Download unit 2 – understanding structure

EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 1: LANGUAGE & LEGAL TEXTS
A:READING
Read quickly → get gist of text → focus on headings
→ first & last lines of paragraph
→ underlined / bold words
Skimread:
(skimming)
Look at page → search for specific information
Scan:
(scanning)
Read closely/ carefully:
(study reading)
Take time
→ maybe read same text more than once
→ focus on main & supporting ideas
→ read for knowledge
Words & their meanings:
 Get idea of meaning of a word by looking at the word in its contexts
 Meanings can also be derived by looking at words stem → (evaluate – stem = value)
 NB words often defined when introduced
 Key words often repeated in different contexts
→ know word function
→ ex VERB
→ evaluate
→ something you do
SUMMARY OF READING STRATEGIES
 If you know broadly what you going to read – comprehend details more efficiently→skim
 Good strategy is to look consciously for patterns as they assist in comprehension
 Reading is not a passive activity – integrate reading & writing – write to learn→ when you read
B: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
= stand for name person / place / thing
= indicates an action / doing word
= describes the noun/pronoun / adds meaning
= adds meaning to verb / adjective / other adverb
→ human
→ run
→ big
→ soon
Adjective build-up
The uses of several adjectives to describe a noun →
Avoid by: →
ex
→
try to eliminate some of the adjectives to
make text simple.
making verbs & adverbs of nouns & adjectives
annual executive committee → the executive committee that meets annually.
Changing word order
Nominalization
Using nouns where it should be an active verb / adverb / adjective with only one noun
Using “of” repeatedly/ using vague verbs→ makes sentence longer
(Vague verbs= put / make / have / give / is)
When you change a verb → noun = nominalize the verb
Avoid using nouns to describe nouns.
Short it by: making a verb of the noun that follows the vague verb.
Ex.
The court put emphasis on…..→ the court emphasized…
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C – INTEGRATED SKILLS
Corresponding with institutions of learning
A. Writing semi-formal letters:
If you don’t know the recipients name
→ use …. ‘ The Registrar’
→ END with “Yours faithfully”
MUST GIVE:
 student number
 Date
 Short subject line (capitals / underlined – never both)
 Dear Sir / Madam or Sir / Madam (if don’t know person’s name)
 Use “I would like” / “I would appreciate” / “Could you”
 If handwritten – sign & print your name
If know name of recipient

→ END with “Yours sincerely”
→ include Department name where lecture’s teaching
NB – include name of Department lecturer is teaching
Don’t Know Recipient’s name
Know Recipient’s name
8 Ring Road
123 Hope town
30 July 2010
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
The Registrar (Finance)
Lucky College
PO Box 777
987 Casino City
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Dear Madam/ Sir
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
NON PAYMENT OF FEES: Student 123456789
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
I would like to draw your attention to the fact that
……………...…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Yours faithfully
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
8 Ring Road
123 Hope town
30 July 2010
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Professor R Einstein
Department of Law
PO Box 777777
987 Thinking City
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Dear Professor Einstein
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
LATE SUBMISSION OF TASK 1: Student 123456789
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
I would like to appologise that ………………………………
……………...…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Yours sincerely
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
_________
L Gerber (Ms)
_________
L Gerber
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B. Writing & sending faxes:
MUST GIVE:
 For whom fax & from whom
 Institution & fax no of both persons
 Date
 How many pgs sending
 Not full postal address
 Student no.
 Number of pages there are
 Provide tel number if problem with fax sent
FAX TO: Mr D Mina
Department of Criminal Law
Lucky College
Fax (098) 9876543
Tel (098) 9765432
FROM: Ms L Gerber
Onetime L School
Hopetown
Fax (076) 7865432
Tel (076) 5768754
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Dear Mr Mina
Request for assistance Assignment 3: student 987654321
I would like to enquire about the reference to ……………………………………………….............
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Not
sure if
the
should
be a
space
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Yours sincerely
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
________
L Gerber
FAX OF 1 PAGE OF WHICH THIS IS PAGE 1
Communicating with Lecturers by email:




