Download Euro Brainstorm Combo Sheet

Euro Brainstorm Combo Sheet
1. Counter-Catholic Reformation by Bernardo Celis and Valerie Kahn
Two Types of Reform
 They both progressed simultaneously in after 1540
Catholic Reformation
 Began before 1517
 Search for renewal through a new spiritual fervor
Counter Reformation
 Started in the 1540s as a response to the rise and spread of Protestantism. Counter Reformation sought to heretics
(people who hold religious beliefs in conflict with Roman Catholic Church) to return to the Catholic Church.
 Heretics would be excommunicated (expelled or eliminated) from the church if they did not come back
Slowness of Reform
 Dutch pope Adrian VI tried desperately to reform the church.
 Clement VII (Medici) was more interested in tapestries and Michelangelo's paintings than in theological disputes.
o Clement is blamed for the spread of Protestantism
 Emperor Charles V and French king Francis I competed for Italy at the Battle of Pavia, while the papacy worried
about security of the Papal States.
o To pay the soldiers Charles let them sack Rome and capture the pope
 This marked the end of the High Renaissance
 “The most grievous danger of any Pope lies in the fact that, encompassed as he is by flatterers, he never hears the truth
about his own person and ends by not wishing to hear it” – Saint Bernard of Clairvaux
Council of Trent
 Council called to secure reconciliation with Protestants by inviting them to participate in the church
o The belief in only Scriptures and political reasons made reconciliation impossible
 French kings opposed the reconciliation of Catholicism and Lutheranism
o A divided Europe = a stronger France
 Cardinal Alexander Farnese was elected as pope and ruled as Pope Paul III. (He promised to cardinals that if he were
elected pope he would summon a council
o He established the Inquisition in the Papal States
o He called together a council which met at Trent (an imperial city close to Italy)
 The Council of Trent, which met intermittently from 1545 to 1563, was called not only to reform the church but also
to secure reconciliation with Protestantism.
 Bishops persisted on the conciliar theory of church goverment
o All acts of the council required papal approval
 Council of Trent dealt with doctrinal and disciplinary matters:
o Tridentine decrees required bishops to stay in their own dioceses, suppressed pluralism and simony, and
stopped the sale of indulgences
 Bishops need to visit every religious house within their diosce once every two years
 Established seminaries for education and training of the clergy
 Admission preference given to children of the poor
o Tridentine decree Tametsi required that for marriage to be valid, vows had to be made publicly before
witnesses and a priest
New Religious Orders
 Ursuline order of nuns (founded by Angela Medici)
o Sought to re-Christianize society by training future wives and mothers
o Education of women because there was an end to all active ministries for women
o Ursulines spread to France and New World
 Schools provided superior education for young women and infused the spiritual ideas of Catholic
Reformation.
 Society of Jesus (founded by Ignatius Loyola)
o Spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, India, Japan and Congo
o Members were called "Jesuits"
 Their goal was "to help souls"
 They had a commitment to go anywhere to help souls
o They brought southern Germany and Eastern Europe back to Catholicism
The Congregation of the Holy Office
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Established by Paul III
Had power over the Roman Inquisition
o Six cardinals had the power to arrest, imprison and execute
Accepted heresay evidence, didn’t have to tell the accused of their charges, and applied torture
Created the Index of Prohibited Books
2. Scientific Revolution by Jon Macaluso II
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The Scientific Revolution, accompanied by the Enlightenment, is the two most significant contributors to the view of
the world and scientific thought during the 1600’s and 1700’s. Much of the knowledge discovered and inspired then
is still in active use throughout our lives in modern times
There were many developments and discoveries made in the fields of physics and astronomy
Medieval understanding was based off of the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle believed/preached
that we lived in a geocentric universe, meaning that the earth was in the center while the sun and other celestial bodies
orbited around it. The Catholic Church favored the idea that the earth was the center, because the earth, being a
creation of god, would obviously be the most important thing in the universe, thus the center. Aristotle also believed
that that a uniform force moved an object at a constant speed and as soon as this force was removed, the object would
immediately halt.
The Catholic church liked this because it provided a logical reason for the operations of the universe, and put man in
the center
Copernicus, one of the most notable of scientists during this time, was the first to believe that the universe was not
geocentric, but heliocentric, meaning that it was the sun that was the center. He wrote his ideas in his book On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, but it was not published until after his death for fear of being ridiculed by
fellow scientists.
Copernicus’s theory put the stars at rest in the night sky because their apparent movement was due to that of the earth,
and it suggested that the universe was of inconceivable stature. Copernicus made it seem as if the earthly world
wasn’t different from the heavenly world, therefore removing a realm for god.
The Copernican theory was attacked by Protestants and later on Catholics alike, including such people as Martin
Luther, “The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside down.”, and John Calvin, “Who will venture to
place the authority of Copernicus above that of the holy spirit?”
The creation of “new stars” which were actually distant exploding new ones and comets also questioned the universes
perfection.
Copernicus also created a calendar for the Catholic church that used a heliocentric universe, it was accepted because it
was logical, not because it was true
Tycho Brahe figured out that the motion of stars could be tracked and their positions predicted into the distant future.
He did this with the help of the most sophisticated observatory of his time, constructed with grants from the king of
Denmark.
His assistant Johannes Kepler developed 3 laws of planetary motion: 1.The orbits of the planets around the sun are
elliptical, not circular 2.Planets don’t move at a uniform speed around their planets 3.The time it takes a planet to
complete its orbit is directly linked to the sun
Galileo Galilei by means of mathematics found out that a uniform force produced uniform acceleration. He recorded
his observations in his book Two New Sciences.
