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Chapter 7 Biodiversity 1] Background: Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity 247 2] State of Biodiversity 249 3] Pressures on Ecosystems, Species and Genetic Diversity273 4] Response for the Protection and Conservation of Ecosystem Services in Chile 282 Representation of the Three Classic Biodiversity Levels ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY SPECIES DIVERSITY GENETIC DIVERSITY Source: Own elaboration graphic based on LAZO et al in CONAMA 2008 Composition: Type of habitat or environment Function: Nitrogen fixation, productivity, respiration and other functions Composition: Taxonomic identity of species Structure: Richness, abundance, equity Function: Predation, pollination, dispersion and other interactions Composition: Genetic heritage Structure: Within a population and/or among populations Function: Physiology, behavior, among other adaptations to the environment 247 chapter 7 biodiversity Introduction Abstract Biodiversity is the foundation of ecosystem services and social wellbeing. However, the increase of human activities has generated a series of effects on the environment, which have become the main threat to biodiversity conservation. Some of the current pressures on biodiversity are: Introduction of alien species, overexploitation of natural resources, and habitat loss or modification, among others. The loss and degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services is one of the main challenges faced by humanity. In the country, several initiatives and legal frameworks have been developed for their protection, thus providing a set of regulations to develop and promote protection actions, both for ecosystems and species. Background: Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity 1 Differences in latitude and altitude in our territory make Chile a highly heterogeneous country in terms of the environmental conditions that support its biological diversity. This results in a great wealth of terrestrial, continental water, aquatic, marine and coastal ecosystem environments1, in which many species have evolved. Likewise, the isolation condition of the country enables the existence of species in environments that are unique in the world (Lazo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 53). 1] According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, ecosystem is defined as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit" (Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 2). 248 2] Article 2 of the Environmental Framework Law Nº 19.300 defines Biodiversity or Biological Diversity as the variability of living organisms that are part of all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It includes diversity within a same species and among species and ecosystems. The Four Compontents of Ecosystem Services Source: OECD, 2010. chapter 7 biodiversity Ecosystems are not only important for the conservation of biological diversity, but also provide services that satisfy different needs, determining the well-being of people and society (TEEB, 2010). However, the rise of human pressure on the environment, as well as the lack of acknowledgment of the economic value of ecosystem services, has caused many impacts whose effects are the main threat to the biodiversity conservation in the world (Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio, 2005). In this context, it is crucial to move forward towards the sustainable management of ecosystems, giving priority to the preservation of ecosystem services in time. By promoting the sustainable use of ecosystems, a potential flow of assets and services is generated in the long term, which implies a greater economic return in time (Bovarnick et al., 2010). Indeed, the protection of biodiversity2, which refers to the variety of all life forms and the existing interactions among them, is a key factor for maintaining ecosystem services (TEEB, 2010). Ecosystem services Supporting Services fig. Primary production Habitat provision Nutrient cycle Water cycle 1 Regulation Services Protection against natural risks Water purification Erosion control Weather regulation Pollination Among others Provisioning Services Natural Environment, Social Well-being Cultural Services Religious and spiritual values Education and inspiration Recreation and aesthetic values Knowledge systems Among others Food and fiber Genetic resources Biochemicals Fresh water Fuel Among others 249 chapter 7 biodiversity State of Biodiversity 2 This section describes the state of each of the three biodiversity levels: Ecosystems, species and genes. Each of these creates characteristic energy flow patterns and biogeochemical cycles. Ecosystem Diversity Composition (type of habitat or environment) Function (nitrogen fixation, productivity, respiration and other functions) Structure Structure (richness, abundance, equality) Function (predation, pollination, dispersion and other interactions) Genetic Diversity Composition (genetic pool) Structure (within a population and/or among populations) 2 Source: Own elaboration, based on LAZO et al. in CONAMA 2008 SPECIES DIVERSITY Composition (taxonomic identity of species) fig. Representation of the Three Classic Biodiversity Levels and their Direct and Indirect Relations Function (physiology, behavior, among other adaptations to the environment) Ecosystem diversity According to Leuschner (2005 quoted in CONAMA 2008, page 75), an ecosystem can be defined as “an energy-conducting complex composed of biological communities and their physical environment that has a limited self-regulation capacity”. Since ecosystems are open, their boundaries are imposed by the observer and they can be divided into subsystems (Pliscoff and Luebert in CONAMA 2008). On the other hand, ecosystem diversity refers to the different types of habitats existing on the planet, including terrestrial, marine, and continental water ones. The lack of one of these can affect the entire funcioning of the biosphere (Lazo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 50). This section will describe the state and classification of terrestrial, marine and fresh water ecosystems. 250 chapter 7 biodiversity π Terrestrial Ecosystems In order to characterize terrestrial ecosystems, vegetation distribution and its relation to geographical and weather factors is used. The first classifications recorded in Chile include proposals made by Di Castri (1968), Pisano’s Biogeographical Zones (1966) and the Phitogeographical Map by Quintanilla (1983), among others. However, the most applied classifications are those of Gajardo’s Natural Vegetation Classification System (1994), and the updated one in the Bioclimatic and Vegetation Synopsis by Luebert and Pliscoff (2006). On the other hand, at a regional level, the most widely used classification for Latin America and the Caribbean is that of Dinerstein et al. (2001). This classification distinguishes twelve ecoregions for Chile. Two of them, the Valdivian Temperate Forests Ecoregion and the Central Chilean Matorral Ecoregion are considered relevant at a global scale because of their biological importance. Table 1 shows the areas that these ecoregions represent in Chile. Table 1 Latin America and the Caribbean Terrestrial Ecoregions for Chile Terrestrial Ecoregions % Area Atacama Desert Central Andean Dry Puna Central Andean Puna 14 11 0.1 Chilean Matorral 20 Juan Fernández Islands Temperate Forests Subpolar Nothofagus Forests Patagonian Steppe Rapa Nui Subtropical Broadleaf Forests Ice and Rock 0.01 18 4 0.02 2 San Felix-San Ambrosio Islands Temperate Forests 0.001 Sechura Desert 0,19 Southern Andean Steppe 4 Valdivian Temperate Forests 27 Source: Own elaboration, based on Dinerstein et al. 2001 3] 2011 Cartographic update. Table 2 shows the classification by Luebert and Pliscoff3, which is defined by vegetation belts that summarize the response of vegetation, in terms of their physiognomy and dominant species, to the influence of weather. The classifi- 251 chapter 7 biodiversity cation relates to the potential vegetation of the country, where the deciduous forest, high altitude low shrub and desert shrub types of formations are predominant. Shrub and absolute desert formations dominate in the northern zone (until 28º South Latitude). The northern central zone (until 34º South Latitude) is characterized by the dominance of the Mediterranean bioclimate and the appearance of sclerophyll vegetation, first with shrubland physiognomy in the southern Coquimbo Region and northern Valparaíso Region, and then as a type of forest from 32º South Latitude in the coastal sectors and 31º South Latitude in the Andean foothills (Luebert and Pliscoff, 2006). The southern central zone (until 42º South Latitude) has a vegetation variation, where both sclerophyll and deciduous forests are identified. On the other hand, the southern zone (until 53º South Latitude) maintains an evergreen shrubland physiognomy in the coast of the Chonos Archipelago, which gives way to an evergreen forest inland. In the continent, the evergreen forest is dominated by Nothofagus species. Further south, there are coastal areas dominated by peat bogs (Luebert and Pliscoff, 2006). Table 2 Vegetation Classification According to Luebert and Pliscoff Vegetation Formation Nº of Vegetation Belts4 % Country Area Deciduous forest 22 15.9 Sclerophyll forest 8 5.5 Thorn forest 7 3.0 Laurifolia forest 3 2.0 Resinous forest 8 2.8 Evergreen forest 10 8.0 Absolute desert 2 8.2 Steppes and grasslands 5 3.6 Altitude grasslands 5 2.2 Arborescent shrubland 4 2.7 Low altitude shrubland 20 15.8 Desert low shrubland 5 9.3 Deciduous shrubland 2 0.9 Desert scrub shrubland 19 10.1 Thorn shrubland 2 0,4 Evergreen shrubland 1 0,5 Peat bog 4 9.2 The southern central region of Chile represents one of the 34 richest biodiversity 4] See Annex 8 for details about vegetation belts. 252 chapter 7 biodiversity fig. 3 Vegetation Formations by Region Source: Own elaboration, based on the Luebert and Pliscoff vegetation classification, 2011 cartographic update. Arica and Parinacota Tarapacá Antofagasta Atacama Coquimbo Valparaíso Metropolitan Libertador Gral. Bernardo O'Higgins Maule Biobío Araucanía Los Ríos Bosque caducifolio Los Lagos Bosque esclerofilo Bosque Aysén del espinoso Gral. Carlos Ibáñez Bosque laurifolio del Campo Bosque resinoso Magallanes and BosqueAntarctica siempreverde Chilean Desierto absoluto 0 2 4 6 Estepas y pastizales 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 % National coverage Herbazal de altitud Matorral arborescente Matorral bajo de altitud Deciduous Forest Low Altitude Shrubland Matorral bajo desértico Schlerophyll Forest Low Desert Shrubland Matorral desértico Thorn Forest Deciduous Shrubland Matorral espinoso Laurifolia Forest Desert Shrubland Matorral caducifolio Matorral siempreverde Turbera Resinous Forest Thorn Shrubland Evergreen Forest Evergreen Shrubland Absolute Desert Peat Bog Steppes and Grasslands Altitude Grasslands Arborescent Shrubland “The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”. 253 chapter 7 biodiversity Regarding native forests, the largest coverage is concentrated in the southern zone, particularly in the Aysén, Los Lagos and Magallanes regions, with 35 percent, 20 percent and 19 percent, respectively. According to the native forest cadastre (CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF, 1999-2011), which classifies according to forest types, the ones with greater coverage at a national level are the evergreen and lenga forests, with 30 percent and 26 percent, respectively. fig. 4 Native Forests According to Forest Type, per Region by 2011. Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAF, 2011a. Arica and Parinacota Tarapacá Antofagasta Atacama Coquimbo Valparaíso Metropolitan Libertador Gral. Bernardo O'Higgins Maule Biobío Araucanía De los Ríos Los Lagos Aysén del Gral. Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Magallanes and the Chilean Antarctica 0 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 Area (Ha) Patagonian Cypress Mountain Range Cypress Schlerophyll Oak-Hualo Araucaria Magallanes Coihue Lenga Beech Oak-Rauli Beech-Coihue Cypress of the Guaitecas Coihue-Rauli Beech-Tepa Chilean Palm Tree Evergreen 254 chapter 7 biodiversity Central Chile Hotspot Chile Central Hotspot fig. 5 spots on the planet, called hotspots. Likewise, this zone presents strongly impacted habitats. The southern central region hotspot covers from the Pacific coast to the Andean summits between 25° and 47° South Latitude, including the narrow coastal strip that extends between 19° and 25° South Latitude. It also encompasses the Juan Fernandez Islands and a small forest area adjacent to Argentina (Arroyo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 90). This hotspot covers ecosystems such as northern Patagonian and Valdivian rainforests, evergreen forests, dominated by several Nothofagus species (Nothofagus obliqua, Nothofagus alessandri, Nothofagus macrocarpa), sclerophyllous forests and Mediterranean scrub, deserts with winter rain and High Andean flora (Hoffman et al. 1988 in CONAMA 2008, page 90). One of the most remarkable aspects of the Chilean hotspot is the isolated condition of its biota. The Andean Mountain Range and the Atacama Desert represent biological frontiers that brand it with unique characteristics that make it different from other vulnerable zones in the world. On the other hand, the high number of endemic families and genera in this zone has caused it to receive even greater attention (Universidad de Chile, 2010, page 177). This hotspot includes 3,893 native vascular plants, 1,957 endemic plant species (50 percent of the total native vascular plants), 226 bird species (12 endemic ones), 43 amphibian species (67 percent endemic), 41 reptile species (66 percent endemic) and 43 native fish species (with two endemic families) (Arroyo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 90). π State of Terrestrial Ecosystems Source: Roble (Nothofagus obliqua) and Coigue (Nothofagus dombeyi), Photograph: Miguel Etchepare, December, 2009. Source: Blanquillo (Podiceps occipitalis) Photograph: Charif Tala, August, 2006 255 chapter 7 biodiversity At a national level, there are no indicators that allow making a diagnosis of the current state of terrestrial ecosystems. The ones used the most for this purpose are ecosystem extension and structure, habitat variety, connectivity and ecosystem fragmentation, among others (BIP, 2011). Nevertheless, in his classification proposal for terrestrial ecoregions in Latin America and the Caribbean, Dinerstein et al. (1995) gives an evaluation of the conservation state of the twelve Chilean ecoregions, identifying three "endangered" ecoregions with the highest conservation priority (Chilean Winter-Rain Forests, Patagonian Steppe and Central Chilean Matorral). Two of them are considered endemic (Chilean Winter-Rain Forests and Central Chilean Matorral). Table 3 Ecosystem Conifer/ Temperate Broadleaf Forests Grasslands/ Savannas/ Shrublands Xeric Formations Conservation Status of Chilean Ecoregions Habitat Temperate Forest Montane Grasslands Mediterranean Scrub Deserts and Xeric Shrublands Ecoregion Status Priority Chilean Winter-Rain Forests Endangered Highest Regional Priority Valdivian Temperate Forests Vulnerable Highest Regional Priority Subpolar Nothofagus Forests Vulnerable Moderate Regional Priority Central Andean Puna Vulnerable Highest Regional Priority Central Andean Wet Puna Vulnerable Highest Regional Priority Central Andean Dry Puna Vulnerable Highest Regional Priority Southern Andean Steppe Stable Important at a National Scale Patagonian Steppe Endangered Highest Regional Priority Patagonian Grasslands Vulnerable Central Chilean Matorral Endangered Highest Regional Priority Sechura Desert Vulnerable Moderate Regional Priority Atacama Desert Vulnerable Moderate Regional Priority Moderate Regional Priority Source: Dinerstein et al. 1995. Likewise, there are local experiences that quantify the situation of some ecosystems in the country. One example is the Cadastre and assessment of native vegetation resources in Chile (CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF, 1999-2011) and its periodic updates. These allow an estimation of the structure of existing native forests in the country, which covers approximately 18 percent of the 256 chapter 7 biodiversity continental area, with mature forests being the most abundant. In the period analyzed by CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF (1999-2011), secondary forests showed an increase of approximately 223,000 hectares. On the other hand, mature forests decreased nearly 65,600 hectares. It is important to point out that the variation of the estimated area based on the updated cadastre does not necessarily correspond to a real increase or decrease, but could be related to improvements in the data collection methodology. Based on the CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF (1999-2011) study, the variation of native fig. 6 Native Forest Structure, 1999-2011 Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAFCONAMA-BIRF and CONAF, 2011a. Area (Ha) 16,000,000 14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 0 1997 2011 Stunted Forest Mature-Secondary Forest Secondary Forest Mature Forest 257 forest cover according to forest type was also analyzed. Table 4 shows the Lenga and Sclerophyll forests are the types that have experienced the greatest area increase. Table 4 Native Forest Area by Forest Type Forest type 1999 Base Area (ha) 2011 Update % Area (ha) % 1999-2011 Variation Evergreen 4,148,900 31 4,132,000 30 -16,900 Lenga Beech 3,391,600 25 3,581,600 26 190,000 Magallanes Coihue 1,793,100 13 1,691,800 12 -101,300 Oak-Rauli Beech-Coihue 1,460,500 11 1,468,500 11 8,000 Cypress of the Guaitecas 970,300 7 930,100 7 -40,200 Coihue-Rauli BeechTepa 563,500 4 556,200 4 -7,300 Sclerophyll 345,100 3 473,400 4 128,300 Patagonian Cypress 263,200 2 258,400 2 -4,800 Araucaria 261,100 2 253,700 2 -7,400 Oak-Hualo 188,300 1 206,000 2 17,700 Mountain Range Cypress 45,000 0 47,200 0 2,200 Chilean Palm Tree - - 700 0 Source: CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF 1999 and CONAF 2011a. Results with two significant figures. Other specific studies have been carried out which reveal the loss and fragmentation the loss and fragmentation experienced by native forests that do not respond to the national pattern obtained from the native forest cadastre. Among these, project UE REFORLAN, executed by Universidad Austral, determined that, between 1975 and 2008, the central Chile coastal zone (33° South Latitude) recorded a 38 percent loss of sclerophyll forest area, which corresponds to an annual deforestation rate of 1.1 percent. On the other hand, the native forest aggregation level dropped from 80 percent in 1975 to 60 percent in 2009 (Project UE REFORLAN, quoted in U. de Chile 2010, page 145). chapter 7 biodiversity 258 chapter 7 biodiversity Marine Ecosystems 5] A convergence is the confluence of water masses with different physical and chemical characteristics, in which it is possible to identify oceanographic zones, with particular temperature, salinity and oxygen content characteristics (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 98).) Chilean marine ecosystems are determined by topographic, climatic and oceanographic characteristics, as well as by flora and fauna. In terms of extension, Chilean coast reaches 4,200 kilometers and it is topographically divided into two large zones: North and south of Chiloé Island (41°21’ South Latitude) (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 96). The coast of the northern zone covers a lineal extension of 2,600 kilometers. It is exposed to waves and has great depths and submarine canyons. In turn, it has few islands and protected bays (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 97). The southern zone, on the other hand, has a lineal extension of 1,600 kilometers and is characterized by a complex morphology, with hundreds of isles and fjords that form a 92-kilometer coast line. It stands out for having a shallower and wider continental shelf, compared to the northern zone, which forms many protected bays (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 97). In oceanographic terms, the Chilean coast is characterized by the presence of different sea currents and oceanic convergences5. According to different studies, it is possible to identify 8 main currents: West Wind Drift (surface); Cape Horn Current (surface); Oceanic Branch of the Humboldt Current (subsurface in the north and surface in the south); the Northern Countercurrent (surface); the Subsurface Gunther Countercurrent (subsurface); Chile Coastal Countercurrent (surface) and Chile Coastal Current (surface) (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 99). On the other hand, in relation to marine flora and fauna, the geographic characteristics of the country result in a high degree of isolation and endemism (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 99). The marine ecoregion classification for Latin America and the Caribbean, proposed by Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante (1999), identified five ecoregions in Chile (Table 5). According to this classification, the Humboldt Ecoregion, located in the northern zone of Chile, is the only one listed as a high priority for conservation (Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante, 1999). 259 Table 5 Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamente’s Marine Ecoregions, 1999 Marine ecoregions Location south Latitude Humboldtian From Lima (Peru) to Antofagasta 12° to 25° Central Chile From Antofasta to Valparaíso 25° to 33° Araucanian From Valparaiso to Puerto Montt 33° to 41° Chiloense From Puerto Montt to Penas Gulf 41° to 47° Channels and Fjords of Southern Chile From Penas Gulf to Cape Horn 47° to 56° Source: Own elaboration, based on Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante, 1999 Likewise, there are marine ecosystem classifications like the one proposed by Ahumada et al. (2000, cited in Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 100), which is described from the oceanographic point of view and includes the following ecosystems: South Pacific Central Gyre, which encompasses a pelagic marine ecosystem and an insular one; Eastern Margin of the Southeast Pacific (18.4° to 41° South Latitude), which includes coastal upwelling and bay ecosystems; Subantarctic, which covers a marine ecosystem and a estuarine one, formed by the southern fjords and channels (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 100). On the other hand, for the coastal areas, which cover a depth of up to 30 meters, nine zoogeographical zones have been identified that allow managing marine areas of interest and have been used as a coastal ecosystem approach. This classification was made by Jaramillo et al. (2004) and was developed by separating geographic patterns into biological and biotic patterns (Project FIP N° 2004-28, 2006). At a global level, there are many indicators to determine the state of marine ecosystems. Some of the most used are indices, such as: The Marine Trophic Index (BIP, 2010), seagrass beds, and coral reefs, among others. However, at the national level there are no estimations for this type of indicators. chapter 7 biodiversity 260 chapter 7 biodiversity ECOREGIONS Ecoregions and Zoogeographical Zones fig. 7 Humboldtian Central Chile ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL ZONES 1 2 3 4 Araucanian 5 6 Chiloense 7 8 Channels and fjords of Southern Chile “The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”. 9 Source: Own elaboration 261 chapter 7 biodiversity π Continental Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems are mainly influenced by two types of factors: Biotic and abiotic. The former refers to the interactions between different organisms of the aquatic environment, energy flows and riverbank zones. Abiotic factors, on the other hand, refer to the physical-chemical and biogeographical factors that influence the environment in which aquatic organisms develop (Margalef et al. 2002; Roldán 1992; Allan 1996; Giller and Malmqvist 1998, quoted in Vásconez et al. 2002). The classification of continental aquatic systems, according to their distinguishing factors, allows indentification of environment types and making their inventory, management and conservation easier. Continental water systems show great differences in their physical-chemical conditions (Margalef, 1983). According to the salinity of their waters, continental aquatic environments can be classified as marine-coastal and limnic environments. There are also brackish environments, which result from the mixture of fresh and salt water in different proportions. Estuaries and river mouths are identified in this last category. Limnic or freshwater environments, formed by fresh water, are continental water bodies. Continental water bodies can be generally divided into rivers, lakes and wetlands, and into lotic or lentic, according to their water movement (Ramírez et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 108). In Chile, the management unit for these types of environments is the hydrographic basin6 . Lotic environments have currents and include rivers, creeks, streams and brooks. These fluvial systems in the country, according to their origin and water flow, are divided into seven hydrological zones (Fuenzalida 1965 and Niemeyer and Cereceda 1994, quoted CONAMA 2010), grouped into rivers with endorheic7 and exorheic basins8. On the other hand, lentic environments have no currents and their waters are either still or stagnant. These include lakes, lagoons, and ponds, among others. Regarding these types of water bodies, it is possible to distinguish saline lakes in the northern macrozone; temperate lakes, also called Araucanian lakes, in the southern zone; Patagonian lakes, which have a glacial origin and coastal lakes, which rely on rivers that originate in the Coastal Mountain Range (Parra et al. 2003). Wetlands9 are important as agents for water cycle regulation, water provision, and soil stabilization, to name a few examples. Biodiversity in these environments is broad, varied and, according to the RAMSAR Convention, they are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth (Barbiet et al). 6] A hydrographic basin is a well-drained physical unit, where the soil area is drained by a specific water course and its periphery is limited by the water divide (Mertenetal, 2001, cited in Perez et al., 2004). In Chile, 101 hydrographic basins are identified, according to the DGA (MOP, 2001). 7] An endorheic basin is a closed basin, with no visible outlet, that can have a lagoon or salt flat as a balance base. Normally, the discharge is carried out by evaporation (Niemeyer and Cereceda, 1994). 8] Exorheic basins are those whose rivers flow into the sea (Ramírez et al. in CONAMA, 1994). 9] Wetlands are permanently or seasonally flooded landscape units whose waters are shallow. On the other hand, according to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, they are “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters” (Ramírez and San Martín, in CONAMA 2008, page 115). 