Image supplied by
Greatstock. © Corbis RM
with caption: Berlin Airlift
Plane Landing
Planes dropped
supplies into West
Berlin over the 11
months of the Berlin
Blockade
The Cold War
•
17
The West had three alternatives: abandon Berlin; attempt to run the blockade with
armed convoys; or they could attempt to supply the city by air. An American
Commandant, General Clay, suggested using aircraft as a way of supplying the city
and, despite initial problems, this was highly successful. It had been estimated that
it would take at least 4 500 tons of supplies a day to keep Berlin alive. By the end of
the blockade over 6 000 tons a day was being flown into the city. When it became
clear to the Russians that the West were prepared to continue the airlift almost
indefinitely, they lifted the blockade. Early in May 1949 the first trucks and trains
crossed into the Soviet zone heading for Berlin.
Source 9
In this extract, General Clay, commander of the American forces, explains why it was
so important not to lose contact with West Berlin.
We have lost Czechoslovakia. Norway is threatened. We retreat from Berlin. When
Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we mean ... to hold Europe against
communism, we must not budge. We can take humiliation and pressure short of
war in Berlin without losing face. If we withdraw, our position in Europe is
threatened.
(Source: Quoted in Robertson, C.L. (1966) International Politics since World War II.
New York: Wiley. p. 96)
The blockade and airlift had two important effects:
• It led directly to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO), a military organisation made of capitalist, Western powers. The USA
was seen to be committed to military aid to Europe if required.
• It also led to the creation of two distinct and separate German states: the
Federal German Republic of West Germany and the Democratic German
Republic in the East.
Classroom activity 6
Use the information from the maps and photo in Source 8 to discuss Clay’s
comment in Source 9. What did he mean by saying that if America withdrew
from Berlin, its position in Europe was threatened? How practical was it to hold
on to West Berlin?
The Berlin crisis of 1960–1961 and the building of the Berlin Wall
The creation of two separate German states in 1949 after the airlift made it less
likely that the two areas would reunite. Nikita Khrushchev became leader of the
USSR when Stalin died in 1953, and he continued to put pressure on the West. In
1955 the West agreed among themselves that West Germany should join NATO
and contribute to its armed forces. On 9 May 1955 West Germany formally became
a member of NATO. Russia was unhappy with this and reacted by founding the
Warsaw Pact on 14 May.
The West did not recognise East Germany, or the Deutsche Demokratische
Republik (DDR), as a sovereign state. Khrushchev decided to force them to
recognise the DDR by announcing that he was going to hand over all Soviet control
18
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
of Berlin and access to it, to the DDR. The West reacted by calling for a summit
conference to be held in 1960. But in May 1960, just before the summit conference,
the Russians shot down an American U2 spy plane and announced that both the
plane and the pilot had been captured. This ended any chance of the summit
conference being held.
The East Germans had another problem in Berlin. Many of their citizens were
fleeing across the city to live in West Berlin as it had a higher standard of living.
Walter Ulbricht, the East German leader, had tried to close off access to West
Berlin, but Soviet troops had prevented this. More and more East Germans were
fleeing to the West. Labour shortages in East Germany started to become an issue.
Ulbricht could not attack West Berlin as it would create the risk of nuclear war. So,
on 13 August 1961, the East German police sealed off West Berlin with wire fences.
Then on 17 August, they began to build the Berlin Wall. They allowed only four
points at which people could cross the 50 kilometre border into West Berlin.
Source 10
In this extract, modern historians discuss the effects of building the wall.
The very presence of Berlin was threatening the fabric of the East German state.
Between 1949 and 1958, 2 189 000 East Germans ‘voted with their feet’ and fled
to West Germany, and this out of a total DDR population in 1949 of 17 500 000. A
high proportion of the fugitives were young, skilled or professional people without
whom East Germany could not develop her economy. In addition, this loss was a
persistent reminder that the communist regime was not popular in the DDR, no
matter what the authorities claimed. In the first six months of 1961, 103 000
people fled from the DDR to West Berlin. The Russians could not allow their client
state to be damaged in this way.
(Source: Adapted from Bown, C. and Mooney, P. J. (1976) Cold War to Détente. London:
Heinemann. p. 76)
Source 11
Source 11a
Source 11b
Source:
Map based on Poulton, R.
(1981) A History of the
Modern World. London:
Oxford University Press.
p. 195
Source:
Image supplied by
Greatstock
Building the Berlin
Wall under the
watchful eyes of the
East German army
The position of Berlin in East Germany
The Cold War
•
19
Source 11c
8
9
4
7
3
6
2
5
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Concrete slab wall
Wire mesh fence
Control track
Lighting system
Vehicle pit
Wire to guide dog patrols
Signal apparatus
Observation tower
Contact fence
A diagram that shows the extra defences that became part of the Berlin Wall
Classroom activity 7
With the help of Source 10 on the previous page, explain why West Berlin was
such a problem for both the DDR and for Soviet Russia. Comment on how
effective their approach to the problem was as shown in Source 11.
(20)
Opposing military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact
The states of Western Europe felt threatened by the advance of communism into
Eastern Europe. There was also the threat of a Soviet army that was made up of
four million men. The USA was friendly, but had no commitment to Europe other
than looking after its occupation zones in Germany and Austria. In March 1948 at a
conference in Brussels, the first post-war military alliance was formed. It was called
the Brussels Treaty. It became the basis on which NATO was created. The Brussels
20
•
The Cold War
Source:
Adapted from
tourist pamphlet
Berlin: the Wall
Topic 1
Treaty was not strong enough, as it did not include the USA. So, the North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation (NATO) was created in April 1949. This was the first alliance
in which the USA committed itself to defend other states. By doing so, the USA
accepted the leadership of the ‘free’ world. The initial members of NATO were the
USA, Canada, Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Denmark,
Norway, Iceland and Portugal. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952.
By 1950 the USA, Britain and France agreed that West Germany should also
contribute to the defence of Europe. But many people were worried about any part
of Germany rearming. France proposed a European Defence Community. It would
have centralised control over its forces so no nation could threaten others, but this
was not accepted. The Russians proposed a unified, neutral Germany but this was
also not accepted because there were armed forces in East Germany, but not in
West Germany. Eventually it was agreed that a central NATO command structure
would control the defence forces of the member states. On this basis, it was agreed
that West Germany could join NATO in May 1955.
Source 12
The Brussels Treaty (March 1948):
The Brussels Treaty of March 1948 concluded a military alliance of Britain, France,
the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg which ‘was no longer solely directed
against the possibility of renewed German aggression but provided for defence
against any aggressor. The signatories also pledged themselves to collaborate in
economic, social and cultural fields.’
(Source: Grenville, J.A.S. and Wasserstein, B. (1987) The major international treaties since
1945. London: Methuen. p. 205)
Within a week of West Germany joining NATO, the Soviets announced the creation
of the Warsaw Pact. This gave Russia the right to keep troops in Eastern Europe.
The Pact also allowed Russia to tighten control over its satellite states. The creation
of these two power blocs meant that the world had now returned to the old
balance-of-power diplomacy.
Classroom activity 8
1
2
3
4
5
The Brussels Treaty (Source 12) was the first clear Western alliance
against ‘any aggressor.’ What countries did its signatories see as
possible aggressors?
2×2 (4)
Suggest reasons why the USA was prepared to abandon its
traditional isolationist stance and join NATO in 1949.
3×2 (6)
Explain what is meant by a ‘balance-of-power diplomacy.’
1×2 (2)
Why did the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact bring
this about?
2×2 (4)
What are the dangers of a balance-of-power diplomacy?
2×2 (4)
The Cold War
•
21
An example of containment and brinkmanship:
The Cuban Crisis
Cuba had been a Spanish colony that had gained its independence as a result of the
Spanish–American War of 1898. Its closeness to the United States had ensured a lot
Key question
of American investment over the years,
How was the
especially in its sugar and tobacco industries.
Cuban Crisis an
But there were many economic problems
example of
because of the world-wide depression of the
containment and
1930s. This led to a successful military coup in
brinkmanship?
1933, which overthrew the corrupt government
of Gerardo Machado. Later that year Fulgencio
Batista made himself chief of the army, and so
Source:
Image supplied by INPRA
became the ruler of Cuba. Because he
with caption: Fidel Castro
(1926– ), left, Cuban
introduced a programme of social reform and
political leader,
state control of the sugar industry, he was
photographed in 1961
with Ernesto 'Che'
popular with the Cuban people and an
Guevara (1928–1967),
acceptable leader to the neighbouring states. In
Argentinean
revolutionary leader
1944 he was defeated in an election and went
into voluntary exile, but in 1952 he illegally
regained power and kept it through a brutal
dictatorship until 1959. In 1959 he was deposed
Fidel Castro and
by Fidel Castro who had led a guerrilla war
Che Guevara
against him since 1953.