Start with “Dear Prof. XXXXX” / “Hello John”
NB – subject line → NOT: ex “Help!!” it should give enough info
Content – course / problem / how occurred
Attachment = (e.g. for an assignment) – name / course / assignment no.
From:
To:
Subject:
987654321GerberL
Prof G Slimjan
Private Law/101: Availability of court case for 13 August class
Dear Professor Slimjan
The library seems to have lost the court case TvJ that you want us to prepare for
…………………………….. . I am writing on behalf of several students .................
……………… . Could you help us?
Regards
Lelani Gerber
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EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 2 – UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURE
A : READING
Opening Statement can be followed by → detailed explanations, examples, qualifications,conditions
1. Explanations / clarifications
2. Qualifications and conditions
→ introduced by words like “specifically” or “for example”.
→ introduced by words like “but”, “however” and “if”.
B : LANGUAGE FOCUS
1.
More Gramatical terns
Pronouns:
 Words that stand in place of / refer to a noun – e.g. he, she, it, they, him, her, it’s, their,you…
2 NB points with pronouns:
1. Pronoun must agree with original non (singular / plural / male / female)
2. Try put pronoun as close as possible to noun to which it refers.
Participles
 Forms of the verb that can function as adjectives / nouns→ present / past
Ex. → Studying is time consuming = present
→ The detained prisoner asked to see a lawyer = past
Present tense takes form of verb + “-ing”
Ex → “stydy” → “studying” (noun) because there is a verb “is”
 Participles (not pure verb→is, have) & followed by main verb.
Complete & Incomplete Sentences
 A complete sentence must have a subject (thing / person / idea that determines the action / the
verb in the sentence) and a main verb (i.e. is).
 Prevent incomplete sentences by keeping them short!!!
2.
Asking questions / making requests:
Formal requests / questions
Less formal
=
=
could / would/ why
please / can
C: INTEGRATED SKILLS
Note making skills: (look at textbook → 36..)
1. Devise a system of abbreviations or invent your own
2. Diagrammatic representations of text – represents key information in a short &
structured way that’s understandable
→ Linear / Top-down representation / tree diagram
Make sure
the 1 ur
using is
appropriate
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UNIT 3 – READING CASES
A: READING
V
JA
AJA
JP
=
=
=
=
versus
Judge of Appeal
Acting judge of Appeal
Judge President
Court of first instance → the following will appear:
1. Obiter dicta = remarks made in passing
2. Order
3. Names of attorneys
Court case on appeal:
1. Obiter dicta = remarks made in passing
2. Order of court of 1st instance
3. Order of court on appeal
4. Names of attorneys
Judgement given on another date:
Cur adv vult = the court wishes to consider it’s verdict
B: LANGUAGE
Relative Pronouns
→ Tell you more about the noun
WHO / WHICH / WHAT
WHEN TALKING ABOUT
People
Things
Places
Possession
USE CLAUSE WITH PRONOUN
Who
Which / That
Where
Whose
NB → place relative pronouns as close to noun as possible otherwise meaning may be lost!
“Whom”→ used for a person when that person is the indirect object of the verb
→ “the man whom I gave the book is my brother”.
Words “to / from / for / at” usually indicate pronoun will be “whom”.
Connectors
→ to join/connect pieces/sections of a sentence.
→ but / and / so / because / further / for → rrelationship of what you said before.
Complex sentences:
→ Long sentences may be difficult to understand
→ Try this:
1. What are the main points?
2. What other information is NB?
3. Divide into short phrases → study each phrase for :
→ Content: what information does it give?
→ Function: what is it’s relation / connection to
the rest of the sentence?
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C: INTEGRATED SKILLS
Summarizing a case:
