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Chapter 7
Biodiversity
1] Background: Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity
247
2] State of Biodiversity
249
3] Pressures on Ecosystems, Species and Genetic Diversity273
4] Response for the Protection and Conservation of Ecosystem Services in Chile
282
Representation of the Three
Classic Biodiversity Levels
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
SPECIES DIVERSITY
GENETIC
DIVERSITY
Source: Own elaboration graphic based
on LAZO et al in CONAMA 2008
Composition: Type of habitat
or environment
Function: Nitrogen fixation,
productivity, respiration and other
functions
Composition: Taxonomic identity
of species
Structure: Richness, abundance, equity
Function: Predation, pollination,
dispersion and other interactions
Composition: Genetic heritage
Structure: Within a population
and/or among populations
Function: Physiology, behavior,
among other adaptations to
the environment
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chapter 7 biodiversity
Introduction
Abstract
Biodiversity is the foundation of ecosystem services and social wellbeing. However, the increase of human activities has generated a
series of effects on the environment, which have become the main
threat to biodiversity conservation. Some of the current pressures
on biodiversity are: Introduction of alien species, overexploitation of
natural resources, and habitat loss or modification, among others.
The loss and degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services
is one of the main challenges faced by humanity. In the country,
several initiatives and legal frameworks have been developed for
their protection, thus providing a set of regulations to develop and
promote protection actions, both for ecosystems and species.
Background:
Ecosystem Services
and Biodiversity 1
Differences in latitude and altitude in our territory make Chile a highly
heterogeneous country in terms of the environmental conditions that
support its biological diversity. This results in a great wealth of terrestrial,
continental water, aquatic, marine and coastal ecosystem environments1, in
which many species have evolved. Likewise, the isolation condition of the
country enables the existence of species in environments that are unique
in the world (Lazo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 53).
1] According to the Convention on Biological Diversity,
ecosystem is defined as “a dynamic complex of plant,
animal and micro-organism communities and their
non-living environment interacting as a functional unit"
(Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 2).
248
2] Article 2 of the Environmental
Framework Law Nº 19.300 defines
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity as
the variability of living organisms that
are part of all terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. It includes diversity within
a same species and among species
and ecosystems.
The Four Compontents of
Ecosystem Services
Source: OECD, 2010.
chapter 7 biodiversity
Ecosystems are not only important for the conservation of biological diversity,
but also provide services that satisfy different needs, determining the well-being
of people and society (TEEB, 2010). However, the rise of human pressure on the
environment, as well as the lack of acknowledgment of the economic value of
ecosystem services, has caused many impacts whose effects are the main threat
to the biodiversity conservation in the world (Evaluación de los Ecosistemas
del Milenio, 2005).
In this context, it is crucial to move forward towards the sustainable management of ecosystems, giving priority to the preservation of ecosystem services
in time.
By promoting the sustainable use of ecosystems, a potential flow of assets
and services is generated in the long term, which implies a greater economic
return in time (Bovarnick et al., 2010).
Indeed, the protection of biodiversity2, which refers to the variety of all life
forms and the existing interactions among them, is a key factor for maintaining
ecosystem services (TEEB, 2010).
Ecosystem services
Supporting Services
fig.
Primary production
Habitat provision
Nutrient cycle
Water cycle
1
Regulation Services
Protection against
natural risks
Water purification
Erosion control
Weather regulation
Pollination
Among others
Provisioning Services
Natural
Environment,
Social Well-being
Cultural Services
Religious and spiritual values
Education and inspiration
Recreation and aesthetic values
Knowledge systems
Among others
Food and fiber
Genetic resources
Biochemicals
Fresh water
Fuel
Among others
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chapter 7 biodiversity
State of Biodiversity 2
This section describes the state of each of the three biodiversity levels:
Ecosystems, species and genes. Each of these creates characteristic energy
flow patterns and biogeochemical cycles.
Ecosystem Diversity
Composition
(type of habitat or
environment)
Function
(nitrogen fixation,
productivity, respiration
and other functions)
Structure
Structure
(richness, abundance,
equality)
Function
(predation, pollination,
dispersion and other
interactions)
Genetic Diversity
Composition
(genetic pool)
Structure
(within a population
and/or among populations)
2
Source: Own elaboration,
based on LAZO et al. in
CONAMA 2008
SPECIES DIVERSITY
Composition
(taxonomic identity
of species)
fig.
Representation of the Three
Classic Biodiversity Levels
and their Direct and Indirect
Relations
Function
(physiology, behavior,
among other adaptations
to the environment)
Ecosystem diversity
According to Leuschner (2005 quoted in CONAMA 2008, page 75), an
ecosystem can be defined as “an energy-conducting complex composed of
biological communities and their physical environment that has a limited
self-regulation capacity”. Since ecosystems are open, their boundaries are
imposed by the observer and they can be divided into subsystems (Pliscoff
and Luebert in CONAMA 2008).
On the other hand, ecosystem diversity refers to the different types of
habitats existing on the planet, including terrestrial, marine, and continental
water ones. The lack of one of these can affect the entire funcioning of the
biosphere (Lazo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 50).
This section will describe the state and classification of terrestrial, marine
and fresh water ecosystems.
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chapter 7 biodiversity
π Terrestrial Ecosystems
In order to characterize terrestrial ecosystems, vegetation distribution and
its relation to geographical and weather factors is used. The first classifications
recorded in Chile include proposals made by Di Castri (1968), Pisano’s Biogeographical Zones (1966) and the Phitogeographical Map by Quintanilla (1983),
among others.
However, the most applied classifications are those of Gajardo’s Natural Vegetation Classification System (1994), and the updated one in the Bioclimatic
and Vegetation Synopsis by Luebert and Pliscoff (2006).
On the other hand, at a regional level, the most widely used classification for
Latin America and the Caribbean is that of Dinerstein et al. (2001). This classification distinguishes twelve ecoregions for Chile. Two of them, the Valdivian
Temperate Forests Ecoregion and the Central Chilean Matorral Ecoregion are
considered relevant at a global scale because of their biological importance.
Table 1 shows the areas that these ecoregions represent in Chile.
Table 1
Latin America and the Caribbean Terrestrial Ecoregions for Chile
Terrestrial Ecoregions
% Area
Atacama Desert
Central Andean Dry Puna
Central Andean Puna
14
11
0.1
Chilean Matorral
20
Juan Fernández Islands Temperate Forests
Subpolar Nothofagus Forests
Patagonian Steppe
Rapa Nui Subtropical Broadleaf Forests
Ice and Rock
0.01
18
4
0.02
2
San Felix-San Ambrosio Islands Temperate Forests
0.001
Sechura Desert
0,19
Southern Andean Steppe
4
Valdivian Temperate Forests
27
Source: Own elaboration, based on Dinerstein et al. 2001
3] 2011 Cartographic update.
Table 2 shows the classification by Luebert and Pliscoff3, which is defined by
vegetation belts that summarize the response of vegetation, in terms of their
physiognomy and dominant species, to the influence of weather. The classifi-
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chapter 7 biodiversity
cation relates to the potential vegetation of the country, where the deciduous forest, high altitude low shrub and desert shrub types of formations
are predominant.
Shrub and absolute desert formations dominate in the northern zone (until
28º South Latitude). The northern central zone (until 34º South Latitude) is
characterized by the dominance of the Mediterranean bioclimate and the
appearance of sclerophyll vegetation, first with shrubland physiognomy in
the southern Coquimbo Region and northern Valparaíso Region, and then
as a type of forest from 32º South Latitude in the coastal sectors and 31º
South Latitude in the Andean foothills (Luebert and Pliscoff, 2006).
The southern central zone (until 42º South Latitude) has a vegetation
variation, where both sclerophyll and deciduous forests are identified. On
the other hand, the southern zone (until 53º South Latitude) maintains an
evergreen shrubland physiognomy in the coast of the Chonos Archipelago,
which gives way to an evergreen forest inland. In the continent, the evergreen forest is dominated by Nothofagus species. Further south, there are
coastal areas dominated by peat bogs (Luebert and Pliscoff, 2006).
Table 2
Vegetation Classification According to Luebert and Pliscoff
Vegetation
Formation
Nº of Vegetation
Belts4
% Country Area
Deciduous forest
22
15.9
Sclerophyll forest
8
5.5
Thorn forest
7
3.0
Laurifolia forest
3
2.0
Resinous forest
8
2.8
Evergreen forest
10
8.0
Absolute desert
2
8.2
Steppes and grasslands
5
3.6
Altitude grasslands
5
2.2
Arborescent shrubland
4
2.7
Low altitude shrubland
20
15.8
Desert low shrubland
5
9.3
Deciduous shrubland
2
0.9
Desert scrub shrubland
19
10.1
Thorn shrubland
2
0,4
Evergreen shrubland
1
0,5
Peat bog
4
9.2
The southern central region of Chile represents one of the 34 richest biodiversity
4] See Annex 8 for details about
vegetation belts.
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chapter 7 biodiversity
fig.
