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Honors Biology
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Section 6
10/28/11 Test Review
Chapter 1: Section 1- The Science of Life
Biology- the study of life
7 Characteristics of Life
1. Organization and cells
a. Organization- neat structure in the makeup and interactions of an
organism
b. cells  tissues  organs  organ system  organism
i. Cell- smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes,
basic building block of all living things
1. Organelles- tiny structure in the cell that perform functions to keep the
cell functioning
a. Made of biological molecules- chemical compounds that make up
an organelle
ii. Organs- structures that carry out specialized jobs in an
organ system
iii. Tissues- group of cells that have similar abilities and allow
the organ to work
2. Response to Stimuli- physical or chemical change in the internal or
external environment
3. Homeostasis- maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions despite
environmental factors
4. Metabolism- all of the chemical reactions that take in and transform
energy and materials from the environment
5. Growth and Development
a. Cell division- when a cell splits in half
b. Development- process of physical and mental maturation
6. Reproduction- the process by which offspring are made, babies 
a. Not necessary for survival but for continuation of species
b. Hereditary info is transmitted, DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
i. Gene- short part of the DNA that gives an organism a single
trait
c. Sexual Reproduction- 2 parents not identical but similar to parents
d. Asexual Reproduction- 1 parent offspring is genetically the same
7. Change Through Time- basic genetic characteristics do not change,
populations can change
Chapter 1: Section 2- Themes in Biology
1. Diversity and Unity of Lifea. Unity in the Diversity of Life- wide variety of life, but they are
characterized by unity- features all living things have in common
i. genetic code- rules that control how cells use the info in DNA
ii. diversity- stems from the fact that genetic changes occur
over time, organisms may change to fit their environment
b. Three Domains of Life
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i. Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya (most complex)
1. Eukarya- animals, fungi, plant
a. Kingdoms- more specific
Eukarya- Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista
Archaea- Archaea
Bacteria- Bacteria
2. Interdependence of Organisms
a. Ecology- study of our environment/surroundings
i. Ecosystem- our environment (communities of living things
and the physical env)
b. Organisms depend on each other for survival in addition to
elements of their surroundings
3. Evolution of Life
a. Evolution- descent with modification- inherited characteristics
within populations change over generations
i. Possibility that new species can develop
b. Natural Selection- Survival of the Fittest
i. Adaptations- traits that help you live in our environment
ii. Changes in population can occur over generations through
the successful survival and reproduction of organisms with
favorable traits
Chapter 1: Section 3- The Study of Biology
1. How the natural world works based on 2 principles
a. Events in the natural world have natural causes
b. Uniformity0 the idea that the fundamental laws of nature operate
the same way at all places at all time
2. Scientific Method- series of steps to learn how the natural world works
a. Ask a question- based on observation
b. Forming of a hypothesis- possible explanation for events
i. good hypotheses answer a question and are testable
c. Prediction- predicts what will happen in a test situation of the
hypothesis is correct (usually an if-then statement)
i. Testing predictions allow one to begin narrowing down
answers and getting closer to determining the answer to a
question
d. Test the hypothesis and prediction (experiment)
e. Analyze the results
i. Experiments measure the dependent variable, this
measurement provides quantitave data (data measured in
numbers)
ii. Results can be scored using senses
iii. Data can be compared and analyzed to see if it is accurate,
compare to previous studies to see if errors were made
f. Draw conclusions
i. Tables, graphs, charts, see if a hypothesis is supported
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ii. Experiments can only disprove, not prove a hypothesis
iii. Making inferences
Inferences- drawn from data gathered during an experiment, a conclusion
made on the basis of facts and previous knowledge
