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College 1, CA & DS Introduction to Cultural Anthropolgy and Development Studies Cultural anthropology Culture: Differences in behaviour, custom, cognition, belief, values, attitude, art, morals, language. Anthropology: study of the cultural diversity of the human species. - Uniquely comparative and holistic: study of the whole of the human condition—past, present, and future; society, language, and culture Cultures: traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behaviour of the people exposed to them Developed as scientific field in USA and UK - Early American anthropologists studying native peoples of North America combined studies of customs, social life, language, and physical traits in the 19th century British studies of Africa Cultural anthropology explores cultural variations through time and space: - Cross-cultural Comparative Holistic Methodology: - Describes, analyses, interprets and explains social and cultural similarities and differences. o Ethnography: fieldwork in a particular culture; provides an account of that community, society or culture. o Ethnology: comparative, cross-cultural study of ethnographic data, society or culture. Goal: - To describe, to interpret and, possibly, also to explain the cultural customs and events that have been observed. Focus not only on differences, but also on similarities. Insights in cultural differences and similarities are necessary for guiding social relations within and between societies. Development studies What is Development Studies? - Study of ideas underlying development interventions, models and ideologies Studies of policies and programmes Development studies is a broad multi- and interdisciplinary field: also attention to local organization of livelihoods, socio-political and cultural context and changes Development studies: - Inter- and multidisciplinary study of global socio-economic changes in a multipolar world Developed post WWII Influences by colonialism and modernization thinking What about globalization? - More and better technological connections Capital is now mobile Workforce is now mobile Globalization of consumption patterns Increased inequality also in the ‘North’ Focus of development studies: - Very diverse countries with different histories Different economic trajectories Growth of middle-income countries, emerging economies (BRICS) Centres of influence are shifting, but gap rich and poor remains From ‘classic’ development studies (focus on state policies and interventions) to a focus on global social transformations: - Shifting configurations of agents, institutions, resources, identities New opportunities, but also new inequalities Global social transformations through: - Flows of people and ideas Changes in production, labour and consumer markets Position of the state redefined, new actors, changing role of actors College 2, CA Culture, Comparison and Context Enculturation: the process by which a child learns his or her culture Geertz was the one who argued that we had to go back to the meaning of culture. Culture is by definition and always an ambiguous concept. And always acquired by man as a member of society. Culture is learned through direct instruction and observation What is unique to mankind, what distinguishes us from primates and other animals, is that we are able to use symbols to communicate. Symbols: signs that have no necessary or natural connection with the things for which they stand Association between symbols and symbolized is arbitrary and conventional Meaning of a gesture/symbol/sign can only be understood in a certain context and by a human being that has learned that culture. Culture is located in and transmitted through groups - Shared beliefs, values, memories, and expectations link people who grow up in the same culture Enculturation unifies people by providing common experiences Not all members of a society share all aspects of a culture (men and women, young and old). There are differences within a certain culture as well. Culture shapes natural feelings and our relation to the environment/nature. It takes our natural biological urges and teaches us to express them in particular ways. Anthropological concept of culture is much wider than the common concept of culture, it also includes the daily stuff that doesn’t even seem worthy to look into. Culture is also inherently linked to politics Anthropologists look at culture in a holistic way, because all aspects of culture and society are related. Cultures are integrated, patterned systems - If one part changes, other parts change Core values: key, basic, or central values that integrate a culture Culture is also an instrument for us to fulfil our needs. Universal human traits: - Biological: a long period of infant dependency, yearround sexuality, and a complex brain Psychological: common ways in which humans think, feel, and process information Socio-cultural kinship relations Generalities: - Nuclear family Diffusion Colonization Invention Particularities: - Diffusion Independent invention When cultural traits are borrowed, traits modified to fit the adopting culture CA is not primarily interested in universal cultural characteristics, but in the particularities. Cultural universals are (usually) biologically based. Anthropology always works from the particular towards the general, instead of the other way around like with most other sciences. Culture is contested, public as well as individual, inherently linked to power relations between people, made and remade every day, and individual agency is important. Practice theory: individuals within society have different motives. Ethnocentrism: tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to use one’s own standards and values in judging outsiders. Cultural relativism: to know another culture requires full understanding of its members’ beliefs and motivations. Difference between cultural relativism as a methodological point of view and as a moral point of view (ex. FGM, understand first, that doesn’t mean you approve it) One goal of anthropology is to lose ethnocentrism, but that will never be fully realised (ex. age, gender). Intellectual property rights (IPR): an indigenous group’s collective knowledge and its applications Linked to cultural rights: rights vested in religious and ethnic minorities and indigenous societies Smith and Doyle made a distinction between globalization as fact and as contested ideology. Globalisation won’t make us all the same, it only makes people more attached to their distinct cultural identities. As a result, people have reinvented local customs. Globalisation does matter though because the global has an influence on the local. Individuals are not automatically reflections of a culture. Culture is given meaning in practice, never a core locked up in a box and given from generation to generation. Not interested in the ideal culture, but in the practice. College 3, DS Introduction to and History of Development Studies What’s in a name? Name Third World developed after WWII, based on political powers in the world - US and Europe First World, democracies Soviet Union and communist countries Second World ‘The rest” neutral countries Third World No longer accurate in 1990’s after break up of Soviet Union and communism, Second World disappeared, Also third wave of democratization, so some Third World countries actually became (more) democratic. And there was widespread economic liberalization. Name Developing World also criticized - Are they all developing? Moving forward? Are the other countries developed? Done developing? Name The South also criticized - Just geographically incorrect, ex Australia Just any name at all would be difficult because it is difficult to grasp them all together as one group, because boundaries are blurring and they are also internally differentiated. History of Development Studies Development work has focused on various issues, with different emphases during different periods: - Comparative political systems, nation building Economic policies to foster economic growth Social aspects of development With deepening globalization, we also see more diversity, from emerging economies to the least developed countries For understanding the history of development studies it is necessary to understand the history of colonization and of decolonization processes. There are long-lasting impacts of colonialism, and colonialism also shows the intertwining of the histories of ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries. We had the idea that we had to enlighten and civilize the Third World, the colonized countries, to just teach them how to live like we did. Evolutionary ideas: We were higher on the scale of evolution than they were, they would have to catch up with us. Basis for Rostow’s model of the 5 phases: - - Traditional stage: agricultural economy, low levels of science and technology, hierarchical social structure. Preconditions for take-off: triggered by external impulse, insights of modern science begin to be translated into agricultural and industrial production, emergence of elite group which was able and willing to invest wealth. Take-off: Investment rises to at least 10% of national income, political and social institutions are reshaped in order to permit the pursuit of growth to take root. Drive to maturity: developmental consolidation. Age of mass consumption: further developmental consolidation and advance. Focus initially mainly on political systems and economic development - Little attention to effects of colonialism on political systems (borders, indirect rule/assimilated elites) and organization of economy and infrastructure Studies focused on failure ‘take off stage’ Dependency theory (Wallerstein, Gunder Frank, Arrighi) (1950s-1960s) - - World economic system with centres and peripheries Centres under-develop the peripheries to foster their own economic development o That happens through debts, expensive imports of manufactured goods, trade barriers Centres mainly interested in raw materials and cheap labour of peripheries Structural Adjustment Programmes, SAPs (1980s) - In US and Europe conservative governments (Reagan, Thatcher), started advocating lean state and privatization of public sector Ideas about a lean state exported to developing countries through ESAPs Decentralization of government Countries had to open up their markets 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall, Nelson Mandela’s Release Excitement about ‘third wave of democratization’ Shift from privatization of the state to New Public Management Focus on partnerships with NGOs, community based organizations and private sector organizations Now: ‘Market-based democracy’ (Merkel) remaining model, few ideological alternatives Yet attention to growing inequalities around the world, both within and between countries. Arrighi: New centres are emerging, more and more becoming a multi-polar world. At the same time realization that poverty eradication in developing countries failed They discovered that the fates of North and South were linked, so there became renewed attempts at development and poverty eradication through Millennium Development Goals New Sustainable Development Goals take the idea of linkages between global North and global South to a further stage, with emphasis on sustainable development and