3
Vegetation Formations by Region
Source: Own elaboration, based on the Luebert and Pliscoff
vegetation classification, 2011 cartographic update.
Arica and
Parinacota
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
Metropolitan
Libertador Gral.
Bernardo O'Higgins
Maule
Biobío
Araucanía
Los Ríos
Bosque caducifolio
Los Lagos
Bosque esclerofilo
Bosque
Aysén
del espinoso
Gral.
Carlos
Ibáñez
Bosque
laurifolio
del Campo
Bosque resinoso
Magallanes and
BosqueAntarctica
siempreverde
Chilean
Desierto absoluto
0
2
4
6
Estepas y pastizales
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
% National coverage
Herbazal de altitud
Matorral arborescente
Matorral bajo de altitud
Deciduous Forest
Low Altitude Shrubland
Matorral bajo desértico
Schlerophyll Forest
Low Desert Shrubland
Matorral desértico
Thorn Forest
Deciduous Shrubland
Matorral espinoso
Laurifolia Forest
Desert Shrubland
Matorral caducifolio
Matorral siempreverde
Turbera
Resinous Forest
Thorn Shrubland
Evergreen Forest
Evergreen Shrubland
Absolute Desert
Peat Bog
Steppes and Grasslands
Altitude Grasslands
Arborescent Shrubland
“The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the
State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”.
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chapter 7 biodiversity
Regarding native forests, the largest coverage is concentrated in the
southern zone, particularly in the Aysén, Los Lagos and Magallanes regions,
with 35 percent, 20 percent and 19 percent, respectively. According to the
native forest cadastre (CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF, 1999-2011), which classifies according to forest types, the ones with greater coverage at a national level are
the evergreen and lenga forests, with 30 percent and 26 percent, respectively.
fig.
4
Native Forests According to Forest Type, per Region by 2011.
Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAF, 2011a.
Arica and Parinacota
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
Metropolitan
Libertador Gral.
Bernardo O'Higgins
Maule
Biobío
Araucanía
De los Ríos
Los Lagos
Aysén del Gral. Carlos
Ibáñez del Campo
Magallanes and the
Chilean Antarctica
0
1,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
5,000,000
Area (Ha)
Patagonian Cypress
Mountain Range Cypress
Schlerophyll
Oak-Hualo
Araucaria
Magallanes Coihue
Lenga Beech
Oak-Rauli Beech-Coihue
Cypress of the Guaitecas
Coihue-Rauli Beech-Tepa
Chilean Palm Tree
Evergreen
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chapter 7 biodiversity
Central Chile Hotspot
Chile Central
Hotspot
fig.
5
spots on the planet, called hotspots. Likewise, this zone presents strongly
impacted habitats.
The southern central region hotspot covers from the Pacific coast to the
Andean summits between 25° and 47° South Latitude, including the narrow
coastal strip that extends between 19° and 25° South Latitude. It also encompasses the Juan Fernandez Islands and a small forest area adjacent to
Argentina (Arroyo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 90).
This hotspot covers ecosystems such as northern Patagonian and Valdivian
rainforests, evergreen forests, dominated by several Nothofagus species
(Nothofagus obliqua, Nothofagus alessandri, Nothofagus macrocarpa), sclerophyllous forests and Mediterranean scrub, deserts with winter rain and
High Andean flora (Hoffman et al. 1988 in CONAMA 2008, page 90).
One of the most remarkable aspects of the Chilean hotspot is the isolated
condition of its biota. The Andean Mountain Range and the Atacama Desert
represent biological frontiers that brand it with unique characteristics that
make it different from other vulnerable zones in the world. On the other
hand, the high number of endemic families and genera in this zone has
caused it to receive even greater attention (Universidad de Chile, 2010,
page 177).
This hotspot includes 3,893 native vascular plants, 1,957 endemic plant
species (50 percent of the total native vascular plants), 226 bird species
(12 endemic ones), 43 amphibian species (67 percent endemic), 41 reptile
species (66 percent endemic) and 43 native fish species (with two endemic
families) (Arroyo et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 90).
π State of Terrestrial Ecosystems
Source: Roble (Nothofagus obliqua)
and Coigue (Nothofagus dombeyi),
Photograph: Miguel Etchepare,
December, 2009.
Source: Blanquillo (Podiceps
occipitalis) Photograph: Charif Tala,
August, 2006
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chapter 7 biodiversity
At a national level, there are no indicators that allow making a diagnosis of the current state of terrestrial ecosystems. The ones used the most
for this purpose are ecosystem extension and structure, habitat variety,
connectivity and ecosystem fragmentation, among others (BIP, 2011). Nevertheless, in his classification proposal for terrestrial ecoregions in Latin
America and the Caribbean, Dinerstein et al. (1995) gives an evaluation of
the conservation state of the twelve Chilean ecoregions, identifying three
"endangered" ecoregions with the highest conservation priority (Chilean
Winter-Rain Forests, Patagonian Steppe and Central Chilean Matorral). Two
of them are considered endemic (Chilean Winter-Rain Forests and Central
Chilean Matorral).
Table 3
Ecosystem
Conifer/
Temperate
Broadleaf
Forests
Grasslands/
Savannas/
Shrublands
Xeric
Formations
Conservation Status of Chilean Ecoregions
Habitat
Temperate
Forest
Montane
Grasslands
Mediterranean
Scrub
Deserts
and Xeric
Shrublands
Ecoregion
Status
Priority
Chilean Winter-Rain Forests
Endangered Highest Regional Priority
Valdivian Temperate Forests
Vulnerable
Highest Regional Priority
Subpolar Nothofagus Forests
Vulnerable
Moderate Regional Priority
Central Andean Puna
Vulnerable
Highest Regional Priority
Central Andean Wet Puna
Vulnerable
Highest Regional Priority
Central Andean Dry Puna
Vulnerable
Highest Regional Priority
Southern Andean Steppe
Stable
Important at a National Scale
Patagonian Steppe
Endangered Highest Regional Priority
Patagonian Grasslands
Vulnerable
Central Chilean Matorral
Endangered Highest Regional Priority
Sechura Desert
Vulnerable
Moderate Regional Priority
Atacama Desert
Vulnerable
Moderate Regional Priority
Moderate Regional Priority
Source: Dinerstein et al. 1995.
Likewise, there are local experiences that quantify the situation of some
ecosystems in the country. One example is the Cadastre and assessment of
native vegetation resources in Chile (CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF, 1999-2011) and
its periodic updates. These allow an estimation of the structure of existing
native forests in the country, which covers approximately 18 percent of the
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chapter 7 biodiversity
continental area, with mature forests being the most abundant.
In the period analyzed by CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF (1999-2011), secondary forests
showed an increase of approximately 223,000 hectares. On the other hand, mature forests decreased nearly 65,600 hectares. It is important to point out that
the variation of the estimated area based on the updated cadastre does not
necessarily correspond to a real increase or decrease, but could be related to
improvements in the data collection methodology.
Based on the CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF (1999-2011) study, the variation of native
fig.
6
Native Forest Structure, 1999-2011
Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAFCONAMA-BIRF and CONAF, 2011a.
Area
(Ha)
16,000,000
14,000,000
12,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
1997
2011
Stunted Forest
Mature-Secondary Forest
Secondary Forest
Mature Forest
257
forest cover according to forest type was also analyzed. Table 4 shows
the Lenga and Sclerophyll forests are the types that have experienced the
greatest area increase.
Table 4
Native Forest Area by Forest Type
Forest type
1999 Base
Area (ha)
2011 Update
%
Area (ha)
%
1999-2011
Variation
Evergreen
4,148,900
31
4,132,000
30
-16,900
Lenga Beech
3,391,600
25
3,581,600
26
190,000
Magallanes Coihue
1,793,100
13
1,691,800
12
-101,300
Oak-Rauli Beech-Coihue
1,460,500
11
1,468,500
11
8,000
Cypress of the
Guaitecas
970,300
7
930,100
7
-40,200
Coihue-Rauli BeechTepa
563,500
4
556,200
4
-7,300
Sclerophyll
345,100
3
473,400
4
128,300
Patagonian Cypress
263,200
2
258,400
2
-4,800
Araucaria
261,100
2
253,700
2
-7,400
Oak-Hualo
188,300
1
206,000
2
17,700
Mountain Range
Cypress
45,000
0
47,200
0
2,200
Chilean Palm Tree
-
-
700
0
Source: CONAF-CONAMA-BIRF 1999 and CONAF 2011a. Results with two significant figures.
Other specific studies have been carried out which reveal the loss and
fragmentation the loss and fragmentation experienced by native forests
that do not respond to the national pattern obtained from the native forest
cadastre. Among these, project UE REFORLAN, executed by Universidad
Austral, determined that, between 1975 and 2008, the central Chile coastal
zone (33° South Latitude) recorded a 38 percent loss of sclerophyll forest
area, which corresponds to an annual deforestation rate of 1.1 percent.
