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Some terminologies-relating to Environment • Ecology: The scientific study of the relationships of living organisms each other and with their environment (Southwick,1976). with -The study of interactions of organisms with the physical and biological environment (Ricklefs and Miller,2000). • Environment: The complete range of external conditions physical and which an organism lives. biological in - The environment refers to the physical and biological systems which provide our basic life support and which contribute to our psychological well being. • Environmental ScienceThe study of science subjects which deals with environment. It is evident that Ecology and Environmental Science are not mutually exclusive but have maximum contents and concepts in common. - Environmental Science integrates Ecology as well as other branches of Science with Economics, Politics, Philosophy etc exhibiting a holistic principle in the domain of environment. Environmental studies: This is a new terminology which has been coined very recently to deal with the environmental issues in a generalized manner give priorities to socio-cultural aspects and at the same time laying less emphasis on the complicacy of hard core science so that a learner as well as common people can easily understand and able to appreciate the environmental problems in a general way. Environmental Biology: The study of problems that result from natural hazards and human exploitation on biological world. Ecotoxicology : The scientific enquiry to the fate and action of human made substances like pesticides, detergents on natural world, especially the way in which such substances affect human health. Finally, ecology must be distinguished from a number of other endeavors that are often confused with it. Environmentalism, Conservationism and preservationist are social and political movements, not fields of scientific enquiry. In their most constructive and responsible form, these movements seek to educate the public about human-induced environmental problems and to effect changes that will alleviate such problems. Ecosystem- its Concepts Definition of Ecosystem: Although the ecosystem concept emerged as early as 1935, only in the past four decades, it has undergone extensive development and application. The ecosystem concept considerably strengthened the science of ecology by (i) focusing equal attention on abiotic and biotic components and (ii) explicitly recognizing the potential for studying ecological processes at multiple scales. Definition: 1. The term ecosystem was first coined by the British Ecologist, A.G. Tanslay (1935), extracting the idea for a system from physics. It is the system so formed which provides the basic units of nature on the face of the earth. These ecosystems may be of various kinds and sizes. 2. Ecosystem is defined as a spatially explicit unit of the earth that includes all of the organisms along with all components of the abiotic environment within its bound areas (Likens. 1992). 3.The functional relationship between community and habitat are many and complex, constituting on ecosystem (Kendeigh, 1974). 4. Any unit that includes all of the organisms i.e. the community in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophie structure, biotic diversity and material cycles within the system is an ecological system or ecosystem (E.P. Odum, 1971). 5.An ecosystem is basically an energy processing and nutrient regenerating system whose components have evolved over a long period of time. (R.L. Smith, 1990). Summing up all those above-mentioned definitions, the ecosystem may be defined as an open, and self-sustaining unit or system within environment composed specific structural components (biotic and abiotic) the interactions of which result the flow of energy and cycle of materials. Hypothetical representation of food chain & food web Cybernetics or Stability of Ecosystem: • Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as are their component populations and organisms. • Thus, the science of controls vis-à-vis cybernetics (Gr. Kybernetes = Pilot or governor) as founded by Wiener (1984) has important application in ecology since man increasingly tends to disrupt natural controls or attempts to substitute artificial mechanisms for natural ones. • Homeostasis (Homeo =same; stasis=standing) refers to the tendency for biological systems to resist change and to remain in a state of equilibrium. • Homoeostatic mechanism operates from the individual level to ecosystem level. The stability may be achieved in two ways: • Through feedback control • Through redundancy of components Stability through feedback control • An ecosystem as a cybernetic or homoeostatic system consists of a set of interdependent parts or subsystems enclosed in a defined boundary). • Outside is an environment, which provides the inputs necessary for it’s functioning. The system’s output is any attribute transmitted to the environment. • The output from the system is directly related to the input. If input ceases, the system no longer functions. Homeostatic system exists which maintains balance between input and output. Some of the output is fed back into the system to influence future output. • A feedback system involves an idea state or set point towards which the system adjusts. If the feedback accelerates a deviation away from the set point, it is called positive. Although the positive feedback is necessary initially for the growth, survival and higher production but unless controlled, it