environmental care. Concluding: - - Rostow’s model (and similar models) only pays attention to internal factors influencing development, ignores colonial legacies, is evolutionary and Euro-centric. Dependency models mainly focus on external influences on development, assumes that relations between centre and periphery are the same across the world (no differentiation in relations between ‘the West’ and ‘the rest’). Contemporary Development Studies: o Focusses on different aspects of social transformations (socioeconomic, political, cultural) but also on a range of different factors influencing this (external and internal) o More attention to the ‘actors’ o Attention to different models of development – including visions ‘from below’ College 4, CA History, Theory and Method in Cultural Anthropology ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELD RESEARCH = Describing a culture from the inside out. Trying to understand the whole culture from the native’s point of view. Ethnography emerged as a research strategy in societies with greater cultural uniformity and less social differentiation than modern industrial nations Techniques: - - - - Participant observation: o Balance between participating and observing o Try to become a native, but not really because you want to keep your ‘stranger’s’ point of view to describe things. Conversation (also lots of small talk) The genealogical method: using diagrams and symbols to record kin connections o Prominent building block in nonindustrial societies o In many nonindustrial societies, kin links are basic to social life Detailed work with key consultants: expert on a particular aspect of local life o Individual ethnographer gets to know, in the field, people who teach him or her about their culture In-depth interviewing Ethnographers pay attention to and record the details of daily life - Keep personal diary Strive to be involved and establish rapport Ethnographer cannot be totally detached Life history: a personal portrait of someone’s life in a culture - Reveals how specific people perceive, react to, and contribute to changes that affect their lives Many ethnographers include collection of life histories as part of their research strategy Emic (internally oriented) approach: investigates how members of a society think, categorize the world, express thoughts, and interpret stimuli. Etic (externally oriented) approach: emphasizes categories, interpretations, and features that the anthropologist considers important. Traditional ethnographic research focused on single community or culture. - Isolated and unique in time and space. Ethnography is now increasingly multitimed and multisited - Studies focus on people in motion—on or near borders, nomads, migrants, homeless and displaced peoples, immigrants, and refugees. ETHICAL ISSUES Anthropologists must be sensitive to cultural differences and aware of procedures and standards in host country - Include host country colleagues in planning Establish collaborative relationships with host Include host country colleagues in dissemination of research results Ensure something is “given back” to host country Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) recognizes anthropologists have obligations to their scholarly field, to the wider society, and to the human species, other species, and the environment. Informed consent: agreement to take part in research—after having been informed about its nature, procedures, and possible impacts. Anthropology is a humanistic science: focused on interpretation and understanding rather than explanations that are universally valid. Anthropology is a comparative science: attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities - Compare, contrast, and make generalizations about societies and cultures THEORY IN ANTHROPOLOGY OVER TIME - Evolutionary perspectives (Morgan and Tylor) Functionalists (Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown) Historical (Boas) Symbolic and interpretive approaches Relation between culture and individual Contemporary marked by specialization o Cultural anthropologists now head for the field with a specific problem in mind, rather than with goal of producing a holistic ethnography o Ethnography no longer restricted to one specific time and place, follows movement of people o Eclecticism: no single paradigm but multiple theories! Evolutionism: Tylor (1832–1917): offered definition of culture and proposed it as a topic that could be studied scientifically. Tylor proposed a unilinear path: animism, polytheism, monotheism, and science Morgan (1818 –1881): The League of the Iroquois is anthropology’s earliest ethnography Human society has evolved through savagery, barbarism, and civilization (unilinear evolutionism) Boas: Historical particularism: histories are not comparable; diverse paths can lead to same cultural result - Rejected comparative method of evolutionists INDEPENDENT INVENTION (evolutionists) versus DIFFUSION (Boasians) Bronislaw Malinowksi: Functionalism: an approach focussing on the role of sociocultural practices in social systems. Customs and institutions are integrated and interrelated Alfred Radcliff-Brown: Advocated that social anthropology be synchronic (studying societies as they exist today) rather than diachronic (studying societies across time). Structural functionalism (Radcliff-Brown & Evans-Pritchard): - Customs (social practices) function to preserve the social structure Radcliffe-Brown: social systems are comparable to anatomical and physiological process Émile Durkheim: Faits socials/ social facts: the values, cultural norms, and social structures which transcend the individual and are capable of exercising social control. Marcel Mauss: Durkheim’s nephew and collaborator Total social fact: an activity that has implications throughout society, in the economic, legal, political, and religious spheres. Agency: actions that individuals take, both alone and in groups, in forming and transforming cultural identities. Practice theory: individuals in a society or culture have diverse motives and intentions and different degrees of power and influence. College 5, DS Human Rights and Gender Human rights and Culture During Cold War human rights violations by allies were ‘overlooked’. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, pressure on developing countries to respect human rights increased. Caused by growth of international human rights organizations. Different countries put emphasis on different types of rights: - Individual human rights Collective human rights In the 1970s: disagreement about what comes first, development or respecting human rights. Some countries claim that at first collective rights are more important and individual freedoms must be sacrificed for development. Also linkages are ambiguous between development, democracy and respecting human rights. Sometimes evolutionary thinking: logical ‘endpoint’ of development is liberal democracy and free market. Free trade, trade liberalization comes first, then democracy will follow. Huntington: When there is no more conflict over economic models (because there will only be liberal free trade market), culture will become the major fracture line. Other (Harvey) interpret the many conflicts as a result of growing inequalities in combination with colonial legacies, and as a result of scarce resources in an increasingly globalizing world. Clash between cultural relativism and human rights. Large grey area there, respecting cultural differences or respecting universal human rights. Should human rights be universal? - - Yes: o o o Non-western countries signed the declaration in 1948 Numerous post-colonial countries joined after Independence People around the world have referred to the declaration in their struggles against autocratic regimes No: o o o There should be an emphasis on individual rights They are based on western ideas of modernity They hold the belief in a teleological endpoint Post-modernity and post-development There was critique on seeing (neo-)liberal democracy as the ‘endpoint’ of development. Economic growth is not the only route to development, increase in GDP is not an adequate measure of development. By post-development theorists, who reject the dominance of the neo-liberal model, they promote indigenous models for development. Critique on Post-development theorists: ‘Anything goes’, cultural relativism taken to the extreme Little attention to differences in power and interpretation of culture WITHIN societies Little attention to aspirations of the poor Then post-modernity arose as a critique on modernity and structures As a reaction to changes in the global economy No longer a clash between the grand theories of liberalism and socialism, because growing inequality showed that they both didn’t work. Post modernity: There’s no absolute truth and the basic structures on which we’ve built our whole society are just social constructs. Foucault: the power of discourse is huge, through dominant discourses ideas about how we are to see the world are transferred, it is a disciplining of the mind. Critique on Foucault: not enough attention to resistance against dominant discourses Discourses are really important things underlying our social structures and worldviews. Through these discourses, certain subjectivities are created: ideas, for example, about what women are and how they should behave Critique on post-modernists: power dispersed, attention to how local people construct society, little attention to structural power relations Gender and Development Women in Development theory (WID): - Accept that women are negatively affected by development processes Solution: they should embed themselves more firmly in the process through education etc. Focus on work and status instead of focus only on child raising – production vs reproduction Women and Development theory (WAD): - Attention the important role women have always played in development, and how certain development strategies negatively affect this Solution: special focus on initiatives for women Again: focus on work and status, no attention to reproduction roles Risk of ‘essentialising’ women, enforcing stereotypes Gender and Development theory (GAD): - Broader than work and status Looks at how development processes affect power relations between men and women Attention to different ideas about gender roles, and the fact that women’s demands in the west may be irrelevant for women in developing countries Questioning dominant views of gender and gender roles, looking for local social constructions of gender and gender roles Here too does the debate about individual versus collective rights exist. Islamic feminism is an example of attempts to balance between respect for cultural diversity and human rights, but also shows that dominant views on gender relations are also critiqued from WITHIN that society. There’s need to differentiate within societies, to have respect for minorities and for different interpretations of culture. Concluding: Different models of development reflected in debates about human rights Debates: - Universal rights versus local interpretations? Individual versus collective? Evolutionary process with logical endpoint, or different ways of seeing development and human rights, with different goals? Important to reflect on how we deal with differences and power relations WITHIN societies College 