On the other hand, the native forest aggregation level dropped from 80
percent in 1975 to 60 percent in 2009 (Project UE REFORLAN, quoted in U.
de Chile 2010, page 145).
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chapter 7 biodiversity
Marine Ecosystems
5] A convergence is the confluence of
water masses with different physical
and chemical characteristics, in which
it is possible to identify oceanographic
zones, with particular temperature,
salinity and oxygen content characteristics (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008,
page 98).)
Chilean marine ecosystems are determined by topographic, climatic and oceanographic characteristics, as well as by flora and fauna. In terms of extension,
Chilean coast reaches 4,200 kilometers and it is topographically divided into two
large zones: North and south of Chiloé Island (41°21’ South Latitude) (Fariña et
al. in CONAMA 2008, page 96).
The coast of the northern zone covers a lineal extension of 2,600 kilometers.
It is exposed to waves and has great depths and submarine canyons. In turn,
it has few islands and protected bays (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 97).
The southern zone, on the other hand, has a lineal extension of 1,600 kilometers and is characterized by a complex morphology, with hundreds of isles and
fjords that form a 92-kilometer coast line. It stands out for having a shallower
and wider continental shelf, compared to the northern zone, which forms many
protected bays (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 97).
In oceanographic terms, the Chilean coast is characterized by the presence of
different sea currents and oceanic convergences5. According to different studies,
it is possible to identify 8 main currents: West Wind Drift (surface); Cape Horn
Current (surface); Oceanic Branch of the Humboldt Current (subsurface in the north
and surface in the south); the Northern Countercurrent (surface); the Subsurface
Gunther Countercurrent (subsurface); Chile Coastal Countercurrent (surface) and
Chile Coastal Current (surface) (Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 99).
On the other hand, in relation to marine flora and fauna, the geographic
characteristics of the country result in a high degree of isolation and endemism
(Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 99).
The marine ecoregion classification for Latin America and the Caribbean,
proposed by Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante (1999), identified five ecoregions
in Chile (Table 5). According to this classification, the Humboldt Ecoregion, located in the northern zone of Chile, is the only one listed as a high priority for
conservation (Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante, 1999).
259
Table 5
Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamente’s Marine Ecoregions, 1999
Marine ecoregions
Location
south
Latitude
Humboldtian
From Lima (Peru) to Antofagasta
12° to 25°
Central Chile
From Antofasta to Valparaíso
25° to 33°
Araucanian
From Valparaiso to Puerto Montt
33° to 41°
Chiloense
From Puerto Montt to Penas Gulf
41° to 47°
Channels and Fjords of
Southern Chile
From Penas Gulf to Cape Horn
47° to 56°
Source: Own elaboration, based on Sullivan-Sealy and Bustamante, 1999
Likewise, there are marine ecosystem classifications like the one proposed
by Ahumada et al. (2000, cited in Fariña et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 100),
which is described from the oceanographic point of view and includes the
following ecosystems: South Pacific Central Gyre, which encompasses a pelagic marine ecosystem and an insular one; Eastern Margin of the Southeast
Pacific (18.4° to 41° South Latitude), which includes coastal upwelling and
bay ecosystems; Subantarctic, which covers a marine ecosystem and a
estuarine one, formed by the southern fjords and channels (Fariña et al.
in CONAMA 2008, page 100).
On the other hand, for the coastal areas, which cover a depth of up to 30
meters, nine zoogeographical zones have been identified that allow managing marine areas of interest and have been used as a coastal ecosystem
approach. This classification was made by Jaramillo et al. (2004) and was
developed by separating geographic patterns into biological and biotic
patterns (Project FIP N° 2004-28, 2006).
At a global level, there are many indicators to determine the state of
marine ecosystems. Some of the most used are indices, such as: The
Marine Trophic Index (BIP, 2010), seagrass beds, and coral reefs, among
others. However, at the national level there are no estimations for this
type of indicators.
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chapter 7 biodiversity
ECOREGIONS
Ecoregions and
Zoogeographical Zones
fig.
7
Humboldtian
Central Chile
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL
ZONES
1
2
3
4
Araucanian
5
6
Chiloense
7
8
Channels and fjords of
Southern Chile
“The maps published in this report
that refer to or are related to limits
or boundaries of Chile do not commit
the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree
with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The
Cartographic information is based
on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly
referential”.
9
Source: Own elaboration
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chapter 7 biodiversity
π Continental Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are mainly influenced by two types of factors:
Biotic and abiotic. The former refers to the interactions between different
organisms of the aquatic environment, energy flows and riverbank zones.
Abiotic factors, on the other hand, refer to the physical-chemical and
biogeographical factors that influence the environment in which aquatic
organisms develop (Margalef et al. 2002; Roldán 1992; Allan 1996; Giller
and Malmqvist 1998, quoted in Vásconez et al. 2002). The classification
of continental aquatic systems, according to their distinguishing factors,
allows indentification of environment types and making their inventory,
management and conservation easier.
Continental water systems show great differences in their physical-chemical conditions (Margalef, 1983). According to the salinity of their waters,
continental aquatic environments can be classified as marine-coastal and
limnic environments. There are also brackish environments, which result
from the mixture of fresh and salt water in different proportions. Estuaries
and river mouths are identified in this last category.
Limnic or freshwater environments, formed by fresh water, are continental water bodies. Continental water bodies can be generally divided into
rivers, lakes and wetlands, and into lotic or lentic, according to their water
movement (Ramírez et al. in CONAMA 2008, page 108). In Chile, the management unit for these types of environments is the hydrographic basin6 .
Lotic environments have currents and include rivers, creeks, streams and
brooks. These fluvial systems in the country, according to their origin and
water flow, are divided into seven hydrological zones (Fuenzalida 1965 and
Niemeyer and Cereceda 1994, quoted CONAMA 2010), grouped into rivers
with endorheic7 and exorheic basins8.
On the other hand, lentic environments have no currents and their waters
are either still or stagnant. These include lakes, lagoons, and ponds, among
others. Regarding these types of water bodies, it is possible to distinguish
saline lakes in the northern macrozone; temperate lakes, also called Araucanian lakes, in the southern zone; Patagonian lakes, which have a glacial
origin and coastal lakes, which rely on rivers that originate in the Coastal
Mountain Range (Parra et al. 2003).
Wetlands9 are important as agents for water cycle regulation, water provision, and soil stabilization, to name a few examples. Biodiversity in these
environments is broad, varied and, according to the RAMSAR Convention,
they are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth (Barbiet et al).
6] A hydrographic basin is a well-drained physical unit, where the soil area is drained by a
specific water course and its periphery is limited
by the water divide (Mertenetal, 2001, cited in
Perez et al., 2004). In Chile, 101 hydrographic
basins are identified, according to the DGA (MOP,
2001).
7] An endorheic basin is a closed basin, with
no visible outlet, that can have a lagoon or salt
flat as a balance base. Normally, the discharge
is carried out by evaporation (Niemeyer and
Cereceda, 1994).
8] Exorheic basins are those whose rivers flow
into the sea (Ramírez et al. in CONAMA, 1994).
9] Wetlands are permanently or seasonally flooded landscape units whose waters are shallow.
On the other hand, according to the Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands, they are “areas of
marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural
or artificial, permanent or temporary, with
water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
salt, including areas of marine water the depth
of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”
(Ramírez and San Martín, in CONAMA 2008,
page 115).
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1997). The greatest classification efforts at the national level are recorded for
this type of ecosystem (CONAMA, 2006).
All of the wetland types described at a global level by the Ramsar Convention
are present in Chile. CONAMA (2006) carried out a classification of wetlands
considering Ecotypes. This is a proposal that considers groups or families of
wetlands showing the same functional characteristics and whose presence can be
explained by the water balance, according to territorial and climatic conditions.
The classification system by wetland ecotypes allowed an identification of
three major wetland families: Marine, coastal and continental. At the same time,
eight wetland classes were identified.
Inland Wetland Coastal Wetland Marine Wetland
Ecotypes
Table 6
Class
Wetland Ecotypes and their Relation to Common Name
Common
name
Chilean
examples
Regulation
and support
services
Provision
services
--
Intertidal,
subtidal
Coastal seashore
Saline
intrusion
Coastal lake,
coastal lagoon,
salt marsh,
estuary
Food and raw maBudi Lake, Conchalí
terials source (i.e. Coast line
Lagoon, Tubul-Raqui
fish, crustaceans stabilization
Wetland, Chauil Lagoon
and fiber)
Salt flat, peat
bog, upwellings
Evaporation
in the desert
(puquios)
Infiltration
(A)
Saturated
infiltration
(B)
Small swamps
(Hualve),
flooding plains
(ñadi), ponda,
wetlands (pitranto), swamps
Floodplains
(Mallín), peat
bogs, Magallanes peat bogs,
moss wetlands
(pomponal)
--
--
Cultural
services
--
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Atacama Salt Flat,
Huasco Salt Flat
Water source
Aquifer recharge and Tourism, recreation,
discharge. Wildlife
education, science,
habitat
culture
Central depression
wetlands between the
Maule and Araucanía
regions
Water and raw
materials (bog)
source
Protection against
floods. Carbon
sequestration.