can destroy the system. Counteracting positive feedback, is negative feedback. If halts or reverses a movement away from the set point by controlling the behavior of the input. Example • In the predator prey relationship, input of energy in predator (though ingestion) is dependent on and is controlled by the output of energy (chasing of pray). Here, the stored energy is fed back to ensure future input of energy. •This predator pray interaction represents a good example of cybernetic stability. • Population explosion of pray acts as a positive feedback resulting the growth of predator population which on its part acts as a negative feed back controlling the unwanted population rise of the prey. • Thus an equilibrium of both population is maintained Growth of predator population Growth of prey population Stability through redundancy of components: Performing of a specific function by more than one component is called redundancy. Redundancy enhances stability. For example, diversity of species enhances stability of ecosystem. Owing to the involvement of so many organisms enjoying different trophic level, the food web offers more stability than food chain. Types of stability From ecosystem point of view, there are two types of stability: • Resistance stability: The ability of an ecosystem to resist perturbations and maintain its structure and function intact. Therefore, it has the ability to avoid displacement. • Resilience stability: The ability of an ecosystem to return to its original state quickly after being disturb by a perturbation. Environmental Components and relationship with society Ecosystem as defined by A.G. Tansley has two integral and interacting components: biota (the living part) and habitat (non living part). Biodiversity may be simply defined as the totality of diverse kinds of biota (microbes, plants and animals) including all conceivable varieties from micro to macro level (Datta, 2006). Beck (1995 ) suggested “ that we need to shift the focus of our understanding and research on the process of ecological degradation from the physical and natural sciences to an analysis of the social origins of ecological degradation”. Duncan (1961) first developed POET model, to describe the relationship between social factors and the natural environment. According to POET model human societies are being composed of four interrelated components. In this model P stands for human population, O for social organization, E form natural environment and T for technologies employed by society. Brulle (2000) stated, “A society’s impact on natural environment is seen to be a function of the simultaneous interaction of population level, social organization and technological development”. Ehrich and Hoildren (1971) postulated the IPAT model where I indicates Impacts of human activities on the natural environment and sequentially three variables are P-Population, A-Affluence and T-Technological development. In conclusion the “New Ten commandments” (Datta 1990) are mentioned below which may be helpful as a key to the survival of man and biosphere. (It is well known that the Ten Commandments are the ten laws which were proclaimed by God to Moses on Mt. Sinai). 1. Man’s place and role in nature should be reexamined. 2. Man should refrain from making large scale transformation of environment without proper environmental impact analysis. 3. man as apart of Earth Watch programme should ensure that the fate of the “global commons” does not end in the “tragedy of the commons”. 4. A balance between population growth and resource utilization should be established. 5. The gap between the rich and the poor, between the developed and developing as well as between the developed and underdeveloped countries should be narrowed. 6. Equitable distribution of resources to all for rightful use should be allowed and needful conservation of vital resources should be practiced. 7. Essential ecological processes should be allowed to continue in time and space without any impediment. 8. Abuse and misuse of resources should be avoided and wastes should be recycled as far practicable. 9. Man will have to develop a profound respect for nature. 10. Man should remain altruistic. KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM: THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWARK : • Here we are dealing with two aspects ecological knowledge: • i) the formal knowledge- that is next book- based ecological knowledge derived by the scientific community, going through a hypotheticodeductive process; • ii) the traditional knowledge- that is available with local communities which has just standard receiving adequate attention from the scientific community; this knowledge base accumulated by traditional societies on basis of an experimental process is all the time being refined and adapted to changing socio- ecological situations, both in space and time. Traditional Ecological Knowledge: • Traditional societies, based on their accumulated wisdom have evolved their own knowledge base linked to biodiversity in all its scalar dimensions (sub- specific, species and ecosystems and landscapes) linking conservation with their sustainable livelihood concerns. Based on a value system that they cherish ( intangible culture valuesRamakrishnan 2008b), they seek tangible benefits from the natural and human- managed ecosystems placed within the landscape. TEK linked with biodiversity in all its scalar dimensions can be broadly classified into: (i) ethnobiological – aspects dealing with medicinal species and lesser- known species of