g. Communicate Results- tell other ppl about it
i. Paper- intro, materials and methods, results, discussion
Peer review- scientists who are experts anonymously read and critique
that research paper
a. Experiment should be able to be duplicated
Designing an Experiment
a. Hypotheses are tested
b. Performing the Experiment
i. Controlled experiment- compared to an experimental group
control group- only one variable, provides a normal standard against the
experimental group (you can have more than one control group of there
is more than 1 ind variable)
c. Testing the Experiment
i. the more trials you perform the less chance there is of error,
experiments should be repeated
Theory- set of related hypotheses that is confirmed to be true many times
a. Highly tested, accepted principle that explains a vast number of
observations
Chapter 1: Section 4- Tools and Techniques
1. Microscopes and Tools
a. Tools- used to improve the performance of a task
b. Microscopes- tools that extend human vision by making enlarged
images of objects (used 2 study organisms, cells, cell parts, and
molecules
c. Light Microscopesi. Compound light microscope- microscope that shines light
through specimen and has two lenses to magnify an image
(specimen must be thin)
ii. Eyepiece- magnifies the images x10
iii. Objective lens- light passes through the specimen and then
thru the objective lens (right above the specimen)
iv. Stage- platform that supports a side holding the specimen
v. Light source- a light bulb that provides light for viewing the
image
vi. Magnification- the increase of an object’s apparent size
Nosepiece- the structure that holds the set of objective
lens (most powerful: 100x, standard ocular lens- 10x)
vii. Resolution- power 2 show details clearly
d. Electron Microscope- used to examine cells in more detail or view
cell parts or viruses, more powerful than light microscopes
i. Cannot be used to view live specimens
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ii. Scanning electron microscope- SEM passes a beam of
electrons over the specimen’s surface (3D images of the
specimen’s surface, magnifies up to 100,000
iii. Transmission electron microscope- TEM transmits a beam of
electrons through a very thinly sliced specimen- magnetic
lenses enlarge up to 200,000+
2. Units of Measurement
a. (SI) International System of Units
b. Derived units- produced by the mathematical relationship
between two base units or between two derived units (multiples
by 10)
i. Length- meter, mass- kilogram, time- second, volume- cubic
meter
3. Safety
a. Lab Safety- Do’s: wear safety goggles, wear a lab coat, tie hair back,
wear close toed shoes
b. Don’t- reach across an open flame, spill chemicals, use things
before asking the teacher
Chapter 2: Section 1- Composition of Matter
1. Matter- anything that occupies space and has mass
a. Mass- the quantity of matter an object has, the amount of stuff an
object has
i. Mass vs. weight- weight (force produced by gravity acting on
mass), mass it eh same everywhere, weight can change
2. Elements- substances that cannot be broken down chemically into
simpler kinds of matter
a. 90%+ of the mass of living things is made of a combinations of
Carbon (6), Hydrogen (1), Oxygen (8), and Nitrogen (7) (CHON)
b. Periodic table- info on the elements which are represented by a
chemical symbol
3. Atom- simplest particle of an element that retains all of the properties of
the matter they compose
a. Nucleus- in the center, most of the mass, protons and neutrons
i. Proton- positive charge, neutron- neutral charge
ii. Atomic number- number of protons
iii. Mass number- number of protons and neutrons of the atom
b. Electrons- equal number of small, negatively charged particles that
balance out the positively charged protons, very little mass
i. located in the electron clouds (orbitals)
1. Further away the electrons are from the nucleus the stronger they are
4. Isotopes- atoms of the same element that have a different number of
neutrons
a. added neutrons change the mass of the element, most elements
are made of a mixture of isotopes
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i. Average atomic mass- takes into account the relative
amounts of each isotope in the element
5. Compounds- made up of atoms of two or more elements in fixed
proportions, represented by chemical formulas
a. Physical and chemical properties differ between compounds and
the elements that compose them
b. How the elements combine with other elements depends on the
number and arrangement of electrons in the orbitals
c. An atom is chemically stable when the orbitals that correspond to