Castro came to power on New Year’s Day 1959. He was committed to
industrialisation, land reform, educational expansion, free speech and an end to
corruption. Castro was faced with a bankrupt state and as nobody was willing to
lend him money, he began to nationalise foreign (mainly American) owned
industries. The USA retaliated by refusing to buy Cuban sugar, so Castro turned to
the USSR for help. They agreed to buy Cuban sugar and to supply Cuba with oil.
When the Shell and
Esso refineries in Cuba
refused to process
Soviet oil, they were
nationalised. Soon the
USA stopped
exporting nonessential supplies such
as medicines to Cuba
and on 3 January 1961,
they cut off diplomatic
relations with Cuba.
Meanwhile supporters
of Batista managed to
gain American
support. In April 1961
they launched an
attack on Cuba at the
Bay of Pigs.
22
•
The Cold War
Anti-Castro forces tried to invade Cuba in 1961 during the Bay of Pigs
incident.
Source:
Image supplied by the
British Library with
caption: Anti-Castro
forces commanded by
Jose Miro Cardona
launching an attack
during the Battle of
the Bay of Pigs in
1961. ©De
Agostini/The British
Library Board
Topic 1
This badly planned and poorly led invasion was quickly repelled. But it led to
Castro looking to Russia for further aid. Slowly Russian influence grew and by
1961 Castro declared himself a Communist.
Russia judged the new young American President, Kennedy, by the Bay of Pigs
invasion, which had been a disaster. The USSR decided to use Cuba as a base for
missiles that could be used to attack the USA if war ever broke out. Russian ships
had been seen arriving in Cuba in August 1962 and unloading unidentified cargo.
Kennedy ordered a constant air watch by U2 spy planes. The planes brought back
photographs of missile launching bases from which every city in the USA within
4 000 kilometres of Cuba could be targeted. Kennedy needed to take action, but
was uncertain of just what action to take: Should he bomb Cuba? Confront
Khrushchev of the USSR? Confront Castro? Or another option?
Source 13
Source: Adapted from
Catchpole, B. (1982)
A Map History of the
Modern World. London:
Heinemann. p. 125
Potential threat to the USA from the missiles in Cuba
The Cold War
•
23
Source 14
Source: Adapted
from Catchpole, B.
(1982) A Map
History of the
Modern World.
London:
Heinemann. p. 125
The Cuban missile crisis of October 1962
Eventually on 22 October Kennedy decided on a quarantine, or isolation, of all
shipping heading for Cuba. The US navy moved into position and prepared to stop
and search all ships heading for Cuba. Kennedy backed this with the threat of
nuclear war. The world stood on the brink of a nuclear war until on 27 October the
Russians backed down and agreed to remove the missile bases.
Although the Cuban missile crisis brought the world close to a nuclear war, it
ultimately led to improved relations. The White House and the Kremlin established
the ‘hot line,’ a direct telephonic link between the two centres of power.
Classroom activity 9
1
2
3
Find out more about Batista, Castro and Che Guevara (one of the
most important supporters of Castro during the guerrilla war).
3×2 (6)
Use Sources 13 and 14 to help you to debate the options facing
Kennedy when the missile bases were discovered.
3×2 (6)
Discuss the issue of international spying in a group – can the use of spy
planes like the U2 be justified when countries are not at war?
Who was to blame for the Cold War?
The idea of blaming somebody for the Cold War is to oversimplify a complex
situation. The early historians of the period tended to blame the other side:
• Russian historians blamed the USA. They accused the USA of trying to build
an economic empire that dominated the world.
• American historians blamed Russia for trying to create communist domination
of the world.
24
•
The Cold War
Key question
Who was to
blame for the
Cold War?
Topic 1
Russian point of view
The Russians were suspicious of the West and upset by Britain
and America’s refusal to recognise the Soviet-sponsored
governments in Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania. The
Russians were also suspicious of American intentions behind
the Truman Doctrine. They believed it was a veiled threat to
attack any country that supported the Soviet Union. They also
saw Marshall Aid as a threat as it was an attempt to bind the
economies of Europe to the American economy.
This Russian cartoon shows an opinion on Marshall Aid. The rope spells
‘Marshall Aid’ and the lifebelt is labelled ‘Aid to Europe’. The padlock
on the lifebelt shows that money (the $ sign on the padlock) will lock
Europe to the US economy.
Source:
Cartoon from Walsh, B.
(2001) Modern World
History. United Kingdom:
Hodder Education.
American point of view
The Americans were suspicious of Russia’s reluctance to demobilise its army at the
end of the war. They didn’t believe Stalin’s claims that the army was purely to
defend Russia against invaders such as Napoleon in 1812 and Hitler in 1941. The
West saw Stalin’s policy of ‘Socialism in one country’ as simply a propaganda
slogan. They argued that Stalin had shown his desire to expand Soviet influence by
setting up communist-dominated governments throughout Eastern Europe.
General comment
In truth neither side can be blamed nor can they be totally pardoned. Both sides
were greedy and ambitious. They both had a different approach to politics. One
side represented a democratic capitalist society with an emphasis on the
individual. The other side represented a communist society with an emphasis on
state control and the subordination of the individual to the state. Because of these
great differences, there had to be a clash. Both Lenin and Hitler foresaw this clash
happening. Peaceful co-existence could only be achieved if both sides were
prepared to compromise.
Extra practice activity 1
1
2
3
4
Research the history of the origins of the Cold War. Suggest reasons why
historians give different views about the origins of the Cold War. 3×2 (6)
To what extent would you agree that the Russians were justified
in seeing Marshall Aid as an attempt by the USA to buy political
support in Europe?
3×2 (6)
Explain why the Berlin blockade happened. Discuss why the
success of the airlift changed the political situation in Europe.
3×2 (6)
Imagine you are a reporter on a Cuban daily newspaper. Tell the
story of the missile crisis as you would report it.
3×2 (6)
The Cold War
•
25
Word bank
annexation:
bipolar:
counter-revolutionary:
Cultural Revolution:
détente:
Great Leap Forward:
embargo:
Vietcong:
Vietminh:
takeover of territory
having two poles or extremes
someone who is opposed to the principles of a revolution
a programme in China under Mao to make Chinese people more
passionate about revolutionary changes
an understanding to ease tensions between states
an experiment that was meant to modernise China
refusal to trade with a country in the hope that the country will change
its policies
the South Vietnamese communists
the communist party of North Vietnam
What do I still need to know?
2 Extension of the Cold War
Case study: China
Events leading up to 1949 and the
establishment of communist China
By 1900 China had been weakened by foreign invasions and internal problems.
In 1911 a revolution took place led by a nationalist organisation called the
Kuomintang (KMT). This was a political party started by Sun Yat-sen in China.
Its ideals were nationalism, democracy and socialism. The KMT overthrew the
emperor and created a republic. In the early years of the republic, the KMT and
the newly formed Chinese Communist Party worked closely together, but in 1927
the communists were expelled from the party.
The republic faced many problems at the beginning. It did not have great support
outside of the major cities. When World War I began, Japan seized the
opportunity to get involved in parts of China. This included control of the
economies of Manchuria and Shantung. The following year the Chinese
president, Yuan Shih-kai died and a period of confusion began. Various Chinese
war lords claimed control over parts of China and there was no effective central
government until about 1928. Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the KMT, was able to
impose his authority over most of China. The communists, led by Mao Zedong
and Zhou Enlai, helped him to achieve this.
China’s weakness was made clear when the Japanese created an incident on the
South Manchurian Railway line in 1931. Japan then used this as an excuse to
invade and occupy the Chinese province of Manchuria. China appealed to the
League of Nations, but the Japanese remained in China. Chiang was now
fighting against both the communists (who also wanted control over China) and
the Japanese. Then his army rebelled against him. This meant he had to sign an
agreement with the communists to join forces with them against the Japanese (the
Sian agreement of 1936). However, there was little real co-operation between the
26
•
The Cold War
Key question
How did China
rise as a world
power after
1949?
Key question
How was
communist
China
established?
Topic 1
Source: Image supplied by AfriPics
Source: Image supplied by AAI Fotostock
two sides. Once the Japanese were
defeated a full scale civil war broke out
between them. The civil war lasted
until 1949 when the KMT was forced
out of China to the island of Formosa,
which was renamed Taiwan. There
were now two Chinas, a situation
which continues today. Mainland
China, however, does not recognise
Taiwan as an independent state.
Nationalist China (Taiwan) had been
granted a permanent Security Council
seat in the new United Nations
Mao Zedong, leader of communist
Chiang Kai-shek, leader of
Organisation
in 1945. It kept this seat
China
Nationalist China or Taiwan
until 1971, when it passed to
communist China. Taiwan lost its membership of UNO and is still denied
membership today because communist China has veto power. The United States
of America refused to recognise communist China and it vetoed any attempt to
replace Nationalist China (Taiwan) with communist China in the United Nations
until 1970. In 1970, President Nixon’s administration formally recognised
communist China and accepted the idea of two Chinas. Communist China still
regarded Taiwan as a province of China and refused to recognise its
independence. This has led to ongoing tension between the two Chinas.
Key question
What did the
Cultural
Revolution in
China entail?
