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Rori T. Stubbs Maj Garriott ERH-201WX December 6th, 2015 HR: Writing Center, Reference Page, Professor, Ben Richie and Austin Holmes Reflective Research Paper Throughout the Semester, we have discussed many rhetorical aspects of various cultures. It is vital to understand what these cultures believed so that we can better understand their history and our thought processes even today. Although the textbooks had a wealth of information, most of what I learned came from class discussions where we were able to apply what we learned from our readings. From discussing politics and current events of the world, to the acceptance of women at the Virginia Military Institute, we discussed a great deal practicing our rhetoric and in return, we began to refine our very own views of what rhetoric actually is. Were it not for learning the methods and ideas of different cultures on rhetoric, the Techne of Rhetoric today could quite possibly be viewed as mindless ramblings. Adding to that, I believe the most influential cultures, were the Greeks and Romans who developed a rhetoric that created the very foundation of their cultures. Being that rhetoric is an art of persuasion; I found it interesting to read and see examples of western rhetoric. It was through learning these styles of rhetoric and why people chose to communicate the way they did, that we are able to analyze arguments of people today and make our own judgments on their validity. After spending the semester reading and learning more about rhetoric, I believe that rhetoric is a Techne that is unique within each culture of a civilization and it belongs to the people. One of the premier civilizations of western rhetoric is Greece. Most of what I learned about Ancient Greece was through my reading of the texts of Herrick, Gorgias, Protagoras, De Oratore and other writings. Compared to the East (i.e. Eastern Europe, Middle East and Asiatic nations), Greek and western rhetoric in general is easier to relate to due to its influence on present day society. Ancient Greece was composed of numerous city-states with one of its most prominent and influential being Athens. In Athens, there emerged a group known as The Sophists. The Sophists were renowned for being able to argue anything. They felt all debates could be argued from either side and they taught their students the art of persuasion. The sophists created quite a commotion due to their judicial rhetoric which was responsible for defending many of Athens’ criminals. For this, Plato would berate them for their lack of concern for focusing on the truth. (Herrick) Like many other intellectuals at the time, Plato found the Sophists to be rude. His problem with rhetoric at the time was that it did not debate based on fact. The Sophists made assumptions and argued, questioning everything. Plato believed that arguments should be moral and based on expanding knowledge since a rhetorician wields a power over the demos or populous. This is where I have to disagree with Plato. Though I agree with rhetoric having to contain nothing but the Truth, I find it ironic that someone who wanted to “benefit” society viewed rhetoric as belonging to the noble classes and utilizing rhetoric to control the general population. History has shown that this method divides a society rather than uniting it. Take the British Empire and the American colonies for example. The English nobility kept imposing harsh laws and taxes upon the American colonists without ever giving them a say. This led to the American Revolution which eventually led to the creation of a brand new nation; The United States of America. With rhetoric in the hands of the people, it is a powerful tool to change “the will of the people past its status as a doxa, or a common idea or thought” (Hauser 262). Through oppression, the colonists used rhetoric to convince their fellow countrymen to take up arms and rise against their “noble oppressors,” which can be viewed as a Sophistic view, going against what Plato stood for. This is a prime example of how keeping rhetoric to only a select few ends in disaster. Without these Greek influences, western rhetoric would not be what it is today. Without the different influences of The Sophists and Plato, there might not have been an America and the demographic of the world would be completely different than what it is today. At the very least, it would certainly have had a negative impact on the Roman’s and their rhetorical strategy. Roman rhetoric, although not the same, was heavily influenced by Greek rhetors. Like Greece and when Rome was a Republic before and Empire, rhetoric was very clear in Democracy. Unlike Greece however, “The ruling elite viewed rhetoric with suspicion, leading the Roman Senate to ban the teaching of rhetoric.”