Nutrient retention
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Protection against
floods. Carbon
sequestration.
Nutrient retention
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Chiloé National Park
and other zones on
Raw materials
the Island (i.e. Cucao
(bog) source
sector), Karukinka Park
in Tierra del Fuego
Continues on next page
Ecotypes
263
Common
name
Class
Chilean
examples
Provision
services
chapter 7 biodiversity
Regulation
and support
services
Cultural
services
Runoff
Rivers, creeks,
streams, lakes
Clarillo River, Biobío
River, Villarrica Lake
Source of food
and raw materials
Wildlife habitat
(i.e. fish and fiber)
Water source
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Underground
upwellings
Marshes, peat
bog, wetlands
Parinacota, Jachucoposa, Ciénagas de Name
Water source.
Source of food
Nutrient retention
and raw materials
(cattle fodder)
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Organic
acids
--
Small swamps (Hualve)
Carbon sequestraRaw materials (i.e.
systems in the areas
tion. Microclimate
trees)
of Toltén, Queule,
regulation
Tantauco
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
0° C
Isotherm
--
Patagonian water
bodies
Source of food and Protection against
raw materials (i.e. floods. Nutrient
fish and fiber)
deposit retention
Tourism, recreation,
education, science,
culture
Source: CONAMA, 2006
Saline intrusion
Underground upwellings
0° C Isotherm
Saturated infiltration (B)
Organic acids
Evaporation
Infiltration (A)
Runoff
Photographs: Manuel Rojas, Alejandra Figueroa, Claudia Cortés and Moisés Grimberg.
264
chapter 7 biodiversity
High-Andean Wetlands
Photograph: Roxana Galleguillos
High-Andean wetlands are common ecosystems in the Andes Mountain Range, located
in desert plateaus in northern Chile, between the Arica and Parinacota and Atacama administrative regions, in areas over 3,500 meters above the sea level, except for the Atacama
and Punta Negra salt flats, located 2,300 meters above sea level.
All High-Andean wetlands are hydrologic systems supplied by snowmelt from the
high peaks, which creates slopes, highland marshes, rivers, lakes, lagoons and salt
flats. These ecosystems belong to the Puna Ecoregion, which has been catalogued as
vulnerable and of high priority for conservation by Dinerstein et al. (1995).
Approximately 52 basins are described for the Chilean Puna, which consist of lacustrine
systems and High-Andean salt flats of different extensions that are known for their high
biodiversity, great nutrient content and high primary productivity in the extreme aridity
context in which they develop.
High-Andean wetlands are of great importance for several cities in northern Chile, which
benefit from them through their water supply and for developing tourism. Mining in the
Puna ecoregion, however, has severely impacted some of these wetlands as a result of
water extraction for productive processes.
Between 1993 and early 2012, mining projects were approved by the Environmental
Impact Assessment System (SEIA) involving an investment of approximately 40,000 MM
USD. Considering this threat, the Environmental Assessment Service (SEA) is developing
technical guidelines to assess impacts on wetlands, which will allow better mitigation
of impacts of future mining projects in this region of high environmental value.
265
There is currently no information regarding the biological or ecological quality of continental water bodies at a national level. However, the Ministry of
the Environment is carrying out a national survey of wetlands, which involves
developing an integrated system of environmental monitoring.
Despite all of this, during the 2011 summer season the Ministry of the
Environment analyzed 68 sampling sites. This analysis allowed identifying
types of environments with higher deterioration degrees, assessing the trophic condition of systems. Based on nutrient and chlorophyll concentration,
it was determined that in the central-southern zone most of the coastal
water bodies present a mesotrophic or hypertrophic state. This reveals that
the nutrient charge from the basin has accelerated their eutrophication
process (MMA, 2011b).
Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to either richness or number of species in a
community or geographical area. Not only is a species important due to
its genetic material and the benefit humans can obtain from it, but also
because each species is related to others, which ultimately results in the
adequate functioning of the community and the ecosystem (Lazo et al. in
CONAMA 2008, page 49).
Chile is characterized by having a great diversity of environments, from
extremely arid deserts to temperate rainforests. Approximately 30,679
species have been described for these environments (CONAMA, 2009). Of
this total and, in accordance with the established processes, 927 species10
have been classified based on their conservation status.
BIOSPHERE
ECOSYSTEM
COMMUNITY
POPULATION
INDIVIDUAL
fig. Ecological
Organization
Levels
8
chapter 7 biodiversity
10] Decrees generated within the
framework of the Species Classification
Regulation: SD Nº 151 of 2007, SD Nº50 of
2008, SD Nº 51 of 2008 and SD Nº 23 of
2009 (they include 298 flora and fauna
species and/or subspecies). Supreme
Decree Nº5 of 1998 by MINAGRI, Regulation
of the Hunting Law (it lists 254 species
including amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals). Red Book of Chilean Arborous
and Shrub Flora, 1989. Red Book of Chilean
Terrestrial Vertebrates, 1988. Baeza, M.,
Barrera, E., Flores, J., Ramírez, C. and Rodríguez, R., 1998. Conservation Categories
of Native Chilean Pteridophytes. Newsletter
of the National Museum of Natural History
47:23-46. Bahamondes, N., Carvacho, A.,
Jara, C. López, M., Ponce, F., Retamal, M.A.
and Rudolph, E., 1998. Conservation categories of native inland water decapods of
Chile. Newsletter of the National Museum
of Natural History 47:91-100. Belmote, E.,
faúndez, L., Flores J., Hoffman A., Munoz,
M and Teiller, S., 1998. Conservation categories of native Chilean cacti. Newsletter
of the National Museum of Natural History
47:69-89. Campos, H., Dazarola, G., Dyer,
B., Fuentes, L., Gavilán, J.F., Huaquín, L.,
Martínez, G., Meléndez, R., Pequeño, G.,
Ponce, F., Ruiz, V.H., Sielfeld, W., Soto, D.,
Vega, R. and Vila, I. 1998. Conservation
categories of native inland water fish of
Chile. Newsletter of the Natural History
National Museum 47:101-122. Ravenna,
P., Teiller, S., Macaya, J., Rodríguez, R. and
Zöllner, O, 1998. Conservation categories of
native bulbous plants of Chile. Newsletter
of the National Museum of Natural History
47:47-68. Núñez, H., Maldonado, V. and
Pérez, R, 1997. Herpetology specialist
working group meeting for the categorization of species according to conservation
status. Monthly Newsletter of the National
Museum of Natural History (Chile) 329:
12-19. Yáñez J. 1997. Aquatic mammals
specialist working group meeting for the
categorization of species according to
conservation status. Monthly Newsletter
of the National Museum of Natural History
(Chile) 330:8-16.
chapter 7 biodiversity
266
Species in Chile are geographically isolated, which prevents greater colonization and has allowed a large number of species to evolve almost exclusively in the national territory. Thus, between 22 percent and 25 percent
of species described are endemic to the country. Some outstanding groups
include amphibians, in which 65 percent of the species are exclusive to Chile,
63 percent of reptiles, 55 percent of fish in inland waters and 50 percent of
vascular plant species (CONAMA 2009, page. 14).
Table 7
11] Classification including
up to the fourth process
of the Species Classification Regulation.
Native Species Described for Chile
Type
Nº of described
species
Nº of classified
species11
Algae, flora and fungi
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates, silicoflagellates
563
0
300
0
Fungi
3,300
0
Lichens
1,074
58
813
0
Non-vascular plants (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts)
1,400
0
Vascular plants
5,500
437
1,187
43
Multicellular algae
Invertebrates
Mollusks
606
18
Insects
Crustaceans
10,133
0
Other invertebrates
3,800
0
1,226
46
Vertebrates
Marine and inland fish
Amphibians
56
43
Reptiles
111
100
Birds
460
79
Mammals
150
103
30,679
927
Estimated Total
Source: Own elaboration based on Simonetti et al. (1995), CONAMA (2008) and CONAMA (2009).
267
The richness of species and the degree of endemism are distributed
in a heterogeneous manner throughout the national territory, where 67
percent of the 1,008 genera of Chilean inland flora are found only in Chile
and 49 percent of these include only one species (Cubillo and León, 1995;
Marticorena, 1990 cited in U. Chile 2010, page 179).
Taxa
Taxonomy is a science that groups living organisms in an organized manner according to what
is assumed to be their natural relations, from their most general to their most specific features.
Classification criteria used are based on anatomical, morphological, cytological, physiological,
genetic and some other characteristics of organisms, giving way to different groups or taxa with
more or less similar features. The main group levels used in taxonomy are shown in the figure.
KINGDOMS
EXAMPLE
KINGDOM
ANIMALIA
PHYLYUM
ANIMALIA
CHORDATA
CLASS
ORDER
fig.