Galileo also formulated the law of inertia; an object continues in motion till stopped by an outside force, and he found
that Jupiter had four moons suggesting that it couldn’t be locked in a crystal globe as previously thought, and that the
moon had an irregular surface. He wrote his discoveries of Jupiter and the Moon in his book Siderus Nuncius.
Galileo also wrote Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World in which he openly attacked the views of
Aristotle and Ptolemy, and defended the views of Copernicus.
Sir Isaac Newton unified the fundamental discoveries of Kepler and Galileo. Those ideas along with other ideas on
physics were recorded into his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or more commonly known as
Principia. He also determined that all matter in the universe was linked to each other by means of attraction, or in this
case, gravity.
Francis Bacon believed that new knowledge could only be attained by experimental research, while Aristotle believed
that reasoning could be used to gain general knowledge. He formalized Brahe and Galileo’s theory of inductive
research producing empiricism.
Rene Descartes made some of the largest break throughs in mathematics in his time. He found that geometry and
algebra formed a perfect correspondence and that geometrical shapes could be represented in algebraic equations and
vice versa. This became known as Cartesian Dualism.
The works of Bacon and Descartes helped to make the modern day scientific method.
3. The Enlightenment by Dane Underwood and Michael Krzyston
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The Enlightenment was largely a product of the Scientific Revolution, which gave birth to a new world-view
and a thirst for knowledge. It involved various authors attempting to convey their ideas through writing to a
population of readers that was a minority within society.
The Enlightenment was defined by 3 basic principles or concepts:
1.) The rules of natural science (reason) should be used to examine ideas;
2.) The scientific method could be used to study humans as well as nature;
3.) It was possible for the thinkers to help shape society into a better place. Hence, the Enlightenment was quite
secular.
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A new idea had taken hold: intellectual progress had finally surpassed that of Ancient Greece and Rome.
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Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757) was a French "popularizer." He took the discoveries of the Scientific
Revolution and made them easier to understand, so that the newly formed public could read them. His most famous
work was Conversations of the Plurality of Worlds ( 1686). It is about a gentleman walking through a garden while
explaining astronomy to a woman.
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Fontenelle and other writers like him brought science into conflict with religion. They were skeptical of
religious authority and truth, and as such believed only that which they could prove with concrete evidence and
experimentation. In Eulogies of Scientists, he exploited the theme of progressive, rational thinkers vs. reactionary
priests.
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Another challenge to religious authority was the constant fighting in Europe. If thousands were dying in
order to keep religious uniformity, was it really necessary at all?
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One of the most famous skeptics was Pierre Bayle (1647-1706). In Historical and Critical Dictionaries, he
challenged religious uniformity. Believed that knowing everything was impossible.
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In 1690, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, by John Locke, was published. He insisted that all ideas
are contrived from experience.
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Locke insisted that the human mind at birth is like a blank tablet (tabula rasa) on which the environment
writes the individual’s understanding and beliefs.
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The Enlightenment reached its height in France, where philosophes battled against absolute monarchial and
clerical rule.
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Jean le Rond d'Alembert made a distinction between the public and common people. The public could read.
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Illegal in France to criticize church or state, so philosophes did it through satire and double meanings,
mostly. Montesquieu (1689-1755) used this approach in The Persian Letters, which used a Persian author to examine
contemporary society. Also wrote The Spirit of Laws in 1748, which supported his preferred government type, a form
of aristocracy.
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Montesquieu believed in a balance of powers in government (checks and balances); The constitutions of
France and ‘Merica were based on this idea.
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Another philosophe was Voltaire, who lived with salonier Madame du Chatelet. He praised England's
scientific discoveries, and was an advisor at the court of Frederick the Great in Berlin. He was a follower of deism. He
believed that God had made an orderly universe and simply let it run. He also hated religious intolerance, in all forms.
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Voltaire believed that the best form of government was one in which there was a powerful, good monarch.
The greatest achievement of the French philosophes was the seventeen-volume Encyclopedia: The Rational
Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts. Edited by Diderot and d'Alembert, and released in 1751. It was a
catalogue of knowledge, obviously, but it also denounced religious ideas and praised science. It was read widely
throughout France and in Switzerland. It also denounced religious intolerance and legal injustice. It largely summed
up all of the intellectual achievements of the Enligtenment.
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System of Nature by Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789) argued that human beings were machines
completely determined by outside forces, without any free will.
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Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) was and important contributor to the Enlightenment who
argued skepticism.
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Hume Believed that the human mind was nothing but a bundle of impressions.
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Marie-Jean Caritat, the marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) wrote Progress of the Human Mind in which he
tracked nine stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted a tenth that would bring perfection.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed that rationalism and civilization destroyed the individual, and
that the unspoiled child had to be protected from the cruel refinements of civilization.
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Rousseau’s The Social Contract was based on two fundamental concepts:
1.) The general will: The common interest of the people (not necessarily the majority)
2.) Popular sovereignty: The idea that the government is created with the consent of its
people, to serve its people.
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The European Market for books grew drastically during the eighteenth century, despite France’s widespread
censorship of many books.
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argued that if serious thinkers were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly
in print then enlightenment would almost surely follow.
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In Paris, then in other cities, a number of talented, rich women presided over regular social gatherings of the great and
near-great in elegant rooms called salons.
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One of the most famous salons was that of Madame Geoffrin, the unofficial godmother of the Encyclopedia.
4. Renaissance Writers in the North by Maryury and Kyrstin
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Northern Renaissance writers were distinguished from the Southern Italian writers because they were more religious
characters, and humanists stressed biblical and early Christian themes.
These Christian writers were more interested in developing a more ethical based life
They combined the classic ideals of calmness, stoical patience, and broadness with the Christian beliefs of love, faith,
and hope.
They emphasized the use of reason instead in the belief of dogma.
They believed that even though society was corrupted it could be fixed with literature.