6, CA Social organisation, person, and society Anthropology and sociology share an interest in social relations, organisation, and behaviour. They often work together now Natural Human Diversity Four dimensions of human existence: Cultural universals Cultural variation Genetic universals Genetic variation Ways to approach biological differences: - Racial classification: attempt to assign humans to discrete categories (purportedly) based on common ancestry Early scholars used phenotypical traits: an organism’s evident traits, its “manifest biology”— anatomy and physiology Phenotypic similarities and differences do not necessarily have genetic basis Impossible to distinguish people in groups on basis of race, as a biological category. People construct races on social grounds - Explanatory approach: Role of natural selection in producing variation in skin color explains human biological diversity What’s Nature? Both an ecosystem and your inner nature. People have different conceptualizations of nature. The dichotomy of nature vs culture is Western. Margaret Mead: Cultural Determinism - Human nature blank slate (tabula rasa) Culture is powerful, it can form and change expressions of biological stages. Research among young girls in Samoa, criticised by Freeman The Social Person Social person: sum of social statuses Status: social relationship entailing rights and duties Status may be ascribed or achieved Some statuses, particularly ascribed ones, can be mutually exclusive Some statuses are contextual: Situational negotiation of social identity Known as switching between roles Role: dynamic behaviour associated with status Frontstage vs. Backstage Impression Management How do people nowadays strike a balance between the increasing number of social positions? Rites of Passage Rites of passage: customs associated with transition from one stage of life to another Separation: people get separated of the rest of society, out of their normal role in that society. Liminality: in-between phase of passage rite. - Involves a temporary suspension and reversal of social distinctions. Reintegration: people turn back to society to take on their new role in that society. Social and cultural change Rise of the internet, now both online virtual communities and actual communities. Both are real Privatization of social relations Debate about structure and agency Pierre Bourdieu: Theory of Practice Anthony Giddens: Theory of Structuration Knowledge: - Conscious Unconscious ‘cognition’, that is understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Limitation of language as methodological vehicle to access knowledge Knowledge is unevenly distributed Male/female, higher/lower classes, geographically Habitus: system of embodied dispositions College 7, CA Kinship, Descent, Marriage and Gender Sex and Gender Sexual dimorphism: marked differences in male and female biology besides the primary and secondary sexual features Sex is biological, gender is cultural Margaret Mead was the first to draw attention to male/female relationships (=GENDER) Coming of Age in Samoa & Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies Also starting feminism in US First wave 1850-1940: Suffrage, voting right Second wave 1965-1980: Equal pay, respected for their capabilities Third wave 1995- …: Patriarchy Gender roles: tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes Gender stereotypes: oversimplified, strongly held ideas of characteristics of men and women Gender stratification: Unequal distribution of rewards between men and women, reflecting different positions in a social hierarchy. The subsistence contributions of men and women are roughly equal cross-culturally Gender stratification relatively low when men and women make equal contributions to subsistence. (example: foragers, not much gender stratification there) Biological differences influence the abilities of men and women and therefore are important in defining gender roles. Pregnancy and lactation keep women from being primary hunters in foraging societies, while greater size, strength, and mobility of men lead to exclusive service in roles of hunters and warriors for them. Always take the domestic-public dichotomy into account when you look into gender roles (ex. women in Islamic countries are not necessarily oppressed because they are restricted in public, they can be the boss at home) Differentiation of roles of men and women is related to the economic situation. Ex: Lots of elderly people now, we need workforce to pay the pensions, so women start working, so the way we think of women and gender roles starts changing. Kinship and descent Family of orientation: family in which one is born and grows up. Family of procreation: formed when one marries and has children. Descent group: a permanent social unit whose members say they have ancestors in common. Descent group more important than family, because the descent group will keep existing forever, members change because people are born and die, but the group endures forever. Unilineal descent: Use one line only in descent rules Matrilineal descent: you automatically join mother’s descent group Patrilineal descent: you automatically join father’s descent group (Am)bilineal descent: Use (one of) both lines (choose). Lineage: unilineal descent group based on demonstrated descent. Everybody knows each other Clan: descent group that claims common descent from an apical ancestor but cannot demonstrate it. Way more people, not everybody knows each other Patrilocality: married couple lives with the husband’s family (patrilineal descent) Matrilocality: married couple lives with the wife’s family (matrilineal descent) Neolocality: married couple may live hundreds of miles away from both parents Ambilineal descent = cognatic descent You choose to which descent group you want to belong, but you have to achieve it by showing up and showing your interest. Fluid, people can change their descent-group membership or belong to two or more groups at the same time. People may have conflicting obligations to family and descent group, mainly a big problem with matrilineal descent groups. Genealogical kin types: relates to actual genealogical relationship (father’s brother) as opposed to kin term (uncle) Kin terms reflect social construction of kinship in a given culture Bilateral kinship calculation: people tend to perceive kin links through males and females as being similar or equal Kinship terminologies: 1.Lineal kinship terminology (Nuclear family, neolocality): four parental kin terms (M, F, FB-MB, and MZ-FZ) - Lineal relative: ego’s direct descendant Collateral relatives: relative outside ego’s direct line (B, Z, FB, MZ) Affinals: relatives by marriage 2.Bifurcate merging kinship terminology (Unilineal descent group, unilocality): splits mother’s side from father’s side, but also merges same-sex siblings of each parent - Mother’s sister is also mother and father’s brother is also father Associated with unilineal descent and unilocal residence 3.Generational kinship terminology (ambilineal descent group, ambilocality): uses the same term for parents and their siblings, but lumping is more complete; M=MZ=FZ and F=FB=MB - Mother’s sister AND father’s sister are also mother, father’s brother AND mother’s brother are also father Does not distinguish between mother’s and father’s sides Typical of ambilineal societies 4.Bifurcate collateral terminology (Varies, everything is possible): separate terms are used for each of six kin types of the parental generation; M, F, MB, MZ, FB, and FZ - Not as common as other types Many societies that use it are in North Africa and the Middle East Marriage Difficult to define - Establishes legal parentage of children Gives spouses rights Genitor: biological father of a child Pater: socially recognized father of a child Mater: socially recognized mother of a child A way to forge alliances to other groups, to make strangers into friends Exogamy more common than endogamy Lévi-Strauss argues that the prohibition of incest is universal and that it also is what distinguishes us from apes and other animals. Even though definition of incest may change from society to society. Common practice to marry cross cousins. Parallel cousins: children of two brothers or two sisters Cross-cousins: children of a brother and a sister Parallel cousins always belong to your own moiety, cross cousins always belong to the other moiety. Children belong to father’s moiety in patrilineal moiety organization and to mother’s moiety in matrilineal moiety organization. Endogamy more common than we may think. Marrying in your own social class is also endogamy, sharpening contrast between rich and poor. India’s caste system also example of strong endogamy. Five major Varna’s or castes Occupational specialization often sets off one caste from another Royal endogamy also quite common, brothers and sisters were sometimes allowed to marry each other, or otherwise cousins would marry. Manifest function: reason given for a custom by its natives Latent function: effects custom has that are not explicitly recognized by the natives Leach argued that the rights allocated by marriage include: - Establishing legal parentage Giving a monopoly in sexuality of the other Giving rights to the labour of the other Giving rights over the other’s property Establishing a joint fund of property Establishing a socially significant ‘relationship of affinity’ Gifts at marriage: - Bridewealth or bride price: substantial marital gift from husband and his kin to the wife and her kin Dowry: marital exchange in which wife’s group provides substantial gifts to husband’s family Plural marriage: being married to more than two spouses simultaneously (polygamy) Polygyny: a man has more than one wife; the more common form Polyandry: a woman has more than one husband; rare Polyandry ensures there will be at least one man at home to accomplish male activities within a gender-based division of labour. Sororate: husband may marry the wife’s sister if the wife dies Levirate: right to marry husband’s brother if husband dies Cross-culturally, high divorce rates correlated with a secure female economic position. College 8, DS The Politics of Development Political Economy of Development The new discipline of development economics emerged after decolonization. Economic infrastructure and distribution of assets heavily influenced by colonialism. Global political economy: the role played by states, business and international organizations in the generation of wealth and its distribution on a global scale. Neo-Gramscian school: focuses on the power of ideas and knowledge in the generation of wealth and its distribution. Both refer to models which see development as economic growth. Recapitulation of these models: Evolutionary models (incl. Rostow’s 5-stages model): - All countries follow similar model, some are ‘behind’ in terms of stages Relies on state planning and investment to get to the ‘take off stage’ Some but not much attention to welfare Dependency theories: - Based on (neo-Marxist) analysis of how capital is accumulated Centre deliberately under-develops the periphery (resource extraction, trade barriers, expensive imports, cheap labour, debts) Requires either a revolution or a strong state to protect economies and workers in the periphery from the centre Strong focus on inequalities between countries (and