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CHAPTER 7
WORK MOTIVATION
Lecture Notes
1
Motivation: Direction and Intensity
Figure 7-1
p. 219
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2
Direction: what a person is motivated to achieve.
Intensity: the degree to which people try to achieve their targets.
Performance will suffer if either of these is lacking.
Employees often develop targets that are contrary to what their employers want.
 alternative targets may be more attractive
 employees may not understand what the employer’s targets are
 role perceptions: the behaviors employees think they are expected to perform
Types of motivation theories
 content theories: assume humans are driven more by needs and instincts than
reasoned actions
 process theories: assume that motivation is based upon what people think and
perceive about a situation
 neither of these theories can predict what will motivate an individual all of the time
Content Theories
A.
Table 7-1
p. 223
Manifest Needs Theory
1.
Henry A. Murray classified needs as:
 primary: physiological needs for food, water, sex, urination, etc.
 secondary: learned needs which are psychological in nature, such as achievement
2.
Murray believed that people have a variety of needs, but only a few are expressed at a
given time.
3.
Manifest Needs Theory assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy
needs.
4.
Manifest Needs Theory laid the groundwork for later need theories.
 Key Point: The major implication for management from this theory is that some employee
needs are latent. Managers often assume that employees do not have certain needs because the
employees never try to satisfy them at work. It may be that they exist (are latent), but the
work environment is not conducive to their manifestation.
B.
Learned Needs Theory – David McClelland
1.
Need for achievement
 the degree to which people are motivated to excel at the tasks they are performing,
especially difficult tasks
 this need has had the greatest impact of the three needs addressed in this theory
 high nAch people:
 feel personally responsible for completion of assigned tasks
 accept credit for success & blame for failure
 like situations where the probability of success is moderate – where they can
succeed if they exert enough effort
 actively seek out performance feedback
 Key Point: Need for achievement is important because the success of many organizations is
dependent on the nAch levels of employees. This is especially true for jobs which require
self-motivation and managing others.
 Key Point: For optimal motivation, it is important to design jobs that are neither too
challenging nor too boring.
2.
Need for affiliation
 desire to establish and maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people
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
3.
high nAff people:
 are very sociable and like to be around people
 will perform better in jobs that require teamwork
 are especially motivated to perform well if others are dependent upon them
 are less motivated to perform well when isolated from others
 it is important for employers to assess the degree to which people have high or low
nAff when assigning duties
Need for power
 the need to control things, especially other people
 motivation to influence and be responsible for other people
 high nPow people try to get others to do what they want
 personal power seekers: seek to control others mostly for the sake of domination
 social power seekers: feel best when they have influenced a work group to achieve
the group’s goals, and not a personal agenda
 Key Point: A high need for social power is the most important motivator for successful
managers. It is critical that managers are allowed to satisfy nPow through social power
acquisition.
 Key Point: High nAch can result in too much concern for personal success. Need for
affiliation contributes to managerial success only in situations where the maintenance of
warm group relations is as important as getting others to work towards goals.
C.
Figure 7-2
p. 227
Table 7-2
p. 228
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
1.
Human needs are arranged hierarchically: before one type of need can manifest itself,
other needs must be satisfied.
2.
Five types of needs
 physiological: water, food, sex, sleep, etc.
 safety and security: protection from environmental extremes, physical safety
 social: affection & love
 ego and esteem: respect from others, self-esteem
 internal focus: achievement, strength, competence
 external focus: prestige, recognition, attention
 self-actualization: desire for self-fulfillment
3.
Maslow believed that most people become fixated at the ego & esteem level.
4.
Self-actualization needs can never be fully satisfied, as they are a continuing process of
self-development and self-improvement.
5.
People’s attention and energy will be focused on satisfying the lowest level need that is
not currently satisfied.
6.
It is possible for a need to be satisfied but become active (dissatisfied) again.
 Key Point: To maximize employee motivation, employers must try to guide employees to the
upper parts of the hierarchy.
7.
Several research studies testing this theory did not support it.
 results show that people do not go through the five levels in a mechanical fashion
 there is some evidence that people satisfy the lower-order needs before trying to
satisfy higher-order needs
Self-Assessment: Applying Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, p. 229
D.
Figure 7-3
p. 231
Figure 7-4
p. 232
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
1.
Compresses Maslow’s five need categories into three:
 existence: physiological and material safety needs
 relatedness: social, social safety and social esteem
 growth: self-esteem and self-actualization
2.
Four key components
 satisfaction progression: as people satisfy their existence needs, energy can be
directed toward meeting relatedness needs
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
3.
E.