→ ONLY the most NB point
→ 1/10th of original size
→ To refer back & to refresh your memory of the relevant facts and legal principles
Structure like this:
1. Case Name (short)
2. Facts
3. Legal question
4. Finding
5. Reason(s) for finding (Ratio decidendi)
Tshabalala v Natal Law Society (N)
Facts:
Appl employed as ‘candidate attorney’ from 1 Jul
94 to 10 Jul 95. Service not under article of
clerckship as def in s1 of Attorneys Act 53 of
1979, but pursuant to a letter of appointment.
Appl applied for order that for purposes of her
admission as an attorney the period not rendered
under articles is to be regarded as having been
served under articles of clerkship by virtue of
s 13(2) of the Attorneys Act.
Legal Question:
Whether s 13(2) empowers the Court to regularise
services not performed under articles as def in
s1.
Finding:
No.
Reason for finding: (Ration Decidendi)
The language of the subsection is clear and
unequivocal: it is regular service as a
candidate attorney that the Court may regularise
and not irregular service generally.
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UNIT 4 – INTEGRATING MATERIAL
C. INTEGRATED SKILLS
Problem-type Questions
Attempt to find the most relevant rules / princples & cases to support your advice / opinion.
1. Select the essential facts from the question
2. Identify the key issue / legal question
3. Plant your answer (make a rough plan of):
→ Legal question (raised by facts)
→ Legal position → general principles & specific legal rules, exceptions & authority
(cases) – mention any other considerations that are necessary
→ Application of legal position to the facts
→ Conclusion
ALWAYS read through afterwards & correct errors.
Tenses to use in problem-type questions:
 Short answer
→
→
→
future tense (making prediction)
will probably succeed
should succeed
 Identifying issues raised
→
→
present tense
our concern here is…
 Legal position applicable
→
→
present tense
M must show…
 Relating facts of an authoritative case
→
→
past / past perfect
had died, left pregnant…
 Court rulings in the case
→
→
past tense
The court ruled that…
 Applying legal position to the facts
→
→
present & future tenses
These facts are analogues to …
The court ….will have to / must / has to …rule on whethere….
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EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 5 – LANGUAGE STRUCTURES IN ACTS
A. READING
Reading an act → to understand
 Break it up into more understandable parts (ensure you know what each part means)
 Use certain words as markers
 A dash (-) is used to break the flow of the sentence & normally followed by a qualification of
what’s been said before / description / explanation
EXAMPLE:
78. A person
who commits an act
which constitutes an offence,
and who at the time of such commission suffers
from a mental illness or mental defect
which makes him incapable –
(a) of appreciating the wrongfulness of his act;
or
(b) of acting in accordance with an appreciation of the wrongfulness of his act
shall not be criminally responsible for such an act.
B: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Language used in acts
 Formal
 “Passive” = regular feature in formal / impersonal text – try not to overuse the passive voice
(can make your writing longer than it should be)
Example: →The Supreme Court or maintenance court can be approached at any time
to claim maintenance for one’s children. → (passive) → not clear who can.
→ You can approached the High Court to claim maintenance for your
children. → (active)
C: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Paraphrasing → rewrite a section of a text in your own words
→ Only repeat the essence of what is said in your own words
Referring to acts & statutes
→ Name of an act is a proper noun → use capital letters!
“A” is capital letter – “Act” – part of the name of the act.
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