its highest energy level are filled with the maximum number of
electrons
i. Noble or inert elements- do not react with other elements
under normal conditions (atoms have the max number of
electrons in the orbitals)
ii. Chemical bonds- the attractive forces that hold atoms
together
d. Covalent bond- forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of
atoms
i. Ex. H2O
e. Molecule- simplest part of a substance that retains all of the
properties of that substance and can exist in a free state
i. Ex. 1 molecule of water is H2O
f. Ionic bonds- attraction between two molecules because one
electron is given to the other molecule
i. Both molecules become ions, an atom or molecule with an
electrical charge, of opposite charge and attract each other
Chapter 2: Section 2- Energy
1. Energy- the ability to do work, can occur in different forms and be
converted into different forms
a. The motion of and spacing between atoms or molecules of a
substance determines the substance’s state: solid, liquid, or gas
i. Solid- fixed volume and shape, particles move slowly and
vibrate in place
ii. Liquid- maintains a fixed volume but particles move more
freely that a solid, gives the ability to take the shape of its
container
iii. Gas- moves very quickly, little or no attraction to each other,
fill the volume of the container
iv. thermal energy must be added to the substance to cause a
substance to change state
2. Chemical Reaction- one or more substances change to produce one or
more different substances
a. Energy is absorbed or released when chemical bonds are broken
and new ones are formed
b. Reactants and products
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i. Reactants- substances used up in a reaction, on the left side
ii. Products- the new products made, on the right side
iii. equation must be balanced (same # of each atom)
c. Body always goes through chemical reactions in which energy is
release to build and maintain body cells
i. Metabolism- used to describe all of the chemical reactions
that occur in an organism
d. Activation energy- the amount of energy needed to start a reaction
i. Catalyst- reduces the amount of activation energy needed for
a reaction to take place, ex. protein or RNA in the body that
speeds up metabolic reaction without being permanently
changed or destroyed
3. Redox reaction- reactions in which electrons are transferred between
atoms
a. LEO GER
i. LEO- lose electron oxidation, reactant loses one or more
electrons and becomes + in charge
ii. GER- gain electron reduction, reactant gains one or more
electrons and becomes – in charge, (reduction in charge)
Chapter 2: Section 3- Water and Solutions
1. Water is a polar compound- the charge of this molecule is unevenly
distributed, molecules are not in a straight line, more like at an angle
2. Solubility of Water
a. Polar nature of water allows it to dissolve polar substances (sugars,
ionic compounds, some proteins) but it cannot dissolve nonpolar
substances (oil) because they have a weaker attraction
3. Hydrogen Bonding- the force of attraction between a hydrogen molecule
with a partial positive charge and another atom or molecule with a partial or
full negative charge, (polar nature causes water molecules to be attracted to
each other)
a. Hydrogen atoms form, break, and reform with great frequency,
number of bonds that exist depends on the state the water is in
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i. Solid- all water molecules are hydrogen bonded, do not break
ii. Liquid- more hydrogen bonds are broken than are formed until
there is an equal amount of both formed and broken
b. Cohesion- attractive force that holds molecules of a single substance
together (H2O+H2O)
i. Ex. upward movement of water from plant roots to leaves
c. Surface Tension- the molecules at the surface of water is pulled
downward into the liquid because of the cohesive forces
d. Adhesion- attractive force between two particles of different
substances
e. Capillarity- attraction between molecules that result in the rise of the
surface of a liquid when in contact with a solid
Specific heat- waters ability to absorb or release large amounts of heat
(energy) with only a slight change in its own temperature
a. Energy must be absorbed to break bonds, energy is released to
form bonds.
i. Energy initially absorbed in water breaks the bonds between
the molecules and only then does the energy begin to increase
the motion of the molecules and raise the temp of the water.
ii. When temp drops, many hydrogen bonds reform and release a
lot of heat.