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Destroy_the_
old_world_Cultural_
Revolution_poster.png
Cultural Revolution
Mao Zedong had led the Communists to
power and dominated the government as
Chairman of the Chinese Communist
Party. From 1958 to 1961, he implemented
the Great Leap Forward, a programme to
modernise China through collectivisation
and industrialisation. It was not a success,
and led to great food shortages resulting
in the death of many Chinese people.
After the failure of the Great Leap
Forward, Mao allowed other people to
have more control in China. Liu Shaoqi
and Deng Xiaoping took over a lot of the
daily tasks and began to introduce more
liberal economic policies. This alarmed
Mao who tried to re-impose his authority
over both the party and the nation
through the Cultural Revolution. In 1965
Mao called on the youth to purge China
of the ‘Four Olds’ – old customs, old
culture, old habits and old ideas. Mao
wanted young people who were
passionate but not educated to join the
This Chinese poster says ‘Destroy the
old world, build a new world.’ The
worker is crushing religious symbols with
his hammer.
The Cold War
•
27
Red Guards, a group of people who would destroy the old system in order to
create a new one. Some of the Red Guards were still in their early teens.
The Red Guards attacked temples, churches, mosques and anybody thought to be
counter-revolutionary, usually the better educated, and China descended into
chaos. Liu Shaoqi was expelled from the Communist Party in October 1968. This is
usually seen as the end of the Cultural Revolution as Mao was then back in control.
However, unrest continued into the 1970s. For a decade, schools did not function,
and priceless artefacts, antiquities and texts were destroyed. The Cultural
Revolution was primarily a way of getting rid of anybody who opposed Mao.
Source 15
This extract provides a modern historian’s view of the Cultural Revolution.
‘Cultural Revolution’ was the misleading name for a reign of terror accompanied
by the most revolting cruelty. It had its sources in internal and external problems –
economic planning, the handing over of power, consolidation versus forcing the
pace of progress, attitudes to the Russians – which had troubled the party in the
1950s and disrupted it in the 1960s. The revolution split the party at all levels.
Hundreds of thousands of leaders, from President Liu Shaoqi to much humbler
officials, lost their posts or were tortured and killed. Inevitably the army advanced
in power.
(Source: Adapted from Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson
Education. pp. 136–7)
Classroom activity 10
1
2
3
Use the text to help you to explain what Source 15 means by saying
that the Cultural Revolution ‘had its sources in internal and external
problems – economic planning, the handing over of power,
consolidation versus forcing the pace of progress, attitudes to
the Russians’.
3×2 (6)
Explain why the Cultural Revolution split the Communist Party. 1×2 (2)
a) Suggest why Mao called this attempt to regain his authority
the ‘Cultural Revolution.’
b) Why is the idea of an imposed Cultural Revolution difficult
to achieve?
1×2 (2)
1×2 (2)
Chinese relations with the Soviet Union and the
USA from 1949 to 1973
Clash of ideologies rather than individual events
Relations between the Chinese Communists and the USSR were complex. At first
both the CCP and the KMT had sought help from the Russians who encouraged the
CCP to work with the KMT. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the USSR
had given its support to the KMT. Russia hoped that a strong China would help it
28
•
The Cold War
Key question
What form did
Chinese relations
with the Soviet
Union and the
USA take from
1949 to 1973?
Topic 1
stop a Japanese threat to its eastern borders. Once Mao was in control of a
communist government in China, relations improved:
• Mao visited Moscow in 1950 and a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance
was signed.
• The two communist states both supported North Korea in its war against South
Korea.
• After the death of Stalin, several Soviet leaders visited Peking in 1954.
However, there were tensions between the two countries over various issues:
• They had different attitudes towards the possibility of nuclear war.
• They disagreed on how to encourage developing nations to build a communist
state.
• There were disputes about areas on their mutual border.
• Mao and Khrushchev disliked and distrusted each other.
Sino-Soviet relations grew increasingly tense. In 1961, China formally declared
that the Soviet version of communism was not true communism. This is known as
the Sino-Soviet split. China became friendlier with the USA after this, and its
relationship with the USSR did not improve until the late 1980s.
Source 16
Source: Adapted from
Catchpole, B. (1982) A
Map History of the
Modern World. London:
Heinemann. p. 135
Communist China and its neighbours
The Cold War
•
29
China’s changing relationships with neighbouring
states
China’s early communist rulers tended to keep China isolated. This was partly
because Chinese rulers had always adopted a traditional self-centred isolation and
also that they had little knowledge of the outside world. Within a year of Mao’s
victory in the civil war, the Korean War broke out. This started as a civil war: forces
in the north favoured communism, while the south favoured capitalism. The two
groups fought for power in Korea, but ended up splitting into two countries: North
and South Korea. China sent ‘volunteers’ into the war to support North Korea.
They were successful in their battles. This encouraged China to take a more active
and aggressive role in foreign affairs.
The conciliatory side of Chinese foreign policy was shown by Zhou Enlai at the
1955 Bandung Conference of Afro-Asian states. He was moderate and reasonable
and showed a less hostile attitude towards Taiwan. He was also prepared to
negotiate with Indonesia and Malaysia over the status of their Chinese populations.
Tibet
Tibet was an accepted part of the Chinese empire, although it was fairly
independent. Tibet effectively became an independent state in 1911, when the
imperial government was overthrown. The Chinese still claimed that Tibet was
part of its territory. China invaded Tibet in 1950 and gained control over most of
the country. An agreement was reached between the Dalai Lama (the Tibetan
leader) and China. In this agreement, Tibet agreed to Chinese rule in return for
Tibet being allowed to exist as an autonomous province. Chinese attempts to
modernise aspects of Tibet led to riots and a military intervention. The Dalai Lama
fled to India and tensions between the two areas continue. Many Tibetans demand
independence – some have even set themselves on fire in protest.
Source 17
In this extract, a modern historian explains the concept of ‘annexation by
demography’.
After Mao’s death Deng and the Dalai Lama exchanged proposals for discussions
about the future of Tibet on the basis that nothing except complete independence
should be ruled out in advance. But in the years that followed China was less
energetic in pursuing proposals than in despatching to Tibet enough Chinese
settlers to outnumber its six million Tibetans. This annexation by demography was
added to by the destruction of Tibetan institutions and culture, particularly
thousands of monasteries and convents whose inmates were forced to disperse
back to their villages or escape to India.
(Source: Adapted from Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson
Education. p. 149)
India
At first relations between China and India were friendly. India had been among the
first countries to recognise Mao’s government in 1949. It did not object to the
Chinese occupation of Tibet, formally recognising Chinese rule over Tibet in 1954.
30
•
The Cold War
Key question
What was
China’s
relationship with
its neighbouring
states after
1949?
Topic 1
However, tensions between the two states developed after the Dalai Lama was
given refuge in India. This, and some border disputes, led to an Indo-Chinese War
in 1962. Although this war was short, it was indecisive and tensions continued with
some fighting taking place in Sikkim during 1967.
There have been ongoing disputes between India and Pakistan. China tended to
favour Pakistan, which did not help Indo-Chinese relations. However, there was
little real conflict between the two countries since the 1962 war.
Vietnam
China supported the Vietminh under Ho Chi Minh in their war against France
after World War II. China later gave aid to the Vietcong in their struggle against
the USA. (We will look at the Vietnam War in a later section in more detail.) China
did not want a strong united Vietnam which could threaten its influence in the
area. After the Sino-Soviet split, Chinese concerns grew. It saw Chinese dominance
of South East Asia under threat, especially as US-Vietnamese relations were
improving after the war.
China’s hostility grew because of the treatment of the Chinese population of
Vietnam. In 1977, many of them left Vietnam, and China saw this as an expulsion.
Tension also grew between these two states over the islands in the Gulf of Tonkin,
which were claimed by both Vietnam and China. Both believe that there might be
oil under the sea in the area.
Taiwan
Taiwan had been a Japanese possession since the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.
Japan was meant to return Taiwan to China as part of the peace process at the end
of World War II. But, before that happened, the KMT took over Taiwan at the end
of the Chinese Civil War and has remained there. Communist China has never
recognised Taiwan as an independent state and does not accept the idea of two
Chinas. The USA was not prepared to abandon its ally and stationed a fleet in the
Taiwan Straits (the sea between Taiwan and China) to prevent any aggression by
either China or Taiwan.
The tensions over this area eased when China was less aggressive at the 1955
Bandung Conference. At this conference, the USA and communist China reached
some agreement over Taiwan’s position. When the USA eventually recognised
communist China as the rightful government of China, it paved the way for China
to replace Taiwan in the UN Security Council. Much of mainland China’s hostility
towards Taiwan improved. China and Taiwan co-exist today without outright
hostility, but communist China firmly believes that it will eventually rule Taiwan.
Key question
To what extent
was China
established as a
superpower by
the time of
Mao’s death?
To what extent was China established as a
superpower by the time of Mao’s death?