Thomas More
Trained as a lawyer and practiced law but had a strong love for the Classics
He became ambassador of Flanders
Then he wrote Utopia( 1516) which speaks of more revolutionary view of society.
Utopia is about an ideal socialistic community that inhabits an island somewhere off the new world.
He felt strongly about education, religious tolerance, ad social equality
Desiderius Erasmus (1466?-1536)
Dutch humanist
Was forced into a monastery, there he achieved a knowledge of Latin Literature and Latin classics.
He has written The Adages (1500), The Education of a Christian Prince (1504), and the Praise of Folly (1509)
In his works he emphasized education and the “Philosophy of Christ”.
Francois Rabelais (1490?-1553)
French Humanist with secular writings that combined with his attractive public literature.
Author of Gargantua and Pantagruel
Wrote comis masterpieces
Used humor in fictional ways as an indirect suggestion of his feelings toward education and society
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Northern Renaissance writers were distinguished from the Southern Italian writers because they were more religious
characters, and humanists stressed biblical and early Christian themes.
These Christian writers were more interested in developing a more ethical based life
They combined the classic ideals of calmness, stoical patience, and broadness with the Christian beliefs of love, faith,
and hope.
They emphasized the use of reason instead in the belief of dogma.
They believed that even though society was corrupted it could be fixed with literature.
Thomas More
Trained as a lawyer and practiced law but had a strong love for the Classics
He became ambassador of Flanders
Then he wrote Utopia( 1516) which speaks of more revolutionary view of society.
Utopia is about an ideal socialistic community that inhabits an island somewhere off the new world.
He felt strongly about education, religious tolerance, ad social equality
Desiderius Erasmus (1466?-1536)
Dutch humanist
Was forced into a monastery, there he achieved a knowledge of Latin Literature and Latin classics.
He has written The Adages (1500), The Education of a Christian Prince (1504), and the Praise of Folly (1509)
In his works he emphasized education and the “Philosophy of Christ”.
Francois Rabelais (1490?-1553)
French Humanist with secular writings that combined with his attractive public literature.
Author of Gargantua and Pantagruel
Wrote comis masterpieces
Used humor in fictional ways as an indirect suggestion of his feelings toward education and society
Rogier van der Weyden was a Flemish painter who often depicted many emotions but mainly grief. Some of his
paintings are Justice of Trajan, Miraflores Altarpiece and The Despotism
Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter who interpreted realism and attention to human personality into his paintings as
well as disguised religious symbols. Some of his paintings are Ghent Altarpiece and Giovanni Arnolfini and His
Bride.
Jermone Bosch was a Flemish painter who often used colorful imagery, religious themes, grotesque fantasies and
peasant folk legends in some of his paintings. He also represented the confusion and aguish of the Middle Ages. One
of his paintings is Death and the Miser
Robert Campin was a Flemish painter who portrayed intense emotion, realism and had a gothic influence. Some of his
paintings are The Merode Altarpiece
Albrecht Durer was a German painter who was interested in nature which brought about his painting the Study of a
Hare. Other paintings are his Self Portrait
Hans Holbein was a German painter who incorporated a mix of religion and secularism in his paintings such as The
Ambassadors, King Henry VIII, and The Last Supper
Hieronymus Bosch was from the Netherlands and depicted sin and moral failing into his sometimes grotesque
paintings such as The Garden of Earthly Delights and The Last Judgment
Pieter Bruegel was from the Netherlands and had a gothic influence in his paintings while he focused on the lives of
peasants in the Peasant Dance and The Wedding Dance
Rogier van der Weyden was a Flemish painter who often depicted many emotions but mainly grief. Some of his
paintings are Justice of Trajan, Miraflores Altarpiece and The Despotism
Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter who interpreted realism and attention to human personality into his paintings as
well as disguised religious symbols. Some of his paintings are Ghent Altarpiece and Giovanni Arnolfini and His
Bride.
Jermone Bosch was a Flemish painter who often used colorful imagery, religious themes, grotesque fantasies and
peasant folk legends in some of his paintings. He also represented the confusion and aguish of the Middle Ages. One
of his paintings is Death and the Miser
Robert Campin was a Flemish painter who portrayed intense emotion, realism and had a gothic influence. Some of his
paintings are The Merode Altarpiece
Albrecht Durer was a German painter who was interested in nature which brought about his painting the Study of a
Hare. Other paintings are his Self Portrait
Hans Holbein was a German painter who incorporated a mix of religion and secularism in his paintings such as The
Ambassadors, King Henry VIII, and The Last Supper
Hieronymus Bosch was from the Netherlands and depicted sin and moral failing into his sometimes grotesque
paintings such as The Garden of Earthly Delights and The Last Judgment
Pieter Bruegel was from the Netherlands and had a gothic influence in his paintings while he focused on the lives of
peasants in the Peasant Dance and The Wedding Dance
5. Absolutism in Prussia by Katie Voorhis and Rachel Howell
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The “Great Elector” or Fredrick William
 Wanted to unite Prussia, Brandenburg, and scattered land along the Rhine River in western Germany.
 To unite everyone he had a standing army, so nobles couldn’t rise up and take control, and to keep other
nations wars off of their land.
 He forced taxes without consent of the Junkers (nobles). Also, reduced power of the Junkers, but let them
keep their privileges.
Fredrick the Ostentatious
 Built large palaces and liked Baroque style. Copied Louis XIV
 Fredrick was crowned King, for helping the Holy Roman Empire, in the Spanish Succession war.
Fredrick William I, “Soldier’s King”
 Wanted a perfect army, had strict punishments, and was obsessed with tall soldiers. He established the
Prussian absolutism.
 He believed that the welfare of the king and state depended on the army above all.