9
PLANTAE
MAMMALIA
CAMIVORA
FAMILY
FUNGI
PROTISTA
CANIDAE
GENUS
CANIS
SPECIES
EUBACTERIA
ARCHAEBACTERIA
C.LUPUS
Source: PUC, 2011
Regarding vertebrates, most of the richness in amphibians is concentrated
between the Bio-bío and Aysén regions, with 37 species described for this
zone. For reptiles, of the 111 species described, 63 percent are endemic
and they are mainly found between the Arica and Parinacota and Maule
regions, while the greatest endemism is recorded between the Antofagasta
and Coquimbo regions (Núñez 2008, cited in U.Chile 2010, page 179).
chapter 7 biodiversity
268
chapter 7 biodiversity
In terms of mammals, approximately 150 species are native and 100 are
terrestrial. The greatest mammal richness is in the Arica and Parinacota region,
as well as in the Tarapacá Region, where micromammals dominate, mainly
in the Puna and the high plateaus. On the other hand, between Maule and
Araucanía regions, mammals show high diversity due to the presence of forest
environments and the mountain range shrubs. Finally, Magallanes Region also
presents a high number of mammals in the Patagonian Steppe Ecoregion (Cofré
et. al in CONAMA, 2008).
As for terrestrial birds in the country, the greatest richness of species is in the
Puna and coastal desert zones. Thus, in the Puna of the Arica and Parinacota
Region, approximately 75 bird species can be found. This richness decreases to
less than 65 species in the Antofagasta Region. From 28° South Latitude, there is
a rise in the number of species, which reaches its maximum close to 36° South
Latitude. From 38° South Latitude, the richness of terrestrial birds decreases. In
terms of endemism, there are nine endemic species in the continental zone of
the country (CONAMA 2008, page 248).
At a global level, the status of species is measured through abundance indicators, density and distribution. While studies have been carried out in the country
for some particular species, the information available is the result of isolated
efforts which do not allow making a diagnosis at a national level.
One of these local initiatives focuses on the Tricahue Parrot, specifically on
the Cyanoliseus patagonus bloxami subspecies, which is endemic and currently
endangered according to the Red Book of Terrestrial Vertebrates of Chile (Glade
1993 cited in CONAMA, 2005, page 21). For this species, censuses have been
carried out that recorded, for the 1982-1984 period, twelve active colonies and
nine inactive ones, with an average of 1,555 individuals per colony. Their abundance was higher in the O’Higgins Region, with 1,743 individuals, and the Maule
Region, with 1,364 individuals (CONAF, 2005, page 21).
Information is also available regarding the abundance of High-Andean flamingos
Chilean Flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), Andean Flamingo (Phoenicoparrus
andinus) and James' Flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi), for which simultaneous
winter and summer censuses have been carried out. Figure 11 shows the results of
these censuses for the 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2010 summer
seasons. These censuses have been coordinated by the High-Andean Flamingo
Conservation Group (GCFA) with the support of the Wildlife Conservation Society
(WCS), the International Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and national and
local institutions (Valquí et al., 2000, GFTA, 2005, cited in CONAF, 2006).
269
chapter 7 biodiversity
N° of Individuals
45,000
40,000
35,000
fig.
35,000
10
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Summer
1997
Summer
1998
Summer
1999
Phoenicoparrus jamesi
Summer
2000
Summer
2001
Phoenicoparrus andinus
Summer
2002
Summer
2005
Summer
2010
Phoenicopterus chilensis
There is also information on the population size and density of vicuñas,
recording population growth for the Vicugna vicugna mensalis and Vicugna
vicugna vicugna species, which went from 2,176 individuals in 1975 to 16,899
in 2001. The density of these species also increased, from 0.4 individuals
per km2 in 1975 to 4.5 individuals per km2 in 1990 (Bonacic et al. in Galaz
et al., 2003, page 96).
Likewise, in order to determine the distribution of species, studies have
been conducted based on occurrence records to estimate their current distribution. The study Vulnerability of Terrestrial Biodiversity in the Mediterranean
Ecoregion, at the Ecosystem and Species Levels, and Adaptation Measures
to Climate Change Scenarios (CONAMA, 2010b) modeled the distribution of
15 amphibian species, 16 reptile species, 36 mammal species and 1,447
terrestrial vascular plant species. For both vertebrates and terrestrial flora,
28 percent of the species studied were native and endemic. The remaining
72 percent of vertebrates were non-endemic native species. The results for
vascular flora revealed the presence of 815 non-endemic native species,
407 native endemic species and 224 adventitious species.
Population Variation
High-Andean Flamingos
Source: CONAF, 2006,
CONAF and GCFA, 2010
270
chapter 7 biodiversity
On the other hand, the species conservation status can also be used as an
indicator of the condition of the species. This relates to the classification of species in some threat category and allows the defining of conservation priorities.
There are several classification systems used both at the global and nation levels,
which have varied from subjective to quantitative criteria. In Chile, it is possible to
find different types of classifications developed by public and academic institutions
(Hunting Law, Species Classification Regulation, Newsletter 47 of the National Museum
of Natural History, Red Books and the Yáñez and Núñez authors). Figure 11 shows
the conservation status of classified species.
It should be noted that there is a deficit in the classification of marine fish,
with just 1 percent of the described species classified. However, for inland water
fish, 91 percent of the described species have been classified with 68 percent
of them identified as vulnerable or endangered.
fig.
11
Classified Species
Source: Own elaboration, based on database,
MMA 2011.
271
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of the composition of genes
within a single species, within a population and among populations. If the
population of one species becomes extinct, the species would lose genetic
diversity, an important element for evolution processes and its adaptation
to the environment it lives in.
There is a great variety of terrestrial habitats in the country which makes
it possible to have a high genetic diversity, which in turn depends on the
variability shown by individuals within the same species. Genetic diversity,
in general, is measured through intraspecies variety, that is, the number of
subspecies, varieties or races of a particular species (Manzur in CONAMA,
2008, page 396).
There are some studies that reflect the intraspecies diversity of Chilean
species. One of them is carried out by Donoso et al. (2004 cited in CONAMA,
2008), which compiles knowledge on the genetic variation of 24 Chilean and
Argentinean native forest arboreous species. Among the studied species are:
Roble (Nothofagus obliqua), Rauli Beech (Nothofagus alpina), Lenga Beech
(Nothofagus pumilio), Antarctic Beech (Nothofagus antarctica), Coihue (Nothofagus dombeyi), Magallanes Coihue (Nothofagus betuloides), Chiloé Coihue
(Nothofagus nitida), Araucaria (Araucaria araucana), Mountain Range Cypress
(Austrocedrus chilensis), Cypress of the Guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum),
Patagonian Cypress (Fitzroya cupressoides), Winter's Bark Tree (Drimys winteri),
Chilean Hazel (Gevuina avellana), Chilean Fire Bush (Embothrium coccineum),
Chilean Laurel (Laurelia sempervirens), Tepa (Laurelia philippiana), Myrtle
(Luma apiculata), Chilean Myrtle (Maytenus boaria). Generally, species show
an altitudinal and latitudinal variation in some features, such as seed weight,
crown shape, flattened and pliable branches, and dwarfism, among others
(Donoso et al., 2004, cited in CONAMA, 2008, page 397).
In terms of fauna, Chilean mammals are a highly diverse group and of
high biological value. There is a complete order that is exclusive to Chile:
Microbiotheria, which only has one species, the Chilean marsupial known
as "Monito del Monte" (Little mountain monkey) or Dromiciops gliroides.
Regarding the diversity of crops or agricultural biodiversity, Chile also
has a privileged location for its genetic diversity, since it is the origin of
the Fragaria chiloensis or the Chilean strawberry, wild tomato (Lycopersicon
chilense) and potato (Solanun tuberosum), with about 150 and 200 native
potato varieties in the Chiloé Island alone (Venegas and Negrón, 1994;
Cardenas, 2002 cited in CONAMA, 2008, page 398).
There are no national level estimates on the loss of genetic diversity in
time. While studies have been made in the country about the intraspecies
variety for some species, as mentioned before, there are no historic series
that would allow a diagnosis of their status.
chapter 7 biodiversity
Photograph: Claudio Almarza
273
Pressures on ecosystems,
species and genetic
diversity 3
According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment made by the United
Nations, in the last 50 years humans have transformed ecosystems faster
and more extensively than in any other period of time in human history.
Goods and services generated by ecosystems are affected by human actions that deplete the environment. As humanity becomes more modern and
the population increases, it requires a large number of natural resources to
subsist. Therefore, the influence of humans on the environment is constantly
increasing and it often causes irreversible impacts.
Among human activities that affect biodiversity, some of the most outstanding are the loss or significant alteration of habitats, due to changes in
land use conversion of forestry, increase of agriculture and livestock lands,
urban expansion and forest fires; overexploitation of natural resources
through wood and fish extraction; and the voluntary and non-voluntary
introduction of alien species.