Suggested that you use full title of act (incl. number) when referring to it for the first time
Always give full reference in formal documentation (i.e. term paper)
Abbreviate title of act in an exam / when make subsequent reference to it
Always provide year act was promulgated – more NB than no. of act.
Footnotes – number of act could be given!
UNIT 6 – DISCOURSE STRUCTURE OF ACTS
A: READING
Reading an Act:
 Important to know different components of an act because these have different functions that




may influence the interpretation
Promulgation date when act comes into force on this date
Long title → purpose of the act
Definition clause/section → to explains difficult terms/phrases in the act
Preamble → (not in all acts)
EXAMPLE:
Short title : Name of act
Signed by the President
Short title: the Electronic Communications Act, 2005.
If there’s dispututes about
certain sections / the content
of the act, the English version
must be refered to.
Long title:
It explains the
purpose of the act.
Contents : which chapters
Are given attention
Definitions:
To explain difficult /
Technical terms or
Comprehensive phrases
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Numbers alongside: to help understand & reference
Definitions / Definition
Clause:
Technical & difficult
terms / comprehensive
phrases contained in the
Act are explained.
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Subsections
Sections
Paragraphs
Sub paragraphs
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Short title:
the
Electronic
Communicat
ions Act,
2005.
(sections left out)
B: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Modal verbs
→ degrees of certainty & uncertainty
Can / could / may / might / will / would / shall / should / need / must / ought to
→ always before main verb
→ slightly change meaning of verb
Used to express obligation / possibility / willingness / ability / permission / necessity
“Shall” has more / less same meaning as “must” but is much stronger
Often used in statues to indicate that upon the completion of a certain conditions, something is
brought about.
→ indicate command, obligation, duty
→can make passive sentence with a modal verb:
→ex. → They will send you to jail. (active) → You will be sent to jail. (Passive)
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C: INTEGRATED SKILLS
→ Planning & Drafting
Argumentative writing
How a simple argument is structured:
1. The problem
2. The thesis (writer’s point of view)
3. The justification
STEP 1: getting started
Instructions will probably refer you to specific cases / legislation and sections in your textbook – this is
your starting point.
→
Think up an introductory sentence / copy it from a good writer:
Example→
“In this assignment / essay I (will) argue that…” / “discuss the following” / “describe the
problem of…” (you tell reader what you are going to do and at same time – gain
clarity in your mind about what you intend on doing)
OR
→
→
→
Start writing anywhere on any part of the assignment.
Get the one important point you want to make out of your system and carry on from there.
Can always move paragraphs around, split them up and write an introduction and conclusion
right at the end – still must get global idea of the points that must be mentioned in your
assignment.
YOUR FIRST PARAGRAPH MUST SAY WHAT YOU ARE GOING TO DO!!
STEP 2: organising facts, opinions & sources (look @ pg 154)
You will probably use some of these subheadings:
1. The problem
2. State of affairs in legislation
3. State of affairs in latest court decisions
4. Arguments by academic writers
5. Justification for a specific point of view
6. Conclusion
add reference for support
When lecturers mark assignment – probably assess it according to:
→
Understanding the problem – do you demonstrate a grasp of the problem in the context of the
specific subject?
→
Correct identification of issues and relevant law
→
Appropriate application of law
→
Appropriate conclusion
→
Correct use of relevant references, cases, statutes
→
Correct use of legal concepts and principles
You need to present information in a coherent and academic fashion. Use connectors (but / therefore
/ however) as markers that will help reader to follow your reasoning. Remember – it is possible to
have series of conclusions in your assignment as you move from one argument to the next.
STEP 3: drawing the threads together
Conclusion:
Revision phase:
→ refer back to topic and introductory paragraph.
→ Edit work to eliminate errors and check text flows from one point to next
(runs smoothly from one idea to next by means of connectors)
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UNIT 7 – PLAIN ENGLISH
Guidelines on writing plainer English:
→ Break up long, complicated sentences into smaller ones
→ Substitute difficult words with easier ones
→ Avoid redundancy (decide what is the essential information)
Beware of difference between
1. A person states something
2. A person comments on
3. A person argues that
4. A person claims that
5. A person alleges that
Opinions / comments → on public’s problems are generally taken seriously when voiced by a
person who has authority and this makes his / her opinions more valid.
→
Express opinions carefully →
→
“One feels” instead of “I think”
“Somewhat absurd” instead of “plain ridiculous”
Can also quote things in support of opinions (i.e. offer factual evidence for opinion).
Generally people are more formal when expressing opinions in writing.
Basic elements of an argument
→ Present facts
→ Express opinions
→ Support facts and opinions
B: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Word formation
Words have a dictionary meaning & an emotional meaning – words have an effect on readers /
listeners that can be positive / negative = “connotation” of words.
Mostly fixed connotation = love / peace / home (home can have negative connotation as well)
Generally words ending in “-ism” / “-ist” have negative connotations – because they indicate extreme
point of view / exaggerate a belief.
Words ending in “-ese” generally describe a use of language specific domain – i.e. legalese = use of
legal language.
Expressing opinions
The expression of opinions, requests and apologies can be made more formal and less direct by using
these techniques:
1. Use impersonal forms
→ “one” instead of “you / we”
2. Use auxiliaries
→ “would / could / might / should”
3. Use mitigators (softeners) → “perhaps / somewhat / possibly / please”
4. Use the question form:
→ Don’t you think you might be overreacting?
→ example → I’d be careful if I were you! (direct opinion)
→ more formal/ less direct → One should perhaps take more care.