262 chapter 7 biodiversity 1997). The greatest classification efforts at the national level are recorded for this type of ecosystem (CONAMA, 2006). All of the wetland types described at a global level by the Ramsar Convention are present in Chile. CONAMA (2006) carried out a classification of wetlands considering Ecotypes. This is a proposal that considers groups or families of wetlands showing the same functional characteristics and whose presence can be explained by the water balance, according to territorial and climatic conditions. The classification system by wetland ecotypes allowed an identification of three major wetland families: Marine, coastal and continental. At the same time, eight wetland classes were identified. Inland Wetland Coastal Wetland Marine Wetland Ecotypes Table 6 Class Wetland Ecotypes and their Relation to Common Name Common name Chilean examples Regulation and support services Provision services -- Intertidal, subtidal Coastal seashore Saline intrusion Coastal lake, coastal lagoon, salt marsh, estuary Food and raw maBudi Lake, Conchalí terials source (i.e. Coast line Lagoon, Tubul-Raqui fish, crustaceans stabilization Wetland, Chauil Lagoon and fiber) Salt flat, peat bog, upwellings Evaporation in the desert (puquios) Infiltration (A) Saturated infiltration (B) Small swamps (Hualve), flooding plains (ñadi), ponda, wetlands (pitranto), swamps Floodplains (Mallín), peat bogs, Magallanes peat bogs, moss wetlands (pomponal) -- -- Cultural services -- Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Atacama Salt Flat, Huasco Salt Flat Water source Aquifer recharge and Tourism, recreation, discharge. Wildlife education, science, habitat culture Central depression wetlands between the Maule and Araucanía regions Water and raw materials (bog) source Protection against floods. Carbon sequestration. Nutrient retention Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Protection against floods. Carbon sequestration. Nutrient retention Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Chiloé National Park and other zones on Raw materials the Island (i.e. Cucao (bog) source sector), Karukinka Park in Tierra del Fuego Continues on next page Ecotypes 263 Common name Class Chilean examples Provision services chapter 7 biodiversity Regulation and support services Cultural services Runoff Rivers, creeks, streams, lakes Clarillo River, Biobío River, Villarrica Lake Source of food and raw materials Wildlife habitat (i.e. fish and fiber) Water source Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Underground upwellings Marshes, peat bog, wetlands Parinacota, Jachucoposa, Ciénagas de Name Water source. Source of food Nutrient retention and raw materials (cattle fodder) Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Organic acids -- Small swamps (Hualve) Carbon sequestraRaw materials (i.e. systems in the areas tion. Microclimate trees) of Toltén, Queule, regulation Tantauco Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture 0° C Isotherm -- Patagonian water bodies Source of food and Protection against raw materials (i.e. floods. Nutrient fish and fiber) deposit retention Tourism, recreation, education, science, culture Source: CONAMA, 2006 Saline intrusion Underground upwellings 0° C Isotherm Saturated infiltration (B) Organic acids Evaporation Infiltration (A) Runoff Photographs: Manuel Rojas, Alejandra Figueroa, Claudia Cortés and Moisés Grimberg. 264 chapter 7 biodiversity High-Andean Wetlands Photograph: Roxana Galleguillos High-Andean wetlands are common ecosystems in the Andes Mountain Range, located in desert plateaus in northern Chile, between the Arica and Parinacota and Atacama administrative regions, in areas over 3,500 meters above the sea level, except for the Atacama and Punta Negra salt flats, located 2,300 meters above sea level. All High-Andean wetlands are hydrologic systems supplied by snowmelt from the high peaks, which creates slopes, highland marshes, rivers, lakes, lagoons and salt flats. These ecosystems belong to the Puna Ecoregion, which has been catalogued as vulnerable and of high priority for conservation by Dinerstein et al. (1995). Approximately 52 basins are described for the Chilean Puna, which consist of lacustrine systems and High-Andean salt flats of different extensions that are known for their high biodiversity, great nutrient content and high primary productivity in the extreme aridity context in which they develop. High-Andean wetlands are of great importance for several cities in northern Chile, which benefit from them through their water supply and for developing tourism. Mining in the Puna ecoregion, however, has severely impacted some of these wetlands as a result of water extraction for productive processes. Between 1993 and early 2012, mining projects were approved by the Environmental Impact Assessment System (SEIA) involving an investment of approximately 40,000 MM USD. Considering this threat, the Environmental Assessment Service (SEA) is developing technical guidelines to assess impacts on wetlands, which will allow better mitigation of impacts of future mining projects in this region of high environmental value. 265 There is currently no information regarding the biological or ecological quality of continental water bodies at a national level. However, the Ministry of the Environment is carrying out a national survey of wetlands, which involves developing an integrated system of environmental monitoring. Despite all of this, during the 2011 summer season the Ministry of the Environment analyzed 68 sampling sites. This analysis allowed identifying types of environments with higher deterioration degrees, assessing the trophic condition of systems. Based on nutrient and chlorophyll concentration, it was determined that in the central-southern zone most of the coastal water bodies present a mesotrophic or hypertrophic state. This reveals that the nutrient charge from the basin has accelerated their eutrophication process (MMA, 2011b). Species Diversity Species diversity refers to either richness or number of species in a community or geographical area. Not only is a species important due to its genetic material and the benefit humans can obtain from it, but also because each species is related to others, which ultimately results in the adequate functioning of the community and the ecosystem (Lazo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 49). Chile is characterized by having a great diversity of environments, from extremely arid deserts to temperate rainforests. Approximately 30,679 species have been described for these environments (CONAMA, 2009). Of this total and, in accordance with the established processes, 927 species10 have been classified based on their conservation status. BIOSPHERE ECOSYSTEM COMMUNITY POPULATION INDIVIDUAL fig. Ecological Organization Levels 8 chapter 7 biodiversity 10] Decrees generated within the framework of the Species Classification Regulation: SD Nº 151 of 2007, SD Nº50 of 2008, SD Nº 51 of 2008 and SD Nº 23 of 2009 (they include 298 flora and fauna species and/or subspecies). Supreme Decree Nº5 of 1998 by MINAGRI, Regulation of the Hunting Law (it lists 254 species including amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). Red Book of Chilean Arborous and Shrub Flora, 1989. Red Book of Chilean Terrestrial Vertebrates, 1988. Baeza, M., Barrera, E., Flores, J., Ramírez, C. and Rodríguez, R., 1998. Conservation Categories of Native Chilean Pteridophytes. Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History 47:23-46. Bahamondes, N., Carvacho, A., Jara, C. López, M., Ponce, F., Retamal, M.A. and Rudolph, E., 1998. Conservation categories of native inland water decapods of Chile. Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History 47:91-100. Belmote, E., faúndez, L., Flores J., Hoffman A., Munoz, M and Teiller, S., 1998. Conservation categories of native Chilean cacti. Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History 47:69-89. Campos, H., Dazarola, G., Dyer, B., Fuentes, L., Gavilán, J.F., Huaquín, L., Martínez, G., Meléndez, R., Pequeño, G., Ponce, F., Ruiz, V.H., Sielfeld, W., Soto, D., Vega, R. and Vila, I. 1998. Conservation categories of native inland water fish of Chile. Newsletter of the Natural History National Museum 47:101-122. Ravenna, P., Teiller, S., Macaya, J., Rodríguez, R. and Zöllner, O, 1998. Conservation categories of native bulbous plants of Chile. Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History 47:47-68. Núñez, H., Maldonado, V. and Pérez, R, 1997. Herpetology specialist working group meeting for the categorization of species according to conservation status. Monthly Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History (Chile) 329: 12-19. Yáñez J. 1997. Aquatic mammals specialist working group meeting for the categorization of species according to conservation status. Monthly Newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History (Chile) 330:8-16. chapter 7 biodiversity 266 Species in Chile are geographically isolated, which prevents greater colonization and has allowed a large number of species to evolve almost exclusively in the national territory. Thus, between 22 percent and 25 percent of species described are endemic to the country. Some outstanding groups include amphibians, in which 65 percent of the species are exclusive to Chile, 63 percent of reptiles, 55 percent of fish in inland waters and 50 percent of vascular plant species (CONAMA 2009, page. 14). Table 7 11] Classification including up to the fourth process of the Species Classification Regulation. Native Species Described for Chile Type Nº of described species Nº of classified species11 Algae, flora and fungi Diatoms Dinoflagellates, silicoflagellates 563 0 300 0 Fungi 3,300 0 Lichens 1,074 58 813 0 Non-vascular plants (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts) 1,400 0 Vascular plants 5,500 437 1,187 43 Multicellular algae Invertebrates Mollusks 606 18 Insects Crustaceans 10,133 0 Other invertebrates 3,800 0 1,226 46 Vertebrates Marine and inland fish Amphibians 56 43 Reptiles 111 100 Birds 460 79 Mammals 150 103 30,679 927 Estimated Total Source: Own elaboration based on Simonetti et al. (1995), CONAMA (2008) and CONAMA (2009). 267 The richness of species and the degree of endemism are distributed in a heterogeneous manner throughout the national territory, where 67 percent of the 1,008 genera of Chilean inland flora are found only in Chile and 49 percent of these include only one species (Cubillo and León, 1995; Marticorena, 1990 cited in U. Chile 2010, page 179). Taxa Taxonomy is a science that groups living organisms in an organized manner according to what is assumed to be their natural relations, from their most general to their most specific features. Classification criteria used are based on anatomical, morphological, cytological, physiological, genetic and some other characteristics of organisms, giving way to different groups or taxa with more or less similar features. The main group levels used in taxonomy are shown in the figure. KINGDOMS EXAMPLE KINGDOM ANIMALIA PHYLYUM ANIMALIA CHORDATA CLASS ORDER fig. 9 PLANTAE MAMMALIA CAMIVORA FAMILY FUNGI PROTISTA CANIDAE GENUS CANIS SPECIES EUBACTERIA ARCHAEBACTERIA C.LUPUS Source: PUC, 2011 Regarding vertebrates, most of the richness in amphibians is concentrated between the Bio-bío and Aysén regions, with 37 species described for this zone. For reptiles, of the 111 species described, 63 percent are endemic and they are mainly found between the Arica and Parinacota and Maule regions, while the greatest endemism is recorded between the Antofagasta and Coquimbo regions (Núñez 2008, cited in U.Chile 2010, page 179). chapter 7 biodiversity 268 chapter 7 biodiversity In terms of mammals, approximately 150 species are native and 100 are terrestrial. The greatest mammal richness is in the Arica and Parinacota region, as well as in the Tarapacá Region, where micromammals dominate, mainly in the Puna and the high plateaus. On the other hand, between Maule and Araucanía regions, mammals show high diversity due to the presence of forest environments and the mountain range shrubs. Finally, Magallanes Region also presents a high number of mammals in the Patagonian Steppe Ecoregion (Cofré et. al in CONAMA, 2008). As for terrestrial birds in the country, the greatest richness of species is in the Puna and coastal desert zones. Thus, in the Puna of the Arica and Parinacota Region, approximately 75 bird species can be found. This richness decreases to less than 65 species in the Antofagasta Region. From 28° South Latitude, there is a rise in the number of species, which reaches its maximum close to 36° South Latitude. From 38° South Latitude, the richness of terrestrial birds decreases. In terms of endemism, there are nine endemic species in the continental zone of the country (CONAMA 2008, page 248). At a global level, the status of species is measured through abundance indicators, density and distribution. While studies have been carried out in the country for some particular species, the information available is the result of isolated efforts which do not allow making a diagnosis at a national level. One of these local initiatives focuses on the Tricahue Parrot, specifically on the Cyanoliseus patagonus bloxami subspecies, which is endemic and currently endangered according to the Red Book of Terrestrial Vertebrates of Chile (Glade 1993 cited in CONAMA, 2005, page 21). For this species, censuses have been carried out that recorded, for the 1982-1984 period, twelve active colonies and nine inactive ones, with an average of 1,555 individuals per colony. Their abundance was higher in the O’Higgins Region, with 1,743 individuals, and the Maule Region, with 1,364 individuals (CONAF, 2005, page 21). Information is also available regarding the abundance of High-Andean flamingos Chilean Flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), Andean Flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus) and James' Flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi), for which simultaneous winter and summer censuses have been carried out. Figure 11 shows the results of these censuses for the 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2010 summer seasons. These censuses have been coordinated by the High-Andean Flamingo Conservation Group (GCFA) with the support of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), the International Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and national and local institutions (Valquí et al., 2000, GFTA, 2005, cited in CONAF, 2006). 