Changes in Land Use
Changes in land use, as a consequence of the conversion of lands for
forestry, agriculture and livestock, and urban settlements, are among the
pressures on biodiversity. In fact, according to information published by
CONAF in 2011, the decrease of the native forests of the central zone of
Chile are due to land conversion for agriculture, as well as to burnings
and fires. In the southern central zone, this decrease is explained by the
harvesting and conversion for forestry plantations.
Figure 12 shows the changes in land use between 1999 and 2011,
highlighting the increase of the area covered by plantations.
chapter 7 biodiversity
chapter 7 biodiversity
274
fig.
12
Changes in Land Use Between 1999 and 2011
Source: Own elaboration, based on CONAF, 1999 and CONAF, 2011c.
Area (Ha)
80,000,000
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0
1997
Urban and Industrial Areas
Forests
Snow and Glaciers
2011
Agricultural Land
Wetlands
Water Bodies
Grasslands and Shrublands
Areas without Vegetation
Unrecognized Areas
Forest Fires
Forest fires have affected large extensions of native forest. In Chile, the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its acronym in Spanish) is responsible for
recording forest fires. According to the information registered, Figure 13 shows
that although the number of forest fires has decreased between 2002 and 2010
by 46 percent, the area affected by forest fires has increased since the 20062007 season.
The natural vegetation most affected by this type of events is made up of
grasslands, with 40 percent of the area affected, shrublands, with 35 percent,
and woodlands, with 34 percent.
An analysis of the accumulated number of fires by region during the 19841985 and 2009-2010 seasons, reveals that the most affected regions are Biobío,
Valparaíso and Araucanía, which have a high percentage of grasslands, shrublands and forests.
chapter 7 biodiversity
275
fig.
Area (ha)
Number
of fires
Grasslands
Shrublands
90.000
Souce: CONAF,
2011b and 2012.
8000
Woodlands
Fires
80.000
13
Occurrence of
Fires and Affected
Vegetation
Surface
7000
70.000
6000
60.000
5000
50.000
4000
40.000
3000
30.000
2000
20.000
1000
10.000
0
0
985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011
4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 0-1 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-2 0-2 1-2 2-2 3-2 4-2 5-2 6-2 7-2 8-2 9-2 0-2
198 198 198 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201
fig.
Area (Ha)
Number
of fires
70,000
400,000
350,000
Affected Area
60,000
Number of fires
300,000
50,000
250,000
40,000
200,000
30,000
150,000
20,000
100,000
10,000
50,000
0
a
am
c
Ata
bo
Co
im
qu
o
aís
par
Val
an
Me
tro
lit
po
s
gin
ig
O´H
ule
Ma
nía
bío
Bio
A
ca
rau
Los
s
Río
s
ago
L
Los
n
é
Ays
nes
lla
aga
M
*Data from 2012 was obtained from referential information provided by ONEMI and CONAF on
January 6th, 2012. Websites were accessed on January 11th, 2012.
0
14
Number of
Accumulated
Fires and Affected
Area by Regions
from 1985 to
January 2012*
Source: CONAF,
2011b
chapter 7 biodiversity
276
Logging
12] It is worth noting that D.L. N° 701
on the promotion of forestry and Law
N° 20.283 Law on the Recovery of Native
Forests and Forestry have contributed
to reduce pressure on native forests by
promoting plantations in lands with a
preferable aptitude for forestry and/
or on highly degraded soils, but not
substituting native forests.
Logging is a significant threat to the conservation of native forests. Between
1989-1995, chip production represented an elevated consumption of this resource. However, since 1996, the forestry sector has significantly reduced the
consumption of native wood chips, minimizing the pressure on native forests12.
Despite the fact that industrial extraction of native wood has decreased, the
consumption of native arborous species for fuelwood has practically doubled
3
Thousands of m
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
Other
Pulp logs for export
Saw logs for export
Sawn wood
Boards and sheets
Chips
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2008 2009
fig.
15
Industrial Consumption of Native Wood
Source: INFOR, 2011.
in the last 20 years, going from four to nine million solid cubic meters per
year, making it the main pressure on native forests (INFOR, 2008; Gómez-Lobo
et al., 2006, cited in U. Chile, 2010, page 131).
278
chapter 7 biodiversity
Fishing Activity
The exploitation of fishing resources has had an important impact on the
populations of marine species in the country. Figure 16, shows the reduction of
fish landings in the industrial sector.
According to Calfucura and Figueroa, (2005 cited in CONAMA, 2008), this decrease in the production has mainly been caused by the crisis of the pelagic
fisheries of Horse Mackerel and Anchovy which, because of their overexploitation,
has resulted in greater restrictions in the global catch quotas established by
the Fishing Undersecretariat. Figure 17 shows the fishing quotas for the main
fish species extracted, which have decreased in time, mainly in response to the
reduction of their stock.
fig.
16
Industrial and Small-scale Fish Landings
Source: SERNAPESCA,
2011.
Thousands of tons
6,000
5,000
Industrial
Small-scale
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
279
chapter 7 biodiversity
For many species, the reduction has reached critical levels that make
fishing unsustainable. For example, according to Calfucura and Figueroa
(2005 cited in CONAMA, 2008), the Spanish Sardine in the northern zone has
significantly decreased its biomass during the last two decades.
In 1995, Horse Mackerel extraction in the central southern zone reached
a landing volume of 4.5 million, which began to diminish progressively as
a result of regulation measures applied by the fishing authority, due to the
overexploitation condition of the resource. In the last years, the fishing
quotas granted have not been totally consumed, revealing a progressive
reduction of the abundance of the resource, which makes its catch difficult
(SUBPESCA, 2011).
17
fig.
Fishing Quota Evolution
Source: SERNAPESCA, 2011.
Thousands of tons
(Logarithmic scale)
2009
10,000,o00
2010
2011
1,000,o00
100,o00
10,o00
1,o00
100
10
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chapter 7 biodiversity
280
Figure 18 shows the current total biomass of Horse Mackerel, which is estimated in about 2.8 million tons, 14 percent of what it would be without the
fishing extraction of this species. This value, outstandingly low and inferior to
the precautionary limit, confirms the critical situation of Horse Mackerel fishery
in the South Pacific (SUBPESCA, 2011).
fig.
18
Horse Mackerel Biomass Evolution (Trachurus murphyi)
Fuente: SUBPESCA, 2011.
Total Biomass
(Million Tons)
50
Total without extraction
45
Total with extraction
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
78
19
80
19
82
19
84
19
86
19
88
19
90
19
92
19
94
19
96
19
98
20
00
20
02
20
04
20
06
20
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20
10
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19
74
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19
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0
281
Introduced Species
Introduced or alien species are those that, mainly for anthropic reasons,
have been transported to another place, voluntary or not, and introduced
outside their natural distribution. In Chile, 15 percent of flora species living
in the wild are introduced. The Juan Fernández Archipelago is an outstanding
special case, since the amount of this type of species more than doubles
native species (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011c).
Some alien species can become Invasive Alien Species, when their introduction and/or spread threatens the native biological diversity of the
place in which they have been freed, according to the definition of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB). Invasive alien species are one of
the most important causes of species extinction in nature (Ministerio del
Medio Ambiente, 2011c).
There are several cases of invasive alien species in the country that are
causing significant damage in the regions they inhabit. Some examples of
introduced species are the Wild boar (Sus scrofa), the Red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and the Beaver (Castor canadensis). The latter was brought to
Tierra del Fuego in 1946, and it is estimated that it has modified approximately 5,400 ha of native forest in the Chilean sector and at least 5,200 ha
in the Argentinean sector (Lizarralde, 1993; Skewes et al., 1999; Jaksic et
al., 2002; Lizarralde et al., 2004, cited in Wallem et al., 2007).
Water Pollution
Water pollution from sediment deposit caused by industrial discharges
of toxic substances, sewage or as a result of bad agricultural practices, as
well as percolated liquids from landfills, can seriously affect ecosystems
sustained by this resource. Other productive activities, such as salmon
breeding, or pouring pig slurry into water bodies, contribute to the eutrophication process. Likewise, acid rain, which transports sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen, increases the acidity in aquatic environments, causing the death
of microorganisms living in them. In addition, changes in weather conditions or problems, such as deforestation, significantly affect these types of
ecosystems as well (Fariña et al. in CONAMA, 2008, page 110). See Annex
1. More detailed information is provided in the Water Resource Chapter.
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282
chapter 7 biodiversity
Response for the Protection
and Conservation of
4 Ecosystem Services in Chile
Biodiversity represents the functional core of ecosystems, and its conservation
is a key element in keeping the provision of ecosystem services to the population.
The ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994 was the
milestone that initiated the inclusion of the biodiversity concept in the key stages
of public decision making in the country. Through this action, Chile adhered to the
global concern for the loss of biological diversity expressed in the Second Earth
Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
The effect of this support is concomitant to the establishment of the environmental institutional framework in Chile, in 1994, through the promulgation of the
Environmental Framework Law N° 19.300. In fact, the National Commission for the
Environment (CONAMA by its acronym in Spanish), the agency that coordinated
the environmental institutional framework until 2010, promoted the inclusion of
CBD contents in State actions.