some attention to inequalities within countries) (Neo-)liberal model: - Lean state – main function to facilitate free market Liberalization of capital movements Free trade to facilitate cost-effective distribution of resources Almost no attention to welfare – poor to benefit through trickle-down effect Development from harsh version (liberalization-privatisation) to softer version: service delivery through public-private partnerships (neo-liberal) End of WW II till end of 1970s: focus on the role of the state in planning and investing (countries encouraged to borrow money, which later resulted in the debt crisis) 1980s to late1990s: focus on cutting back on state spending, privatization, free market Late 1990s: softer version of neo-liberalism: PPPs Since then partial revival of the idea that state involvement may be important Early recommendations focused on the state: - Strong focus on industrialization instead of agriculture State needs to coordinate investments Markets could not ensure coordination because of high start-up costs in ‘late-comer’ economies Focus on import-substituting industrialization to improve terms of trade 1980s period of harsh reforms - Enforced through Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) Washington Consensus – shared views of the IMF, World Bank, US government policy community, investment bankers etc. 1990 it became clear that SAPs failed to foster development Inequalities became only starker Publication of the 1990 World Development Report, but it took a while before policies changed New strategies to deal with poverty in developing countries: - 1) Promotion of labour-intensive growth through economic openness and investment in infrastructure 2) Provision of better services to poor people including health care and education o Through PPPS – private sector includes NGOs here 2001 conference marked the end of a period of inactivity Polarization between developing countries occurs in the late 1970s to early 1980s: - Oil rich countries NICs and later BRICS Most other countries experienced stagnation or low growth Trend continued in the 2000’s Development per region East Asia and Pacific: - Vietnam developed despite going against Washington Consensus China did the same: managed to engage TNCs on its own terms South Asia: - India did conform more to Washington Consensus and economy improved South Korea used it huge share of development aid to develop its own industry Middle East and North Africa: - Differences oil rich and no oil – countries Oil wealth helped countries to maintain autocracies When oil prices dropped governments compelled to introduce SAPs: social unrest Sub-Saharan Africa: - Annual growth rates cannot keep up with population growth Overall quality of life indicators poor Results SAPs disappointing From the 1990s donors demanded good governance – more democratic Post 9/11: security main concern, democracy as illusion From 2000s some countries did experience high growth rates: South Africa, Rwanda Effects financial crisis 2008 had delayed effect on these emerging economies Latin America and the Caribbean: - Marginal economic global position (same as Sub Saharan Africa) SAPs did not result in improving position, they only increased inequalities Liberalisation and privatisation benefitted foreign capital and local elites, but not the poor Problems for the poor with access to services Unrest resulted in local revival of socialism with a focus on the role of the state in development: Chavez (Venezuela), Morales (Bolivia) Conclusion: - Economic development difficult to steer and predict, standard, universal recipes do not work Since 2000s slow move away from idea that development = economic growth Some more attention to bottom-up models But many aspects of policy recommendation are still conforming to (softer) neo-liberal forms Anti-globalists and World Social Forum formulate alternatives. Politics of Development - First wave of democratization: late 19th, early 20th century in Europe and North America Second wave of democratization: after WW II (Italy, West-Germany, Japan) Third wave of democratization: started in 1974 with the demise of dictatorships in Spain, Portugal and Greece Democratization generally in 4 stages – but these are complimentary and may overlap: 1. 2. 3. 4. Political liberalization Collapse of authoritarian regime Democratic transition Democratic consolidation To reach stage 4, you need the following internal factors: - - Strong domestic civil society Political society (domestic) needs to be involved o Autonomous democratically organized parties o Moderate polarization of parties o Institutionalization of party system Social capital: civil society and political society need a sufficient store of social connections in society, trust from society in government o Bonded solidarity: sense of common nationhood and cultural identity o Enforced trust: controls the mutual assistance supplied and demanded Background factors: - Many post-colonial states are ‘weak’, and have little sovereignty Yet, weak states may be strongly repressive towards citizens (but weak in service delivery), and difficult to influence Since the end of the Cold War donor countries emphasize importance of good governance and democracy - that became the condition for aid Idea that without democratization economic liberalization would not achieve beneficial results Debates about conditionality of aid: - Aid conditionality only worked in 38% of the cases Standard democratic template may not fit all Conditional democratization failed when they threatened donor’s strategic or commercial interest Post-9/11 focus on security and stability: democracy was an illusion, security main concern Donor conditionality and support hardly ever survives past the first stages – hardly ever continued until stage 4 of democratization process Influence of donors was not the only transnational influence: - Emergence of Transnational Civil Society Facilitated by global communications revolution Can amplify and publicize local civil society demands Can also help to counter global hegemony (e.g. Neoliberal development model) Positive links between democracy and economic factors: Sustained economic benefits combined with reasonably equitable distribution of benefits A comprehensive, institutionalized, state-directed system of social welfare Goes against (neo-)liberal model! College 9, DS Development and the Natural Environment There’s the need to find a balance between economic growth, social welfare and environmental health. Many developing countries are accusing the West of hypocrisy: - Seen as an attempt to block developing countries from ‘catching up’ While the West doesn’t want environmentally harmful policies, it still urges developing countries to open their economies to foreign investments and increase exports of agricultural products and wood. Earth summit 1992: Agenda 21 was made; a compromise between West and ‘the rest’ Four main environmental problems for developing countries: Climate change Desertification and deforestation Skewed land use patterns which deepen poverty Economic development policies with little concern of the environment Climate change Climate change will hit the poor the hardest. They often live in marginal areas, floodplains, areas already subject to variability in terms of rainfall, where nobody else wants to live. Problems with access to land, water, means higher health care costs (for everybody) The poor are often nomads or tribes, difficult for the state to help them Agricultural systems are changing Both economical and moral issues with climate change Moral: Often linked to religion, humankind has to take care of earth, responsibility for environment to next generation. Economic: Should economy grow? Who can grow? How to divide costs and benefits? Market-based solution: Carbon off-setting trough trading emission rights. Desertification and deforestation Two competing explanations for these two issues: 1. Traditional small-scale agriculture and pastoralism to blame o No smart, modern techniques, just exploiting the land 2. Modern capitalist agriculture production to blame o Large-scale too harmful No evidence of 1st explanation, provided that there is sufficient land available Large-scale enterprises can force small-scale producers of the land, limiting their access to land resulting in resorting to harmful practices to survive. So: look beyond the local, effects are visible at multiple scales. Rainforest destroyed for various reasons: Agriculture and pastoralism Sale of timber What the dominant factor is depends on the region and context Effects are always visible at multiple scales Skewed land use patterns Negative environmental effects worsened by development patterns and programmes that limit access of the poor to land. 44% of the poor live on marginal lands, often as a result of displacement By large-scale land acquisitions – land grabbing World Bank believes this is positive, offers potential for local development through higher levels of production and job creation. But impact of losing land is huge, on whole community. Land offers more security than a job which you can lose, because then you have nothing left. Economic development policies and the environment Combination of factors of policies cause environmental degradation – direct link to SAPs difficult. Several aspects of market reforms believed to cause harm: o o o Need for more foreign exchange may result in overexploitation of natural resources. Pressure to reduce state expenditure results in weak environmental legislation and control. Loss of jobs in public sector combined with little social security results in more people living of the land. Companies exploit weak legislation ENGOs in developing countries Sometimes they are involved in ‘green grabbing’, otherwise local users fight against environmental degradation to protect their livelihoods. More difficult if there’s no functioning democracy. Broader interests than just environmental, sometimes also economical or cultural, especially if there are international ENGOs involved. Businesses often do not care about the environment but sometimes they do. But even then, they usually find a way to apply market mechanisms to it (green tourism) Results for local communities in developing countries mixed: Sometimes they do benefit from nature tourism and expanding market for fair trade products In other cases, companies gain access to their natural resources at their expense World Summit for Sustainable Development fosters a neo-liberal model of sustainable development Critiques from: Eco-feminism: nature is ‘feminine’, exploited by patriarchy and global capitalism, lack of attention to impacts environmental degradation on women. Sustainability Watch, slightly different angle: concerns for sustainability are overruled by emphasis on security, but also critiques dominant economic model that favours TNCs’ access and control over resources, need for a stronger (international) regulatory framework. College 10, CA Political Anthropology Political Anthropology Power: ability to exercise one’s will over others authority is formal, socially approved use of power Four types/levels of political organization in relation to economy: - - Band: small kin-based group among foragers Tribe: economy based on non-intensive food production Chiefdom: intermediate form between tribe and state o