269 chapter 7 biodiversity N° of Individuals 45,000 40,000 35,000 fig. 35,000 10 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 Summer 1997 Summer 1998 Summer 1999 Phoenicoparrus jamesi Summer 2000 Summer 2001 Phoenicoparrus andinus Summer 2002 Summer 2005 Summer 2010 Phoenicopterus chilensis There is also information on the population size and density of vicuñas, recording population growth for the Vicugna vicugna mensalis and Vicugna vicugna vicugna species, which went from 2,176 individuals in 1975 to 16,899 in 2001. The density of these species also increased, from 0.4 individuals per km2 in 1975 to 4.5 individuals per km2 in 1990 (Bonacic et al. in Galaz et al., 2003, page 96). Likewise, in order to determine the distribution of species, studies have been conducted based on occurrence records to estimate their current distribution. The study Vulnerability of Terrestrial Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Ecoregion, at the Ecosystem and Species Levels, and Adaptation Measures to Climate Change Scenarios (CONAMA, 2010b) modeled the distribution of 15 amphibian species, 16 reptile species, 36 mammal species and 1,447 terrestrial vascular plant species. For both vertebrates and terrestrial flora, 28 percent of the species studied were native and endemic. The remaining 72 percent of vertebrates were non-endemic native species. The results for vascular flora revealed the presence of 815 non-endemic native species, 407 native endemic species and 224 adventitious species. Population Variation High-Andean Flamingos Source: CONAF, 2006, CONAF and GCFA, 2010 270 chapter 7 biodiversity On the other hand, the species conservation status can also be used as an indicator of the condition of the species. This relates to the classification of species in some threat category and allows the defining of conservation priorities. There are several classification systems used both at the global and nation levels, which have varied from subjective to quantitative criteria. In Chile, it is possible to find different types of classifications developed by public and academic institutions (Hunting Law, Species Classification Regulation, Newsletter 47 of the National Museum of Natural History, Red Books and the Yáñez and Núñez authors). Figure 11 shows the conservation status of classified species. It should be noted that there is a deficit in the classification of marine fish, with just 1 percent of the described species classified. However, for inland water fish, 91 percent of the described species have been classified with 68 percent of them identified as vulnerable or endangered. fig. 11 Classified Species Source: Own elaboration, based on database, MMA 2011. 271 Genetic diversity Genetic diversity refers to the variation of the composition of genes within a single species, within a population and among populations. If the population of one species becomes extinct, the species would lose genetic diversity, an important element for evolution processes and its adaptation to the environment it lives in. There is a great variety of terrestrial habitats in the country which makes it possible to have a high genetic diversity, which in turn depends on the variability shown by individuals within the same species. Genetic diversity, in general, is measured through intraspecies variety, that is, the number of subspecies, varieties or races of a particular species (Manzur in CONAMA, 2008, page 396). There are some studies that reflect the intraspecies diversity of Chilean species. One of them is carried out by Donoso et al. (2004 cited in CONAMA, 2008), which compiles knowledge on the genetic variation of 24 Chilean and Argentinean native forest arboreous species. Among the studied species are: Roble (Nothofagus obliqua), Rauli Beech (Nothofagus alpina), Lenga Beech (Nothofagus pumilio), Antarctic Beech (Nothofagus antarctica), Coihue (Nothofagus dombeyi), Magallanes Coihue (Nothofagus betuloides), Chiloé Coihue (Nothofagus nitida), Araucaria (Araucaria araucana), Mountain Range Cypress (Austrocedrus chilensis), Cypress of the Guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum), Patagonian Cypress (Fitzroya cupressoides), Winter's Bark Tree (Drimys winteri), Chilean Hazel (Gevuina avellana), Chilean Fire Bush (Embothrium coccineum), Chilean Laurel (Laurelia sempervirens), Tepa (Laurelia philippiana), Myrtle (Luma apiculata), Chilean Myrtle (Maytenus boaria). Generally, species show an altitudinal and latitudinal variation in some features, such as seed weight, crown shape, flattened and pliable branches, and dwarfism, among others (Donoso et al., 2004, cited in CONAMA, 2008, page 397). In terms of fauna, Chilean mammals are a highly diverse group and of high biological value. There is a complete order that is exclusive to Chile: Microbiotheria, which only has one species, the Chilean marsupial known as "Monito del Monte" (Little mountain monkey) or Dromiciops gliroides. Regarding the diversity of crops or agricultural biodiversity, Chile also has a privileged location for its genetic diversity, since it is the origin of the Fragaria chiloensis or the Chilean strawberry, wild tomato (Lycopersicon chilense) and potato (Solanun tuberosum), with about 150 and 200 native potato varieties in the Chiloé Island alone (Venegas and Negrón, 1994; Cardenas, 2002 cited in CONAMA, 2008, page 398). There are no national level estimates on the loss of genetic diversity in time. While studies have been made in the country about the intraspecies variety for some species, as mentioned before, there are no historic series that would allow a diagnosis of their status. chapter 7 biodiversity Photograph: Claudio Almarza 273 Pressures on ecosystems, species and genetic diversity 3 According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment made by the United Nations, in the last 50 years humans have transformed ecosystems faster and more extensively than in any other period of time in human history. Goods and services generated by ecosystems are affected by human actions that deplete the environment. As humanity becomes more modern and the population increases, it requires a large number of natural resources to subsist. Therefore, the influence of humans on the environment is constantly increasing and it often causes irreversible impacts. Among human activities that affect biodiversity, some of the most outstanding are the loss or significant alteration of habitats, due to changes in land use conversion of forestry, increase of agriculture and livestock lands, urban expansion and forest fires; overexploitation of natural resources through wood and fish extraction; and the voluntary and non-voluntary introduction of alien species. Changes in Land Use Changes in land use, as a consequence of the conversion of lands for forestry, agriculture and livestock, and urban settlements, are among the pressures on biodiversity. In fact, according to information published by CONAF in 2011, the decrease of the native forests of the central zone of Chile are due to land conversion for agriculture, as well as to burnings and fires. In the southern central zone, this decrease is explained by the harvesting and conversion for forestry plantations. Figure 12 shows the changes in land use between 1999 and 2011, highlighting the increase of the area covered by plantations. chapter 7 biodiversity chapter 7 biodiversity 274 fig. 12 Changes in Land Use Between 1999 and 2011 Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAF, 1999 and CONAF, 2011c. Area (Ha) 80,000,000 70,000,000 60,000,000 50,000,000 40,000,000 30,000,000 20,000,000 10,000,000 0 1997 Urban and Industrial Areas Forests Snow and Glaciers 2011 Agricultural Land Wetlands Water Bodies Grasslands and Shrublands Areas without Vegetation Unrecognized Areas Forest Fires Forest fires have affected large extensions of native forest. In Chile, the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its acronym in Spanish) is responsible for recording forest fires. According to the information registered, Figure 13 shows that although the number of forest fires has decreased between 2002 and 2010 by 46 percent, the area affected by forest fires has increased since the 20062007 season. The natural vegetation most affected by this type of events is made up of grasslands, with 40 percent of the area affected, shrublands, with 35 percent, and woodlands, with 34 percent. An analysis of the accumulated number of fires by region during the 19841985 and 2009-2010 seasons, reveals that the most affected regions are Biobío, Valparaíso and Araucanía, which have a high percentage of grasslands, shrublands and forests. chapter 7 biodiversity 275 fig. Area (ha) Number of fires Grasslands Shrublands 90.000 Souce: CONAF, 2011b and 2012. 8000 Woodlands Fires 80.000 13 Occurrence of Fires and Affected Vegetation Surface 7000 70.000 6000 60.000 5000 50.000 4000 40.000 3000 30.000 2000 20.000 1000 10.000 0 0 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 0-1 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-2 0-2 1-2 2-2 3-2 4-2 5-2 6-2 7-2 8-2 9-2 0-2 198 198 198 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 fig. Area (Ha) Number of fires 70,000 400,000 350,000 Affected Area 60,000 Number of fires 300,000 50,000 250,000 40,000 200,000 30,000 150,000 20,000 100,000 10,000 50,000 0 a am c Ata bo Co im qu o aís par Val an Me tro lit po s gin ig O´H ule Ma nía bío Bio A ca rau Los s Río s ago L Los n é Ays nes lla aga M *Data from 2012 was obtained from referential information provided by ONEMI and CONAF on January 6th, 2012. Websites were accessed on January 11th, 2012. 0 14 Number of Accumulated Fires and Affected Area by Regions from 1985 to January 2012* Source: CONAF, 2011b chapter 7 biodiversity 276 Logging 12] It is worth noting that D.L. N° 701 on the promotion of forestry and Law N° 20.283 Law on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry have contributed to reduce pressure on native forests by promoting plantations in lands with a preferable aptitude for forestry and/ or on highly degraded soils, but not substituting native forests. Logging is a significant threat to the conservation of native forests. Between 1989-1995, chip production represented an elevated consumption of this resource. However, since 1996, the forestry sector has significantly reduced the consumption of native wood chips, minimizing the pressure on native forests12. Despite the fact that industrial extraction of native wood has decreased, the consumption of native arborous species for fuelwood has practically doubled 3 Thousands of m 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000 Other Pulp logs for export Saw logs for export Sawn wood Boards and sheets Chips 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2008 2009 fig. 15 Industrial Consumption of Native Wood Source: INFOR, 2011. in the last 20 years, going from four to nine million solid cubic meters per year, making it the main pressure on native forests (INFOR, 2008; Gómez-Lobo et al., 2006, cited in U. Chile, 2010, page 131). 278 chapter 7 biodiversity Fishing Activity The exploitation of fishing resources has had an important impact on the populations of marine species in the country. Figure 16, shows the reduction of fish landings in the industrial sector. According to Calfucura and Figueroa, (2005 cited in CONAMA, 2008), this decrease in the production has mainly been caused by the crisis of the pelagic fisheries of Horse Mackerel and Anchovy which, because of their overexploitation, has resulted in greater restrictions in the global catch quotas established by the Fishing Undersecretariat. Figure 17 shows the fishing quotas for the main fish species extracted, which have decreased in time, mainly in response to the reduction of their stock. fig. 16 Industrial and Small-scale Fish Landings Source: SERNAPESCA, 2011. Thousands of tons 6,000 5,000 Industrial Small-scale 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 279 chapter 7 biodiversity For many species, the reduction has reached critical levels that make fishing unsustainable. For example, according to Calfucura and Figueroa (2005 cited in CONAMA, 2008), the Spanish Sardine in the northern zone has significantly decreased its biomass during the last two decades. In 1995, Horse Mackerel extraction in the central southern zone reached a landing volume of 4.5 million, which began to diminish progressively as a result of regulation measures applied by the fishing authority, due to the overexploitation condition of the resource. In the last years, the fishing quotas granted have not been totally consumed, revealing a progressive reduction of the abundance of the resource, which makes its catch difficult (SUBPESCA, 2011). 