By the time Mao died in 1976 China could be called a superpower. It had a unified
government, a growing economy, a large army equipped with nuclear weapons
and it held a permanent seat on the United Nations Security council with the right
of veto. China also provided aid to African states like Tanzania, which ensured it a
The Cold War
•
31
strong following among the Afro-Asian bloc and the Non-Aligned Movement. This
showed that China followed an independent line in the Cold War, which gave it
more influence in times of crisis.
Source 18
In this extract, a modern historian explains Mao Zedong’s influence and power.
Mao broke down the sharp distinction between the rulers and the ruled of old
China. ... His was a complex and contradictory personality: an intense nationalist,
he was traditionally Chinese in many ways, yet his views on continuous revolution
struck against the ideals of harmony and compromise that are strong in the
Chinese mind. He was an untiring revolutionary and thinker, a skilled strategist
both in war and politics, and a brilliant tactician. Mao Zedong was to China what
both Lenin and Stalin were to Russia.
(Source: Adapted from Cornwell, R.D. (1980) World History in the Twentieth Century
(new edition.) Harlow: Longman. p 458)
Classroom activity 11
With the help of the map in Source 16 discuss why China’s relationships
with Tibet, Taiwan and Vietnam were more complex than
its relationships with some of its other neighbours such as Burma. 4×2 (8)
Would you agree that China’s policy towards its neighbours was
determined to a large extent by how useful China saw them in furthering
its own interests? Use examples to support your argument.
2×2 (4)
Source 17 talks of ‘annexation by demography’. Explain
what this means in your own words.
1×2 (2)
Why was this method of solving the problem of Tibet attractive
to China?
1×2 (2)
From what you have learnt of China and Russia, to what extent can
the comment in Source 18 that Mao ‘was to China what both Lenin
and Stalin were to Russia’ be justified?
2×2 (4)
1
2
3
4
5
Why China tried to improve relations with the USA
after 1970
Many things had changed for China by the end of 1970. Relations with the USSR
continued to get worse after the original Sino-Soviet split in 1960, mainly because
of Khrushchev’s American policy. In the 1960s, there were various border clashes
between the two such as over islands in the Ussuri River in 1969.
On the positive side, more Western countries had opened diplomatic relations with
China. More importantly, communist China had replaced Taiwan as the permanent
member of the UN Security Council at the end of 1970 and this changed its
relationship with the USA.
32
•
The Cold War
Key question
Why did China
try to improve
relations with
the USA after
1970?
Topic 1
As a part of the UN Security Council, China could interact with the USA on more
equal terms than before. This meant it was in a position to try to improve their
relationship. In 1971 President Nixon officially abandoned the ‘two Chinas’ policy
and gave China full diplomatic recognition. China then invited a US ping-pong
(table tennis) team to China in 1971, and Nixon visited Beijing in 1972. US trade
embargoes against China were also relaxed in the early 1970s. Deng publically
called for a Sino–Japanese–US alliance against the USSR. China was also
encouraged to improve its relations with the USA when the Americans began their
withdrawal from Vietnam.
China continued to foster its relations with the USA especially in commercial terms
and the USA became a major trading partner. Both countries were active in trying
to improve the relationship. The USA overlooked various human rights abuses by
China so that it could continue its economic relationships.
Source 19
In this extract, a modern historian comments on the significance of improved
relations between China and the USA.
The Mao–Nixon détente was a political demonstration made possible by the ending
of the Vietnam War and valuable to both countries as a means of addressing a
warning to the USSR – by the Americans, not to take the Russo–American détente
for granted; by the Chinese, not to make trouble on the Sino–Soviet frontiers. The
demonstration had no precise content ... but it jolted thinking about international
affairs at the great power level. There was now another piece on the board and it
served to confuse a game which, by all the rules of a bipolar world, allowed for
two players only.
(Source: Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education.
p. 130)
Classroom activity 12
Source 19 suggests that the attempts at friendship between the USA and
communist China were not so much in the interest of bringing these two
countries closer but for them each to warn Russia that it needed to rethink its
relationships with both the USA and with China.
1
Why would these countries feel a need to warn Russia about their
relationships?
1×2 (2)
2
What was the main outcome of the US–Chinese détente?
1×2 (2)
Key question
What impact did
China’s
economic
liberalisation
have on its
current relations
with the rest of
the world?
Conclusion: Impact of China’s economic
liberalisation on relations with the rest of the world
from Mao’s death until the present
Hong Kong became a British territory in 1842. This area was very wealthy and held
in terms of lease agreements from China. Its economy was capitalist and based
largely on trade. According to the agreements, it became part of China in 1997.
Hong Kong had to keep some of its capitalist practices after being taken back into
The Cold War
•
33
China politically, or its value would decrease. The Chinese authorities were aware
of this and this helped to free aspects of their own economy.
As the Chinese economy grew, it became a manufacturing economy, which
depended mainly on exports to grow. This economic growth made China ease
many of its restrictions in terms of foreign investment and contacts with the
outside world. It looked to Africa for sources of raw materials and markets. But by
the end of the century, the USA accounted for almost 40% of Chinese exports.
To maintain a growing economy, trade relations were necessary. This led to
improved political relations. China has opened itself to the world in many different
ways such as hosting the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China is today a
superpower and very much involved in world politics and economics as the
second largest economy in the world.
Extra practice activity 2
1
2
3
4
5
Research the extent to which China was able to play an independent
role in the Cold War during the rule of Mao Zedong.
2×2 (4)
The position of Tibet and its leader, the Dalai Lama, has caused tensions
in many areas of the world including South Africa. Examine the issues
around this problem and suggest ways forward to solve it.
3×2 (6)
Research the Bandung Conference of 1955 and try to assess its
importance in the history of the Cold War.
3×2 (6)
Explain the causes of tension between communist China
and Taiwan.
2×2 (4)
Why has the economic growth of China helped it to play an
important role in world politics?
1×2 (2)
Word bank
aerial bombardment:
containment:
defoliants:
drafted:
napalm:
34
•
The Cold War
bombing using aeroplanes
the act of stopping something from spreading, e.g. the
USA was determined to contain or limit the number of
communist states in the world through confinement
chemicals that remove the leaves from trees and plants
Used during warfare, it allows troops to see more when
fighting in jungle or tropical regions
conscripted; called to serve in the army
a jelly-like substance that is contained in bombs; it
sticks to anything that it touches and burns skin and
flesh
Topic 1
What do I still need to know?
Key question
How was a small
country like
Vietnam able to
win a war
against the USA
(1954 to 1975)?
3 Extension of the Cold War
Case study: Vietnam
Vietnam was part of the French empire in South East Asia and part of what was
generally called French Indo-China. The area was captured by Japan during World
War II. After the defeat of Japan, France tried to regain control of its empire but the
Vietnamese resisted fiercely. The war later developed into a major conflict where
the USA tried to ensure the containment of communism, but failed.
It was never a full-scale direct war between the USA and Vietnam, so the full force
of the US military strength was never involved. The division of Vietnam into North
and South was an artificial division, forced on the country by major powers at a
conference in Geneva in 1954. So the war in which the USA became involved was
basically a civil war waged between the north and the south in the southern part of
Vietnam.
Key question
What form did
the struggles
against colonial
powers take
before the
Second World
War?
Background: Overview of the struggle against
colonial powers prior to the Second World War
Growing nationalism in Vietnam led to revolts against the French, especially in the
years after World War I. There was an attempt to assassinate the French GovernorGeneral in 1929, followed by a revolt against French rule in 1930. The revolt was
led by Ho Chi Minh, a nationalist and communist who had been a member of the
French Communist Party in 1921 and who had spent time in Moscow and China.
The French were able to put down this uprising and Vietnam remained relatively
peaceful for the next decade. But when Germany defeated France, the French hold
over the empire was weakened and the Japanese captured French Indo-China with
ease. Japan also took control of the British and Dutch colonies in South East Asia,
after just a few months of fighting.
Key question
What
developments
took place in
Vietnam
immediately
after the war?
The period immediately after the war in Vietnam
Source 20
In this extract, a modern historian gives his opinion of the Indo–China War.
The Indo–China War, which began soon after the collapse of the Japanese
occupation and continued into the 1980s, has been surrounded by more mythology
than any other post–war event. It was complicated enough to baffle any Western
statesman, as it eventually baffled the Chinese.
(Source: Johnson, P. (1984) A History of the Modern World. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson. p. 611)
The Cold War
•
35
Within weeks of the Japanese surrender, Ho Chi Minh, with American support,
took power in Vietnam in the ’August Revolution.’ But this did not last. President
Truman wanted to support France and he understood that France needed to regain
its prestige by recapturing its empire. France drove Ho Chi Minh out and brought
the old emperor, Bao Dai, back. France then created three separate states in IndoChina – Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam – as independent states within a French
Union. The US recognised these states, but Russia and China recognised Ho Chi
Minh as the ruler of Vietnam. Conflict became inevitable.
France tried to gain local support but was unpopular and conflict broke out. Bao
Dai was also unpopular in the southern part of Vietnam, where he had his capital.