Differential access: favoured access to resources by superordinates over subordinates o Superordinate: upper, elite group in stratified society; privileged access to wealth, power, and valued resources o Subordinate: lower, underprivileged group in stratified society; limited by privileged group State: formal governmental structure and socioeconomic stratification Foragers live and are organised in bands, but always trade with food producers and are also dependent on the state in which they live. They lack formal law but they have other forms of conflict resolution through social control Tribes: typically have horticultural or pastoral economy and are organized by village life and/or descent-group membership. - - Lack socioeconomic stratification and formal government Regulatory officials are village heads, “big men” (Melanesia), descent-group leaders, village councils, and pantribal associations o Pantribal sodalities: groups that extend across several tribes, spanning several villages Age, gender, and personal traits determine how much respect people receive Chiefdom: Transitional form of socio-political organization, between tribes and states - Chiefs have role in chiefly redistribution Unlike states, social relations in chiefdoms are based on kinship, marriage, descent, age, generation, and gender State: Carneiro: State is “an autonomous political unit encompassing many communities within its territory, having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws” - States are characterized by much clearer class divisions, social statuses, than chiefdoms States have administrative subdivisions to control people (provinces) States have law, court and judges States redistributes wealth as well, through taxes Unlike bands and tribes, chiefdoms and states are permanent WEBER: Three dimensions of social stratification: - Wealth: all a person’s material assets; the basis of his or her economic status Power: the ability to control others; the basis of political status Prestige: esteem, respect, or approval; the basis of social status Social control: “Those fields of the social system (beliefs, practices, and institutions) that are most actively involved in the maintenance of any norms and regulation of any conflict.” (Kottak, 2002) Formal: police, state, laws Informal: family, friends, media Hegemony: subordinates accept the naturalness of domination; they have internalized it. If they haven’t internalized it, they can resist it Public transcript: open public interaction between superordinates and subordinates Hidden transcript: critique of power that goes on offstage, where the power holders can’t see it In small-scale societies, “informal” control through fear, stigma, shame, and gossip Shame can be powerful social sanction College 11, CA Economic Anthropology Economic Anthropology The advent of food production fuelled major changes in human life Adaptive strategy: means of making a living; productive system Cohen: typology of societies Foraging Horticulture Agriculture Pastoralism Industrialism Foragers rely on natural resources in order to sustain a living Foraging has survived mainly, but not only, in environments that posed major obstacles to food production. Original affluent society When talking about contemporary hunters and gatherers we should not compare them to the ones of thousands of years ago. Typically, they are mobile and flexible, often organized in bands Foraging has been the main adaptive strategy for all humans for 99% of world history. This changed after the invention of elementary means to grow crops. This lead to a growth of the population. Three adaptive strategies based on food production are seen in nonindustrial societies: - - - - Horticulture: cultivation that makes intensive use of none of the factors of production: land, labor, capital, and machinery o Slash and burn & Shifting cultivation. Land has to lie fallow to renew o Crucial distinction between horti- and agriculture. Agriculture: Not necessary to have the land fallow. This is more labour intensive, use of irrigation systems, more sophisticated. Uses land intensively and continually. o Agricultural societies grow increasingly specialized Cultivation continuum: intermediate economies that combine horticultural and agricultural features o Horticulture always uses a fallow period; agriculture does not Pastoralists: focus on domesticated, herd animals. They are never completely independent, usually trade their meat with horti- or agriculturalists o Nomadism: they travel around o Transhumance: part of the society moves with the herd to other areas Foragers have a different relation to their land then other societies. Anyone after foragers is in a dominant relationship to the environment. Foragers relied on the resources of the environment and nature. Neolithic revolution: people began to grow more food than needed to sustain a living, they became agriculturalists. Economy: system for the production, distribution, and consumption of resources Mode of production: way of organizing production, “set of social relations through which labour is deployed to wrest energy from nature using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge” (Wolf, 1982) Modes of production is a Marxist term for analyses of capitalist society. Made up of relations of production and production forces. Mode of subsistence is food production irrespective of property relations Modes of subsistence is an overall term that includes all perspectives from foraging to industrialism Means of production include land, labour, technology and capital Fundamental distinction between post- and nonindustrial: non is always organized around kinship structures and organization. The economy was organized along kinship lines, embedded in social and political types of organization. Industrial revolution took place. The main production force is land, but labour, technology and capital became more important in industrial societies. During this revolution, alienation took place. People who sold their labour as a production force to the owners of the production forces, they became alienated from what they produced. Economic anthropology is distinguished from economics: economics is based on the assumption that all individuals act rationally and that their goal is to maximize profit. Economic anthropologists look differently; they always analyse in a cross cultural perspective. We examine relationship between economy and culture. How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies? What motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume? Alternative ends People in various societies put their scarce resources toward building - Subsistence fund: to reproduce yourself everyday Replacement fund: to maintain technology you use Social fund: to establish societies Ceremonial fund: to fulfil ritual obligations (Rent fund): peasants have to save to pay their landlords Polanyi: three principles orienting exchanges: market principle, redistribution, reciprocity - Society usually dominated by one Dominant principle of exchange is the one that allocates means of production Market principle: buying, selling, and valuation are based on supply and demand - Bargaining is characteristic Redistribution: flow of goods into a centre, then back out - Characteristic of chiefdoms Reciprocity: exchange between social equals, usually related. Occurs in 3 different types; - Reciprocity continuum: running from generalized reciprocity (closely related/deferred return) to negative reciprocity (strangers/immediate return) o Generalized reciprocity: occurs in most families. You borrow something and you don’t have to return it immediately. o Balanced reciprocity: When you see it as a debt, o Negative reciprocity: Mythological, belonging to their natives and therefore people think it’s theirs instead of their neighbours, like stealing, hostile. Potlatch: Traditional exchange between tribes of north pacific coast. Giving wealth away. You give something to another tribe is you have enough, is expected back when the others have enough. Market principles can coexist, almost always they do. Guest lecture, CA/DS Guest speaker – homelessness AANTEKENINGEN VAN ANNA - Crenshaw, Essed, Yanow, Van der Haar and Nimako. - Homelessness is race, class and gender related. - 80% is male, 60% is ‘non-Western allochtonen’, 73% low-educated. - Homelessness also has the characteristics of a social construct. Even if you are couch surfing, you’re actually homeless, but you don’t consider yourself so. - Early 1900’s: Christian duty. Late 40s and 50s: development aid. 60s: empowerment and social work connected to social work. 70s increase in migration, foreigners’ policies, minority policies, allochtonen. 80s first anti-racist wave. Late 90s: critique of social democratic welfare state. (1) Social work was seen as cuddling the homeless. (2) It costs too much money. 2007: Wet Maatschappelijke Ondersteuning. - decentralization welfare structures. - Increased responsibility of the ‘active citizen’. - shift from welfare services as a right and means for emancipation, to self-sufficiency as an obligation. Shift from universalism to individualism. - Process: - 1. Go to Work and Income Services in Amsterdam. - 2. Ask voor financial aid and a screening. - 3. Fill in 7-day form. - 4. First Screening: 10 minutes. - 5. Regional Ties, OGGZ, Self-sufficiency —> accepted or rejected - 6. If rejected: no access to emergency shelter. - 7. If accepted: access to short term emergency shelter, 9 months waiting list for long term shelter. - 8. Start process of rehabilitation. - The idea of psychosocial problems and psychiatric disorders is implemented in the idea of sheltering homeless people. If you don’t have mental problems, you shouldn’t need help. The idea of who is vulnerable is framed in medical ideas. The response of a homeless person, who is emotional, to the system is also medicalized. - Society is a whole, homeless individuals are either outside or at the margins, but never a product or participants. - Men of color make up 60% of homeless individuals. Migrants make up 12% of Dutch populations. - You should be colorblind to unsee that and treat them all equally - The problem with colorblindness is that you also don’t see racism and structural inequality. College 12, DS Development and Religion Religion and Globalization Two important issues related to religion and development: Changes related to globalization, that have impact on religious identity and conflicts Renewed attention to religion globally, also in reconciliation and peace building Religion pertains to models of social and individual behaviour which help believers to organize their everyday lives. Three principles: Transcendence Sacredness Ultimacy Disenchantment thesis: spread of technological developments and participation and integration in the global market would result in more secularization. In reality, religion is still an important factor in daily lives in Northern Europe and the U.S. Globalisation destabilizes existing value systems Then there’s concern with government policies and programmes That results in confusion and fear Return to religious traditions. Optimistic view: dealing with globalization requires cooperation and development of appropriate institutions: faith-based organization can build bridges Pessimistic view: downsides of globalization result in conflicts and