(Williams 12) Where rhetoric in Greece was viewed as a tool, the Roman Senate saw it as a weapon in which the people could use it to make social changes which would cause conflict among the rulers. Men like Crassus and Cicero who were legal orators, were seen as threats by the rulers for their use of rhetoric. In His book, De Inventione, Cicero highlighted the five cannons of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, expression, memory, and delivery. Though Cicero was not the original author of the cannons, he still delivered them with great explanation in his writings. These cannons defined the processes of developing and giving a legitimate argument that the audience could understand and would follow. With this rhetoric, people are able to influence “men’s hearts to anger, hatred, or indignation, or in recalling them from these same passions to mildness and mercy.” (Cicero 55) These teachings of rhetoric were a prime example of why it was dangerous in the hands of the people, which led to the banning of the teaching of rhetoric in Rome. With the lack of persuasive speeches in democratic forums, this brought about severe consequences during the transition of the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. With the ban of rhetoric in political forums, it was only viewed as a means of entertainment. This led to the natural curiosity of people to search for the rhetoric of the past, “focusing on the work of Greek Sophists, leading to the Second Sophistic.” (Williams 13) Even centuries later, against Plato’s arguments, Sophism evidently has shown its influence on Rome. The lessons in rhetoric by the Greeks and the Romans, both the good and the bad have shaped many societies today. By separating the world by the East and West, one can clearly see a difference in use of rhetoric and which side’s societies are more successful. In the West where there are many more democracies than the East, nations have given voice and rhetoric to the people, allowing them to give their own views, for according to the Author Robert Ivie, “Rhetoric should be promoting a thriving democracy in which no competing perspectives or interests are suppressed.” (Ivie 261) This freedom of speech allows for the development and advancement of a society which also lessens the potential of riots and anarchy. Looking over to the Eastern hemisphere, though there are some forms of rhetoric such as “Ritual Rhetoric” (Binkley 16), freedom of speech is not as common and only used by the elite and just like the Roman elite. Ritual Rhetoric was focused on the elite of a nation and it “influenced and reinforced political claims to power.” (Lipson 41) Nations in the East sought out to get rid of rhetoric and essentially oppressing the people. This can be related to many of the Middle Eastern countries and their simultaneous revolutions which has been called the “Arab Spring.” As stated earlier, history has shown that taking away rhetoric from the people and not allowing them to develop their own arguments and opinions, leads to the demise of an entire nation. Though there are flaws in Western rhetoric, particularly with politics, they still allow rhetoric to be practiced and the current events show that western nations are well rounded and less likely to fall. Needless to say, rhetoric has a huge impact on our everyday lives and it comes from all over the world. Every communication we use has at some point been thought through and searched for the optimum method of convincing others. With the power of words, it is important we understand the consequences of our communication and what our true purposes are. Like many of the great philosophers and rhetoricians have found, it is vital that eloquence be used with wisdom and the utmost. Now we must look at how our rhetoric is or isn’t being used and how that can factor in our possible demise. Modern day politicians and even the media have started to chip away at the use of rhetoric by the people. The fear of being shunned by everyone via the media is the exact opposite of what a Democracy is supposed to do. If people are afraid to voice their opinions, then there is no development and progress as a society. That is why I stressed the influence that Greek and Rome had upon our society today with both their successes and their mistakes. Taking the freedom of speech from the people is a quick way to bring the downfall of a nation. Allowing the common man to practice rhetoric and let his voice and arguments be heard are vital to the success of a culture and society. Rather than looking down upon someone for what they say, we should encourage them even if we do not agree with what they say. Words have power and with the Techne of Rhetoric, we must use it to our advantage to enhance our ethics and morals to ensure that future generations will not have to suffer the consequences that Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and even the modern day nations in the Middle East faced. References Hauser, Gerard A., and Chantal Benoit-Barne. “Reflections on Rhetoric, Deliberative Democracy, Civil Society, and Trust”. Rhetoric and Public Affairs 5.2 (2002): 261–275. Web... Ivie, Robert L. “Rhetorical Deliberation and Democratic Politics in the Here and Now”. Rhetoric and Public Affairs 5.2 (2002): 277–285. Web... Cicero, Marcus Tullius., and H. Rackham. De Oratore. De Fato ; Paradoxa Stoicorum ; De Partitione Oratoria. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1942. Print. Herrick, James. "Two Influential Sophists." The History and Theory of Rhetoric. 05th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2005. 39-48. Print. Williams, James D. An Introduction to Classical Rhetoric: Essential Readings. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Print. Lipson, Carol, and Roberta A. Binkley. Ancient Non-Greek Rhetorics. N.p.: Parlor Press, 2009 Print,