Figure 7-5
p. 233
frustration: attempting and failing to satisfy a particular need
 may make satisfying the unmet need even more important
 frustration regression: shifting attention to a previously satisfied, more concrete need
after repeated frustration
 aspiration: increasing motivation to satisfy growth needs
Alderfer’s model is more useful than Maslow’s
 does not create false motivational categories
 focuses attention on movement through the set of needs in both directions
 evidence in support of these three categories is stronger than for Maslow’s five
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
1.
A further refinement of Maslow’s theory
2.
Two sets of needs:
 motivators (growth needs): relate to jobs people perform and sense of achievement
 hygienes: relate to work environment; are based in the human need to avoid pain
 Key Point: According to Herzberg, growth needs motivate people to perform well, and when
met, lead to satisfaction. Hygiene needs must be met to avoid dissatisfaction, but they do not
necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.
3.
Motivators relate to job content.
 job duties that lead to feelings of achievement and recognition are motivators
 motivating factors lead to high performance, which leads to satisfaction
4.
Hygiene factors relate to job context.
 not related directly to the work itself
 when hygiene factors are present in sufficient quantities, dissatisfaction is avoided
 meeting hygiene needs does not motivate workers
5.
Job conditions which prevent dissatisfaction do not cause satisfaction.
 Key Point: Herzberg’s theory has helped to identify the wide range of organizational factors
capable of influencing worker reactions. Because of Herzberg’s contributions, organizations
today realize the potential of motivators, not just the hygiene factors which were the focus
before this theory was developed.
6.
F.
A two-stage process for managing employee motivation and satisfaction
 first, managers should address hygiene factors to ensure that basic needs are met
 pay
 safe, clean working conditions
 social interaction
 next, managers should address motivator needs
 recognition
 responsibility
 achievement
 growth
Self-Determination Theory
1.
Seeks to explain causes of motivation AND effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic
motivation.
2.
Intrinsic motivation arises out of performing a behavior in and of itself, because it is
interesting or fun to do (higher order need).
3.
Extrinsic motivation arises out of performing a behavior to acquire something that will
satisfy a lower-order need.
4.
Tasks are intrinsically motivating when they satisfy at least one of three higher-order
needs: competence, autonomy, relatedness.
5.
As the level of extrinsic rewards increase, the amount of intrinsic motivation decreases.
6.
For uninteresting jobs, the best motivator is to make performance contingent on extrinsic
rewards.
7.
For interesting jobs, the best motivator is to create even more opportunities for employees
to satisfy their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
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 Key Point: To maximize intrinsic motivation, employees should be given the opportunity to
learn new skills, perform jobs without supervisor interference, and develop meaningful
relationships with other people.
3
Process Theories
A.
Table 7-3
p. 236
Operant Conditioning Theory
1.
The learning process is based on the results produced by a person “operating on” the
environment.
2.
The basic operant model
 three distinct steps
 stimulus: a situation or event perceived by the individual
 response: any behavior or action taken by the person experiencing the stimulus
 consequence: any event that follows a response and that makes the response
more or less likely to occur in the future
 reinforcement occurs when a consequence makes it more likely that the response will
be repeated in the future
 extinction occurs when a consequence makes it less likely that the response will be
repeated in the future
3.
Making a response more likely
 positive reinforcement
 a desirable consequence that satisfies a need
 e.g., praise, promotions, awards
 Key Point: People vary greatly with respect to what they consider to be a positive reinforcer.

negative reinforcement
 causes something desirable to be taken away
 e.g., scolding, probationary period
 Key Point: Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. Punishment involves
the introduction of something unpleasant in order to make a behavior less likely. Negative
reinforcement involves the removal of something unpleasant in order to make a behavior
more likely.

4.
avoidance learning
 occurs when people learn to behave in a certain way to avoid encountering an
undesired or unpleasant consequence
 many organizational discipline systems rely heavily on avoidance learning by
threatening negative consequences
Making a response less likely
 punishment
 an aversive consequence following a behavior that makes it less likely to occur
 can have undesirable side effects (e.g., negative feelings)
 works best when used in combination with reinforcement
 nonreinforcement: providing no consequence after a response
 eventually reduces the likelihood of a desirable OR undesirable response
 produces results more slowly than punishment
 if there are other reinforcing consequences present, nonreinforcement is not
likely to be effective
 Key Point: Managers who fail to reinforce desirable behavior are likely to see that behavior
less often.
5.
Schedules of reinforcement
 continuous reinforcement
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


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B.
Figure 7-6
p. 240
 reinforcing behaviors every time they are demonstrated
 can cause behaviors to be easily extinguished when reward is removed
fixed ratio: a fixed number of responses must be exhibited before reinforcement
variable ratio: a fixed average number of responses must be exhibited; people don’t
know when they will be rewarded
fixed interval: certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement
variable interval: a certain average amount of time must pass before reinforcement
in general, continuous reinforcement is best while learning new behaviors, then
variable ratios are best
in most situations, fixed interval schedules produce the least effective results
Equity Theory
1.