Appropriate language is dependant on circumstances of and participants in conversation.
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General neutral language



Avoid using so-called “generic” “he” → use s/he or her/him.
→ or use plural → Students must pay their fees…
Use alternatives → one / people / humans
Job titles → rather use → flight attendant / camera operator / sales agent / waitron / server
Be aware of the power of language used and ability of that language to affect people’s lives & their
perception of justice and equality.
Quoting and Reporting Speech
→ Rules:
1. If discussing varying points of view expressed by academics in textbooks / journals
→ quote in present tense →the words and point of view / theory they represent are on the
page – they exist in present.
2. To Report words actually spoken → follow rules of reported speech:
Example → The defendant’s real words are “I was unaware of the existence of a contract”
→ When you report the words: “The defendant contended that he had been
unaware of the existence of a contract” – Was becomes had been.
3. Court decisions → past tense → report of verbal proceedings in court room.
4. Discussions & reviews of cases often use words like “conclude / allege” →indicate stage of
court proceedings and function of a specific speech.
Know the meaning of the words to be able to report speech correctly.
EXAMPLE → stated / cited / quoted / allegation / claim / reported / held / considered …
NB→ Law principles are always in PRESENT TENSE
C: INTEGRATED SKILLS
An argument



Consists of opposing views→ you must make quite clear which points you are arguing for and
which against
Consists of logical links expressed in words (because / however / but)
Makes use of statements, questions & conditions to move forward and not in circles / from one
irrelevant point to the next!
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UNIT 8: EVALUATION AND EXPRESSING OPINIONS
A : READING





Using plain language provides clarity for legal profession and it’s clients
Documents should be user-friendly
It’s cost effective to write clear legal documents
More democratic to write legal documents in plain English
Unintelligible legal jargon should be avoided
B: LANGUAGE FOCUS
Articles
→ 2 kinds → the & a/an → followed by noun / word functioning as noun
Prepositions
after / at / before / on / since / to / until → time
across / along / at / below / behind / by / on→ place
Into / between / from / up …
C: INTEGRATED SKILLS
Simplifications of complex language
1. Break up long, complicated sentences → shorter, simpler ones
2. Substitute difficult words → words that are easier to understand
3. Redundancy → use of too many words to convey something or an excess of words to convey
something that could have been said better in less words → attempt to correct redundancy.
4. Avoid sexist lanhuage
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UNIT 9 – AGRUMENTATIVE WRITING
A: READING
Language conveys more than information→ it also expresses the emotions and attitudes of the writer /
speaker → it is often used to influence the attitudes of the reader.
The writer in relation to the text
Attitude:
Point of view:
Purpose:
If it can be determined – attitude enables you to decide how to regard that which you
are reading.
Perspective from which writer / speaker presents his / her material – determines way
you view what is written – where he/she presents only his / her personal point of view
/ where he/she tries to remain neutral towards what he/she is writing about.
Most important element – it is the reason for writing! May aim to amuse / inform /
criticise / provoke an action.
Manipulation language
Tone:
Emotion:
Style in writing – impatient / lively / despondent / bantering / suspicious / angry /
disappointed / grim
Words with a strong emotional connection reinforce the emotional appeal of a text
(love / apartheid / bastard / poverty).
All above aspects can overlap with on another or are not always present in equal degrees in all texts!
B : LANGUAGE FOCUS
Structure of contrast
→ Constructing spoken & written arguments!
NB→ Use structures of contrast, reason & purpose correctly.
→ To Compose structure of contrast correctly → use:

Structures of Contrast:
Connect two ideas that are in opposition: (but, despite (never followed by “of”), in spite
(always use with “of”), yet, however, even so, nevertheless)

Structures of Reason:
Connect two ideas = one is the cause (reason why something occurs / exists) and the other is
the result (consequence of something occurring / existing): because / since / as / on account
of / for
Sentence consists of 3 sections:
Example: It is difficult to understand the witness + because / since + he speaks with a heavy accent.
→
(main clause)
+ (linking word) +
( reason clause)
Note:
Use a comma only when you use “for”. It’s possible to swing the sentence around and
introduce it with “as / since / because” – cannot do this with “for”. “For” is often used with a
verb ending in an “ing”.