 Taxed families by demanding tall boys for the army.
 “I must be served with life and limb, with house and wealth, with honour and conscience, everything must be
committed except eternal salvation-that belongs to God, but all else is mine.”
 He centralized bureaucracy, threatened to get rid of the Junkers, but instead enlisted them into the army.
 Had a “dog-eat-dog” view of international politics.
 He was the “Sparta of the North.”
Fredrick the Great
 Started out as a rebellious child, ran away and came back and ruled.
 He attacked Austria while Maria Theresa ruled, he gained Silesia. This started the War of Austrian
Succession.
 He improved school, had religious tolerance except for the Jews.
 Torture was abolished, and judges made quick decisions and were impartial.
 France and Russia wanted to split up Prussia’s territory, this caused the Seven Years War. Then, Peter III
took over Russia, called off the attack on Fredrick.
 Fredrick didn’t try to change Prussia’s social structure, gave more privileges to the nobility.
 Voltaire lived with him, and enlightened his court.
 Disliked serfdom, but didn’t abolish it.
 He did not claim to be a divine right ruler.
6. The Revolution in Trade and Shipping by Heather Kunkle and Alanna Gary
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The Age of Exploration was from 1450-1650
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“Golden Century” for Spain was the 16th Century (1500s)
Important figures and explorers:
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Greenland and North America discovered by Lief Ericson and Eric the Red
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People explored for profit: Hernando Cortes said, “I have come to win gold, not to plow the fields like a peasant”
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Henry “the Navigator” was a Portuguese explorer financed by King John II; he found Guinea and trading posts were
established. Portugal then controlled gold going to Europe
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Columbus, who wrote the Journal; he thought that he was a divine messenger “of the new heaven and the new earth”
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Magellan was commissioned by Charles V of Spain, died on the voyage, but proved that the world was a lot bigger than
Columbus had thought
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Sultan Mohammed II conquered Constantinople, began the Turkish reign over the eastern Mediterranean region
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Columbus sailed to America thinking that it was India, but through this mistake he founded the New World.
New inventions:
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Fairly accurate map of the world
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the caravel to replace the galley
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the astrolabe (enabled explorers to find their latitude)
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sea charts
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the magnetic compass
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completed the cannon design
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portolans (“written descriptions of the courses along which ships sailed”)
Political impacts:
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Portugal’s rise as a world power (beginning with the capture of the city of Ceuta in 1415), its discovery of Guinea and
Timbuktu, and the Iberian Crusade against the Muslims
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Immigration (especially to the New World)
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The Netherlands’s rise in international standards because of its navy and shipping through Dutch East India Company
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Colonies appearing, especially in North and South America
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Furthermore encouraged the growth of the “effervescent” class
Economic impacts:
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New trading supplies, including cloth, spices, gold, and silver
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Monarchs’ role as patrons for exploration because exploration was a huge expense (ex. Magellan, Columbus)
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New travel literature such as the General History of the Indies by Oviedo, Travels by Marco Polo, and Journal by
Columbus
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New jobs opening up to the public
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Spain’s lack of a middle class caused goods to rise in price and inflation to occur
7. Calvinist Reformation by Benjamin Hanser and Noah Weitz
Calvin believes his calling is to reform church
He wants to make Geneva “a city that was a church.”
1536: Institutes of the Christian Religion
Absolute omnipotence of God: humans insignificant, have no free will
Predestination: God is omnipotent, he already knows who will be saved
Calvinists confident they have already been saved
Calvin wants to make Genevans into moral people
Very powerful sermons spread his teachings
1541: Genevan Catechism: summary of faith, guide to daily living in question&answer form
Genevan Consistory: Company of Pastors + 12 laypeople, Calvin is presider
Forces Calvin's idea of corectness on the people
Its punishments “medicine to turn sinners to the lord”
No distinction between actual crimes and simple unchristianness
Heretics are “dogs and swine,” should be stoned
Burns Severetus for denying Trinity
Individual calling most important
All work dignified
Making money good, not bad, if that is one's calling
leads to rise of middle class
John Knox: brings Calvinism to Scotland
Scottish parliament ends papal authority, bans Mass
Knox founds Presbyterian Church
1564: Book of Common Order
Wars involving Calvinism:
War of the 3 Henrys: Catholics and Calvinists fighting
Henry III: very weak king
Half the nobility converts to Calvinism, anti-monarchy
They fight with royalist Catholic lords, mostly about power rather than religion
Trickles down to people, people concerned with religion
Calvinists protest against Catholic worship of images
These iconoclasts smash up Catholic Churches
Catholics retaliate and kill hundreds of Calvinist Huguenots.
St Bartholomew's Day Massacre: intended to be a wedding, ends up starting a civil war
Henry of Guise (C) vs Henry of Navarre (P) vs Henry III (C).
Politiques: only strong monarchy can prevent collapse, much more important than religion
Henry of Navarre wins, becomes Henry IV
converts to Catholicism for political reasons: “Paris is worth a mass”
issues Edict of Nantes
Huguenots can worship in 150 assorted towns
Revolt of the Netherlands:
`Low countries important for trade
Charles V abdicates: Dutch HATE new Philip II because he is a Spaniard.