resurgence of fundamentalism Governments of Arab Muslim countries claim divine sanction, but this is increasingly questioned by an increasingly educated population North Africa, Syria: leaders try/tried to combine modernization of political systems (not necessarily democratic) with some attention to substructure rooted in Islam Religion and conflicts There are tensions between forces that lead to integration in globalization and resistance to it. Some faith-based organisations react positively to diversity, others emphasize differences and confront non-believers in attempts to preserve particular values against ‘erosion’ by globalization. All major world religions show both examples of tolerant groups and fundamentalist movements. Religion may play a role in conflicts, but the context is determining factor! (for example colonial legacies) Religion and Development Models Max Weber linked the emergence of capitalism to the protestant ethic: Break with tradition (Catholicism) Devotion to hard work and rational conduct Work became a spiritual vocation and wealth a sign from God This contrasts with key tenants of Islam: Obligatory charity is one of the 5 pillars of Islam Economic justice is important Interest is forbidden to prevent accumulation of capital However, ‘mainstream’ Islam is supportive of markets, technological development and material prosperity World religions offer possibilities of uniting people across borders, but also across different classes and generations. Religious leaders have certain social and cultural power, and charisma. This way they can play a big role in conflict resolution. Many peoples have a strong believe in the existence and presence of ancestral spirits. Rain and fertility of territories are then controlled by these royal ancestors They only provide what’s needed if people – including present-day leaders – respect moral and social regulations. College 13, CA Religion, Ritual and Language Religion and ritual Religion is difficult to define - Wallace: belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces. Reese: bodies of people who gather together regularly to worship. Religion can’t be seen or examined in empirical way, all about people’s experience. - Durkheim: religious effervescence (people getting excited) Turner: o communitas: intense feeling of social solidarity Cultural universal, but functions differently in every society Expressions of religion Tylor: religion evolved through stages: - Animism: belief in spiritual beings Polytheism: belief in multiple gods Monotheism: belief in a single, all-powerful deity “Religion declines as science offers better explanations for things” Mana: sacred impersonal force existing in the universe - Melanesian mana similar to good luck Polynesian mana attached to political offices o Chiefs had much mana Magic and religion Magic: supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims - May be imitative (as with voodoo dolls) or contagious (accomplished through contact) Exists in cultures with diverse religious beliefs Religion and magic don’t just explain things and help people accomplish goals, they serve emotional and cognitive needs. Ritual Also difficult to define Ritual: formal, stylized, repetitive behaviour that people conduct in order to achieve a certain goal. Rituals are social acts that convey information about participants and their culture. Mainly interested in meaning of rituals, can vary per person. Loads of different rituals, important are: Rites of passage: customs associated with transition from one stage of life to another. Liminality: in-between phase of passage rite. Totemism Form that religion can take, expression of religion. Reflect people’s view of the cosmos, their place in society and the universe. Totem: Animal, plant, or geographic feature associated with specific social group, to which that totem is sacred or symbolically important. - Members of each totemic group believed themselves to be descendants of their totem o Uses nature as a model for society Cosmology: system, often religious, for imagining and understanding the universe o Totemic principles continue to demarcate groups Relation between totems reflects relations between social groups. Religiosity is changing All societies have religious figures: - Shamans: part-time magic-religious practitioner Totemic ceremonies of Native Australians temporarily brought together foragers Productive economies can support fulltime religious specialists Wallace: describes religions of such stratified societies as “ecclesiastical” (pertaining to an established church and its hierarchy of officials) Max Weber linked spread of capitalism to values central to the Protestant faith: Ascetic Entrepreneurial Future oriented Capitalism required that traditional attitudes of Catholic peasants be replaced by values benefitting an industrial economy Religion helps for social cohesion and problem-solving, but is also used to bring about changes: Revitalization movements: social movements that occur in times of change. Syncretisms: Cultural, especially religious, mixes, emerging when two or more cultural traditions come into contact Cargo cults: syncretic revitalization movements arising in colonial situations that attempt to achieve success magically by mimicking European behaviour and symbols. Lesser people in the West are giving religious preference, but that doesn’t mean that people are less religious. We are finding other ways to deal with or express our religiosity. Secular rites do exist; they can become sacred for some people. We can’t just say what is more religious and what is less religious Strict separation between recreation and religion is ethnocentric and really false. Antimodernism: rejecting modern in favour of what is perceived as earlier, purer, and better way of life Fundamentalism: advocating strict fidelity to a religion’s presumed founding principles Asserts an identity separate from that of the larger religious group Seeks to rescue religion from absorption into the modern Language and cognition Interested in linguistic diversity Relation between language and social categories Linguistic diversity - Regional diversity Generational differences Gender differences Social diversity, class-dependant Cultural diversity Language is reflection of culture, of world-view Language is primary needs of communication Language: Arbitrary relation between sound and object Allows humans to: - Conjure up elaborate images Discuss the past and the future Share experiences with others Benefit from their experiences Kinesics: study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions. - Are always culturally related They can communicate social differences Structure of language - Phonology: study of speech sounds Morphology: forms in which sounds combine to form morphemes Lexicon: dictionary containing all morphemes and their meanings Syntax: arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences (grammar) Speech sounds: Phoneme: a sound contrast that makes a difference or differentiates meaning Phonetics: the study of human speech sounds in general Phonemics: studies only the significant sound contrasts of a given language Chomsky: human brain contains limited set of rules for organizing language, universal structure for al languages. Completely out-dated Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: grammatical categories of different languages lead their speakers to think about thinks in particular ways. Speakers of particular languages use sets of terms to organize their experiences and perceptions Focal vocabulary: specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are important to certain groups Example: Inuit with words for snow Semantics: language’s meaning system Ethnosemantics: study of lexical categories and contrasts Sociolinguistics Investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation, or language in its social context. Linguistic change does not occur in a vacuum but in society Style shifts: varying speech in different contexts Diglossia: regular style shifts between “high” and “low” variants of same language Gender speech contrasts: Men and women have differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary as well as in body stances and movements that accompany speech. Honorifics: terms of respect; used to honour the recipients We rank certain speech patterns as better or worse, because we recognize their use by groups that we also rank. Labov: pronunciation clearly associated with prestige Bourdieu: linguistic practices are symbolic capital that properly trained people convert into economic and social capital Historical linguistics: examines long-term variation of speech by studying protolanguages and daughter languages. Historical linguistics a bit less important than sociolinguistics. Protolanguage: original language from which daughter languages descend Daughter languages: languages that descend from same parent language that have been changing separately for hundreds or even thousands of years Subgroups: languages within a taxonomy of related languages that are most closely related Linguistics diversity is disappearing fast because the last speakers of that language are dying, with that cultural diversity is disappearing too. Vet komt van phat door Amerikaanse rapper: pretty hot and tempting Intro Caos 7-10 – Guest Lecture Edwin de Jong Paradox: Crisis but extravagant funeral ceremonies? South Sulawesi, Tana Toraja Special houses central to society The political field in Tana Toraja embraces the traditional village as well as contemporary urban life and includes both ritual performance and regency-level development strategy. In a region where the colonial era spanned merely four decades, where indigenous religion continues to be predominant, and where the prestige and authority of the nobility endure to the present, traditional religious rituals and status relationships colour all aspects of contemporary society. Lots of Tana Torajan people migrated, work in the cities to send money to their family back in the Tana Torajan village. Those migrants form part of society. Order and status: the more pigs and buffalos you give and receive at funeral ceremonies, the more important you are. They save up to buy lots of pigs and buffalos to be slaughtered at a funeral ceremony. Slaughtering and meat division can cause you shame or honour. College 14, DS Globalization Globalization Globalization is not a new phenomenon: Colonialism & imperialism Silk route Spread of capitalism since 16th century In developing countries, Western state forms were often introduced during the colonial period. After independence, those state forms continued. That led to: Relative economic impoverishment and weakness Problems with creating stable, workable political systems Difficulties in creating nation states resulting from ‘arbitrary’ boundaries and divide and rule After the end of the cold war: Intensity of world-wide economic interactions increased Absorption of communist block Transnational companies (TNCs) increased in numbers and influence Multinational companies: headquarters in ‘motherland’ with subsidiaries elsewhere replaced by transnational companies which are more difficult to locate Four forms of globalization: Technological – Economic - Political – Cultural Technological Globalization: ‘Worldwide’ connectivity Facilitative and enabling condition, not