b. Water stabilizes global temperatures to allow life to exist
c. As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind
cools down
i. The water being evaporated absorbs a lot of energy and cools
the remaining liquid, prevents overheating
Density
a. Solid water is less dense than liquid water due to the shape of the
water molecule
i. Angle between hydrogen atoms is wide so there is a lot of
space between the molecules when the bond together to form a
solid
Solution- a mixture in which one or more substances are uniformly
distributed in another substance, can be mixtures of liquids, solids, or gasesneither of the substances are altered chemically
a. Solute- substance dissolved in the solvent
b. Solvent- the substance in which the solute is dissolved
c. Concentration- amount of solute dissolved in a fixed amount of the
solution
solute/ solvent+ solute= concentration
i. The more solute, the greater the concentration
Saturated solution- one in which no more solute can dissolve
d. Aqueous solution- solutions in which water is the solvent, universal
solvent
Acids and Bases
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a. As water molecules move around, they bump into one another which
makes one molecule lose a proton and the other gains it
i. H2O H+ + OHii. OH- : hydroxide ion, free H+ ion reacts with another water
H+ + H2O  H3O+
iii. H3O+ : hydronium ion (or H+ (hydrogen))
1. If there is an equal number of both hydronium and hydroxide atoms, the
solution is neutral (7 on the pH scale)
b. Acids- more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions
i. Sour taste, highly corrosive to some materials
c. Alkaline- more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions, a base
i. Bitter taste, slippery
8. pH scale- used to compare the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions in a solution
a. Logarithmic scale- change of 1 pH unit reflects a 10-fold change in the
acidity or alkalinity
i. Ex. bases- ammonia, milk, intestinal fluid; acidic- vinegar,
stomach acid
9. Buffers- chemical substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid
or a base added to a solution
a. Enzymes can only function within a very narrow pH range
Chapter 3: Section 1- Carbon Compounds
1. Carbon bonding
a. Organic compounds- made primarily of carbon atoms, most matter in
living things that is not water is made of organic compounds
b. Inorganic compounds- do not contain carbon atoms
c. Carbon atoms have four electrons in its outermost level
i. Carbon…
1. Readily forms covalent bonds with the atoms of
other elements and other carbon atoms (to form
straight chains, branched chains, or rings)
a. Single bond- bond formed when two
atoms share one pair of electrons
d. Carbon atom can share 2 or 3 pairs of electrons with another atom
i. single bond with another carbon atom, a single bond with a
hydrogen atom, and a double bond with a second carbon atom
1. double bond- shares 2 pairs of electrons
2. triple bond- shares 3 pairs of electrons
2. Functional groups- clusters of atoms which influence the characteristics of
the molecules they compose and the chemical reactions that molecules
undergo
a. Hydroxyl group- -OH can make the molecule it attached to polar
i. Polar- hydrophilic (soluble in water) and partial charges
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3. Large Carbon Molecules
a. Monomers- smaller, simpler molecules
b. Polymer- a molecules that consists of repeated, linked units
i. Macromolecules- large polymers (carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleic acids, lipids)
c. Monomers  polymers through a condensation reaction
i. Monomers combine and release a water molecules
1. Ex. glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose
and glucose releases H+ and fructose release OH-,
combine to form water
d. Hydrolysis reaction- polymer  monomers, living organism
breakdown complex molecules, water is added, opposite of
condensation reaction
i. Water molecule breaks the bonds linking each monomer
1. Reversal of 3-4= sucrose  glucose+fructose
4. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- energy available to cells in the form of
certain compounds that store a large amount of energy in their overall
structure
Adenine
Nitrogen containing
compounds
Ribose
Phosphate groups, (-PO4-)
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a. Phosphate groups are attached to each other by covalent bonds
i. Hydrolysis of ATP yields adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
inorganic phosphate
b. Covalent bonds between the phosphate groups are the most unstable
i. Bonds are easier to break, energy is released
1. Hydrolysis of ATP is used by the cell to provide the
energy needed to drive the chemical reactions that
enable an organism to function
Chapter 3: Section 2- Molecules of Life
1. Carbohydrates- organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen
a. Carbon, to hydrogen, to oxygen (1:2:1)