Calvinism takes root in Dutch MC, gains very wide following
Margaret becomes regent of Netherlands: raises taxes, ordered to wipe out protestantism
Calvinist iconoclasts sack Notre Dame of Antwerp 1566
Duke of Alva sent in to “pacify” low countries
Opens Council of Blood, executes thousands
1576: 17 provinces unite under William of Orange
10 southern provinces stay Catholic with Spanish Habsburgs
7 northern provinces break away from Catholic Spain, Philip II, form United Provinces of the Netherlands
Have to get help from Anglican Elizabeth I
8. The Rise of English Constitutionalism by Erin Warrick and Andi Boyer
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The Beginning
• The Magna Carta
• English charter issued in 1215 to limit monarchial power
• 1st document to be forced on an English king by his subjects
• Also allowed the formation of a parliamentary group
Tudors
▪ The Tudor dynasty ended with Elizabeth I
▪ After her death, the Stuarts became the reigning English family
James I
▪ Was the King of Scotland before he was brought over to be King of England
▪ Believe himself to be a divine right monarch
▪ Wrote The Trew Law of Free Monarchy
 monarch is only responsible to God
 rebellion is the worst of political crimes
 evil deed requested by king: subject supposed to do it
▪ Not too fond of crowds that praised him, “sheer at my arse.”
▪ Lectured House of Commons (HOC)
▪ Was left a sizable royal debt and the HOC guarded pocketbook
▪ Publicly flaunted male lovers
▪ HOC wanted to be a bigger part of gov't
▪ Henry VIII broke up monastic land and people got richer and created a new group that owned most of the
national wealth
▪ This made a better and more articulate house of commons
◦ At the end of his reign the HOC wanted sovereignty and the relationship between Parliament and monarchy was
strained
Charles II
▪ Archbishop Laud
 uniformity through religion
 Book of Common Prayer
 made ecclesiastical court: the Court of High Commission
 Scotts revolted because they thought that Laud was bringing them back to Catholicism
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Charles I summoned parliament in 1640
Long Parliament 1640-1660
He had ruled w/o Parliament for 11 years off of horrible taxes
Ship Tax: lands had to pay for defense ships (even inland)
Parliament enacted legislature to limit monarchial power
Triennial Act (1641)
 Had to summon Parliament every 3 years
▪ HOC impeached Archbishop Laud and abolished Court of High Commission
▪ Irish revolt
▪ Parliament wouldn't give him an army, so he raised one against Parliament
▪ Royal army drawn from nobility, cavalry, rural gentry, and mercenaries
▪ Parliamentary army made up of city of London militia, country squires, and men that had a firm belief in
serving in the army
▪ These armies fighting is referred to as the English Civil War (1649-1660)
▪ Ended with King Charles I being charged with high treason and was then executed
Interregnum
▪ 1649-1660
▪ Separating two monarchial periods
▪ Military dictatorship
▪ kingship abolished and a commonwealth (republican form of gov't) was proclaimed
▪ Parliament had legislative power, and executive power rested with the council of state
▪ Oliver Cromwell led the Parliamentary army and then took over the gov't during the interregnum
▪ Parliamentary army drew up a constitution: the Instrument of Government (1653)
◦ summon parliament every three years
◦ parliament has the sole power to raise taxes
▪ Cromwell tore the document up
▪ Cromwell's policies were mercantilist
▪ He enforced the Navigational Act (1651)
◦ required English goods to be transported on English ships
▪ Welcomed Jews: they helped the economy
▪ Military gov't crashed when Cromwell died
Charles II
▪ Eldest song of Charles I
▪ Things restored: both houses of Parliament, established Anglican church, the courts of law, and local gov't
systems through justices of the peace
▪ King not interested in doctrinal issues but parliament was
▪ Test Act (1673): Those who wouldn't attend English church couldn't vote, hold public office, preach, teach,
attend universities, or assemble meetings
▪ determined “not to set out in his travels again”
▪ had a generally good relationship with parliament
▪ Cabal: five men who served as major advisers and members of parliament
▪ the ministers had to answer the the HOC
▪ had a secret agreement with Louis XIV: Louis XIV gave him 200,000 pounds a year and in return Charles II
would relaxed laws against Catholics and convert to Catholicism
▪ Charles had no legitimate heir and it looked like James, his brother, who is also a Catholic, would ascend the
throne after him and have a Catholic dynasty
▪ hatred of French and hostility towards Roman Catholics produced hysteria
7.
8.
▪ HOC passed a bill denying the succession of a Catholic, but the bill never became law
James II
▪ succeeded Charles II and was also a Catholic
▪ violated Test Act and appointed Catholics to public office, universities, and the army
▪ He had a legit. Male heir by his second wife and a Catholic dynasty seemed ensured
▪ English Christians offered throne to James' Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange
▪ James+wife+kid all fled to France
Glorious Revolution
▪ William and Mary took the throne of England
▪ 1688-1689 called the Glorious Revolution
▪ called this because a new type of era was started without any bloodshed
▪ the men who brought about the Revolution put their ideas into the Bill of Rights
▪ Bill of Rights:
 cornerstone of modern British constitution
 laws made in Parliament were final
 Parliament to be called every 3 years
 Crown not to interfere with Parliament
 Judges to hold office “during good behavior,”
 Crown couldn't get their way by threatening to disband judges or the Parliament
 No standing army in peace time
 Catholics could not have firearms
 Freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters and nonconformists
 Required that English monarch always be Protestant
▪ Glorious Revolution supported by John Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government
▪ Locke was the spokesman for the for the liberal English revolution (Glorious)
The English Revolution set up a constitutional monarchy and inaugurated aristocratic government.
9. Anglican Reformation by Jose and Zach
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King Henry VIII
 He wanted a divorce from Anne Boleyn, but the pope would not give a divorce.
 He dissolved monasteries because he wanted their wealth
 He decided to take control of the church in England
 The new church was still “Catholic-y”
Edward VI
 Protestant ideas were exerted on religious life in England
 Archbishop Thomas Cranmer: 1. Simplified the liturgy
2. Invited protestant theologians to England
3. Book of Common Prayer
 Book of Common Prayer + Psalter = order for all services of the Church of England
Mary Tudor
 Fully restored Roman Catholicism
 Persecuted and executed protestants
Elizabeth
 England divided between Catholicism and Puritans
 She insisted on dignity in church services and political order in the land, but didn’t care what people believed
as long as they kept it to themselves.