17 fig. Fishing Quota Evolution Source: SERNAPESCA, 2011. Thousands of tons (Logarithmic scale) 2009 10,000,o00 2010 2011 1,000,o00 100,o00 10,o00 1,o00 100 10 1 did en Spl Al fon o sin I -XI XV vy A o nch IV III- vy o nch V-X A vy cho An o nC lde Go r nge -II XV Eel 41 e ors H II .-X 'L.S .6 °28 V-X lX Ma ch re eke ine d Sar V-X h nis Spa ne di Sar -II XV chapter 7 biodiversity 280 Figure 18 shows the current total biomass of Horse Mackerel, which is estimated in about 2.8 million tons, 14 percent of what it would be without the fishing extraction of this species. This value, outstandingly low and inferior to the precautionary limit, confirms the critical situation of Horse Mackerel fishery in the South Pacific (SUBPESCA, 2011). fig. 18 Horse Mackerel Biomass Evolution (Trachurus murphyi) Fuente: SUBPESCA, 2011. Total Biomass (Million Tons) 50 Total without extraction 45 Total with extraction 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 78 19 80 19 82 19 84 19 86 19 88 19 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98 20 00 20 02 20 04 20 06 20 08 20 10 76 19 74 19 72 19 19 19 70 0 281 Introduced Species Introduced or alien species are those that, mainly for anthropic reasons, have been transported to another place, voluntary or not, and introduced outside their natural distribution. In Chile, 15 percent of flora species living in the wild are introduced. The Juan Fernández Archipelago is an outstanding special case, since the amount of this type of species more than doubles native species (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011c). Some alien species can become Invasive Alien Species, when their introduction and/or spread threatens the native biological diversity of the place in which they have been freed, according to the definition of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB). Invasive alien species are one of the most important causes of species extinction in nature (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011c). There are several cases of invasive alien species in the country that are causing significant damage in the regions they inhabit. Some examples of introduced species are the Wild boar (Sus scrofa), the Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Beaver (Castor canadensis). The latter was brought to Tierra del Fuego in 1946, and it is estimated that it has modified approximately 5,400 ha of native forest in the Chilean sector and at least 5,200 ha in the Argentinean sector (Lizarralde, 1993; Skewes et al., 1999; Jaksic et al., 2002; Lizarralde et al., 2004, cited in Wallem et al., 2007). Water Pollution Water pollution from sediment deposit caused by industrial discharges of toxic substances, sewage or as a result of bad agricultural practices, as well as percolated liquids from landfills, can seriously affect ecosystems sustained by this resource. Other productive activities, such as salmon breeding, or pouring pig slurry into water bodies, contribute to the eutrophication process. Likewise, acid rain, which transports sulfur dioxide and nitrogen, increases the acidity in aquatic environments, causing the death of microorganisms living in them. In addition, changes in weather conditions or problems, such as deforestation, significantly affect these types of ecosystems as well (Fariña et al. in CONAMA, 2008, page 110). See Annex 1. More detailed information is provided in the Water Resource Chapter. chapter 7 biodiversity 282 chapter 7 biodiversity Response for the Protection and Conservation of 4 Ecosystem Services in Chile Biodiversity represents the functional core of ecosystems, and its conservation is a key element in keeping the provision of ecosystem services to the population. The ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994 was the milestone that initiated the inclusion of the biodiversity concept in the key stages of public decision making in the country. Through this action, Chile adhered to the global concern for the loss of biological diversity expressed in the Second Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The effect of this support is concomitant to the establishment of the environmental institutional framework in Chile, in 1994, through the promulgation of the Environmental Framework Law N° 19.300. In fact, the National Commission for the Environment (CONAMA by its acronym in Spanish), the agency that coordinated the environmental institutional framework until 2010, promoted the inclusion of CBD contents in State actions. Supporting the CBD led the country to prepare, in 2003, a National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity through a participative process. Later on, in 2005, other policies were developed, such as the National Policy on Protected Areas, the National Policy on Endangered Species, the National Strategy for the Conservation and Rational Use of Wetlands as well as Regional Strategies for the Conservation of Biodiversity, for each of the 13 administrative regions that existed then. One of the most significant goals of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity is to achieve the objective of represent an area of at least 10 percent of the relevant ecosystems in protected areas. Nevertheless, it is important to stress the difficulty of reaching a consensus on the concept of relevant ecosystem. While these documents are not legally binding, they have allowed the insertion of contents dealing with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity 283 in the country, gradually guiding sectoral public policies. Thus, in 2005, an Action Plan was established that identifies a series of activities to be carried out by 2015, in order to achieve the objectives set forth in the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity. Table 8 Category Policies Strategies Plans and programs Public Strategies, Plans and Programs for Biodiversity Conservation in Chile (2002 – 2009) Approval Name Institution date National Policy on Protected Areas CONAMA 2005 National Policy on Endangered Species CONAMA 2005 National Policy on the Genetic Improvement of Beef and Sheep Cattle INDAP 2008 Policy for the Protection and Conservation of Glaciers CONAMA 2009 National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity CONAMA 2003 Regional Strategies for the Conservation of Biodiversity CONAMA 2002 National Strategy for the Conservation and Rational Use of Wetlands in Chile CONAMA 2005 National Strategy for Climate Change CONAMA, MINREL, among others 2006 Country Action Plan of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity CONAMA 2005 Wetland Classification System CONAMA 2006 National System of Protected Areas CONAMA-GEFUNDP 2006 Regional System of Protected Area (SIRAP by its acronym in Spanish) CONAMA-GEF / UNDP 2008 chapter 7 biodiversity 284 13] According to Law N° 19.300 in article 70, letter b, the Ministry of the Environment is responsible for: Proposing policies, plans, programs, regulations and overseeing the System of National Protected Areas of the State, which includes marine parks and reserves, as well as nature sanctuaries and supervising the management of private protected areas. chapter 7 biodiversity The three main tools used for the protection and conservation of biodiversity, both by CONAMA and the current Ministry of the Environment and other State agencies are: 1) The establishment of protected areas or spaces, which are maintained as State property and where the extractive use of resources is restricted; 2) the protection of species; and 3) the environmental impact assessment system. This last tool has allowed controlling the impact that new industrial, mining, energy, infrastructure and water investments, among others, may have on local biodiversity. Notwithstanding the authority of the environmental institutional framework, the operational responsibility for controlling and regulating the pressure on biodiversity lies in sectoral agencies. Thus, the Ministry of Agriculture has regulated the pressure on biodiversity in rural areas; the General Water Authority of the Ministry of Public Works oversees pressures linked to water courses and lacustrine systems; and the National Fishing Service and the Fishing Undersecretariat are in charge of pressures affecting marine and coastal areas. In addition to this, other services involved are responsible for issues like pollution control or boundary delimitation, such as the Ministry of National Defense, the Ministry of National Public Lands, among others. All of these sectoral agencies have incorporated in their regulations, according to their competence, elements for the protection of biodiversity components, as part of the environmental problems linked to the use of natural resources. In 2010, after the establishment of the new environmental institutional framework, some sectoral regulations were modified, giving authority to the Ministry of the Environment on topics such as parks, marine reserves, multipleuse coastal-marine areas and nature sanctuaries13 , in addition to promoting the creation of private wild protected areas. At the same time, in terms of species, the Ministry of the Environment has the authority to approve recovery, conservation and management plans, in accordance with the results of classification procedures. On the other hand, the productive use of natural renewable resources continues to be regulated by sectors, incorporating minimum criteria for the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity, proposed by the Ministry of the Environment and approved by the Council of Ministers for Sustainability. 285 Table 9 Main Regulations Dealing with Biodiversity Regulation Description Law Nº 19.300/1994 Environmental Framework Law, modified by Law N° 20.417 Law Nº 20.283/2008 MINAGRI Law on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry Development Law Nº 20.256/2008 MINECON Law on Recreational Fishing Law Nº 18.892/1989 MINECON General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture Law Nº 4.601/1929 Ministry of Development Hunting Law SD Nº 4.363/1931 Ministry of Lands and Colonization Forest Law SD Nº 95/2001 MINSEGPRES Environmental Impact Assessment System Regulation SD Nº 75/2005 MINSEGPRES Species Classification Regulation SD N° 5/1998 MINAGRI Hunting Law Regulation The modifications to the environmental institutional framework involved changes to the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture, in relation to the declaration of Marine Parks and Reserves that is now done through a decree of the Ministry of the Environment. Likewise, it establishes the participation of the Ministry of the Environment in taking measures to ensure that aquaculture facilities operate at levels compatible with the capacities of lacustrine, fluvial and marine water bodies. In addition, it modifies the functions of the Ministry of Agriculture, limiting the protection of natural resources to the forestry-agriculture-livestock scope. It also modifies the Natural Monuments Law, by establishing that sites declared Nature Sanctuaries now fall under the custody of the Ministry of the Environment. Likewise, Law Nº 20.417 begins to outline the need to create a specialized operative agency to tackle the management and conservation of biodiversity. Article 8, transitory, of Law Nº 20.517, mandates the creation of a Biodiversity and Protected Wild Areas Service through another specific law. In order to move forward with its creation, a bill was sent to the National Congress in January, 2011. The future agency will have authority over the preparation of regulations and policies for the conservation of biodiversity, which currently lie within the Ministry of the Environment. chapter 7 biodiversity 286 chapter 7 biodiversity International Agreements Prior to the modification to the environmental institutional framework and even before the previous one existed, the country ratified a series of international agreements that allowed developing and promoting protection measures for both ecosystems and species. Some that have been particularly relevant are: The Washington Convention for the Protection of Flora, Fauna and Natural Scenic Beauty of the Americas (1940), ratified by Chile in 1967; the Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the South East Pacific (1989), ratified by Chile in 1993; the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) (1971), ratified by Chile in 1981; and the establishment of Biosphere Reserves within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program, which Chile ratified in 1980. Throughout the country, approximately 195,876 hectares are under the Ramsar Site category, which allows maintaining and protecting the ecological characteristics of swamps, lakes, peat bogs, and freshwater and High-Andean lagoons, among others. It also helps accessing financing sources for projects linked to these places. The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity, in its tenth meeting in October, 2010 in Nayoga, Japan, announced a new strategic plan for 2011-2020 focused on the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which prioritizes actions according to the pressures on biodiversity. Table 10 Main Agreements on Biodiversity International Agreements on Biodiversity Objective Convention for the Protection of Flora, Fauna and Natural Scenic Beauty of the Americas Signed in 1940. It came into force in Chile in 1967. This convention has been implemented through the creation of protected areas. There are currently 96 protected areas managed by CONAF. Their legal creation is based on this Convention and the decree that ratifies it. Focal point: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MINREL by its acronym in Spanish) and the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its acronym in Spanish) Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) Signed in 1971. It came into force in Chile in 1981. It is an intergovernmental treaty used as a framework for national action and international cooperation to favor the conservation and rational use of wetlands and their resources. In Chile there are twelve Ramsar sites, registered in the list of wetlands of international importance, covering a total of 192,080 hectares. Focal point: MINREL and CONAF. Continues on next page 287 International Agreements on Biodiversity chapter 7 biodiversity Objective Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Signed in 1973. It came into force in Chile in 1975. It is an international agreement between governments. Its purpose is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Focal point: MINREL administrative authorities: Agriculture and Livestock Service (SAG by its acronym in Spanish), CONAF and the National Fishing Service (SERNAPESCA by its acronym in Spanish). Scientific authority: National Commission of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICYT by its acronym in Spanish). Convention on Biological Diversity Ratified by Chile in 1994. Its goal is the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and technologies, and by appropriate funding. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Signed in 1994. It came into force in 1998. Its purpose is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of droughts in affected countries, especially in Africa, by adopting efficient measures at all levels, supported by international cooperation and association agreements, within the framework of an integrated approach according to Program 21, in order to contribute to achieving the sustainable development of affected areas. Focal point: MINREL and National Forestry Corporation (CONAF). Ratified by Chile through SD 259/80 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Convention Concerning the ProtecIts purpose is to promote the identification, protection, and pretion of the World Cultural and Natural servation of the cultural and natural heritage of all countries in the Heritage world which is considered especially valuable for mankind. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 20112020 and the Aichi Targets The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 is a 10-year action framework to save biological diversity and improve its benefits for people. The three main tools used for the protection and conservation of biodiversity, both by CONAMA and the current Ministry of the Environment and other State agencies are: 1) The establishment of protected areas or spaces, which are maintained as State property and where the extractive use of resources is restricted; 2) the protection of species; and 3) the environmental impact assessment system. This last tool has allowed controlling the impact that new industrial, mining, energy, infrastructure and water investments, among others, may have on local biodiversity. 290 chapter 7 biodiversity Conservation of Ecosystem Diversity 14] It considers protected areas with legally recognized categories. It includes natural monuments, national reserves, national parks, nature sanctuaries, protected national lands, RAMSAR sites, marine reserves and marine and coastal protected areas. The conservation of ecosystem diversity has generally focused on the creation of protected areas which, according to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), consist of “a geographically defined area, which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.” In Chile, there has been State protected areas since the beginning of the 20th century, which are part of the National System of Wild Protected Areas of the State (SNASPE). Law N° 18.362 establishes that the objective of the SNASPE is to protect and manage terrestrial and aquatic natural environments in order to conserve them. However, this law has never come into effect. Therefore, this objective is ratified by Law N° 19.300, providing the main legal support for the existence of this program. The Ministry of Agriculture is the one responsible for managing this system, through the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its acronym in Spanish). The SNASPE is made up of National Parks, Natural Monuments and National Reserves. In addition, in accordance with Law N° 19.300, in its articles 34 and 70 b), the SNASPE includes marine parks and reserves and nature sanctuaries. It currently includes 100 units, distributed in 35 National Parks, 49 National Reserves and 16 Natural Monuments. Altogether, they cover an area of 14.5 million ha, representing 19.3 percent of the national territory. Ecosystem services provided by the country’s protected areas14 have a total economic value of USD 1,460 million (CONAMA-GEF-PNUD, 2010). It is worth noting that the territorial distribution of the SNASPE is not homogeneous. In fact, more than 84 percent of the area under protection is located between the Aysén and Magallanes regions, whereas the Coquimbo, Maule and Metropolitan regions only encompass 1 percent of the system areas. Regarding marine environments, the modifications to the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture (SD Nº 430 of 1991) introduce the marine park and marine reserve categories. The marine reserve category was first applied in 1997 with the creation of La Rinconada Reserve, in the Antofagasta Region. The creation of the Chañaral Island and the Choros and Damas Islands reserves in 2005 was particularly relevant. The first Marine Park, Francisco Coloane, was established in 2003 within the framework of the project for Conserving Globally Significant Biodiversity along the Chilean Coast. The conservation of marine areas, such as parks and reserves, is managed by the National Fishing Service. Also within the scope of marine environments, the Ministry of National Defense, through the former Undersecretariat of the Navy, established Marine-Coastal Protected Areas, applying the category of the South-East Pacific Convention, in 291 order to protect coastal concessions granted to scientific stations. Thus, some areas were established as protected, such as Las Cruces Experimental Station, in the Valparaíso Region, the Comau Fjord, in the Palena province of the Los Lagos Region, the scientific center of the Huinay private foundation, and the three submarine parks established in Easter Island in 1999, among others. Likewise, the Nature Sanctuary category, managed by the Council of National Monuments of the Ministry of Education, is used to protect marine and terrestrial areas. fig. 19 Protected Areas National Park “The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”. Natural Monument National Reserve Nature Sanctuary chapter 7 biodiversity 292 chapter 7 biodiversity Since 2006, protected areas have increased in over 148 thousand hectares as a result of the inclusion of: Morro Moreno National Park, 7,314 hectares of coastal ecosystems in the Antofagasta Region; Salar del Huasco National Park, 110,962 hectares of High-Andean ecosystems, in the Tarapacá Region; the Quebrada de Cardones Natural Monument, with 11,326 hectares of Andean foothill ecosystems, in the Arica and Parinacota Region, and the Altos de Pemehue National Reserve, with 18,856 hectares of deciduous forests, in the Biobío Region. fig. 2o Accumulated protected areas Source: Own elaboration Area (Ha) Number of Protected Areas 16,000,o00 140 14,000,o00 120 12,000,o00 100 10,000,o00 80 8,000,o00 60 6,000,o00 40 4,000,o00 20 2,000,o00 0 0 009 011 979 969 999 989 919 929 939 949 959 0-2 0-1 0-1 0-1 000-2 0-1 0-1 950-1 0-1 910-1 920-1 930-1 1 7 6 9 8 4 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 909 Terrestrial Area Number of Terrestrial Units Marine Area Number of Marine Units 293 chapter 7 biodiversity During that same period, five new nature sancturaries were added to official protection, as a complement to the SNASPE. The Motu Miro Hiva Marine Park was also created in 2010, surrounding Salas and Gómez Islands, with an area of 150,000 km2 representing 4 percent of the country’s marine territory. The creation of different protected areas in the country has allowed the protection of marine and continental ecosystems. However, there are vegetal formations that are still not included in areas under protection to prevent their deterioration. Figure 21 shows the percentage of areas under protection for the vegetation formations defined by Luebert and Pliscoff. It highlights that some ecosystems do not reach the 10%-goal for protected areas established by the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity. fig. 21 Representation of Terrestrial Ecosystems in Protected Areas Some ecosystems do not reach 10% Source: Own elaboration, according to Cartographic update of vegetation cover, 2011. Deciduous Forest Schlerophyll Forest Thorn Forest Laurifolia Forest Resinous Forest Evergreen Forest Absolute Desert Steppes and Grasslands Altitude Grasslands Arborescent Shrubland Low Altitude Shrubland Low Desert Shrubland Deciduous Shrubland Desert Shrubland Thorn Shrubland Evergreen Shrubland Peat Bog 0% 10% National Park 20% 30% Natural Monument 40% 50% Natural Reserve 60% 70% Nature Sanctuary 80% 90% Unprotected 100% 294 chapter 7 biodiversity Regarding marine environments, there is a low representation of ecosystems in protected areas. While some progress has been made in recent years with the creation of Motu Motiro Hiva Marine Park, the gap to reach goals planned by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is quite significant. Figure 22 shows the representation of the coastal zones defined by Jaramillo. As for the protection of continental water in protected zones, it is worth nothing that only 2.7 percent of the SNASPE’s total area is made up of wetlands under protection (MMA, 2001a.) See Annex 2. Besides these previously mentioned protected areas, there are other categories used in Chile for productive development, which also have conservation objectives and could be attached to this group, such as the Coastal and Marine Spaces of Native Peoples, the Benthic Resources Use and Management Areas (AMERB by its acronym in Spanish) and the Preferential Areas for Recreational Fishing. Another management measure for the protection of biodiversity is the establishment of priority sites for its conservation. Priority sites were established between 2002 and 2007 to prioritize conservation objectives, within the framework of: The fig. 22 Representation of Ecosystems in Marine Protected Areas Source: Own elaboration, according to the Cartographic coverage of coastal zoogeographical zones, Jaramillo et al. 2004. Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV Zone V Zone VI Zone VII Zone VIII Zone IX 0% 10% Marine Park 20% 30% Marine Reserve 40% 50% Nature Sanctuary 60% 70% 80% Marine Coastal Protected Areas 90% Unprotected 100% 295 National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity and the development of its Action Plan and, particularly, of the Regional Strategies or the Conservation of Biodiversity15. These sites then obtained a legal recognition in 2008, through Law N° 20.283 on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry Development which includes them in its environmental protection regulations. Moreover, as part of the changes to the environmental institutional framework, these sites were added to the criteria that determine the need to prepare and evaluate environmental impact assessments16 . fig. 23 chapter 7 biodiversity 15] See Article 17, Title III regarding Environmental Protection Regulations of Law N° 20.283 (2008). 16] See Article 11, Paragraph 2 of the Environmental Impact Assessment System of Law Nº 19.300, after the promulgation of Law 20.417 in 2010. Priority Sites Priority Sites “The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”. 296 chapter 7 biodiversity Global Environment Facility 17] See http:// www.thegef.org/ gef/gef_country_prg/CL The participation in the Convention on Biological Diversity has allowed the Ministry of the Environment to be the focal point of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and allocate more than 24 million dollars17 for implementing several conservation projects in the country. These projects allow the promotion of publicprivate cooperation, such as in the GEF project for the Biodiversity Conservation in Altos de Cantillana (2005-2010) or the Valdivian Forest Zone: Private-Public Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation (2000-2004). Other GEF projects have allowed the strengthening of biodiversity management capacities in the public sector. Some of the projects developed along this line are the Design and Implementation of a Biodiversity Management System in the Ministry of Public Works (2009-2014) and Strengthening National Frameworks for Invasive Alien Species Governance - Piloting in Juan Fernandez Archipelago (2011-2015). In addition, financing from this fund has allowed work in the removal of barriers that halt the development of new institutional schemes for biodiversity conservation, such as the projects Conserving Globally Significant Biodiversity along the Chilean Coast (2007-2011), the Regional System of Protected Areas for Sustainable Conservation and Use of Valdivian Temperate Rainforest (2007-2012) and Building a Comprehensive National Protected Areas System: A Financial and Operational Framework (2008-2013). 