in itself sufficient Technology is neutral, can be used for positive and for negative ends Leapfrogging: from no phone to cell phone (skipping a step) But connectivity is still uneven Economic Globalization: Different from internationalization: Role of the state: movement of goods and services across borders to some degree beyond state control, with internationalization state plays bigger role Closer economic integration, movement of capital, labour, goods and services across borders, growing international competition, greater economic efficiency Transformation of production systems and labour markets, undermines organized labour States compete to attract investments by adapting tax, environmental and labour legislation Reduces possibilities for states to pursue national economic policies Washington Consensus: global free market best way to spread economic benefits to those who were denied those benefits by heavy-handed states Others – including Stiglitz – see it as Westernization of the economy, an ideology with detrimental effects on development, SDGs developed to correct some of the negative effects Political Globalization: State-led process Advocacy of democratization in the developing world Standard template that is also based on the idea that democracy and economic liberalization go hand in hand Democratization can be stimulated and influenced through international attempts, but domestic factors are more important Good democracy or superficial, dependent on domestic factors Recently concerns for security supersede concerns about democratization and development Cultural Globalization: Strongly associated with ‘Americanization’ or Westernization In reality: global dissemination of identical consumer goods and life-styles Reaction: focus on local identities, glocalization, slow food Globalization and Development Territories, boundaries and states become less important State control over movement of capital, goods and services across borders diminished Labour opportunities are moved across borders, but movement of labour not always facilitated Globalists refer to facilitation of societal, political, economic and cultural advancements Negative impacts need and can be addressed through transnational civil society Anti- or alter globalists see globalization as westernization, leading to a greater concentration of wealth and power West develops at the cost of the rest Institute for Environment and Development conference analysed causes of continuing/increased problems with undernourishment: 1. Growing power TNCs a. Small number of TNCs acquired control over the world’s food system b. Difficult for small farmers to compete, have to accept falling prices 2. Diminishing land and water resources a. Uncontrolled appetite for industrially produced livestock, fed on grains b. Effects of post 1960s green revolution: large tracts of land no longer suitable for production (caused by pesticides, salination) 3. Climate change and deforestation a. Poor people are hit the hardest 4. Impacts of the free market and neo-liberal policies a. Free market and neo-liberal policies has encouraged increased scale of production, thereby eliminating small-scale food producers Difference between World System Theory and Dependency Theory: Dependency Theory focused on the role of the state, World System Theory assumes that role of the state has diminished, more power to other actors, including TNCs Critique: Neglect of the cultural dimension College 15, CA Diversity, Change, Ethnicity and Nationalism Complexity and change People used to think that change of culture meant loss. And still do. Result of old, out-dated concept of culture: - Bounded, small-scale entity Checklist Unchanging Underlying system of shared meanings Identical, homogenous individuals Strict boundaries impossible because there’s always exchange between cultures. New concept of culture: - Culture is an active process of meaning making, characterized by multivocality, plurality and difference. Culture and power are interconnected Cultural sites not bounded, global linkages Cultural discourses are historically specific and never coherent Huge distinction between cultural ideology and practice Paradox of globalization: - First fear of homogenization or even McDonaldization Actually: Increasing cultural diversity Local response: cultural renaissance Indigenization of modernity Old conceptualization of change: Tradition Modernity Unilineal, only in one direction Society as bounded organism. Traditions are lost and replaced by modernity. This dichotomy based on ideas of many influential writers. Usually before and after the arrival of ‘white men’. Tradition always seen as negative. Book Invention of Tradition important for our thinking about tradition. Negative in the past Positive in era of globalization Change is complex - Always possible in multiple directions Traditions have acquired more meanings; negative and positive Culture and traditions can’t only be lost, it can also change Change is always complex, multidimensional and multilineal Ethnic groups and ethnicity Ethnicity: Identification with, and feeling part of, an ethnic group and exclusion from certain other groups because of this affiliation. Fredrik Barth: Ethnicity is about relations rather than content or culture. Ethnicity only becomes important in relation to other people. Ethnic group: Group whose members share certain beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms because of their common background. Ethnicity usually used in relation to minorities who are under threat. Ethnic feelings and their associated behaviour vary in intensity within ethnic groups and countries and over time. Cultural differences may be associated with class, region, religions and ethnicity. Ethnic identity or status can be ascribed or achieved Some statuses, particularly ascribed ones, can be mutually exclusive Some statuses are contextual Intersectionality: intersections of different aspects of your life, like being both woman and black. Race: - Race is a cultural category rather than a biological reality Only cultural constructions of race are possible Race is a recent human invention Race and racism are embedded in institutions and everyday life Difficult to draw a clear line between ethnicity and race Races are ethnic groups assumed to have biological basis – which is not true Intrinsic racism: belief that perceived racial difference is sufficient reason to value one person less than another In U.S. society race is acquired at birth Rule of descent: Assigns social identity on the basis of ancestry Hypodescent: Automatically places children of mixed marriages in the group of their minority parent Divides U.S. society in groups with unequal access to wealth, education, healthcare etc. In Brazil racial identity more flexible, more of an achieved status: - Many more racial types in Brazil, over 500 once reported Racial classification pays attention to phenotype System is changing in the context of international identity politics and rights movements Ethnicity and nationality Nation: Society sharing a common language, religion, history, territory, ancestry, and kinship State: A stratified society with formal, central government Nation-state: Autonomous political entity; a country Most Nation-states are not ethnically homogenous Substantial regional variation in countries’ ethnic structures Not so much in Europe, quite homogeneous Really visible in Africa, heterogeneous Nationalities: Ethnic groups that have, once had, or want their own country - Imagined communities Needed to create a country (Anderson, 1983) Language and print played crucial role in various European national consciousnesses Colonialism: long-term foreign domination of a territory and its people Ways of interaction between ethnic groups Assimilation: When a minority adopts the patterns and norms of the host culture Incorporates the dominant culture to the point where the minority no longer exists as a separate cultural unit. Plural society: Society with economically interdependent ethnic groups Interact only economically. - Barth: Ethnic boundaries most stable and enduring when groups occupy different ecological niches. o Shifted focus from specific cultural practices and values to relations between ethnic groups. Multiculturalism: A view of cultural diversity as valuable and worth maintaining. - Multiculturalism seeks ways for people to understand and interact with a respect for their differences. Changing demographics: growth in number and size of ethnic groups Roots of ethnic conflict Differences or similarities? (Narcissism of minor differences) Causes of conflict and violence: - Sense of injustice due to resource distribution Economic or political competition Reaction to discrimination, prejudice; expressions of devalued identity Samuel Huntington: Shift from political and economic conflicts to ethnic and cultural conflicts. (Clash of Civilizations) Stereotypes: fixed ideas about what the members of a group are like Prejudice: the devaluing of a group because of its assumed behaviour, values, capabilities, or attributes. Basically a stereotype as a devaluing judgement Discrimination: policies and practices that harm a group and its members De jure: by law De facto: in practice but not legally sanctioned Genocide: deliberate elimination of a group Ethnocide: destruction of cultures of certain ethnic groups Forced assimilation: dominant group forces an ethnic group to adopt the dominant culture Ethnic expulsion: removing groups who are culturally different from a country Cultural colonialism: internal domination by one group and its culture or ideology over others College 16, DS Development in the 21 st Century: New Issues and Approaches To understand development outcomes, we need to take into account: - A range of internal and external factors The context of deepening globalization An increased international concern for ‘good governance’ To summarize evolution of development models: - - Post WWII: modernization theory, strong emphasis on the role of the state. Dependency theory: reaction to this, with attention to legacy of colonial period, unequal power relations; inspired by Marxism. Strong focus on the state which needs to counter capitalist domination and protect the national economy. Neo-liberal model: lean state, state to facilitate market, strong emphasis on the role of the private sector in service delivery. Conclusions on development outcomes both negative and positive: - Negative since power structures and economic arrangements still biased against developing countries, conflicts and inequalities are still rife. Positive since there have been development successes, standard of living of many people in the South has improved. Basic assumption dominating theory and practice for a long time: development is poverty reduction - 1950s, 1960s: Emergence of independent countries in Africa, realization that development is more complex. 1970s: basic needs approach, role of the state important; failed because of Cold War and elites refused to transfer resources (only helping allies, stopped when war stopped). 