Download Climbing Hazards - Olympia Mountaineers

Mountain Meteorology
Glacier Travel
Mountain Hazards
Olympia Mountaineers
Basic Climbing Course
2015
Lecturer: Jeff Foster
Mountain Meteorology
Meteorology – the study of the atmosphere
and the processes that produce climate
and weather
Climate - the generally prevailing weather of
a region over a long period of time
Weather - the state of the atmosphere in
terms of temperature, humidity, wind, air
pressure, cloudiness, etc.
Mountain Meteorology
Washington’s Climate
Western Washington = humid maritime
cool, wet winters; warm, dry summers
Influenced by proximity of Pacific Ocean
(high heat storage of water)
Eastern Washington= semiarid continental
cold, dry winters; hot, dry summers
No oceanic influence
Mountain Meteorology
Washington’s Climate
Washington
temperature
patterns
Mountain Meterology
Washington’s Climate
Washington precipitation patterns
Mountain Meteorology
Washington’s Climate
Washington precipitation patterns
Mountain Meteorology
Washington’s Climate
Location
Seattle
Average annual
snowfall (inches)
5
Paradise
671
Yakima
121
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Temperature lapse rate
Decrease in temperature with elevation in the lowest
layer of the atmosphere
Occurs faster in drier air, slower in moist air
Water has a high specific heat – the amount of heat
required to raise a unit mass by a specific temperature
Water vapor slow to give up or gain heat relative to air
So a moist air mass cools slower than a dry air mass as
it rises
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Temperature lapse rate
Westside annual mean = 1.4 (very moist air) to 1.9oF
(fairly dry air) per 1000 feet elevation
Eastside annual mean ≈ 1oF greater (air much drier)
If it's 50oF in Olympia, what's the temperature on top of
Mt. Rainier?
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Humidity
Absolute humidity – amount of water vapor in the air
Relative humidity – amount of water vapor in the air
as a percent of the maximum amount of water vapor
the air can hold
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Humidity
Absolute humidity
The warmer the air, the more water vapor it can hold
relative humidity
Temperature
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Humidity
If relative humidity rises to 100%, water vapor condenses out of air
to form water droplets
The result is cloud formation (even in moving air)
extreme example: lenticular clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Climate Processes
Humidity
If air temperature falls to the dewpoint (temperature at which
relative humidity =100%),
fog, dew, or frost forms
(requires calm air)
> 32oF
dew and frost form on surfaces
< 32oF
fog forms in air near ground
Mountain Meteorology
Climate and Topography
Orographic precipitation & temperature
Mountain Meteorology
Climate and Topography
Rain shadow effect
Cascades
Olympics
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Unstable atmosphere
Atmospheric stability – resistance of the atmosphere to
to vertical motion
Stable Air
When an air parcel is colder and denser than the surrounding air,
it will stay at the same level or sink
Unstable Air
When an air parcel is warmer and less dense than the
surrounding air, it will rise
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Unstable atmosphere
Mechanisms of air lifting
orographic lifting
convective lifting
frontal lifting
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Thunderstorm formation - occurs when there is lifting
of air for long enough to a high-enough elevation
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Thunderstorm phenomena
gust front
downdraft
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Thunderstorm phenomena
Hail
Lightning
cloud-to-cloud
cloud-to-ground
Mountain Meteorology
Weather and Topography
Elevation
→
Temperature inversions
"undercast"
Temperature
→
Hoh River Valley
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Wind
Compression of air flowing over ridgetops or through
passes increases windspeed (partially due to Venturi
effect)
ridge
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Wind
Two clues to prevailing wind direction
rime ice
flag trees
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Wind
snow cornice
snow banner
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Local mountain winds
Mountain Meteorology
Weather Processes
Cold air ponding
Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Movement of frontal systems is determined, in part,
by prevailing wind …
Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
… and by the position
of the Jet Stream
Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Front = boundary between two dissimilar air masses
cold front
warm front
Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Isobar (lines of equal pressure) map
cooler air
Wind created as air flows
from high to low pressure
warmer air
In Northern Hemisphere,
coriolis force causes counterclockwise diversion of wind
Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Seasonal patterns
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
cirrus clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
lenticular clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
altostratus clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
nimbostratus clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
cumulus clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Clouds
What clouds can tell us
cumulonimbus clouds
Mountain Meteorology
Washington Weather Records
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
valley glacier
hanging glacier
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Bergschrund
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Moraines
lateral
terminal
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
firn line
below firn line
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Crevasses
transverse
crevasses
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Crevasses
radial
crevasses
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Icefalls
Nisqually Glacier
seracs
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Roping up
Minimum standard on Basic Glacier climbs is two ropes
of at least three climbers. Why?
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Roping up
rewoven figure 8
prusiks
end persons
double bowline
middle person
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Rope movement
rope between climbers almost taut
rope leader probes for crevasses
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Moving among crevasses
Best to travel at right angles to
crevasses, doing "end runs”
Don’t forget crevasses may
extend beyond their visible
ends as hidden crevasses
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Moving among crevasses
if traveling parallel to
crevasses, use
"echelon" formation
Whoever falls may pendulum!
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Crossing crevasses
use boot-axe belay
or
standing ice axecarabiner belay
narrow crevasse
snow bridge over
large crevasse
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
Crevasse rescue
If possible, practice with other students in advance
Review crevasse rescue figures in Freedom
Pay close attention during Z-pulley practice
Climbing Hazards
Face It: Climbing Can Be Hazardous!
Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
Climbing Hazards
Perception of Risk
More Objective
More Subjective
Less Control Over Occurrence
Attitude
Assume there will always be
hazards
Cavalier vs. fearful
Experience
Planning
Encountering hazards on the climb
Learn from your and others'
mistakes
Climbing Hazards
Crevasses
Snow bridges
Hidden crevasses
Presence may be indicated by small
holes or a depression in snow
In early season, may be no visual signs
Climbing Hazards
Crevasses
bergschrund
moat
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
Causes of rockfall
Freeze-thaw
Liquid water enters cracks in rocks
When it freezes, water expands, wedging rock apart
Eventually, chunk of rock detached from rest of rock
Melting of snow/ice holding rocks in place
On steep slopes that hold snow, small rocks are held in
place overnight by iced
When sun or warming temperature melts ice, rocks are
released
Climbers knocking down rocks (very common)
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
Watchout situations (rockfall)
rotten rock, freeze-thaw
gully with climbers
Climbing Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
Watchout situations
(icefall)
icefalls
seracs
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
What do you do if someone yells “Rock!”
a) Put on your helmet
b) Look up and try to find rock
c) Look down, flatten against cliff face
What does falling rock sound like?
a) No sound
b) Cracking sounds as rock bounces
c) Loud “whinging” sound as rock goes by
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
minimize
risk of
injury
prevention
avoidance
Mountain Hazards
avoidance
High Winds
High wind in the open (e.g., at or above treeline)
hypothermia (lowering
of body temperature)
whiteout
(loss of visibility)
Mountain Hazards
High Winds
High wind in the forest
windthrow (uprooting)
windsnap
Mountain Hazards
Lightning
Potential injuries
Cardiac arrest
Blunt head trauma
Perforated eardrum
Spinal cord damage
Superficial minor burns
Altered mental state
Mountain Hazards
Lightning
Prevention through avoidance is best option
Move away from direction of thunderstorm motion
Descend
What to do if caught in lightning
Avoid isolated trees and rocks
Stay away from water
Stay away from metal (move away from climbing gear)
Spread out (about 50 feet apart)
Insulate yourself from the ground
Crouch and cover head and ears
Mountain Hazards
Conditioning
If you are out of shape, you put everyone in your party
at risk, at least of disappointment, if not life and limb
Engage in a pre-season conditioning regime
(this is why we require conditioners)
Start a climb well-hydrated and well-rested
(more on this later)
Let the climb/MOFA leaders know about health conditions
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Human heat loss/gain
radiation
conduction
evaporation
convection
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Human heat loss/gain
conduction + convection
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Hypothermia
Drop in core body temperature below 95oF
First degree
uncontrollable shivering
lethargy, apathy, confusion
lack of motor coordination
rapid heart rate
Second degree
shivering stops
delirium
slowing heart rate
Third degree
coma
ventricular fibrillation
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Hypothermia
Can happen at surprisingly warm temperatures
if you become wet and it’s windy
Treatment
get patient out of environment causing hypothermia
into warmer, dry, non-windy location
remove wet clothing
rewarm as rapidly as possible
offer warm liquids if patient conscious
may require healthy person sharing sleeping bag
with patient
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Frostbite
Freezing of exposed tissues
First degree ("frostnip")
superficial, quick recovery
Second degree
blistering but tissue recovers
permanent loss of sensitivity
Third degree
tissue death and loss
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Frostbite
Frostbite and hypothermia often go together!
Treatment
remove patient from source of frostbite
first degree
place injury next to warm body part
second/third degree
keep injury frozen
give plenty of fluids
evacuate to where thawing can be done
properly by medical professionals
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Heat Exhaustion
Cause: profuse sweating coupled w/ inadequate
hydration
Symptoms
nausea, dizziness, thirst, headache
Treatment
get patient into cool, shady location
administer fluids, slowly at first
replace electrolytes
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
Sunburn
Snowblindness
Burning of cornea of eyes by UV-B
severe pain
swollen eyelids
headache
temporary blindness
symptoms take 6-12 hours to develop
Prevention
Wear dark glasses
transmit 5-10% of visible light
block 90-95% of UV-A and UV-B
sideshields if there is reflected light
Mountain Hazards
Dehydration
Physiological effects
Hard on kidneys
Increased risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke
Increased risk of hypothermia and frostbite
Staying hydrated
Drink one water bottle (32 oz) every 4 hours
Water bottles vs. hydration packs
Mountain Hazards
Contaminated Water
Sources of contamination
Humans
Animals
Types of contamination
Bacteria Viruses
Parasites
Giardia - very widespread now in backcountry;
cysts resist heat, cold, dessication
cysts
trophozoites
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
On top of Mt. Rainier, air pressure is
what percent of that at sea level?
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
As elevation increases, the risk of the following
increases:
Sunburn – why?
Dehydration – why?
Hypothermia & frostbite – why?
Conditions caused by low oxygen pressure:
Cheynes-Stokes breathing
Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)
High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
Acute Mountain Sickness
Cause: rapid ascent to higher elevation
50% of folks ascending to 8,000 to 14,000 ft
Symptoms
insomnia
listlessness
appetite loss
nausea & vomiting
lightheadedness or dizziness
Treatment
rest and hydration
if it gets worse, descend
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
Pulmonary edema (HAPE)
Cause: body fluids leak into lungs
Symptoms
develop rapidly
breathlessness
labored breathing with bubbly noise
Cerebral edema (HACE)
Cause: blood vessels leak fluid into brain
Symptoms
headache
loss of coordination
confusion → hallucination
coma
Treatment of
HAPE & HACE
Descend!