food value; (ii) that links ecological processes, at the species, ecosystem and landscape levels with social processes right from family, village, village cluster and regional levels; and (iii) ethical/cultural with intangible values that they treasure (Ramakrishnan 2008b), often times with tangible implications (what may be viewed as socially valued species, ecosystems and landscapes with tangible economic benefits linked to them Ramakrishnan 2008a, c). TEK: The Basis of Linking Ecological with Social Processes • Socio-ecological value at the species level • Species Level Interconnections in Traditional Agriculture • Traditional society maintain a variety of complex multispecies agroecosystem, operated under varied levels of intensification. Ranging from casually managed shifting agriculture system, through a whole variety rotational fallows, agroforestry systems, compound farms, traditional cash cropping systems, crop rotation system etc. Maintained at the middle intencity levels, leading to the modern high energy input agriculture. The complexity of these agro-ecosystems are due to TEK based biodiversity (sub- specific and species level crop and associated biodiversity) management, both in space and time. Species level Inter connections in Natural Ecosystem • In the successional forests on north- eastern hills of India, a variety of socially selected species are also ecologically significant keystone species. • Nepalese alder (Alnus nepalensis), a nitrogen fixing species (fixing up to about 125kg N/Ha/year) and many bamboo species (Bambusa tulda, B. khasiana and Dendrocalamus hamiltoni) with the ability to conserve nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the early successional shifting agricultural fallows play a key role, both in space and time, in determining forest successional process. • Such an interphase between ecological and social processes are critical for natural resources management with community participation, and for biodiversity management. Socially Valued Ecosystems: • • • • The socially valued ecosystems with a range of socio-ecological dimensions; Traditional agricultural system that meet with the livelihood needs of traditional society They may be specially conserved and rigorously protected ecosystem of socio-cultural value To which one could also put in ecological values, particularly in the contemporary context of rapid land use conversions and linked land degradation all around. Socially Valued Human- managed Ecosystems • With traditional societies living in natural resources rich regions of the tropical world, being dependent upon biodiversity and being part of the ecosystems functioning, the natural resources contained therein are critical for their livelihood requirement. • In such a context, socio-cultural dimensions have crucial role in determining ecosystem properties, with implications for their sustainable management. Shifting agriculture, which represents a complex set of subsystems within, is indicative if this linkage between food security of traditional societies and their efforts towards conserving their cultural identity. Value of Biodiversity An alternative angle of VISION Academic Applied Academic value Systematics Evolution Ecology Genetics Environment, Development and Technology • In the context of environmentally-sound technologies, the term environment will be predicated to mean any component of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, or biosphere perceived as inseparable components. • Development will be taken to mean “development of human beings”, namely, a process of satisfaction of basic human needs and welfare (Table 1.1), leading to the concept of needs-oriented development. Technology will be taken to mean modifier of the environment on the one hand and as a negotiable commodity with a given set of “term of exchange” on the other. • Table 1.1: A Simple List of Basic Needs and Welfare Material Needs Material Satisfiers Material Satisfiers Physiological Individual Food, Water, Clothes, Shelter Creativity Identity Impacts Model of Anthropogenic Economic Cycles on Ecological Cycles Environmentally Sound Technologies (Environmental Technologies) • Environmentally-Sound Technologies (EnSTs) may be defined in terms of the sustainability concept as technologies whose use or application can be said, or demonstrated to, “… meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” promoting the use technology assessment as a tool for the development and application of environmentally sound technologies constitutes environmentally sound technology assessment (EnSTA). Major Pathways of Environmental Degradation • Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife • Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The World Resources Institute (WRI), UNEP (the United Nations Environment Programme), UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) and the World Bank have made public an important report on health and the environment worldwide on May 1, 1998. • Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degraded. • Environmental Change and Human Health,is initially connect a special section of World Resources 1998-99. Eleven million children die worldwide annually in the developing world , equal to the combined populations of Norway and Switzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or diarrhoea — illnesses that are largely preventable Pollution- leads to Environmental Degradation Global warming / Climate Change / Green House Effect Photochemical Smog Air Acid Rain Ozone Layer Destruction