 Had herself styled “Supreme Governor of the Church of England, Etc.”
 She left it to her subjects to decide what the “Etc.” meant
Elizabethan settlement
 Outward conformity to Church of England and uniformity in all ceremonies
 Everyone has to attend Church of England services
 Thirty-nine articles: summary of the basic tenets of the church
The church moved in a protestant direction
10. Lutheran Reformation in Germany by Miranda Johnson and Lauren Moore
• Martin Luther started out as a Catholic priest
• He was getting upset at the way the church was being run so he wrote down his ideas in the 95 Theses and tacked them up on
the door to the ______ Church.
• Some ideas that were included in the 95 Theses are:
• Rejected the notion that salvation could be received by good works, such as indulgences because there is no biblical
basis for them.
• The church wanted him excommunicated and condemned some of his ideas, ordering his books to be burned.
• When he did not recant, Charles V declared him an outlaw.
• Luther provided four new answers to theological issues:
• A person could be saved by faith and faith alone (Condemned indulgences)
• Religious authority lies in the bible and no where else.
• The church was the people who believed, not just the clergy.
• All jobs have equal merit, either secular or religious. Every person should serve God in their individual calling.
• Transubstantiation: The bread and wine were really Christ's blood and body. (Catholic belief)
• Consubstantiation: After the bread and wine are consumed, they undergo a spiritual change in meaning. (Lutheran belief)
• The development of the printing press allowed his ideas to be spread accurately and quickly.
• Two of the reasons why his beliefs were so popular are:
• A lot of the city governments expressed dissatisfaction with the clerical privileges and immunities, such as exemption
from taxes and civic responsibilities.
• Informed and intelligent townspeople did not like the bad quality of sermons.
• Ideas attracted many intelligent preachers.
• Peasants were attracted to his beliefs because of his book On Christian Liberty and the fact that he was a peasant himself.
• What Luther meant by On Christian Liberty was liberty from the church, but peasants took it as liberty from the government.
• This caused many peasant revolts.
• Against the Murderous Thieving Hoards of Peasants to explain to the peasants that he was not talking about liberty from the
government.
• Educated people and humanists were attracted to Luther’s ideas.
• John Calvin owed a great deal to Luther’s ideas.
• Luther translated the New Testament into German, so that peasants could understand exactly what the Bible said.
• Luther believed that being a mother was greater than or equal to being a priest or nun.
• Some German princes were extremely attracted to Lutheranism and many civic authorities believed they had things to gain
by the Lutheran faith.
• A bunch of people were converting and Charles V finally agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which officially recognized
Lutheranism and a religion.
11. Absolutism in Austria by Dawson Kelly and Chris Saunders
·
EARLY ABSOLUTISM
·
Rulers = Habsburgs
·
Everything listed below happened after the thirty years war.
·
Austria was first made up of scattered political jurisdictions.
·
These political jurisdictions held real power, not the Habsburgs.
·
The Habsburgs first step towards absolutism was to take complete control of Bohemia.
·
Protestantism was stomped out.
·
The Czech nobles were replaced with people loyal to the Habsburgs.
·
The peasants were forced deeper into serfdom.
·
Ferdinand III took a huge step towards absolutism by creating Austria’s first permanent standing army.
·
The Ottoman Turks controlled most of Hungary, which belonged to the Habsburgs.
·
The Turks gathered an army and attacked the Austrian city of Vienna.
·
They almost won but Austrian reinforcements arrived.
·
The Habsburgs took this opportunity to reconquer almost all of Hungary.
·
This victory helped to unify the Habsburg holding.
·
The Habsburg lands consisted of three different provinces: Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary.
·
Charles VI passed the Pragmatic Sanction.
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The Pragmatic Sanction stated that the Habsburg lands were always to be passed down to the same ruler, who could be
female, and should never be dived.
·
The Hungarian nobles revolted against attempts to be forced into absolute rule.
·
They were never thoroughly stopped.
·
They never gained any sort of victory.
·
The Hungarian nobles made up 5-7% of Hungary’s population, making them the most numerous nobles in the world.
·
The Hungarians wanted to remain protestant.
·
They rose up in a last revolt under Prince Francis Rakoczy while the Habsburgs were fighting in the War of the Spanish
Succession.
·
The Habsburgs agreed to give the nobles back some of their rights.
·
Hungary, unlike Austria and Bohemia, was never really under the absolute rule of the Habsburgs.
·
ENLIGHTEND ABSOLUTISM
·
Maria Theresa began her reign by defending her country in the war of Austrian Succession.
·
She only lost Silesia.
·
She brought around quite a few reforms.
·
She brought the church under the control of the government.
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She strengthened the central bureaucracy.
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She strengthened the tax system and made it so nobles had to pay taxes too.
·
Lastly, she cautiously reduced the power of the lords over their serfs.
·
Joseph II took even closer control of the church than his mother.
·
He gave civil rights to Protestants and Jews.
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He totally abolished serfdom.
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He also forced the lords to pay the peasants in money.
·
This angered the lords.
·
It also angered the peasants to who money was not a common part of the barter system.
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He died early at the age of 49.
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His brother, Leopold II, had to cancel his reforms to keep the country from dipping into complete chaos.