Supporting the CBD led the country to prepare, in 2003, a National Strategy for
the Conservation of Biodiversity through a participative process. Later on, in 2005,
other policies were developed, such as the National Policy on Protected Areas, the
National Policy on Endangered Species, the National Strategy for the Conservation
and Rational Use of Wetlands as well as Regional Strategies for the Conservation
of Biodiversity, for each of the 13 administrative regions that existed then.
One of the most significant goals of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity is to achieve the objective of represent an area of at least
10 percent of the relevant ecosystems in protected areas. Nevertheless, it is
important to stress the difficulty of reaching a consensus on the concept of
relevant ecosystem.
While these documents are not legally binding, they have allowed the insertion
of contents dealing with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
283
in the country, gradually guiding sectoral public policies. Thus, in 2005, an
Action Plan was established that identifies a series of activities to be carried
out by 2015, in order to achieve the objectives set forth in the National
Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity.
Table 8
Category
Policies
Strategies
Plans and
programs
Public Strategies, Plans and Programs for Biodiversity Conservation
in Chile (2002 – 2009)
Approval
Name
Institution
date
National Policy on Protected Areas
CONAMA
2005
National Policy on Endangered Species
CONAMA
2005
National Policy on the Genetic Improvement of Beef and Sheep Cattle
INDAP
2008
Policy for the Protection and Conservation of Glaciers
CONAMA
2009
National Strategy for the Conservation
of Biodiversity
CONAMA
2003
Regional Strategies for the Conservation
of Biodiversity
CONAMA
2002
National Strategy for the Conservation
and Rational Use of Wetlands in Chile
CONAMA
2005
National Strategy for Climate Change
CONAMA,
MINREL, among
others
2006
Country Action Plan of the National
Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity
CONAMA
2005
Wetland Classification System
CONAMA
2006
National System of Protected Areas
CONAMA-GEFUNDP
2006
Regional System of Protected Area (SIRAP by its acronym in Spanish)
CONAMA-GEF /
UNDP
2008
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284
13] According to Law N° 19.300 in
article 70, letter b, the Ministry of
the Environment is responsible for:
Proposing policies, plans, programs,
regulations and overseeing the System
of National Protected Areas of the
State, which includes marine parks and
reserves, as well as nature sanctuaries and supervising the management of private protected areas.
chapter 7 biodiversity
The three main tools used for the protection and conservation of biodiversity,
both by CONAMA and the current Ministry of the Environment and other State
agencies are: 1) The establishment of protected areas or spaces, which are
maintained as State property and where the extractive use of resources is restricted; 2) the protection of species; and 3) the environmental impact assessment
system. This last tool has allowed controlling the impact that new industrial,
mining, energy, infrastructure and water investments, among others, may have
on local biodiversity. Notwithstanding the authority of the environmental institutional framework, the operational responsibility for controlling and regulating
the pressure on biodiversity lies in sectoral agencies. Thus, the Ministry of
Agriculture has regulated the pressure on biodiversity in rural areas; the General
Water Authority of the Ministry of Public Works oversees pressures linked to water
courses and lacustrine systems; and the National Fishing Service and the Fishing
Undersecretariat are in charge of pressures affecting marine and coastal areas.
In addition to this, other services involved are responsible for issues like
pollution control or boundary delimitation, such as the Ministry of National
Defense, the Ministry of National Public Lands, among others.
All of these sectoral agencies have incorporated in their regulations, according
to their competence, elements for the protection of biodiversity components,
as part of the environmental problems linked to the use of natural resources.
In 2010, after the establishment of the new environmental institutional
framework, some sectoral regulations were modified, giving authority to the
Ministry of the Environment on topics such as parks, marine reserves, multipleuse coastal-marine areas and nature sanctuaries13 , in addition to promoting
the creation of private wild protected areas. At the same time, in terms of
species, the Ministry of the Environment has the authority to approve recovery,
conservation and management plans, in accordance with the results of classification procedures. On the other hand, the productive use of natural renewable
resources continues to be regulated by sectors, incorporating minimum criteria
for the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity, proposed by the Ministry
of the Environment and approved by the Council of Ministers for Sustainability.
285
Table 9
Main Regulations Dealing with Biodiversity
Regulation
Description
Law Nº 19.300/1994
Environmental Framework Law, modified by Law N° 20.417
Law Nº 20.283/2008
MINAGRI
Law on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry
Development
Law Nº 20.256/2008
MINECON
Law on Recreational Fishing
Law Nº 18.892/1989
MINECON
General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture
Law Nº 4.601/1929
Ministry of Development
Hunting Law
SD Nº 4.363/1931
Ministry of Lands and
Colonization
Forest Law
SD Nº 95/2001 MINSEGPRES
Environmental Impact Assessment System Regulation
SD Nº 75/2005 MINSEGPRES
Species Classification Regulation
SD N° 5/1998 MINAGRI
Hunting Law Regulation
The modifications to the environmental institutional framework involved
changes to the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture, in relation to the
declaration of Marine Parks and Reserves that is now done through a decree
of the Ministry of the Environment. Likewise, it establishes the participation of the Ministry of the Environment in taking measures to ensure that
aquaculture facilities operate at levels compatible with the capacities of
lacustrine, fluvial and marine water bodies. In addition, it modifies the
functions of the Ministry of Agriculture, limiting the protection of natural
resources to the forestry-agriculture-livestock scope. It also modifies the
Natural Monuments Law, by establishing that sites declared Nature Sanctuaries now fall under the custody of the Ministry of the Environment.
Likewise, Law Nº 20.417 begins to outline the need to create a specialized operative agency to tackle the management and conservation of
biodiversity. Article 8, transitory, of Law Nº 20.517, mandates the creation
of a Biodiversity and Protected Wild Areas Service through another specific law. In order to move forward with its creation, a bill was sent to the
National Congress in January, 2011. The future agency will have authority
over the preparation of regulations and policies for the conservation of
biodiversity, which currently lie within the Ministry of the Environment.
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286
chapter 7 biodiversity
International Agreements
Prior to the modification to the environmental institutional framework and even before the previous
one existed, the country ratified a series of international agreements that allowed developing and
promoting protection measures for both ecosystems and species. Some that have been particularly
relevant are: The Washington Convention for the Protection of Flora, Fauna and Natural Scenic Beauty
of the Americas (1940), ratified by Chile in 1967; the Protocol for the Conservation and Management of
Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the South East Pacific (1989), ratified by Chile in 1993; the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) (1971), ratified
by Chile in 1981; and the establishment of Biosphere Reserves within the framework of UNESCO’s Man
and the Biosphere Program, which Chile ratified in 1980. Throughout the country, approximately 195,876
hectares are under the Ramsar Site category, which allows maintaining and protecting the ecological
characteristics of swamps, lakes, peat bogs, and freshwater and High-Andean lagoons, among others.
It also helps accessing financing sources for projects linked to these places.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity, in its tenth meeting
in October, 2010 in Nayoga, Japan, announced a new strategic plan for 2011-2020 focused on the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets, which prioritizes actions according to the pressures on biodiversity.
Table 10
Main Agreements on Biodiversity
International Agreements
on Biodiversity
Objective
Convention for the Protection of Flora, Fauna and Natural Scenic Beauty
of the Americas
Signed in 1940. It came into force in Chile in 1967. This convention
has been implemented through the creation of protected areas.
There are currently 96 protected areas managed by CONAF. Their legal
creation is based on this Convention and the decree that ratifies it.
Focal point: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MINREL by its acronym in
Spanish) and the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its
acronym in Spanish)
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar)
Signed in 1971. It came into force in Chile in 1981. It is an intergovernmental treaty used as a framework for national action and
international cooperation to favor the conservation and rational use
of wetlands and their resources. In Chile there are twelve Ramsar
sites, registered in the list of wetlands of international importance,
covering a total of 192,080 hectares. Focal point: MINREL and CONAF.
Continues on next page
287
International Agreements
on Biodiversity
chapter 7 biodiversity
Objective
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES)
Signed in 1973. It came into force in Chile in 1975. It is an international agreement between governments. Its purpose is to ensure
that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants
does not threaten their survival. Focal point: MINREL administrative
authorities: Agriculture and Livestock Service (SAG by its acronym in
Spanish), CONAF and the National Fishing Service (SERNAPESCA by
its acronym in Spanish). Scientific authority: National Commission
of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICYT by its acronym in
Spanish).
Convention on Biological Diversity
Ratified by Chile in 1994. Its goal is the conservation of biological
diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic
resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and
by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account
all rights over those resources and technologies, and by appropriate
funding.
The United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification
Signed in 1994. It came into force in 1998. Its purpose is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of droughts in affected
countries, especially in Africa, by adopting efficient measures at all
levels, supported by international cooperation and association agreements, within the framework of an integrated approach according to
Program 21, in order to contribute to achieving the sustainable development of affected areas. Focal point: MINREL and National Forestry
Corporation (CONAF).