297 The implementation of economic instruments to encourage public-private cooperation in biodiversity conservation is still pending. The environmental performance review the country went through in 2005 (OCDE and ECLAC, 2005) suggests developing a strategic vision of the complementary roles of state and private protected areas in order to achieve a coherent network of core protected areas, buffer zones and ecological corridors. Recent progress has been made in this direction through the bill for the creation of the Biodiversity and Protected Areas Service (SBAP by its acronym in Spanish), which incorporates incentives to the private sector for the creation of private protected areas. At the same time, consumer information regarding the sustainable management of biodiversity must be promoted. One example is the certification of products from forests managed under sustainability criteria. This certification is given by the Chilean System for Sustainable Forest Management Certification (CERTFOR by its acronym in Spanish) and by the Program for Standardization of National Schemes (PEFC by its acronym in Spanish). At present, 75 percent of Chilean plantations are certified (CERTFOR, available at http://www.certfor.org/so¬bre_certificacion_ec.html). Regarding the measures to reduce pressures such as forest fires, a bill was recently sent to increase the fines and penalties for causing them. In addition, it includes the creation of a new institutional framework to prevent these damages. In other words, it aims to toughen up the low sanctions imposed by the Forest Law, dating from 1931, on those who cause forest fires. Species Diversity In order to learn about species and determine priorities for their conservation Chile has, since 2005, a standard procedure set forth in the Species Classification Regulation (RCE by its acronym in Spanish), which is mandated by article 37 Environmental Framework (Law N° 19.300) and established through Decree N° 75 (2005) of the Ministry of the General Secretariat of the Presidency. In 2010, Law N° 20.417 was passed, modifying article 37 of Law N° 19.300, in order to extend the taxonomic groups that can be classified as “plants, algae, fungi and wild animals, based on technical-scientific background and according to their conservation status." The RCE establishes regulations for the classification procedure of wild flora and fauna species. This classification has implications on a series of processes and administrative acts, especially within the Environmental Impact Assessment System, the Hunting Law, the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture and the Native chapter 7 biodiversity 298 18] Modification introduced by Law Nº20.417, in 2010. chapter 7 biodiversity Forest Law. In addition, it provides the basis for actions aimed at recovering endangered species and restorating their habitat. This regulation18 establishes a unique procedure for species classification. Proposals are made by a 12-member classification committee composed of representatives from academic institutions and public agencies with competence in the matter, basing their work on the criteria of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This procedure includes citizen participation mechanisms for the proposal of species, background contributions and observations regarding the classification methods. The formalization of a classification requires a statement by the Council of Ministers for Sustainability and the passing of a Supreme Decree. The modification to the environmental institutional framework, in 2010, updated the conservation categories to equate them to the ones currently used by the UICN. It also established that, in accordance with these classifications, the Ministry of the Environment must approve species recovery, conservation and management plans, with the RCE as the responsible entity for defining their preparation procedures, public information system and content. As a result of the Species Classification Regulation, between 2005 and 2009 four processes were carried out to classify 298 species, representing 32 percent of the species described in the country. Other four processes, completed between 2010 and 2011, catalogued 393 species, but their results are still in the formalization process. In total, these eight processes have classified 621 taxa. From the sixth process, species already classified in the five previous processes have been reclassified, in order to update them to the new categories included in the legal modification of Law N° 19.300. Of these 621 species, 301 had already been classified by other processes, some of them based on legislation such as the Hunting Law Regulation, while others were done based on institutional initiatives, like the Red Books published by CONAF, or academic initiatives, such as the classifications published in Newsletter N° 47 of the National Museum of Natural History. Likewise, 435 species classified within the framework of these initiatives have not yet been revised through the official procedure, maintaining their previous classifications and representing a priority for the following processes. On the other hand, the Operational Committee for the Control of Invasive Alien Species (COCEI by its acronym in Spanish) was created within the framework of the Policy on Endangered Species, with responsibility for preparing an Integrated National Program for the Control of Alien Species. The COCEI is formed by representatives of different public services: the Ministry of the Environment, the Agriculture and Livestock Service (SAG), the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF), the Fishing Undersecretariat (SUBPESCA), chapter 7 biodiversity 299 fig. Other 68% Non-classified Described Species 97% 3% Classified Species 24 RCE 32% the National Fishing Service (SERNAPESCA), the National Museum of Natural History (MHHN), Directorate General of the Maritime Territory and Merchant Marine (DIRECTEMAR), the Agricultural Policies and Studies Agency (ODEPA by its acronym in Spanish), the National Customs Service, the National Police, National Investigation Police and the Chilean Air Force (FACH by its acronym in Spanish). In other scopes, the hunting and capture of otters, sea lions, cetaceans and penguins is regulated by the Fishing Law, while the rest of mammals and birds are regulated by the Hunting Law. The protection of forest species is regulated by the Law N° 20.283 on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry Development. It is worth noting that, since 2008, Law N° 20.293 has established that the entire maritime territory in the country is a sanctuary for the 43 cetacean species in national waters. Regarding the overexploitation of fisheries, a bill is currently being analyzed to modify the Fishing Law and resolve the debate on fishing quotas once the Law on Maximum Catch Limits by Ship-owners expires. This project proposes an Experts Panel, whose recommendations will be binding on the annual catch quotas of the resources subject to the maximum limits regime. Classified Species in Chile Source: Own elaboration. Included information is until the RCE’s fourth classification process and other classification mechanisms, different from the RCE. 300 chapter 7 biodiversity Genetic diversity 19] United Nations, Convention on Biological Diversity, article 9. Genetic diversity has an ecological, genetic, economic, social, scientific, cultural, recreational and ornamental value (Seguel in CONAMA, 2008), hence the importance of preserving it. The Convention on Biological Diversity points out the need to maintain “facilities for ex-situ conservation of and research on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources19.” In Chile, this topic is particularly relevant, due to the high degree of endemism of its national flora, as well as the genetic diversity between and within species. This phytogenetic heritage is the basis for the country's forestry-agiculturelivestock development and, at the same time, contributes to the preservation of the unique features of national biodiversity. Chile currently does not have a National Conservation Program on this issue, but there is a series of public-private initiatives working to conserve species, mainly by means of germplasm banks, botanical gardens and nurseries. According to Salazar (2005, cited by Seguel in CONAMA, 2008), in Chile there are approximately 20 institutions claiming to carry out ex situ species conservation. This would result in 324 genera and 633 species conserved. Annex 10 lists some Chilean institutions working on ex situ conservation of phytogenetic resources. Information The Environmental Performance Review of the country carried out by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2005 (OECD and ECLAC) recommends mounting a coordinated effort by state agencies and academia to build the scientific knowledge base (including the cataloguing of living species) required for nature management. In this regard, and because national level information is scarce, specific and often stored in databases maintained by university professors, research centers, universities or privates institutions, the Ministry of the Environment implemented a Biodiversity Clearing House Mechanism (CHM) for Chile, whose purpose is to provide a cooperation and coordination space for the scientific and technical community linked to biodiversity issues, in order to have integrated information for the entire country. 301 References Barbier , E.; Acreman, M. y K nowler , D., 1997. Valoración económica de los humedales. Guía para decidores y planificadores. Oficina de la Convención de RAMSAR. Biodiversity Indicators Partnership, 2011. Available on http://www.bipindicators.net/partnership Bovarnick, A.; Alpizar, F.; Schnell, C.; Editores, 2010. 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Identificación de los mecanismos subyacentes a la invasión de Castor canadensis (Rodentia) en el archipiélago de Tierra del Fuego, Chile. chapter 7 biodiversity chapter 7 biodiversity 304 Annexes Annex 1 Threat Hierarchy By Ecotype Threats Ecotypes Physical Chemical Biological Δ Alteration of shoreline Saline intrusion Evaporation dynamics Δ Extraction and modification of surface water flow of tributaries Δ Riparian vegetation burning Δ Agricultural activity Δ Underground and surface Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- water extraction Δ Riparian vegetation burning trial Waste with high salt concentration Δ Surface water extraction Infiltration (A) Δ Drainage Δ Sedimentation Δ Deforestation Δ Water residence time modi- Saturated infiltration (B) fication Δ Sedimentation Δ Deforestation Runoff Δ Surface water extraction Δ Deforestation Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- Δ Grazing trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Domestic predators Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high salt concentration Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Grazing Δ Single-crop farming Δ Grazing Δ Biomass extraction Δ Domestic predators Δ Deforestation of riparian vegetation Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- Underground upwellings Δ Underground and surface water extraction Δ Riparian vegetation burning trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high salt concentration Δ Agricultural activity Δ Grazing Δ Introduction of alien species Δ Domestic predators Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- Organic acids 0° C isotherm Δ Deforestation Δ Water resistance time mo- dification trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus- trial Waste with high nutrient concentration Δ Introduction of alien species Δ Grazing chapter 7 biodiversity 305 Annex 2 Endangered – rare Endangered Vulnerable - rare Vulnerable Rare Regionally Outstanding Data Deficient Rare Data Deficient Not in Danger Unclassified Classified Species Vascular plants 5 83 59 5 91 109 38 5 16 26 5063 437 Mollusks 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 37 0 1144 43 Crustaceans 0 0 1 0 3 0 4 0 10 0 18 18 Fish 0 5 15 1 9 0 9 1 3 3 1180 46 Amphibians 0 12 2 1 5 3 5 5 6 4 13 43 Reptiles 0 0 8 0 14 50 6 0 15 7 11 100 Birds 1 4 15 0 20 11 11 0 17 0 381 79 Mammals 0 1 19 0 12 13 10 1 42 5 47 103 Group Extinct Species Classified by Some Classification Process Annex 3 Protection Figures Year Nº of Terrestrial Units Terrestrial Area (ha) Nº of Marine Units Marine Area (ha) Total Units Total Area 1900-1909 1 16,532 1 16,532 1910-1919 2 94,237 2 94,237 1920-1929 1 250,415 1 250,415 1930-1939 7 1,141,023 7 1,141,023 1940-1949 4 237,358 4 237,358 1950-1959 3 1,721,535 3 1,721,535 1960-1969 12 4,297,333 12 4,297,333 1970-1979 17 502,688 4 250 21 502,937 1980-1989 38 5,407,946 1 2 39 5,407,948 1990-1999 26 691,260 7 17,205 33 708,465 2000-2009 19 630,576 12 82,772 31 713,348 2010 2 118,276 1 15,000,000 3 15,118,276 Total 132 15,109,179 25 15,100,229 157 30,209,408 306 Annex 4 chapter 7 biodiversity Wetland area in SNASPE Wetland Area in SNASPE (ha) Wetland Area in SNASPE in total SNASPE Area (%) Arica and Parinacota 10,070 2.8 Tarapacá 12,090 3.2 Antofagasta 25,380 7.0 Atacama Region 6,900 4.9 Coquimbo 180 1.3 Valparaíso 1,890 8.6 Metropolitan 440 2.0 Libertador General Bernardo O’higgins 70 1.8 Maule 120 0.7 Biobío 300 0.2 La Araucanía 1,520 0.5 Los Ríos 3,280 3.3 Los Lagos 36,390 4.5 Aysén 95,960 2.0 Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica (*) 186,170 2.8 Total 381,400 2.7 307 Annex 5 chapter 7 biodiversity Ecosystem Representation in IUCN Category Protected Areas 20 Natural Monument (%) II III IV IV Deciduous Forest 4.9 0 3.5 1.1 9 Sclerophyll Forest 0.2 0 0.8 0.7 2 Thorn Forest 0.3 0.2 1.9 0 2 Laurifolia Forest 6.5 0.5 0.4 7 Resinous Forest 5.6 27.2 4.3 37 Evergreen Forest 15.8 0 5.1 1.9 23 Absolute Desert 0 0 1 0 1 Steppes and Grasslands 0.2 0 0.8 Altitude Grasslands 2.3 0 5.5 0.6 8 Arborescent Shrubland 4 0 4.5 0.1 9 Low Altitude Shrubland 9.8 0.1 3.2 