12. Rise of the Russian Monarchy by Taylor Hamilton and Natalee Yamasaki
-Lords and Peasants
--The Medieval Background: -economic expansion: growth of trade, towns and population
-clearing forests and colonizing frontier beyond Elbe River
-serfdom was reduced but after Black Plague, the west= freedom while east remained with serfs
-landlords used political and police power to put hardship on peasants
-lords made kings and princes issue laws eliminating peasants’’ right of free movement
-Prussia 1500: law required runaway peasants to be hunted down, nailed to a post by their ear
-lords took more of peasants’ land and imposed more labor obligations
-they could command peasants to work six days without pay
--The Consolidation of Serfdom
-lords’ old privileges reaffirmed and peasants were assumed to be in “hereditary subjugation”
-9 year time limit on runaways was lifted
-agricultural depression and population decline= severe labor shortage= eastern serfdom; western serfdom disappearance
-eastern kings needed support and they couldn’t resist working the peasants so they gave into lords’ serfdom demands
-peasants never efficiently up rose
-lords ran courts and there was no peasant solidarity
-The Rise of Austria and Prussia
-Eastern monarchs gained and monopolized power by:
-imposing and collecting permanent taxes without consent
-maintaining permanent standing armies
-conducting relations with other states
--Austria and the Ottoman Turks
-German empire was powered by independent cities, small principalities… Bavaria and Saxony
-Boyars were all Russian noble estate owners; Prussia: Junkers
-robot: three days unpaid labor; every day but Sundays and religious holidays
-Ottoman: abducted young boys= janiceries= Turkish army
-Habsburgs found new Hungarian territory and halted Ottomn expansion with fear
-Hungarian Protestants resisted the Catholic Habsburgs
-they rose under Prince Francis Rakoczy in 1703
--Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
-Hohenzollern Family
-imperial electors of Brandenburg and Dukes of Prussia
-“Sand Box of the Holy Roman Empire”
-when they died, Prussia= Brandenburg Duke
-Frederick William the “Great Elector”: royal absolutism
-wanted to unite Brandenburg, Prussia and parts off of the Rhine
-to pay for perm. Standing army, forced estates to accept permanent taxation without consent
-soldiers were also tax collectors and policemen… state bureaucracy
-soldiers= French Huguenots
-war was a decisive factor
-Crimean Tartars killed and took 50,000 as slaves
-nobility had long dominated government through the states, but only for self interest
-compromise= new taxes fell on towns/royal authority stopped at landlord’s gate
--The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
-Elector Frederick III, “the Ostentatious” copied Louis XIV
-built expensive palace, won royal title KING by aiding Holy Roman Empire in War of the Spanish Succession
-King Frederick I (III)= “The Soldiers’ King”: psychoneurotic
-loved tall soldiers
-mothers told their sons “stop growing or the recruiting agents will get you”
-believed welfare of the king and state depended on army
-problem with Junkers (Prussian Nobility)
-enlisted them into the army and they would also become officer castes
-38,000 soldiers… 83,000 soldiers in his reign
-loved his “blue boys” too much to “spend” them
-Prussia became “Sparta of the North”
“To keep quiet is the first civic duty”
-The Development of Russia
--The Mongol Yoke and Rise of Moscow
-Jenghiz Khan
-led Mongols to subdue China… Hungary
-The Golden Army was savage
-Archbishop John of Plano Carpini wrote (through Kiev) that a huge population had been massacred
-capital Saray, Volga had Slavic princes’ rule
-princes didn’t take title “great prince” unless they were the best
-Alexander Nevsky replaced by Muscovites
-Muscovite Princes: Ivan I (1328-1341) aka “Ivan Moneybags”; increased his influence by loaning money to less frugal princes
to pay Mongol taxes; rival was prince of Tver; was made the general tax collector for all of the Slavic lands and named him
great prince
-Ivan III (1462-1505) purchased the large merchant republic of Novgorod
- prince of Moscow was the absolute ruler, the tsar ( the Slavic contraction for “Caesar” )
- The conception of absolute power was powerfully reinforced by two developments, 1. Ivan III felt strong enough to stop
acknowledging the khan as his supreme ruler 2. tsars saw themselves as the heirs of both the Caesars and Orthodox
Christianity, rightful and holy rulers
- “holy Russia” or “Third Rome”
-noble boyars begun losing power and influence
-Ivan 111 conquered the principality of Novgorod in the 1480s he confiscated fully 80% of the land
·Tsar and People to 1689
-Ivan IV ( 1533-1584 ) the famous Ivan the Terrible; pushed aside hated advisers;, crowned himself; married Anastasia
Romanov; declared war on the remnants of Mongol power
-abolished the old distinction between hereditary boyar private property and land granted temporarily for service; transformed
the entire nobility into a service nobility
-sudden death of Anastasia turned Ivan to be cruel and strike down anything in his way
-formed free groups and outlaw armies known as “Cossacks”
-the Cossacks maintained their independence beyond the reach of the oppressive landholders and the tsar’s hated officials
-tsars took over the mines industries and monopolized the country’s important commercial activity
-system of autocracy and compulsory service struck foreign observers forcibly, Sigismund Herberstein (German traveler)
kholops: slaves of their Prince
-Jean Bodin, French thinker, developed the modern concept of sovereignty
-1584 ushered in an era of confusion and violent struggles for power, 1598-1613 “ Time of Troubles”
-Cossack bands, led by a former slave named Ivan Bolotnikov, marched northward, rallying peasants and slaughtering nobles
and officials
-believed the “true tsar” would restore their freedom of movement and allow them to farm for whomever they pleased and
reduce their heavy taxes and lighten the yoke imposed by the landlords
-Michael Romanov, the new hereditary tsar, a real restoration
-more kindly disposed toward the supportive nobility than toward the sullen peasants
-Alexis, Michael’s successor, this asymmetry of obligations was accentuated
-the result was a second round of mass upheaval and protest; the unity of the Russian Orthodox Church was torn apart by a
great split
-1652 patriarch Nikon, seen as the Antichrist who was stripping them of the only thing they had, the true religion of “holy
Russia”
-great numbers left the church and formed illegal communities of “Old Believers” who were hunted down and persecuted
-after the great split, the Russian masses were alienated from the established church which became dependent on the state for
its authority
·The Reforms of Peter the Great
-Peter the Great 91682-1725) interested in primarily in military power, only one year of peace in his reign
-army still consisted of cavalry made up of boyars and service nobility, foot soldiers played a secondary role and served on part
time basis
-Fascinated by weapons and foreign technology, he led a group of 250 Russian officials and young nobles on a tour of the
western European capitals
-entered in a secret alliance with Denmark and the elector of Saxony, who was also the elected king of Poland, to wage a
sudden war of aggression against Sweden
-Charles XII (16997-1718) of Sweden, daring military genius, turned on Russia
-tacked and routed unsuspecting Russians besieging the Swedish fortress of Navra, beginning the long and brutal Great
Northern War
-Peter created schools and universities for his army
-Russian serfdom became more oppressive under the reforming tsar
-Russia obtained victory in the Great Northern War
-Ukraine at Poltava in 1709 was one of the most significant battles in Russian history
-western ideas flowed into Russia and a new class of educated Russians began to emerge
-Peter built on the service obligations of old Muscovy, his monarchial absolutism was truly the culmination of the long
development of a unique Russian civilization
·Stenka Razin, Russian Rebel
-Don Cossack Stenka Razin led the largest peasant rebellion in Europe in the seventeenth century
-epitomized the old Cossack spirit of liberty and self-rule
-felt great sympathy for the “have-nots’, born leader
-“I have come to fight only the boyars and the wealthy lord. As for the poor and the plain folk, I shall treat them as brothers.”