1980s, 1990s: rolling back the state, focus on efficiency and the market (Washington Consensus), growth of NGO’s and role of private sector increases. Early 2000s: desire for more people-centred development, but no consensus on how to achieve that. Role of the state: o No agreement on whether development requires democracies - though popular pressure can help. o Development policies require shifts in resource allocation, and hence are always political. o Emerging economies show that states are important, but need to work in tandem with society (private sector and civil society). BRICS example of successes without standard consensus to achieve it. Recently, concept of human development has become important – see SDG’s: focus on human wellbeing beyond economic growth, ensuring and enlarging human choices, greater equalities of opportunities and empowerment. - Political aspects focus on security and stability Economic focus on increased prosperity Social focus on literacy, education, social relations and ‘quality of life’ (difficult to measure) Moral focus on moral awareness and willingness and capacity to act according to social and cultural knowledge of what is judged to be right Psychological focus on mental health, self-esteem, social relations and happiness Haynes: Human well-being no longer an optional add-on but an integral part of development. But effects of Washington Consensus linger on in development policies. Failed and weak states Many failed and weak states are stumbling block to improve human well-being. They suffer from collapse of institutions of law and order and failing service delivery. Often it is the result of prolonged conflict. Failed states affected by 3 factors: - End of the Cold War Heritage of colonial regimes Modernization processes Characterized by several factors: - Geographical and territorial: internal conflicts, but often spill-over across borders Political: collapse of law and order and structures supporting these - repression can still be strong Functional: absence of bodies representing the state (inter)nationally, failure of service delivery War on terror has focused attention on new failed states as safe havens for terrorists. Bias in attention – there support for less/non-democratic states that are allies in this war, this way strengthening polarization. Civil wars nowadays last longer and involve greater number of people (see Sudan). People focused on daily survival, no attention to long-term development and state building. Haynes supports resource dependency theory concerning weak and failed states: - Attributes increased conflicts to growing populations – especially in poor countries Conflicts over natural resources and economic opportunities Links weak/failed states with increased immigration pressures Weak and failed states also provide opportunities for illegal activities (drugs trade, blood diamonds) Failed and weak states in sub-Saharan Africa - ‘Sticky-ness’ due to Cold War – there was support for undemocratic allies End of Cold War: growth of pro-democracy movements, but also outbreak of ethnic, religious and social tensions Grievances rooted in poverty and inequality Struggle over natural resources At the time of writing the book renewed attempts to tackle the problem: - Peace keeping missions Reform of now African Union, and introduction of NEPAD (New Partnership on African Development) Growth in transnational civil society, supported by communication revolution (example: not on our watch) These organizations (should) focus on supporting domestic pressure and international pressure. Sometimes also focus on conflict resources like blood diamonds. The future: Approaches to development and development outcomes are polarized. In theorizing about development there is tension between radical and reformist interpretations of what needs to change. Concern that there is not enough attention for actual experiences and developments upon which theories should be founded. Also concerns that so-called reform of neo-liberal policies towards human development policies are mere window-dressing. Successes and failures in (sustainable) development and democratization are to be explained by a mix of factors and actors depending on the context. Problem is that policy-makers often look for context-independent solutions. Question: is development studies a discipline, set of disciplines, or a field/theme at the heart of all social sciences? College 17, CA Postcolonialism, Globalization and Public Anthropology The world system The world system and relations among countries within it have been shaped by capitalist world economy - Capitalist world economy: World system committed to production for sale or exchange with the object of maximizing profits o Capital: wealth invested with the intent of producing profit World system theory: discernible social system, based on wealth and power differentials, that extends beyond countries Wallerstein: countries can occupy 3 different positions in the world system Core, semi-periphery and periphery Emergence of world system paralleled emergence of capitalism People worldwide entered Europe’s sphere of influence Rural people started producing for the market instead of only for their own needs European things and systems had a big influence on the countries where Europeans got their sugar or coffee or workers from, and that was an important factor in the emergence of the world system. Industrial Revolution: historic transformation (in Europe, after 1750) of traditional into modern societies through industrialization of their economies Began in England, not in France Britain’s population began to increase dramatically with industrialization Demographic explosion fuelled consumption and fostered innovation Drew on advantages in natural resources The nation’s cultural values and religion contributed to its industrialization Industrial stratification Initially, industrialization (in England) raised overall standard of living Later, factory owners began to recruit cheaper workers from poorest populations and social ills worsened with the growth of industrial cities Marx and Weber focused on stratification systems associated with industrialization Marx saw socioeconomic stratification as a sharp division between two opposed classes o Bourgeoisie: owned the means of production o Proletariat: people who had to sell their labour to survive o Proletarianization: the separation of workers from the means of production Class consciousness: recognition of collective interests and a personal identification with one’s economic group Important according to Marx Modern stratification Lenski: argued that social equality tends to increase in advanced industrial societies Proliferation of middle-class occupations creates opportunities for social mobility Differences in income and wealth that set off richest from poorest are widening Great Recession since 2008 increased inequality Weber: faulted Karl Marx for an overly simple and exclusively economic view Wealth, power, and prestige are separate components of social ranking and tend to be correlated Social identities based on ethnicity, religion, race, nationality, and other attributes can take priority over class Colonialism Imperialism: policy of extending rule of one nation or empire over others Colonialism: political, social, economic, and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power over an extended period of time Whole countries, along with social groups and divisions within them, were colonial inventions. Hundreds of ethnic groups and 'tribes' in Africa are colonial constructions. Postcolonial studies: study of interactions between European nations and colonized societies - Former colonies can be divided into: o Settler countries: large numbers of colonists and sparser native populations o Nonsettler postcolonies: large native populations and a small number of Europeans o Mixed postcolonies: sizable native and European populations The world system today Spread of industrialization continues: - Nations shifted positions within world system Mass production gave rise to a culture of consumption Industrialization entailed a shift from renewable resources to the use of fossil fuels Globalization as fact: spread and connectedness of production, distribution, consumption, communication, and technologies across the world. Globalization also a contested ideology and policy A clash of cultures may occur when development threatens indigenous peoples and their environments Spread of environmentalism may expose different notions about the 'rights' and value of plants and animals versus humans Effective conservation strategies pay attention to needs and wishes of local people Since at least 1920, anthropologists investigated changes that arise from contacts between industrial and nonindustrial societies Acculturation: changes in cultural patterns of either or both groups Westernization: accumulative influence of Western expansion on indigenous peoples and their cultures Different degrees of destruction, domination, resistance, survival, adaptation, and modification of indigenous cultures may follow interethnic contact Bodley: 'shock phase' often follows an initial encounter Cultural imperialism: spread or advance of one culture at the expense of others Some see modern technology as erasing cultural differences Others see modern technology as providing an opportunity for social groups (local cultures) to express themselves People constantly make and remake culture in context of globalization Assign their own meanings to information, images, products 'Indigenization of modernity': modifying to fit in the local culture Appadurai: views today’s world as 'translocal interactive system' that is 'strikingly new' Scale of human movement expanded dramatically Most migrants maintain ties with native land Diaspora: offspring of an area who have spread to many lands Deterritorialization of identity Postmodernity: describes our time and situation, with today’s world in flux Postmodernity describes world in which traditional standards, contrasts, groups, boundaries, and identities are opening up, reaching out, and breaking down o New kinds of political and ethnic units emerged along with globalization Postmodern: period of a blurring and breakdown of established canons, categories, distinctions, and boundaries Essentialism: process of viewing identity as established, real, and frozen Identity is fluid and multiple Identities are seen as: Potentially plural Emerging through a specific process Ways of being someone in particular times and places Anthropology has crucial role in promoting more humanistic vision of social change Respects value of cultural diversity Existence of anthropology contributes to the continuing need to understand social and cultural similarities and differences Work to keep anthropology, the study of humankind, the most humanistic of all the sciences Public Anthropology Modern anthropology usually seen as helping profession Highly qualified to suggest, plan, and implement policies affecting people, especially with regard to cultural diversity and inequality o Identifying needs for change that local people perceive o Working with those people to design culturally appropriate and socially sensitive change o Protecting local people from harmful policies Speak up for disenfranchised Focus on Cultural Diversity in home society Focus on policy problems: Integration issues Poverty Education Health Identity of young people Anthropologists may acquire unique perspective on organizational conditions and problems Ethnography and observation Focus on cultural diversity Cross-cultural expertise