The increasingly complex struggle meant that France had to look at the conflict in
Indo-China as an anti-communist struggle in order to gain allies. France had to
accept financial and material help from the USA. All French hopes were eventually
ended when they were defeated at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
Classroom activity 13
Source 20 on the previous page speaks of the complexity of the war in Vietnam.
This complexity is reflected in the role of the USA in this war.
1
Suggest reasons why the USA was at first prepared to support the
nationalists under Ho Chi Minh, even though Ho Chi Minh was a
communist.
2×2 (4)
2
Why would President Truman see it as important to support France
in Europe?
1×2 (2)
3
If the USA supported France, why could it not continue to support
Ho Chi Minh?
2×2 (4)
4
If France wanted to re-establish control over its colonies in IndoChina, suggest reasons why it brought back Bao Dai as ruler.
1×2 (2)
5
Why do you think the USA supported Bao Dai and his successor,
Ngo Dinh Diem at first?
2×2 (4)
36
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
Key question
Stages in the war
What were the
stages in the
Vietnam War?
Source 21
(Source: Adapted from
Catchpole, B. (1982) A
Map History of the Modern
World. London:
Heinemann. p. 127)
Vietnam in the Cold War
1957 to 1965: Struggle in Vietnam between the South
Vietnamese army and the communist-trained rebels
(also known as the Viet Cong)
An international conference met in Geneva to discuss the situation in Korea and
Indo-China in April 1954. About two weeks later, the French defeat at Dien Bien
Phu changed the situation. The conference agreed to divide Vietnam along the 17th
parallel (a line of latitude). Ho Chi Minh would be in control of the north and Bao
Dai in control of the south. Elections were to take place within two years on the
issue of unification, but they were never held. France withdrew fully from IndoChina, leaving Laos and Cambodia independent. The USA at this time believed in
the ‘domino theory’ – if one part of South East Asia fell to communism, the rest
would follow like a row of dominoes falling (as shown in Source 22 on the next
page). For this reason they were prepared to help support the government of Bao
Dai in the South. The domino theory gave the conflict in Vietnam an importance it
did not deserve.
The Cold War
•
37
Source 22
Communist
Viet Cong
m
Vietna
South
Laos
Cambodia
Thailand
Burma
India
Bangladesh
The domino theory said that if one country in South-East Asia ‘fell’ to communism, the others
would too.
The struggle in Vietnam started first between the South Vietnamese army and the
communist-trained rebels (known as the Vietcong). Bao Dai was overthrown by his
prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, who turned South Vietnam into a republic with
himself as president. Diem, however, was unpopular, corrupt and a Roman
Catholic in a mainly Buddhist country. He faced increasing opposition; in 1960 this
opposition formed the National Liberation Front (NFL). This was a formal
organisation of the southern communist opposition, the Vietcong. The NFL was
supported by Ho Chi Minh who in turn was supported by both China and the
USSR to different degrees.
The USA cut off its aid to Diem and encouraged a coup against him. This brought
about a series of short-lived military governments. The USA wanted to ensure that
Vietnam did not become communist, but it also did not want to commit its forces to
a war in Asia. However, President Kennedy of the USA decided to commit more
men and material to Vietnam, but not combat troops. He did authorise some
airborne combat missions, although he later ordered a full retreat.
1965 to 1969: North Vietnamese–USA struggle
Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 at a time when the Vietcong were extending
their control over South Vietnam. They were able to do this because the South
Vietnamese government was weak and both North Vietnam and China provided
them with aid. When the US destroyer Maddox was attacked in the Bay of Tonkin in
July 1964, President Johnson gained cabinet approval for the US to use combat
forces in Vietnam. The Americans decided on a major aerial bombardment of
North Vietnam. But Russia provided aid to North Vietnam and ensured its defence.
Under Johnson, the USA increased both their military commitment and their
control over the direction of the war. In response the North Vietnamese began to
send soldiers south to help the Vietcong. Thus, although it was never a declared
war, the struggle was between the USA and North Vietnam.
As the use of aerial bombardment increased, the use of napalm, poison gas and
defoliants became common. Television coverage of the war reached the USA
38
•
The Cold War
Source:
Adapted from Catchpole,
B. (1982) A Map History
of the Modern World 3rd
Edition. London:
Heinemann. p.127
Topic 1
without any government censorship. People in the USA were horrified by what
they were seeing, and a major anti-war movement was formed in the USA. There
was a lot of opposition to the war in universities, where students were most likely
to become the next groups drafted to serve in Vietnam.
Source 23
Source:
Image supplied by INPRA
with caption: General
Nguyen Ngoc Loan,
chief of the South
Vietnamese National
Police, executing a
captured Vietcong officer
with a single shot in
Saigon, 1 February 1968.
Photograph by Eddie
Adams of Associated
Press.
This photo shocked the world. It shows a Vietnamese police officer shooting
a Vietcong prisoner.
At the beginning of 1965 there were about 23 000 US troops in Vietnam. This
number rose to 550 000 by the beginning of 1968. They were supported by allied
and South Vietnamese troops and a powerful air force. However, the North
Vietnamese commander, General Vo Nguyen Giap, was a brilliant guerrilla leader
and prevented them from advancing.
American prestige was badly damaged by the 1967 massacre of the village of My
Lai. Here about 300 civilians were killed by a US army unit. The massacre led to a
criminal trial and conviction in the USA. It highlighted the emotional problems that
the war was creating among American servicemen.
In January 1968 the North Vietnamese launched the Tet offensive which, although
it did not succeed in capturing Saigon, led to a new American attempt to start
negotiations for peace and a reduction of the aerial bombardment. The negotiations
took place in Paris and included the USA, North Vietnam, the South Vietnamese
government and the Vietcong. The talks achieved nothing and Johnson announced
that he would not seek re-election as president.
The Cold War
•
39
Source 24
In this extract, a modern historian comments on Johnson’s position on Vietnam.
North Vietnam had discovered that the Americans really wanted to get out and
either turn the war over once more to the South Vietnamese (whose army was
brought up to a strength of over one million and given the most modern
equipment) or end it. Johnson could neither win a victory, since he was not
prepared to use nuclear weapons, nor negotiate a peace, since North Vietnam
preferred waiting to negotiating. He was pursuing incompatible aims – to get out
and to secure the existence of a separate, non-communist South Vietnam.
(Source: Calvocoressi, P. (2001) World Politics 1945–2000. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 541)
The nature of the Vietnamese war against the USA
The Vietcong used guerrilla tactics against the USA. They used their knowledge of
the local terrain and the fact that the Americans could not tell the difference
between Vietcong and local peasants loyal to the South Vietnamese government.
The Vietcong used a variety of booby traps to catch unwary US troops. They had a
complex system of underground tunnels which made it difficult for the Americans
to fight them effectively. There were many variations on the basic trap they used,
which was built from sharpened bamboo spikes and was known as a Panji trap. It
was cheap to make and very common, consisting of a small hole covered with
leaves. At the bottom of the holes, the sharpened sticks were arranged point up so
that the victim’s foot was pierced when he fell into the hole. To make matters
worse the spikes were often covered in human excrement, which would ensure an
infection in the wound.
Source 25
A typical booby trap. This kind of trap would be placed over a hole in the ground and
covered with leaves so that it was not visible. When a soldier stood on it, he would fall into
the hole and the trap would swing around so that the spike on the trap would injure the
soldier. This trap is in a museum in Ho Chi Minh City.
40
•
The Cold War
Source:
Image supplied by
AfriPics with caption: A
see saw booby trap at
Ben Dinh, Cu Chi, near
Ho Chi Minh City
(Saigon), Vietnam
Topic 1
Booby traps were not only responsible for many of the casualties but they also
caused great stress. The fear of such traps created a psychological barrier that often
detracted from the efficiency of the American and allied forces. Many of the
Americans faced severe problems in returning to civilian life when they returned to
America after the war.
The North Vietnamese forces tended to be more conventional in their warfare but
their task was mainly to support the Vietcong. Supplies were often taken south
through Cambodia along what became known as the Ho Chi Minh trail (see the
map in Source 21 on page 37).
Classroom activity 14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Look at the map in Source 21. What makes the Vietnam area
strategically important to the USA?
1×2 (2)
Source 22 on page 38 shows the American fear of the domino
theory. In small groups discuss the validity of this fear.
2×2 (4)
Technically America was not at war with North Vietnam. Why then
was the main thrust of US action directed against North Vietnam? 3×2 (6)
The horror of the war was shown to American television audiences
by scenes such as that captured in Source 23 on page 39. How did
this impact on American support for the war?
1×2 (2)
Look carefully at Source 24 on the previous page and explain why
Johnson’s two aims were incompatible. Suggest reasons why
North Vietnam preferred waiting to negotiating.
2×2 (4)
Study Source 25 on the previous page and explain how such
traps worked and why they had such a strong psychological effect
on US troops.
3×2 (6)
Look carefully at the two visual sources 23 and 25. They show
different aspects of the horrors that were happening in the war in
Vietnam. Why did Source 23 ‘shock the world’ while the picture
of the trap (Source 25) aroused very little reaction?