Fundamentals
 human motivation is affected by the outcomes people receive for their inputs,
compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people
 reactions will be influenced by perceptions of inputs of self and others
2.
The basic equity model
 people continuously monitor the degree to which their work environment is fair
 inputs: any contributions which the person feels have value and are relevant to the
organization (e.g., time, effort, performance, education, etc.)
 outcomes: anything an employee perceives as getting back from the organization in
exchange for his or her inputs (e.g., pay, working conditions, status, friendship, etc.)
 both positive and negative outcomes influence the evaluation of equity
 people compare their outcomes to their inputs in ratio form and make an initial
determination of whether the situation is equitable
 people also compare their ratios to the ratios of other people (referent others)
 Key Point: Two human tendencies create feelings of inequity that are not based in reality.
1) The tendency to over-rate our own performance levels
2) The tendency to over-rate others’ outcomes
3.
4.
5.
6.
State of equity
 the person’s outcome-to-input ratio equals the referent other’s
Perceived over-reward equity
 the person’s ratio is greater than the referent other’s
 results in feelings of dissatisfaction, guilt, and motivation to make a change to
produce a state of perceived equity
 most people are less sensitive to over-reward equity than to under-reward equity
Perceived under-reward equity
 the person’s ratio is less than the referent other’s
 results in feelings of dissatisfaction, anger, and motivation to make a change to
produce a state of perceived equity
Reducing under-reward inequity
 alter inputs of the person
 reducing inputs
 decreasing quantity or quality of performance
 alter outcomes of the person
 requesting a pay raise, nicer office, or promotion
 alter inputs of the referent other
 encouraging the other person to increase his/her inputs
 alter outcomes of the referent other
 directly or indirectly reducing the value of the other’s outcomes
 one possibility: making the referent other look bad
 distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes
 without making any changes in actual input or outcome levels
 changing the way of thinking about inputs/outputs of self or referent other
 choose a different referent other
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 Key Point: Choosing a different referent other can be the simplest and most powerful change
for dealing with perceived inequity – because it requires no changes (real or perceived) in
inputs or outcomes.

7.
leave the situation
 absenteeism, transfer, termination
 when perceived inequity is high or when other attempts at achieving equity are
unavailable
Implications of equity theory
 employees are more likely to experience under-reward than over-reward inequity
 few of the behaviors that result from under-reward equity are good for employers
 Key Point: Employers must try to prevent unnecessary perceptions of inequity by fairly
allocating pay, measuring performance accurately, being open about pay systems, rewarding
based on merit, and recognizing employees’ differences in reactions to inequity.
C.
Table 7-4
p. 245
Goal Theory
1.
Basic premises
 people will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve
 difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals
 specific goals are better than vague goals
 people must accept whatever goals they have
 people must commit to a goal in addition to acceptance
 goal commitment: the degree to which a person dedicates him/herself to
achieving a goal
 some goals are more important than others
 greater commitment to major goals than minor goals
 participation in goal setting often results in higher commitment
2.
The basic goal setting model
 people will perform better if they have difficult and accepted performance goals or
objectives
 starts with comparing present conditions to our own values
 following this the goal setting process begins – goals can be:
 self-set
 jointly set
 assigned
 “do your best”: vague goals which usually do not produce high performance
3.
Consequences of goal setting
 with sufficient ability and lack of constraints, maximum performance should result
 satisfaction with self from behaving in a way consistent with our own values
 dissatisfaction when goals are not achieved; possible reluctance to set goals in the
future
 Key Point: To maximize the effectiveness of goal setting, it is important to set difficult and
attainable goals.
4.
Several cautions
 setting goals in one area can lead to neglect in other areas
 in some cases goal setting can lead to ineffective management
 employees may try to set easy goals so they look good
 can cause unhealthy competition between employees
 some managers may use goal setting in unethical ways
 manipulating employees by setting impossible goals
 enables them to criticize even high performing employees
 results in a focus on quantified measures of performance; other aspects may be
neglected because they are not easily measured
 setting individual goals in a teamwork environment can be counterproductive
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D.
Figure 7-7
p. 249
Expectancy Theory
1.
Fundamentals
 people will exert high effort levels to perform at high levels so that they can obtain
valued outcomes
 expectancy theory ties together many of the concepts from above theories
 focuses on two issues
 direction: which alternative will be selected
 intensity: how much effort to implement the alternative
 when faced with two or more alternatives, a person will select the most attractive
 the greater the attractiveness of the chosen alternative, the more motivated the person
will be to pursue it
2.