0.5 14 Low Desert Shrubland 0.1 0.8 0 0.2 1 Deciduous Shrubland 0 45 1,2 0 46 Desert Shrubland 0 1.5 0.3 0.2 2 0 0.4 0.4 Vegetation Formation Thorn Shrubland National Nature Reserve Sanctuary (%) (%) %Total Representation in Protected Areas National Park (%) 1 Evergreen Shrubland 56.9 37.2 94 Peat bog 40.9 43.2 84 20] Main conservation objectives: IUCN categories, I (to protect undisturbed biodiversity, allowing very controlled visits), II (to provide spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitation opportunities that are environmentally and culturally compatible), III (to protect specific, natural and outstanding features, biodiversity and habitats related to them), IV (to maintain, conserve and restore species and habitats), V (to protect and maintain important terrestrial/marine landscapes, the observation of nature and cultural values associated to them), VI (to protect natural ecosystems and use natural resources in a sustainable manner). chapter 7 biodiversity 308 Annex 6 Ecosystem Representation in Marine Protected Areas Ecosystem Representation Protected area / UICN6 category % marinecoastal Protected Areas % Marine Park % Marine Reserves % Nature Sanctuary VI Ia IV IV ZONE I 0.3 0.3 ZONE II ZONE III 2.8 2.9 5.6 ZONE IV 0.02 0.02 ZONE V 0.01 0.1 0.2 ZONE VI 0.9 0.9 ZONEVII 0.01 0.1 0.5 0.6 ZONE VIII 1.1 0.02 1.1 ZONE IX Coastal Zoogeographic al Zone % Total Representation in Protected Areas 309 Annex 7 chapter 7 biodiversity Vegetation Belts by Region, Luebert and Pliscoff Region Arica and Parinacota Region Vegetation Formation Thorn Forest 190,853.92 0.27 381,192.48 0.54 Low Altitude Shrubland 932,365.22 1.33 Low Desert Shrubland 101,244.32 0.14 Desert Shrubland 54,012.08 0.08 176,769.60 0.25 Absolute Desert 1,816,093.93 2.60 Low Altitude Shrubland 1,323,445.67 1.89 Low Desert Shrubland 440,907.94 0.63 Desert Shrubland 420,217.97 0.60 3,587,921.65 5.13 12,204.52 0.02 Low Altitude Shrubland 2,770,021.92 3.96 Low Desert Shrubland 4,497,145.11 6.43 Desert Shrubland 1,535,675.13 2.19 317,042.89 0.45 Low Altitude Shrubland 2,479,689.70 3.54 Low Desert Shrubland 1,373,731.09 1.96 Absolute Desert Altitude Grasslands Antofagasta Region Altitude Grasslands Atacama Region Coquimbo Region % Potential Area of the Country Absolute Desert Thorn Forest Tarapacá Region Area (ha) Desert Shrubland 3,251,083.47 4.65 Sclerophyll Forest 228,194.29 0.33 Altitude Grasslands 143,340.31 0.20 Arborescent Shrubland 402,348.04 0.58 Low Altitude Shrubland 1,169,895.14 1.67 131,077.87 0.19 Desert Shrubland 1,872,710.66 2.68 Thorn Shrubland 92,782.20 0.13 Low Desert Shrubland Continues on next page 310 Region Valparaíso Region Metropolitan Region chapter 7 biodiversity Vegetation Formation Maule Region % Potential Area of the Country Deciduous Forest 18,529.42 0.03 Sclerophyll Forest 626,748.09 0.90 Thorn Forest 184,335.52 0.26 92,159.19 0.13 Arborescent Shrubland 272,291.87 0.39 Low Altitude Shrubland 216,869.80 0.31 Thorn Shrubland 156,176.68 0.22 Deciduous Forest 56,094.25 0.08 Sclerophyll Forest 584,557.50 0.84 Thorn Forest 335,062.42 0.48 Altitude Grasslands 170,538.09 0.24 Arborescent Shrubland 54,265.33 0.08 Low Altitude Shrubland 252,317.49 0.36 2,865.31 0.00 Deciduous Forest 63,165.13 0.09 Sclerophyll Forest 828,559.71 1.18 Thorn Forest 330,991.23 0.47 Altitude Grasslands 165,906.89 0.24 Low Altitude Shrubland 231,603.94 0.33 Altitude Grasslands Thorn Shrubland Libertador General Bernardo O´Higgins Region Area (ha) Deciduous Forest 789,890.54 1.13 Sclerophyll Forest 721,619.54 1.03 Thorn Forest 800,683.19 1.14 Altitude Grasslands 120,007.87 0.17 Low Altitude Shrubland 586,518.56 0.84 Continues on next page 311 Region Vegetation Formation Deciduous Forest 2,464,258.59 3.52 856,186.75 1.22 77,322.33 0.11 Laurifolia Forest 120,686.27 0.17 Resinous Forest 104,906.25 0.15 Evergreen Forest 16,945.69 0.02 Low Altitude Shrubland 51,237.58 0.07 2,729,812.78 3.90 Laurifolia Forest 25,403.81 0.04 Resinous Forest 349,259.06 0.50 Evergreen Forest 27,501.20 0.04 9,098.29 0.01 1,054,137.42 1.51 564,422.88 0.81 Resinous Forest 16,990.82 0.02 Evergreen Forest 104,438.75 0.15 872.22 0.00 Deciduous Forest 1,303,448.35 1.86 Sclerophyll Forest 673,101.58 0.96 Resinous Forest 680,989.88 0.97 1,967,104.98 2.81 14,631.53 0.02 Low Altitude Shrubland 1,093.15 0.00 Deciduous Shrubland 3,725.03 0.01 Deciduous Forest Araucanía Region Low Altitude Shrubland Deciduous Forest Laurifolia Forest Los Ríos Region Low Altitude Shrubland Los Lagos Region % Potential Area of the Country Sclerophyll Forest Thorn Forest Biobío Region Area (ha) chapter 7 biodiversity Evergreen Forest Altitude Grasslands Continues on next page chapter 7 biodiversity 312 Region Vegetation Formation Deciduous Forest 2.63 791,860.65 1.13 2,133,539.59 3.05 Steppes and Grasslands 460,572.48 0.66 Altitude Grasslands 361,116.44 0.52 Arborescent Shrubland 366,015.89 0.52 Deciduous Shrubland 388,296.59 0.55 Evergreen Shrubland 324,054.14 0.46 Peat bog Evergreen Forest Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica Region % Potential Area of the Country 1,841,835.11 Resinous Forest Aysén Region Area (ha) 1,928,08.31 2.76 Deciduous Forest 886,415.79 1.27 Evergreen Forest 1,339,028.98 1.91 Steppes and Grasslands 2,032,617.16 2.90 Altitude Grasslands 158,402.94 0.23 Arborescent Shrubland 768,026.38 1.10 Low Altitude Shrubland 982,784.98 1.40 Deciduous Shrubland 227,274.80 0.32 4,401,674.97 6.29 Peat bog Source: Own elaboration, based on MMA data, 2011. 313 Annex 8 chapter 7 biodiversity Protection Categories Protection Category Description Legal source National Reserve A generally reduced area, characterized by the presence of native flora and fauna species or by the existence of relevant geological sites from the scenic, cultural, educa- Law N° 19.300, article 10. tional or scientific perspective. The objective of this SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of management category is to preserve samples of natural Foreign Affairs. environments and cultural and scenic features related to them and, provided that they are compatible with this, to carry out education, research or recreation activities. National Park A generally vast area, in which there are many representative or unique environments of the country's natural ecological diversity, not significantly disturbed by human actions, capable of self-perpetuating and where flora and fauna species or geological formations are especially interesting for education, science or recreation. The objectives of this management category are the preservation of samples of natural environments and cultural and scenic features related to them; the continuity of evolution processes; and, provided that they are compatible with this, carrying out education, research or recreation activities. Virgin Regions Reserve An area in which there are primitive natural conditions in terms of flora, fauna, housing and communication, with the absence of roads for motorized vehicle traffic and prohibited to any commercial exploitation. The objective of this management category is to keep such reserves as untouched as possible, except for duly authorized scientific research studies and for inspections by the Corporation or for other appropriate ends that do not affect the purposes for which the reserve was created. Despite the fact that this type of protected area is fully in force, no unit has been established through this protection category in Chile. Law N° 19.300, article 10. SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of Foreign Affairs. SD N° 4363/31 Ministry of Lands and Colonization DWL Nº 1939/77 (article 21) Law N° 19.300, article 10. SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (Washington Convention) Continues on next page 314 Protection Category Natural Monument chapter 7 biodiversity Description Legal source An area whose natural resources must be conserved and used with special care, because of their susceptibility to suffer degradation or due to their relevance in providing well-being to the community. The objectives of this ma- Law N° 19.300, article 10. nagement category are to conserve and protect the soil SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of resource and threatened wild flora and fauna species, to Foreign Affairs. maintain or improve water production, and to development and apply technologies for the rational use of flora and fauna. Nature Sanctuary Terrestrial or marine areas offering special possibilities for geological, paleontological, zoological, botanical o ecological studies and research or having natural formations whose conservation is a matter of interest for science or for the State. This type of protected area is currently established by the Ministry of the Environment. The Council of National Monuments, according to Law N° 17.288/70, modified by Law N° 20.417, prepares a report on the proposal of each new sanctuary. This is sent to the Ministry of the Environment, which then passes it on to the Council of Ministers for Sustainability for a statement. The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for the general custody of these (public or private) areas. Marine Parks Marine parks are specific and defined marine areas set aside to preserve ecological areas of interest for science and to care for areas that will ensure the maintenance and diversity of hydrobiological species, as well as those related to their habitat. No activities can be carried out in them, except for those authorized with observation, research or study purposes. These areas are currently under the care of the National Fishing Service and extractive activities can only be carried out in them during transitory periods, provided that there is a well-justified resolution by the Fishing Undersecretariat. Law N° 19.300, article 10. Law Nº 17.288/70 of National Monuments (article 31). Law N° 19.300, article 10. SD N° 430/91. Ministry of Economy and Development (article 3rd, letter d). Continues on next page 315 Protection Category Description Marine Reserves Marine reserves are areas that shelter hydrobiological resources in order to protect breeding areas, fishing grounds and repopulation areas through management. These areas are currently under the care of the National Fishing Service and extractive activities can only be carried out in them during transitory periods, provided that there is a well-justified resolution by the Fishing Undersecretariat. Coastal-marine Protected Areas (AMCP-MU by their acronym in Spanish) They are areas that include portions of water, sea bottom, rocks, beaches and public beach lands (flora and fauna), historical and cultural resources that the law or other efficient means set aside to protect all or part of the defined place. Therefore, the AMCP-MU are created as a management tool for the protection, management, maintenance and restoration of natural and cultural resources of coastal and marine waters. Communities living in them can develop sustainable tourism, fishing and recreation activities. chapter 7 biodiversity Legal source Law N° 19.300, article 10. SD N° 430/91. Ministry of Economy and Development (article 2nd, Nº43) SD Nº 827/95. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. DFL Nº 340/60. Ministry of Defense. DFL Nº 2.222/78. Ministry of Defense. DFL Nº 475/94. Ministry of Defense 316 Annex 9 chapter 7 biodiversity Chilean Institutions with Ex-situ Conservation of Phytogenetic Resources Nº Genera Nº Species Universidad Arturo Prat 11 13 79 Cereals, forage plants, fruit trees and vines, wild species Universidad de Antofagasta 36 38 si Forage plants, fruit trees and vines, wild species Universidad Adventista de Chile 1 1 26 Ornamental plants Universidad de Tarapacá 4 5 28 Cereals, fruit trees and vines, oleaginous plants Universidad de Talca 6 13 4,044 Wild species Universidad Católica del Maule 1 1 20 Wild species Instituto Forestal 2 5 550 Forest species Universidad de Magallanes 21 26 43 Forest species, ornamental plants, wild species Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso 3 10 282 Wild species Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile 7 7 1,277 Ornamental plants and wild species Institution Nº Entries 20 Species Conserved Ex-situ Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIA) 185 312 41,105 Cereals, forage plants, fruit trees and vines, medicinal plants, oleaginous, wild species Universidad de Concepción 32 33 147 Cereals, forage, fruit trees and vines, fruit orchards, medicinal, oleaginous Fundación Chile 2 3 198 Aromatic plants Continues on next page 317 Institution Forestal Mininco Universidad Austral de Chile Nº Genera Nº Species 35 48 Nº 21 Entries 20 13 75 4,834 chapter 7 biodiversity Species Conserved Ex-situ Forest species Forest species, fruit trees and vines, forage plants, vegetables, medicinal plants, tubers and roots, wild species Aromatic plants, forest species, forage plants, fruit trees and vines, leguminous plants, medicinal plants, wild species Universidad de Chile 40 99 566 Universidad de La Serena 1 11 si Corporación Nacional Forestal 36 57 183 Forest species, ornamental plants Semillas Baer 1 1 85 Pseudocereals Forestal El Álamo Ltda. 1 si 180 Forest species Source: Salazar, 2005. Genetic Resource Unit, INIA, La Platina (personal communication) 21] This refers to a live sample, stock or population of a plant maintained in a germplasm bank for its preservation and/or use. A species can be represented by different entries that differ according to the type of population to which they belong (i.e. primitive variety, traditional variety, improved variety, advanced lines of improvement, wild plants) and/or to their origin (site of collection or creation). INIA Terms Glossary. Wild species