2×2 (4)
The war from a Vietnamese and US perspective
Ho Chi Minh and his colleagues were determined that the entire area of Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia should be free of foreign domination and interference. People
supported Ho Chi Minh and his ideals as Ho was firstly a nationalist and then a
communist.
The USA was drawn into the clash by two factors:
• The need to help France to regain prestige in Europe, which involved
rebuilding its empire
• The fear of any communist expansion.
Although the USA did not want to get involved in South East Asia, the fear of
communism and the domino theory led to a growing involvement which was
difficult to stop. The war ended Johnson’s political career and created a strong antiwar media campaign which affected domestic politics. The media opposition made
the American presidents hesitant to commit enough troops and use effective tactics
to win the war. Aerial bombing seemed to be an acceptable policy to the US
government because it would lessen the number of possible US casualties.
The Cold War
•
41
Source:
Image supplied by
AfriPics with caption:
Demonstration against
the war in Vietnam, 1972
Protesters at marches carried banners demanding that the US government ‘stop bombs in
Vietnam.’
Source 26
In this extract, a modern historian comments on the different positions of the USA
and Vietnam.
Americans showed little understanding of a general Vietnamese desire to be
independent of foreigners. They also showed little understanding of what was
mainly a peasant’s economy. Strategically they were slow to recognise the need to
gain support at village level, too readily assuming that the war could be won in the
cities and towns and that some taste of capitalist wealth there would wean the
people from communism.
(Source: Watson, J.B. (1984) Success in Twentieth Century World Affairs: From 1919 to the
1980s. London: John Murray)
The war as a global issue
The war became a major Cold War issue as it was fought to contain communism.
The domino theory was applied to give a local context to the Truman Doctrine of
containment. Both the USSR and communist China gave support to North Vietnam
while the USA was supported by its allies. Military support for US actions in
Vietnam came mainly from Australia and New Zealand, while its NATO allies
gave some moral support. This support diminished, however, as the media
campaigns against the war grew.
The media became important as this was the first war where uncensored television
coverage was possible and the media made the most of this. Images were broadcast
42
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
around the world showing atrocities and implying that these were more
widespread than they were. Media attention was also expanded when a number of
films were made that used the war as a background. Some were based on fact, but
most were simply action movies which often showed the US forces in a bad way.
This helped to create antagonism towards the American war effort, both at home
and abroad.
The American commitment in Vietnam was so costly that it forced the USA to
reduce some of its commitments in other areas.
Classroom activity 15
1
2
Use Source 26 to help you to decide why the USA and the North
Vietnamese governments saw the war from such different
perspectives.
Discuss the role of the media in building hostility towards the
Americans’ role in Vietnam.
2×2 (4)
3×2 (6)
1969 to 1975: USA withdrawal from Vietnam
When Nixon became US president, he promised to end the war but it took some
years before he was able to do so. During his first term of office, Nixon reduced the
number of American forces in Vietnam from 550 000 to 24 000 and spending from
$25 billion a year to just under $3 billion a year. He also pursued peace negotiations
with North Vietnam.
Nixon also took advantage of the Sino-Soviet split to work towards an agreement
with communist China. This new China policy helped to make peace with the
North Vietnamese government in Hanoi possible. Eventually, after years of
negotiations (often in secret) between US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger and
Le Duc Tho of North Vietnam, a treaty was signed in January 1973. Once American
forces withdrew, the North Vietnamese became stronger and invaded the south.
Fighting between North and South Vietnam continued until April 1975 when a
unified, communist Vietnam emerged. There was still fighting between Vietnam
and Cambodia (renamed Kampuchea) for some years. By 1980 the whole of IndoChina had been temporarily united under a communist North Vietnamese military
dictatorship, but no further ‘dominoes’ fell.
The impact of the Vietnam War on USA politics
It is difficult to evaluate the impact that the Vietnam War had on American politics
as it was only one of many forces that affected the political situation. The main
issues of domestic policy during the years of the Vietnam War were civil rights
and education. The war was blamed for the slow rate of improvement in both
these fields.
There was opposition to the war among university students, which became more
important when the voting age was lowered to 18 in 1971. Many of these people
became critical of the government, and many people distrusted the government.
The draft was very unpopular, and for this reason it has not been used in the USA
since the Vietnam War.
The Cold War
•
43
Student movements
There was a movement to create more places in universities in many western
countries in the 1960s and 1970s. The USA was no exception. The number of
colleges and universities in the USA rose from 2 040 in 1960 to 3 055 in 1975.
Student enrolment grew from 3.6 million to 9.4 million. Protests and activism
increased among this growing student population. Student activists were initially
more concerned with civil rights issues and the status of African-American people.
Then, just after Kennedy’s assassination, the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed. This
meant that the position of African-American people began to improve. (You will
learn more about this in Topic 3.) In the same year, the US involvement in Vietnam
increased and the first combat troops were sent there. As the war escalated, so did
the student protests. Students were among those likely to be called up to serve in
Vietnam and few of them wanted that. The protests were first greeted as a sign of
awareness and maturity, but they became increasingly violent and widespread.
In 1965 about 25 000 students went to Washington to protest against the Vietnam
War. The ‘campus riot’ became a common occurrence at universities. The most
infamous student protest movement was the one at Kent State University. Students
were protesting over Nixon’s announcement of the invasion of Cambodia by
American troops. Government troops then opened fire on students, killing four and
wounding others.
Conclusion: How the war is remembered today in the USA
and Vietnam
The war is remembered in museums and through memorials in both countries. The
USA has two main memorials – the Veterans’
Memorial and a Women’s Memorial – which
commemorate the people who were involved
in the war. They also have compilations of the
songs of the time, both military tunes and
protest songs. On particular anniversaries,
parades of veterans are held but these will
probably become less common as there are
fewer and fewer surviving veterans.
In Vietnam there is a major memorial in
Hanoi near the tomb of Ho Chi Minh. Both
countries are determined to focus on the
present and future and so look to the
memorials to remind them of lessons to be
learnt from the past, rather than to dwell in
the past.
Source 27
The Vietnamese memorial in Hanoi. It was
constructed in 1993, in a mixture of traditional
Vietnamese and communist architectural styles. The
memorial commemorated men and women who
sacrificed themselves during the Vietnam war.
44
•
The Cold War
Source:
Image supplied by
AfriPics with caption:
Unknown Soldier
monument, Hanoi,
Vietnam
Topic 1
Classroom activity 16
1
2
3
4
How did Nixon manage to reduce American commitment in
Vietnam?
1×2 (2)
Suggest reasons why student protests against the Vietnam War became
more concerned with the civil rights movement than the war.
1×2 (2)
Why did the withdrawal of American troops in 1973 not end the
1×2 (2)
war?
Comment on the design of the Hanoi memorial (Source 27).
Extra practice activity 3
1
2
3
4
Research the French Indo-Chinese War of 1946 to 1954 and show
why the French could not win it.
2×2 (4)
Explain why President Eisenhower committed the US to a policy
of supporting the South Vietnamese government.
1×2 (2)
Why did Kennedy agree to increase US involvement in Vietnam,
knowing it could mean having to commit more and more troops
to the war?
2×2 (4)
What factors made it particularly difficult for the American troops
in Vietnam to be effective in supporting the government of South
Vietnam?
1×2 (2)
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Cold War started after World War II and involved the two biggest
superpowers at the time, the USA and USSR.
The USSR set up communist-friendly governments in Eastern Europe and
the USA responded with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.
The Berlin airlift was necessary because West Berlin had been blocked off
and they needed to get food and other supplies in.
The Berlin Wall was built in the early 1960s to stop the flow of people from
East Berlin to West Berlin.
The Western allies formed a military alliance known as NATO while the
USSR and other satellite states formed a military alliance known as the
Warsaw Pact.
The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 showed how the USA and the USSR became
involved in other countries during the Cold War.
The Cold War extended to other countries, for example, China and Vietnam.
China emerged as a second major communist power and played a large role
in the Cold War.
China had difficult relations with its neighbours, Tibet, India, Vietnam and
Taiwan.
China’s relationships with the USA changed after 1970 when it was admitted
to the UN Security council.
China had a huge impact on world politics and played a large role in world
economic, social and political arenas.
The Cold War
•
45
•
•
•
•
•
•
France wanted to regain power and control over its territories in Indo-China.
The USA became involved to help France regain control over Vietnam after
France was defeated at Dien Bien Phu.
The Vietnam War began as a civil war between South Vietnam and North
Vietnam.
The arrival of US troops in the South and the greater military involvement of
North Vietnam caused the war to become an international war rather than a
civil war.
The US media played a large role in the Vietnam War as there was no
censorship and they broadcast images of the war across the world. These
broadcasts affected people’s views of the war.
America withdrew from Vietnam, and North Vietnam, which was now
dominant, took over South Vietnam.
Formal assessment
Source-based task
Study the following sources, then answer the questions that follow.
Key question
How did the
creation of
spheres of
interest intensify
the tensions of
the Cold War?
