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Issues and Methods 02/27 Evolutionary Psychology and 20th Century Cognitive Psychology One Damn Task After Another (Newell, 1972,1990) Daniel Khaneman and Amos Tversky Normative Models Logic, Probability Theory Decision Theory Classical Economics Heuristics and Biases Bounded Rationality (Simon) Gerd Gigerenzer Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & the ABC Group (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press. http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/bbs/Archive/bbs.todd.html Fast and frugal heuristics fill part of our mind's "adaptive toolbox" of decision strategies. Together, these heuristics produce a rationality which is ecological, rather than merely logical - decision making that is welladapted to specific environmental settings or domains and specific classes of problems, rather than being universally applicable to all situations and problems. Page 1 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Examples of Empirical Results Supporting Evolutionary Psychology Facial Expressions Language Chomsky: Universal Grammar “Poverty of the stimulus” Human languages have such a complex structure that they cannot be learned just from the information available to a child Detecting Violations of Rules Probabilistic Reasoning Page 2 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Detecting Violations of Rules Logic and Reasoning General Content Free Mechanisms People are very bad at … Wason Selection Task IF a person goes into Boston, then that person takes the subway Boston Arlington subway cab If P, then Q Test for P(Q?) and ~Q(~P?) Huge Number of Other Examples Social Exchange (Reciprocal Altruism) Cheater detection If you take benefit B, then you must satisfy requirement R Can detect violations of If-Then rules if task is cheater detection If you are drinking beer, you must be 21 or older Beer Coke 21 or over Page 3 of 16 younger that 21 Issues and Methods 02/27 Probabilistic Reasoning Company suspects 2% of its employees use illicit drugs. Company institutes random drug tests Drug test is 95% accurate; that is, P[positive test| drug use] = .95 P[negative test| no drug use] = .95 Mary Jane is selected at random; her test is positive. What is probability that Mary Jane uses illicit drugs? Page 4 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Mary Jane's Probability Test Says: "Positive" "Negative" Total Truth Clean Drug User Total 49 19 68 (5% of Col) (95% of Col) 931 1 (95% of Col) (5% of Col) 980 20 932 1000 (98% of Total) (2% of Total) For 1000 employees there would be 68 "positive" test results. But 49 of these "positive" tests would be false alarms and only 19 would be hits. P[Mary Jane is drug user | "positive" test] = 19/68 = .28 If company fired all employees with "positive" test results, for every 1000 employees they would fire 49 innocent people and only 19 guilty people. Page 5 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Non Human Primate Culture Japanese Macaque Potato Washing Not that unusual Pattern and slow spread of behavior Chimpanzee Tool Use Culture shaped by environment Not true learning by imitation Actions of other can cue pre-existing behaviors Emulation learning (focus on environment rather than teacher) Chimps lack of shared attention and of understanding of actions of others Emulation learning with learning less efficient strategy by imitating adult Page 6 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Non Human Primate Culture (continued) Chimpanzee Gestural Communication Leaf Clipping: “others learned via emulation to make the same noise (i.e. they learned the affordances of the leaf). This had different attention-getting effects on conspecifics in the different groups, however, and these were then learned as contingencies.” (521) Ontogenetic Ritualization “a communicatory signal is created by two organisms shaping each other is behavior in repeated instances of a social interaction” Tomasello (1997) Taught chimp single to obtain food reward Up back in colony where she used signal to get food Not ONE other chimp learned to make the same signal Communication signal are idiosyncratic!!! Page 7 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Non Human Primate Culture (continued) Nonhuman Primate Social Learning and Social Cognition Teaching central part of any human culture Boesch (1991) Use of “hammer and anvil” to crack nuts “Boesch discovered that a mother does a number of things that serve to facilitate the infants activities with the tool and nuts, such as leaving the tools idle while she goes to gather more nuts (which she would not do if another adult were present).” Mother’s intentions not clear. Only two ambiguous examples in several years of observation. All of the above conflict with data on theory of mind Distinction between manipulating behavior and manipulating mental states Chimps cannot do TRUE imitative learning which is foundation for cultural transmission Enculturated Apes and Imitation Page 8 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Species Unique Human Behaviors Creation and Use of Symbols Creation and Use of Complex Tools Creating and Participation in Complex Social Organizations and Institutions Page 9 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 All This Occurred In A Very Short Time Span 6 Million Years Ago: Split Between Humans and Apes Next 4 Million Years: Various Species of Australopithicines Brain size around 500cc (Ape like) Bipedal Last 2 Million Years; Genius Homo Last 50,000: Clear evidence of human culture To little time biological evolution to have generated big differences in ape and human cognition Find small difference that generates huge differences in behavior Page 10 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Steps to Modern Civilization Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond Colonization of the Rest of the World Australia/New Guinea 40,000 bc Siberia 20,000 bc Americas 12,000 bc to 10,000 bc Hunter Gatherer vs Farmer Life Style First Domestication of Plants Fertile Crescent 8,500 bc China 7,500 bc Americas 3,500 to 2,500 bc First Domestication of Animals All, Dog 10,000 bc Fertile Crescent 8,000 bc China 8,000 bc Americas 3,500 bc Number of Domesticatable Plants and Animal In Fertile Crescent No Large Draft Animals in Americas Eurasia Page 11 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Steps to Modern Civilization (Cont) Political Organizations Bands 10s to 150 before 11,000 bc Tribes 100s after 11,000 bc Chiefdoms 1,000s after 5,500 bc States >100,000 3,700 bc (Mesopotamia) approx. 500 bc (China, Mesoamerica) Chiefdoms and states have specialization of labor, stratified societies, food production, ... Writing Merlin Donald…. Page 12 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Development of Writing Systems Donald Body decoration before 200,000 bc Decoration of tools and weapons 2 and 3 dimensional art 100,000 bc 40,000 bc Advance painting and drawing skills 23,000 bc Primitive accounting systems token, numbers 8,500 bc Earliest evidence of writing 4,000 bc Syllabic Script 2,800 bc Earliest phonetic alphabet 2,000 bc Page 13 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Evolution of Writing Pictograms Importance of number symbols Earliest writing were accounting systems Importance of lists (good, histories, etc.) Evolution of grammatical conventions (order) Evolution of Egyptian hieroglyphs in a phonetic writing system Unigrams, bigrams, and trigrams (example of m...) Alphabets.... Page 14 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Alternative Models of Human Evolution Linnda R. Caporael Inclusive Fitness (Evolutionary Psychology) Cosmides-Tooby, Jones Gene’s eye view of evolution (selfish genes) General Selection Theories Based on Darwinian Principles Focal Trait and adaptive advantage of this trait Donald (1991) Calvin and Brickerton (2000) Lots of others Sociality Theories Dunbar (1993) Machiavellian intelligence (Byrne & Whiten 1988) Complexities of group living and social exchange Page 15 of 16 Issues and Methods 02/27 Multilevel Evolutionary Theories Other levels where selection can occur (e.g. chromosomes, individuals, groups). Dual inheritance (Culture and genes) Boyd and Richardson Tomasello Page 16 of 16