Structures of Purpose
To introduces the reason for / intention behind an action / event
Also consists of 3 sections
Example: The judge asked the witness a question + in order to
+ get the facts straight
→
(main clause)
+ (linking word) + (clause of purpose)
As to / in order that / because / in case / so that ( both reason & purpose ) → used in same way
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C: INTEGRATED SKLLS
Constructing counter arguments
When you counter someone’s argument you need to attack both the thesis and the evidence –
using structures of reason, contrast & purpose.
Example : textbook page 203 “Filthy Lucre”- by Ronge
(Statement)
We are, in general, living in a society in which the only clear sign of concentrated intellectual activity
has been the variety and complexity of the scams it has produced.
(Evidence)
False academic qualifications, bogus passports, auctions of Matric exam papers …
(You can counter the statement by making your own statement)
This society has demonstrated its world-class intellectual vigour in highly respected areas.
(or by attacking the writer’s own words)
Ronge’s words ‘in general’ expose the gross over-generalization and pessimistic view he has of our
society.
(then you can provide evidence for your statement)
South Africa has set the example for the world when it launched and successfully concluded the Truth
and Reconciliation Commission’s work….
NB
→ analyse an argument & plan the counter argument by including the original statement & evidence.
→ Look for weak aspects of the evidence, introduce new evidence , the come to a conclusion.
When you must write an essay-type question (which you will) which requests you to argue for / against
something….
KEEP IN MIND:
1. Plan essay → make a rough scheme outlining your argument
→
2. Intro
What your going to argue about
+
Body & subheadings →
→
→
→
Main aspects of your argument
Different paragraphs 4 different ideas
Topic sentence & subheadings
If possible → support / give authority in the form of case decisions /
academic opinions
+
Conclusion
→
→
→
→
Summary of your argument
No new ideas
Restate positions (don’t repeat whole argument)
This will be your final impression
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UNIT 10 – TOPIC ANALYSIS
To break down topics or questions into their different components to produce clear relevant and
focussed answers, you need to:





Break the question into different parts
Let the task word(s) determine your method
Develop your ideas around the key content words
Conform to the limits / formal requirements of the question
Produce work that matches time & mark allocation
Now in detail:
Breaking down the question
→ into different parts
Essay-length questions → usually more than 1 part + more than 1 instruction
NB
→ identify different components
→ different choices : ether x or y
→ content / info key words : “water , cities, health”
→ task words : explain, analyse, list
→ instructions of formatting & length : a paragraph, a page, an essay
→ any requirements / limits / injunctions : ‘do NOT’…
→ mark allocation & / submission date
Clarify Task word(s)
→ your method
→ Know what you’re required to do (action / task words)
Focus on topic key words
Abstract ideas →
Concrete things →
Processes
→
→ ideas around key content words
happiness
motor vehicle
water cycle
→ it’s usually about the work you’ve covered → make sure to circle them
limits / formal requirements
→ of the question
Do not ignore instructions → they are your key to success
Length limits / attachments / bibliography / incl. rough notes / not to do something / reminders
Work that matches
→ time & mark allocation
NB: YOUR EFFORT MUST MATCH MARKS→ don’t lose unnecessary mark
→ earn marks by fulfilling demands of the question
YOUR TIME IS NB: In exam→ take into account
©L.Gerber → use for study purpose only
→ time allowed
→ important questions / sections
→ reading time
→ revising time
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EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 11 – AUDIENCE and PURPOSE
Before you write it is important to determine who you are writing for and why you are writing.
Focus on your audience
To write effectively determine:
→ what the reader needs from the text
→ How to structure → that they’ll get what they need
NB. YOUR WRITING SHOULD BE APPROPRIATE TO YOUR AUDIENCE!!
Example on page 80 (study guide)
Purpose
Determine how your writing will affect your content and style.
Purpose refers to
→ affect of your writing on the audience
→ response you want to get (physical / mental)
→ goal / result your aiming for
One you know your audience & your purpose, choose appropriate
 Words
 Sentence length / type
 Paragraph length / type
NB. SENTENCES MUST FLOW → LIKE A STORY
UNIT 12 – WRITING TO CONVINCE
 Look out for task words
→ they might be hidden
→ Do you agree or disagree? Give reason …
→ Should x? Justify ….
→ Is x … ? Support your answer
→ What do you think … ? Give evidence …
NB. Give justification + support / evidence
 Start with thesis statement
→ statement of belief / basis of argument
→ some questions already have the thesis
→ it’s a clear, broad expression of belief
 Define difficult terms→ to give argument cogency & logic
 Establish the context → in introduction / near beginning of argument → set topics in it’s
Content
Conent includes info about
→ recent public discussions (newspapers)
→ historical facts
→ relevant case histories / instances
→ the progress of the debate
→ sequence of events leading to current state of affairs
→ example ( page 86- study guide)