Source A
Political changes in Central Europe 1945–1948
Source:
Adapted from Bown, C. and Mooney,
P.J. (1976) Cold War to Détente.
London: Heinemann. p.23
46
•
The Cold War
Topic 1
Source B
This cartoon gives an opinion about the Marshall Plan and Russia’s relationship with
its satellite states.
Source:
Image based on a
cartoon that originally
appeared in the Daily
Mirror, New York,
January 1949
The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Stalin Plan
Source C
In this extract, General Clay, who commanded the American forces in Germany,
explains why it was so important not to lose contact with West Berlin.
We have lost Czechoslovakia. Norway is threatened. We retreat from Berlin. When
Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we mean ... to hold Europe against
communism, we must not budge. We can take humiliation and pressure short of
war in Berlin without losing face. If we withdraw, our position in Europe is
threatened.
(Source: Quoted in Robertson, C.L. (1966) International Politics since World War II. New
York: Wiley. p. 96)
Questions
1. Look at Source A.
1.1 What areas of Central Europe does this map show as being within
the Soviet sphere of influence?
1.2 The map shows that Poland annexed German land. Why was
this significant?
1.3 Germany and Austria were both divided into four occupation
zones, as shown on the map. Why was this done?
1.4 The map shows that Berlin was also divided into four zones.
Why did this happen?
2. Look at the cartoon in Source B.
2.1 This cartoon refers to the Marshall Plan. Explain what the Marshall
Plan was and how it worked.
2.2 Who do the chicks in the nest in the picture on the left represent?
2.3 What was Comecon intended to do?
2.4 In the picture on the right of the cartoon the big bird is sitting in
the nest. Why has the cartoonist done this?
2×2 (4)
1×2 (2)
2×2 (4)
2×2 (4)
3×2 (6)
1×2 (2)
1×2 (2)
1×2 (2)
The Cold War
•
47
2.5 Whom do the smaller birds represent and why are they shown in this
way?
2×2 (4)
3. Read the text in Source C.
3.1 This refers to how the West should react to the Berlin Blockade.
Why was General Clay so determined to hold Berlin?
3.2 How did the Western states decide to ‘hold Berlin’ and with
what result?
Extended writing question
4. Write a paragraph in which you explain the extent to which all the
tensions of the Cold War were reflected in events in Germany in the
period 1945 to 1950.
2×2 (4)
3×2 (6)
(10)
[50]
Essay task
1. Examine the role of China in the Cold War and comment specifically on how
the following three events impacted on China’s influence in the Cold War:
• Bandung Conference 1955
• Sino-Soviet split 1960
• acceptance as a permanent member of UN Security Council 1970.
OR
2. In looking at the history of Vietnam since 1945, why was it important that
Ho Chi Minh was a nationalist first and a communist second?
[50]
Key question
Formal assessment
Research assignment
The Cold War was characterised by conflict through proxy wars, the manipulation
of more vulnerable states through extensive military and financial aid, espionage,
propaganda, rivalry over technological, space and nuclear races, and sport (CAPS
document).
Consider the issues of rivalry in technology, the space race and sport in order to
research the extent to which these rivalries affected the relationships of the two
superpowers.
You will be expected to sort your research into areas such as:
• the space race
• medical research
• the race for Olympic gold.
In each section you will be expected to look at such issues as:
the first successful satellite launch
the first human in space
the first person on the moon
organ transplants
cures for diseases
training methods and successes.
•
•
•
•
•
•
48
•
The Cold War
To what extent
was the Cold War
fought in nonpolitical spheres
of interest?
Topic 1
Include sources to support your responses. Critically comment on the sources that
you choose. You could compare sources, comment on any bias or prejudice that
they show, or comment on how useful they are as sources. You could use primary
or secondary sources, but you must make sure that you write down where you
found the source.
Some useful steps to follow in your research
1. Start your research generally. Source information and read around the
topic before you start writing about different areas. This will give you an
overview.
2. Start making notes about what you are reading. One method of making
notes is to put the different areas or sub-topics on different pages and
make notes on each sub-topic as you find information.
3. As you make your notes, record where you found the note. This is very
important as you do not want to be penalised for plagiarism. It is also
difficult to find sources when you are putting together your bibliography
at the end of the project, so be methodical about keeping note of your
sources as you are working.
4. Once you are satisfied that you can discuss each sub-topic or area, start
writing your paragraphs about each sub-topic.
5. The last paragraph should be a discussion of your key question, so you
need to spend a lot of time and thought on this one. This concludes your
project and you need to interpret and analyse the research for the other
sub-topics for this one.
6. Once you have finished your first draft, edit it for language and content:
check that your spelling and language are correctly used and that your
arguments are logical and well developed.
7. Write out your final draft.
Schedule of work
This is a long process, and you will not be able to produce good work at the last
minute. Work out a schedule of dates like this one:
Step
1.
Start reading around the topic.
2.
Start making notes. Record sources as you work.
3.
Complete first draft of sub-topics.
4.
Complete first draft of last paragraph.
5.
Edit first drafts for content and language.
6.
Hand in final draft.
Date to be completed
The Cold War
•
49
Assessment
Your teacher will assess your project using the following assessment tool.
50
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5
Level 6
Level +7
Design of
research
No pattern
to research
Only
covered
one aspect
but
logically
Covered
two of the
three
aspects in
some sort
of pattern
Covered all
three
aspects, but
no attempt
to link
them
All three
aspects
covered and
linked to
each other
All three
aspects
covered and
linked and
some mention
of their
impact on
relationships
All three
aspects
covered and
linked to each
other. Constant
reference made
to changing
relationships as
things
developed
Content
Minimal
and
disjointed
One aspect Two
covered
aspects
adequately covered
adequately
Three
aspects
covered
adequately
or two
covered
well
All three
aspects
covered with
some linking
of them to
the issue of
relationships
All three
aspects
covered well,
linked to each
other and to
the issue of
relationships
The main focus
is on the
relationships
between the
powers and
how this was
affected by the
technology
Focus on
Not sure
Looks only
rivalry
who fought at one of
relationships the Cold
the major
War
powers
Looks at
both
powers but
not at the
changing
relationships
Intermittent
look at the
changes in
relationship
Reasonable
grasp of the
changing
relationships
Good
understanding
of relationships
and their
impact on
allies
Understands
relationship
changes,
impact on
allies and on
rest of the
world
Overall
understanding
Adequate
Average
Good
Excellent
Outstanding
•
None
The Cold War
Poor
T
c
opi
2
Independent Africa
What will you learn about in this topic?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How ideas of African socialism, capitalism, democracy and
one-party states were implemented after independence
How the Congo was used as a tool in the Cold War
African socialism in Tanzania
The political, economic, social and cultural successes and
challenges that Tanzania and the Congo experienced after
independence, including the legacies of colonialism
The role of African leaders like Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu
Sese Seko and Julius Nyerere
The impact of internal and external factors on Africa after
independence
The role of the Cold War in Africa, using Angola as a case
study
Let’s talk about this topic
The picture on this page shows a number of protesters marching through London. They
were protesting the murder of the Congolese independence leader, Patrice Lumumba, in
1961. Their placards demand that Belgian troops be expelled from Congo.
In groups of three, discuss the following questions:
1. Why do civil society protests take place?
2. With specific reference to Africa, why do you think people decided to protest?
3. How effective is the form of protest shown in the picture? Discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of this form of protest.
Source: Image supplied by Mary Evans Library with caption: February 1961. In response to the murder of Congolese
independence leader Patrice Lumumba on 17 January 1961, a group of protesters march through a street in London
holding placards calling for Belgian troops to be expelled from Congo. Marx Memorial Library /Mary Evans
Independent Africa
•
51
What do I know already?
Nationalism
In Grade 10 and 11 you learnt about different forms of nationalism and how these changed after
World War II. Nationalism was an important force in Europe before World War II. When
Africans went to fight for the European powers in World War II, they were exposed to ideas of
nationalism. Nationalism grew in Africa because European empires had colonised many
countries in Africa and destroyed their national identities. In the 1900s, nearly the whole
continent of Africa was ruled by European countries. This changed the lives of the African people
as colonisation served the interests of colonial (European) powers at the expense of the colonies.
The colonisers used local labour to extract valuable minerals, raw materials and agricultural
products. They took these raw materials from the colonies and then sold them back to the
colonies as manufactured goods. These manufactured goods were sold at huge profits. The
process of colonisation also meant that the European powers spent very little money developing
the colonies. The only infrastructure that was developed was for transporting goods to the
harbour to be sent to European countries.
The fight for independence took different forms in different parts of the world. Independence
struggles in Africa were long and drawn-out because some European powers were reluctant to
give up states that possessed such enormous wealth.
African nationalism was a system of self-defence in which African people aimed to unite and
strengthen themselves. National struggles in many African regions were influenced by the Cold
War. Ghana was the first country in Africa to gain independence in 1957. (You learnt about
Ghana in the section ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana in Grade 11.) This led to the process of decolonisation
throughout the continent. By the 1970s, most African countries were independent. You will learn
more about the state of independent countries in this topic.