-captured, hideously tortured, and chopped into pieces; Russia’s most celebrated folk hero
ðABSOLUTISM AND THE BAROQUE
·Palaces and Power
-The papacy and the Jesuits especially encouraged
-symbolized the age of absolutist power
-Schonbrunn, an enormous Viennese Versailles begun in 1695 by emperor Leopold to celebrate Austrian military victories and
Habsburg might
-Charles XI of Sweden, 1693 his Royal Palace in Stockholm
-the favorite noble servants of royalty became extremely rich and powerful
-Prince Eugene of Savoy, became Austria’s most famous military hero
·Royal Cities
-Karlsruhe, founded in 1715 as the capital city of a small German principality
-all roads were focused on the ruler
-distinctive features; broad avenues, their imposing government buildings, and their rigorous mathematical layout
-the avenues brought reckless speed to European cities
·The Growth of St. Petersburg
-A mighty fortress was built on Peter Island, and a port and shipyards were built across the river on the mainland as a Russian
navy came into being
-wanted a “modern” city, each social group was to live in a certain section of town
-the peasants bore the heaviest burdens; drafted for the army and had to pay a special tax in order to feed the workers
-Elizabeth, Peter’s daughter, mixed Italian and Russian tradition
13. Rise of Absolutism in France by Alice Mullin and Emma McCool
Louis XIII:
Richelieu:
Mazarin:
 Richelieu’s protégé and successor.
 After Louis XIII’s death, he became a leading power in the government.
 His attempts to increase royal revenues lead to the civil wars known as the “Fronde”.
 Mazarin couldn’t control them like Richelieu did.
Louis XIV:
 When he was a child, the Fronde, the nobility angry with the government, threatened him and his mother
 During his long reign, France reached its peak of absolutist development
 His reign called “Grand Century”
 He was called the “Sun King”
 Catholic, got it from his mother (Anne of Austria); preformed his religious duties
 Grew up believing in divine right monarchs, but also that rulers ruled for the good of the people
 Educated by Mazarin
 His traumatic experiences with the Fronde made his distrust nobility.
 Secretive and vague, saying “I shall see” a lot.
 Not politically influenced by women.
 He exercised collaboration with the nobility, not exactly absolute control
 Because he was in collaboration with nobility, he was able to get them to do thing. For example, he got the nobility to
support the construction of the Canal des Deux Mers, linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic.
 French Absolutism more like the end of the Feudal System than modern
 Made Versailles his royal court; it was used to intimidate people. Nobles had to stay there at least a little bit of the
year, and it was filled with extremely awe inspiring tapestries, gardens, paintings, etc.
 Separated power from status and grandeur that the nobles loved so much.
 Dominated the court, more important than the government.
 Picked from the middle class to be his councilors of the state, because it was no question that they did not share his
power.
 Used spying and terror, such as a secret police force.
 Revoked the Edict of Nantes and was praised by the aristocrats for it.
 Made a massive army. He handpicked almost everyone and picked up drunks off the street, this was called
dragooning.
 Continued Richelieu’s expansion in a big way, taking over lands in lots of regions.
 Tried to rule Spain with his grandson, Philip of Anjou, but lost in the War of Spanish Succession, which meant he
couldn’t.
 Major thing: Used middle class to curb the power of the nobility.
Colbert:
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Finances were Louis XIV’s problem. Taxes weren’t working because the collectors would take some for themselves.
Louis named Colbert as controller general of finances.
Financial genius.
Central principle= wealth and economy of France should benefit the state
Created mercantilism: Make everything France needs in France, and sell a lot of stuff. Basically, no imports, lots of
exports.
Encouraged skilled craftspeople to move to France.
Made a really good group of ships to ship things to other places.
Louis XV:
 Louis XIV’s great-grandson.
 Nobility made a comeback with Louis XIV’s nephew, the duke of Orleans.
 The duke restored thee parliaments of France.
 After the War of Austrian Succession, Franc was in a financial crisis.
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Louis XV appointed a financial minister who imposed a 5% tax on every individual regardless of social stature. This
caused a protest, and the monarchy was forced to drop the tax.