Support your arguments → an argument is buildup by foundings / support
Provide a counter argument→ take into account the opposing views
Avoid pitfalls → don’t be bias / make assumptions / over-generalise / illogical links
Sound convincing→ use adverbs→ of course / in fact / indeed / certainly …
©L.Gerber → use for study purpose only
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EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 13 – GATHERING IDEAS
When preparing for an assignment you should have the following papers all around you:
 Your own ideas, in the form of → mind-maps / lists
→ ideas that pop-in your mind when you read the question / statement
→ this will help you to find information
 Notes taken from reference works → study guides / books
→ Pick out
→ relevant info
→ keywords
→ main ideas
 Copies of relevant pages → highlighted
→ always include references
→ where to find your info → follow recomened reading list
→ dictionaries / encyclopaedias
→ library
→ internet
→ library catalogue
→ build up a bank of newspaper clippings
→ follow footnotes
Referencing in bibliography:
→ book
→ surname , initial . book title , place of publication : publisher
→ periodical
→ surname , initial . year , title , volume , issue : page numbers
→ internet
→ surname, name. title. Full site name where retrieved from. Date retrieved
 Newspaper / internet / magazine articles
Before / when you are reading→ you need to:
→
keep topic / question in your head
→
note relevant page numbers
→
extract relevant info only
→
take notes→ provide→ source & page number
→
translate difficult academic writing to your own words
→
think while you read
→
record your own thoughts / comments as they occur to you
↕
 Your own comments & reflection on the notes you’ve collected.
 Keeping Records → for correct references in bibliography & footnotes
You can keep record by using the following methods:
→
a computer file
→
index cards / sheets with handwritten details
→
as you take notes → record page numbers to find info quickly!!
©L.Gerber → use for study purpose only
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EN N 10 6 J SUM M ARI E S 2 01 0
UNIT 14 – ORGANISING IDEAS
Before you write you need an overview of what your essay will look like → paragraph plan /
breakdown of main groups.
Use the following steps to organise your ideas:







read all material → check relevancy
on second reading→ classify your ideas → highlight / number / using letters
highlight quotes you can use directly
decide on logical oreder for groups of ideas
draw up paragraph plan + topic sentence / main ideas
create links between paragraphs → to flow from 1 to the other (page104 Study Guide)
decide what you will say in intro & conclusion
UNIT 15 – WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
Recipe for good introduction:
 express main topic of entire essay
→ create a thesis statement
 refer to terms of the rubric ( express the general idea)
→ introduce theme of essay
 write confidently & knowledgeable
 attract reader’s interest
→ brief quotation / an aside / a question / a startling opening sentence
 give necessary background information / definitions
 avoid examples & detail
 be specific & definite (avoid ‘it’ / ‘that thing’ )
 give info that summarise body of the essay & give reader a way to predict structure of essay
 revise intro after completion of essay
UNIT 16 – WRITING THE ESSAY
Using paragraphs is you key to success
→
it MUST have:





paragraph breaks
topic sentence
cohesion within paragraphs
cohesion between paragraphs
conlusions
UNIT 17 – REVISING THE ESSAY
You must show to the marker of the essay that you have complied with the formalities.
Make sure to:
→ revise your connect
→ support your main ideas
→ correct your sentences
→ clarify your links
©L.Gerber → use for study purpose only
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