The basic expectancy model
 effort-performance expectancy (E1)
 perceived probability that effort will lead to performance
 weak E1’s believe that no amount of effort will lead to high performance
 strong E1’s believe that high performance will result from high effort levels
 performance-outcome expectancy (E2)
 perceived relationship between performance and outcomes
 what will happen if I perform well?
 weak E2’s believe that there is a weak link between performance and outcome
 strong E2’s believe that there is a strong link between performance and outcome
 valences
 the degree to which you perceive an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or
undesirable
 highly desirable => positively valent
 highly undesirable => negatively valent
 extrinsic outcomes: others determine whether the outcomes are received
 intrinsic outcomes: people determine whether they receive outcomes themselves
 Key Point: Expectancy theory predicts that a person will choose that effort level to exert
which results in the maximum amount of positively valent outcomes (the most rewards)
3.
Implications of expectancy theory
 employees will be motivated to perform well under two conditions:
 they believe that a reasonable amount of effort will result in good performance
 good performance is associated with positive outcomes; low performance is
associated with negative outcomes
 why do employees develop weak E2’s?
 organizations subscribe too strongly to a principle of equality (equal salaries,
equal pay increases, treating everyone the same)
 no distinctions made in the outcomes people receive
 Key Point: Expectancy theory states that an organization needs to make outcomes contingent
on performance to maximize motivation.

why do employees develop weak E1’s?
 employees with high self-efficacy believe that they are likely to be successful in
most or all of their job duties, while employees with low self-efficacy believe
that they are likely to fail at most or all of their job duties
 Key Point: Efficacy expectations at a given point in time determine the initial decision to
perform a task, the amount of effort expended, and level of persistence.

4.
employees may not have sufficient resources (internal or external) to perform
their jobs
 organizations may fail to measure performance accurately
Implications for managers
 strengthen the effort - performance expectancy
 select employees with necessary abilities
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E.
4
 provide proper training
 provide successful experiences
 clarify job responsibilities
strengthen the performance – outcome expectancy
 specify that desirable behaviors lead to desirable outcomes
 specify that undesirable behaviors lead to undesirable outcomes
systematically evaluate which outcomes are valued by members
ensure that workers are capable of performing the chosen behaviors
ensure that workers experience appropriate outcomes after performance
 provide extrinsic rewards
 design jobs to provide intrinsic outcomes
examine level of outcomes provided
 is there an equitable input/outcome ratio?
 is there equity with other workers?
measure performance levels accurately
Expectancy theory: an integrative theory of motivation
1.
Need theories: we are motivated to satisfy our needs (valences).
2.
Operant conditioning theories: we repeat behaviors that have been reinforced
(performance – outcome expectancy).
3.
Equity theories: satisfaction with outcomes depends on values and circumstances
(high/low valences).
4.
Goal theory: commitment to goals depends upon expectancy’s choice of effort level
(alternative choice).
Recent Research on Motivation Theories
A.
Content Theories
1.
Workplace factors such as recognition, advancement, and opportunities to learn are
considered strong motivators.
2.
There are still some questions about whether factors that employees say motivates them
actually do.
B.
Operant Conditioning Theory
1.
Most recent research has focused on ways for managers to use punishment appropriately.
2.
There has not been much research using operant conditioning in designing reward
systems.
C.
Equity Theory
1.
Continues to receive strong research support.
2.
Inputs and outcomes people use to evaluate equity are ill-defined, as everyone develops
their own.
3.
Organizational justice
 distributive justice: employees’ evaluation of fairness of rewards or punishments
 procedural justice: employees’ evaluation of fairness of reward/punishment
distribution process
D.
Goal Theory
1.
Recent research has highlighted the positive effects of performance feedback and goal
commitment in the goal setting process.
2.
Monetary incentives enhance motivation when tied to goal achievement.
3.
Conflicting goals result in employees’ sacrificing performance on some important job
duties.
E.
Expectancy Theory
1.
Individual components of expectancies and valences predict performance as well as the
multiplication of them.
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2.
High performance results not only when the valence is high, but also when the employee
has set difficult goals.
Corporate Spirituality: An Inside Look
Studies in the 1990’s found that workers longed to introduce personal concerns and
values to their workplace to feel more a part of the organization.
Enter corporate spirituality. This implies acknowledging that all employees are spiritual
beings who live by a set of core values. If these values are incorporated into daily work,
employees should be more motivated to succeed and see the organization prosper.
Many companies are focusing on a wellness model for health, including spiritual growth.
The application varies between organizations – from meditation times throughout the day
to incorporating spiritual values into workgroups. Participating organizations believe that
employees who can balance work and personal life will be more satisfied, productive,
and creative.
Vancouver City Savings Credit Union focuses on ethics and community as a way of
addressing spiritual needs. Viewing the organization as part of the world as a whole
emphasizes the interrelatedness of business and society.
Some benefits of incorporating spirituality in the workplace include: a shift to a
collaborative, team-oriented atmosphere, less turnover due to satisfaction, and better
communication.
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