Eutrophication Water Agricultural wastes-Pesticides / Fertilizers Heavy Metals, Radioactive Isotopes. Sewage / Sludge Thermal Power plants Solid Waste Pesticide/Fertilizer Soil Erosion Acidification Environmental Management vis-à-vis Sustainable Development Conservation / preservation Restoration / Rehabilitation Environmental Management Formulation of Environmental Laws Environmental Monitoring Environmental planning Sustainable Development Environmental Monitoring • Environmental changes occur naturally and are part of or the result of multiple cycles and interactions. • Environmental scientist study the dynamics of cycles such as the nitrogen, carbon and water cycle and their interrelationships. • Human now have a more holistic view of the environment and recognize as many factors as possible to determine its health and preservation. • This in turn has led to the new term- biocomplexity, which is defined as “ The interdependence of elements within specific environmental systems and interactions between different types of systems”. Environmental Monitoring Definition: it is the programmed observation and study of environmental changes. Its purpose is to assess the short-term fate to long-term management. Different Steps of Environmental Monitoring: Observation & ( Verification) Measurement Data (Selection Testing) Information (Organization/ Interpretation) Wisdom Understanding (Judgment) Knowledge (Comprehensive Integration) Biological Different Types of Environmental Monitoring: Physical- Chemical Benefits of Environmental monitoring • Protection of Public Water supplies (Sources of water pollution, treatment etc) • Hazardous, non hazardous and radioactive waste management (Disposal reuse, possible impacts to human health & the environment). • Urban Air quality. • Natural resources Protection and Management. • Weather Forecasting (Catastrophe-floods, droughts) • Economic Development & Planning (Resource allocation & exploitation). • Population Growth (Demography, density pallemy in relation to resource). • Delineation-Mapping of natural resources, soil classification, wetland delineation, critical habitats etc. • Biodiversity of& Threatened Species • Global environmental Changes (Assessment & Control) Environmental Remediation and Restoration These Focus on the development and implementation strategies geared to reserve negative environmental impacts. Sanctuary: The State Government may by notification declare its intension to constitute any area than area comprised with any reserve forest as Sanctuary- if it consider that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral geomorphological significance for the purpose of protecting wild life or its environment. National Park: Whenever, it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a Sanctuary or not is by reson of its ecological, needed to be constituted as National Park for the purpose of protecting & propagating wild life there in or its environment, it may be notification, declare its intension to constitute such area as National Park. Evolution of Resource Base PRA Technique: • Secondary sources (e.g. files, reports, maps, aerial photos); • Semi-structured interview; • Key informants (perhaps identified through participatory social mapping); • Groups (e.g. focus groups) and group interviews; • Do-it-yourself (outsider asks to participate in community activities); • They do it (villagers as investigators and researchers); • Participatory analysis of secondary sources (e.g. aerial photographs); • Participatory mapping and modeling (similar to planning-for-real); • Transect walks (walking with or by local people through an area and observing/listening); • Time lines and trend and change analysis (e.g. major remembered events in a village); • Oral histories and ethnobiographies; • Seasonal calendars (e.g. to track seasonal weather changes, labour patterns, patterns of borroweing); • Daily time use analysis (e.g. tasks with time demands, drudgery); • Livelihood analysis (stability, crises, coping mechanisms, credit and debt, etc.); • Participatory linkage diagramming; • Institutional diagrams (identifying individuals or instructions important to and for a community); • Well-being and wealth grouping and ranking; • Analysis of difference (e.g. by gender, age, social group, occupation, wealth/poverty); • Matrix scoring and ranking (to score, perceived performances of different seeds, trees, soil conservation methods); • Estimate and quantification (to explore ‘what might happen if…’); • Key probes (questions which can lead to key issues); • Stories, portraits and case studies; • Team contracts and interactions; • Presentation and analysis; • Sequences (use of a combination of several methods in a given sequence); • Participatory planning, budgeting, implementation and monitoring; • Group discussions and brainstorming; • Short standard schedules or protocols (for short and quick questionnaires or to record data); and • Report writing (without delay, so that feedback is instant). Environmental Laws For the Management of Environment, the main legislative measures brought about in India are: • Air (Preservation & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 • Water (Preservation & Control of Pollution) 1974 • Water (Preservation & Control of Pollution and Control of Pollution Cess Act) environment protection Act,1986 • The environment (protection )act,1986 • Wild life (protection) act 1972 and amended 1991 • Forest (Conservation) Act,1980 • Biodiversity act, 2002 • Bio-Medical waste (Management and Handling) Rules,1998