Source 1
In this extract, Kwame Nkrumah is speaking before the House of Assembly on 10 July 1953, while it
was still under British rule.
The right of a people to decide their own destiny, to make their way in freedom ... is an inalienable
right ... which they cannot have when the forces that are stronger than themselves take this right
away from them.
If there is a way to tell whether or not people are prepared for self-government, then I say it is
their readiness to assume their responsibility of ruling themselves, for who but a people themselves
can say they are prepared? Self-government which we demand, therefore, is the means by which
our people can develop their abilities and develop their potentialities to the full.
(Source: Adapted from Wray, D. (2003) Africa in the 20th Century. Learners’ support material. GIED)
k
Chec lf
myse
52
Work in groups of three or four. Read Source 1 and answer the following questions.
1. Why did African people fight for independence?
2. According to the source, why did the process of gaining independence take a
long time?
3. How did African people feel about gaining independence? Quote from the
source to support your answer.
4. Kwame Nkrumah was an African nationalist. Do you agree with this
statement? Support your answer using your own knowledge as well as
evidence from the source.
• Independent Africa
Topic 2
Key question for this topic
How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?
Map of independent Africa
Source:
Adapted from
http://www.mapsof
world.com/africapolitical-map.htm
The countries of
Africa and the
year in which
each nation
became
independent
Independent Africa
•
53
Important events relating to Independent Africa
Event
Date Consequences
Berlin Conference
1884 European powers agree to divide Africa into spheres of interest.
The outbreak of World War II
1939 African people fought in the war and were exposed to ideas of
democracy and liberty.
Brazzaville Conference
1944 It recommended political, social and economic reforms in French
colonies.
The end of World War II
1945 Africans returned from the war with ideas of liberty and democracy.
This influenced their fight for independence.
Pan-Africanist Congress
1945 It demanded an end to colonial rule and an end to racial
discrimination, while it carried forward the broad struggle against
imperialism, for human rights and equality of economic opportunity.
The beginning of the Cold War 1945 This had a positive impact on Africa’s fight against colonial rule as the
superpowers put pressure on the colonial powers to grant
independence.
54
Independence of Ghana
1957 This was the first West African country to gain independence and
influence other countries to fight colonial rule.
All-Africa Conference
1959 It was a conference of political parties and other groups in the late
1950s and early 1960s in Africa. It was attended by delegates from
areas still under European colonial rule.
Belgians withdraw from the
Congo
1960 After independence the Congo became a tool for the Cold War.
Tanganyika (later to become
Tanzania) gains independence
1961 Tanzania implemented African Socialism after independence and
gave a justification for a one-party state.
Organisation of African Unity
was formed
1963 It was formed to unite Africans and to fight for independence from
colonial rule.
Rivonia Trial in South Africa
1964 Mandela and other ANC leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment.
Chinese aid to Africa increases
1970 Start of the TANZAM railway.
Addis Ababa Agreement
1972 This ended the north-south civil war in Sudan.
Revolution in Portugal
1974 Ended the Portuguese African empire, giving these colonies
independence.
Rhodesian independence as
Zimbabwe
1980 Mugabe turns against Nkomo.
Battle of Cuito
Cuanavale in Angola
1987 Led to South African withdrawal from Angola and Namibia.
Cold War ends
1990 De Klerk unbanned ANC, SACP and PAC.
First democratic elections in
South Africa
1994 ANC came to power; Mandela became president.
• Independent Africa
Topic 2
Important role players in this topic
Kwame Nkrumah
He organised the Pan Africanist Congress in which
he looked at different strategies for gaining
independence in Ghana (then Gold Coast). He
attracted local support and formed a strong
organisation, the Convention People’s Party. His
party led Ghana to independence in March 1957 and
became an example of what other African countries
could achieve.
Patrice Lumumba
Patrice Lumumba was the first prime minister of the
Republic of the Congo. He was the leading figure
when the Republic of the Congo gained
independence from Belgium. Belgium had ruled the
Congo since the late nineteenth century. When
Lumumba was murdered in 1961 he became a
symbol for the struggle for independence in Africa.
Julius Nyerere
Julius Nyerere was a Tanzanian
politician who served as the first
president of Tanzania when it gained
independence in 1961. He introduced
African Socialism to the continent.
Source: Images supplied by Afripics
Marcus Garvey
Marcus Garvey was born in
Jamaica in 1887. He was a good
speaker who influenced the
Black Nationalist and PanAfricanist movements. Garvey
was a self-educated social
activist who promoted black
people and the resettlement of
African Americans in Africa.
He promoted social, economic
and political freedom for black
people.
Harold Macmillan
British Prime Minister between
1957 and 1963. In 1960 he
visited South Africa where he
gave a speech that influenced
nationalist movements
throughout Africa. This speech
was called the ‘Winds of
Change’ speech, and was
delivered to the South African
parliament in Cape Town. This
signalled the British decision to
grant independence to British
African colonies.
Mobutu Sese Seko
He was the president of the
Congo from 1965 to 1997. He
renamed the country Zaire.
While in office, he formed an
authoritarian regime, gained
huge personal wealth and tried
to get rid of all colonial cultural
influence. He favoured
capitalism and his stance
gained him Western allies.
Independent Africa
•
55
Word bank
African nationalism: the desire of African people to rule themselves
colonise:
when one country captures another country or territory
and keeps it under political and economic control
coup:
a sudden violent or illegal takeover of government
decolonisation:
the granting of independence to a colony
dictator:
a ruler who is not restricted by the constitution or laws
of the country
inalienable right:
a right that cannot be taken away
independence:
the state of being free from another’s control
infrastructure:
the basic physical systems, service and facilities (such as
buildings, roads, power supplies, public transport) that
is necessary for a country, region or society to function
properly
nationalism:
the sense of belonging to a nation that people feel
because they share similar backgrounds and common
cultural characteristics, which often gives rise to a policy
of national independence
socialism:
an economic theory or system in which the means of
production, distribution and exchange are owned by the
community collectively, usually through the state
urbanisation:
the migration of rural dwellers to the cities
What do I still need to know?
1 What were the ideas that
influenced the independent states?
Initially, African organisations focused on improving the living conditions in the
colonies, rather than achieving independence. The focus of national independence
changed after World War II (1939–1945) when Africans were exposed to
independence movements from other parts of the world. World War II was a
turning point in the history of colonialism as many African countries gained
independence after the war. However, not all countries gained independence in the
same way and at the same time. Some colonial powers were reluctant to grant
independence to their colonies.
Many factors led to the rise of African nationalism and independence.
The influence of World War II
African countries participated in World War II. Black soldiers fought alongside
white soldiers and African economies were expanded to meet the war needs. The
war was fought against countries like Germany, where democracy was not
allowed. This made people more critical of colonialism, which was also not a
56
• Independent Africa
Key question
What were the
ideas that
influenced the
independent
states?
Topic 2
democratic system. African soldiers returned after the war with Western ideas of
liberty and democracy. It seemed unfair that they had fought to protect democracy
overseas, but were not living in democratic countries themselves.
World War II also drained the economies of the colonial powers. They did not have
the strength or finances to carry on running the colonies after the war as they had
to rebuild their own economies after the destruction caused by the war. They
realised that they needed to change the colonial system.
Education, urbanisation and liberal ideas
Many Africans were also being educated and thereby exposed to liberal ideas.
Most of these people had studied in overseas universities. Education helped to
produce leaders that were critical of colonial rule and aimed to unite African
people. For example, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya
were educated nationalists. African intellectuals resented the fact that colonial
powers exploited African people. They were also influenced by other movements
in the world like the Universal Negro Improvement Association, which was started
by Marcus Garvey in 1914. This movement fought for the independence of black
people throughout the world.
There was also a growth in urbanisation. Many people came to work in the cities,
where they formed an urban working class. These people put more pressure on the
colonial powers to grant independence to African states.
When the war ended, these ideas of liberty grew. There was more racial tolerance
after the war. The colonial powers found it difficult to justify why they had fought
for freedom and democracy during the war if they were not willing to give it to
their colonies. In 1945 the United Nations Organisation was formed. Its aim was to
promote peace and independence throughout the world. The UNO also put
pressure on colonial powers to grant independence to their colonies.
Source 2
This is a resolution passed at the fifth Pan-Africanist Congress, 1945, which
condemned colonialism. Kwame Nkrumah was one of the organisers of this congress,
which was held in Manchester, England.
We are determined to be free. We want education. We want the right to earn a
decent living, the right to express our thoughts and emotions, to adopt and create
forms of beauty. We demand for Black Africa autonomy and independence. We will
fight in every way we can for freedom, democracy and social betterment.
(Source: Govender, S. et al. (2007) New Generation History, Durban: New Generation)
The Cold War
Another event that influenced the process of decolonisation was the Cold War.
After World War II, focus shifted to fighting the Cold War. The West needed
African states as allies against communist Russia. The USA and the USSR also put
pressure on the colonial governments to give independence to their colonies. These
Independent Africa
•
57