i. Carbs can serve as a source of energy or structural materials,
can be monosaccharide, disaccharide, or polysaccharide
b. Monosaccharides- simple sugar (contains carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen ratio 1:2:1)
i. General formula is (CH2O)n, n= [3,8]
ii. Are glucose, fructose, and galactose
1. Glucose- main source of energy for cells
2. Fructose- found in fruits and is the sweetest
3. Galactose- found in milk
a. All three of these have the molecular formula
(C6H12O6)
b. They are isomers- compounds with a single
chemical formula but different structural form
c. Disaccharides- combination of two monosaccharides through a
condensation reaction
d. Polysaccharide- complex molecule composed of three or more
monosaccharides
i. Animals store glucose as glycogen
1. consists of hundreds of glucose molecules strung
together, glycogen is ready to be used for quick energy
ii. Plants store glucose as starch
1. Has two basic forms
a. highly branched chains similar to glycogen
b. long, uncoiled, unbranched chains
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iii. plants make cellulose
1. Gives strength and rigidity to plant cells, made of
thousands of glucose monomers together in a straight
chain, which tend to form hydrogen bonds together
a. Resulting structure is strong, broken down by
hydrolysis
Proteins- organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen, formed from the linkage of amino acids (monomers)
a. 20 different amino acids, all share a basic structure
i. 1 central carbon atom covalently bonded to four other atoms
or functional groups, all of them look the same as the figure on
the left but the R group changes
1. The R group gives the proteins a very different shape,
allowing proteins to carry out different activities
Monopeptide- one monomer of protein is an amino acid
a. Dipeptides- two proteins, poly peptides- long chain of amino acids
i. Condensation reaction in which two amino acids form a
covalent bond (peptide bond) and release a water molecule
ii. Proteins- one or more polypeptides
1. Long chain, can be bent and folded cause of interactions,
shape can be influenced by conditions- temperature and
the type of solvent in which it is dissolved
Enzymes- RNA or protein molecules, act as catalysts, essential for functioning
of any cell
a. Many enzymes are proteins
b. Enzyme reactions- depends on a physical fit between the enzyme
molecule and its specific substrate, reactant is catalyzes
i. Enzymes have folds, where substrate fits into the enzyme at an
active sight—enzyme only works on a particular substrate
1. Linkage causes slight change in shape of the enzyme
and weakens chemical bonds in the substrate (the way
enzymes reduce activation energy), enzyme is
unchanged and an be used again
ii. Change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape
of the enzyme or the substrate and stops it from working
1. Reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot
occur because of this
Lipids- large, nonpolar organic molecules
a. higher ration of carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms than
carbs have, store more energy per gram
b. Fatty acids- unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids,
contains a long carbon chain (from 12-28 carbons) w/ a carboxyl
group, -COOH on one end
i. Carboxyl end is polar and hydrophilic (attracted to water),
hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and hydrophobic
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ii. Saturated fatty acids- each carbon atom is covalently bonded to
four atoms
iii. Unsaturated fatty acids- has carbons not bonded with the max
# of atoms to which they can bond (form double bonds)
Triglycerides- fats composed of three molecules of fatty acid joined to
one molecule of the alcohol glycerol
i. Saturated tri- have high melting points and are hard at room
temperature (saturated fatty acids)
ii. Unsaturated tri- usually soft or liquid at room temp
(unsaturated fatty acids)
Phospholipid- 2 fatty acids attacked to a molecule of glycerol
i. Phosphate group attached to the third carbon of the glycerol
1. makes up the cell membrane, water can’t get in and out
easily
Waxes- type of structural lipid consisting of a long fatty-acid chain
joined to a long alcohol chain, waterproof, protective coating on outer
surface of plants
Steroids- composed of four fused carbon rings with various functional
groups attached to them (ex. cholesterol)
**denature- breaking up proteins so they can’t be used**
6. Nucleic acids- very large and complex organic molecules that store and
transfer important information in the cell
a. DNA- contains info that determines characteristics of an organism and
directs its cell activities
b. RNA- stores and transfers info from DNA that is essential for the
manufacturing of proteins, can act as enzymes
i. Both are polymers, composed of thousands of linked
monomers called nucleotides- made of a phosphate group, a
five-carbon sugar, and a ring-shaped nitrogenous