Ratified by Chile through SD 259/80 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Convention Concerning the ProtecIts purpose is to promote the identification, protection, and pretion of the World Cultural and Natural
servation of the cultural and natural heritage of all countries in the
Heritage
world which is considered especially valuable for mankind.
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 20112020 and the Aichi Targets
The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 is a 10-year action framework to save biological diversity and improve its benefits
for people.
The three main tools used for the protection and conservation of biodiversity, both by CONAMA and the
current Ministry of the Environment and other State agencies are: 1) The establishment of protected
areas or spaces, which are maintained as State property and where the extractive use of resources is
restricted; 2) the protection of species; and 3) the environmental impact assessment system. This last
tool has allowed controlling the impact that new industrial, mining, energy, infrastructure and water
investments, among others, may have on local biodiversity.
290
chapter 7 biodiversity
Conservation of Ecosystem Diversity
14] It considers protected areas with
legally recognized categories. It includes
natural monuments, national reserves,
national parks, nature sanctuaries,
protected national lands, RAMSAR sites,
marine reserves and marine and coastal
protected areas.
The conservation of ecosystem diversity has generally focused on the creation
of protected areas which, according to the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), consist of “a geographically defined area, which is designated or regulated
and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.”
In Chile, there has been State protected areas since the beginning of the 20th
century, which are part of the National System of Wild Protected Areas of the
State (SNASPE). Law N° 18.362 establishes that the objective of the SNASPE is
to protect and manage terrestrial and aquatic natural environments in order to
conserve them. However, this law has never come into effect. Therefore, this
objective is ratified by Law N° 19.300, providing the main legal support for the
existence of this program. The Ministry of Agriculture is the one responsible for
managing this system, through the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF by its
acronym in Spanish).
The SNASPE is made up of National Parks, Natural Monuments and National
Reserves. In addition, in accordance with Law N° 19.300, in its articles 34 and
70 b), the SNASPE includes marine parks and reserves and nature sanctuaries.
It currently includes 100 units, distributed in 35 National Parks, 49 National
Reserves and 16 Natural Monuments. Altogether, they cover an area of 14.5
million ha, representing 19.3 percent of the national territory. Ecosystem services provided by the country’s protected areas14 have a total economic value
of USD 1,460 million (CONAMA-GEF-PNUD, 2010).
It is worth noting that the territorial distribution of the SNASPE is not homogeneous. In fact, more than 84 percent of the area under protection is located
between the Aysén and Magallanes regions, whereas the Coquimbo, Maule and
Metropolitan regions only encompass 1 percent of the system areas.
Regarding marine environments, the modifications to the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture (SD Nº 430 of 1991) introduce the marine park and marine
reserve categories. The marine reserve category was first applied in 1997 with
the creation of La Rinconada Reserve, in the Antofagasta Region. The creation
of the Chañaral Island and the Choros and Damas Islands reserves in 2005 was
particularly relevant. The first Marine Park, Francisco Coloane, was established
in 2003 within the framework of the project for Conserving Globally Significant
Biodiversity along the Chilean Coast. The conservation of marine areas, such as
parks and reserves, is managed by the National Fishing Service.
Also within the scope of marine environments, the Ministry of National Defense, through the former Undersecretariat of the Navy, established Marine-Coastal
Protected Areas, applying the category of the South-East Pacific Convention, in
291
order to protect coastal concessions granted to scientific stations. Thus,
some areas were established as protected, such as Las Cruces Experimental
Station, in the Valparaíso Region, the Comau Fjord, in the Palena province
of the Los Lagos Region, the scientific center of the Huinay private foundation, and the three submarine parks established in Easter Island in 1999,
among others.
Likewise, the Nature Sanctuary category, managed by the Council of National Monuments of the Ministry of Education, is used to protect marine
and terrestrial areas.
fig.
19
Protected Areas
National Park
“The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or
boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on
Datum WGS84 and it is mearly referential”.
Natural Monument
National Reserve
Nature Sanctuary
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292
chapter 7 biodiversity
Since 2006, protected areas have increased in over 148 thousand hectares
as a result of the inclusion of: Morro Moreno National Park, 7,314 hectares
of coastal ecosystems in the Antofagasta Region; Salar del Huasco National
Park, 110,962 hectares of High-Andean ecosystems, in the Tarapacá Region;
the Quebrada de Cardones Natural Monument, with 11,326 hectares of Andean foothill ecosystems, in the Arica and Parinacota Region, and the Altos
de Pemehue National Reserve, with 18,856 hectares of deciduous forests, in
the Biobío Region.
fig.
2o
Accumulated protected areas
Source: Own elaboration
Area (Ha)
Number of
Protected Areas
16,000,o00
140
14,000,o00
120
12,000,o00
100
10,000,o00
80
8,000,o00
60
6,000,o00
40
4,000,o00
20
2,000,o00
0
0
009
011
979
969
999
989
919 929
939
949
959
0-2
0-1
0-1
0-1 000-2
0-1
0-1 950-1
0-1 910-1 920-1 930-1
1
7
6
9
8
4
0
0
9
9
9
9
9
9
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
909
Terrestrial Area
Number of Terrestrial Units
Marine Area
Number of Marine Units
293
chapter 7 biodiversity
During that same period, five new nature sancturaries were added to
official protection, as a complement to the SNASPE. The Motu Miro Hiva
Marine Park was also created in 2010, surrounding Salas and Gómez Islands, with an area of 150,000 km2 representing 4 percent of the country’s
marine territory.
The creation of different protected areas in the country has allowed the
protection of marine and continental ecosystems. However, there are vegetal
formations that are still not included in areas under protection to prevent
their deterioration. Figure 21 shows the percentage of areas under protection
for the vegetation formations defined by Luebert and Pliscoff. It highlights
that some ecosystems do not reach the 10%-goal for protected areas
established by the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity.
fig.
21
Representation of Terrestrial Ecosystems in
Protected Areas
Some ecosystems do not reach 10%
Source: Own elaboration, according to Cartographic
update of vegetation cover, 2011.
Deciduous Forest
Schlerophyll Forest
Thorn Forest
Laurifolia Forest
Resinous Forest
Evergreen Forest
Absolute Desert
Steppes and Grasslands
Altitude Grasslands
Arborescent Shrubland
Low Altitude Shrubland
Low Desert Shrubland
Deciduous Shrubland
Desert Shrubland
Thorn Shrubland
Evergreen Shrubland
Peat Bog
0%
10%
National Park
20%
30%
Natural Monument
40%
50%
Natural Reserve
60%
70%
Nature Sanctuary
80%
90%
Unprotected
100%
294
chapter 7 biodiversity
Regarding marine environments, there is a low representation of ecosystems
in protected areas. While some progress has been made in recent years with
the creation of Motu Motiro Hiva Marine Park, the gap to reach goals planned
by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is quite significant. Figure 22
shows the representation of the coastal zones defined by Jaramillo.
As for the protection of continental water in protected zones, it is worth
nothing that only 2.7 percent of the SNASPE’s total area is made up of wetlands
under protection (MMA, 2001a.) See Annex 2.
Besides these previously mentioned protected areas, there are other categories
used in Chile for productive development, which also have conservation objectives and could be attached to this group, such as the Coastal and Marine Spaces
of Native Peoples, the Benthic Resources Use and Management Areas (AMERB
by its acronym in Spanish) and the Preferential Areas for Recreational Fishing.
Another management measure for the protection of biodiversity is the establishment of priority sites for its conservation. Priority sites were established between
2002 and 2007 to prioritize conservation objectives, within the framework of: The
fig.
22
Representation of Ecosystems in Marine Protected Areas
Source: Own elaboration, according to the Cartographic coverage of
coastal zoogeographical zones, Jaramillo et al. 2004.
Zone I
Zone II
Zone III
Zone IV
Zone V
Zone VI
Zone VII
Zone VIII
Zone IX
0%
10%
Marine Park
20%
30%
Marine Reserve
40%
50%
Nature Sanctuary
60%
70%
80%
Marine Coastal Protected Areas
90%
Unprotected
100%
295
National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity and the development
of its Action Plan and, particularly, of the Regional Strategies or the Conservation of Biodiversity15. These sites then obtained a legal recognition in
2008, through Law N° 20.283 on the Recovery of Native Forests and Forestry
Development which includes them in its environmental protection regulations. Moreover, as part of the changes to the environmental institutional
framework, these sites were added to the criteria that determine the need
to prepare and evaluate environmental impact assessments16 .
fig.
23
chapter 7 biodiversity
15] See Article 17, Title III regarding Environmental Protection Regulations of Law N° 20.283
(2008).
16] See Article 11, Paragraph 2 of the Environmental Impact Assessment System of Law Nº
19.300, after the promulgation of Law 20.417 in
2010.
Priority Sites
Priority Sites
“The maps published in this report that refer to or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not commit the State of Chile in any way, according to
Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84
and it is mearly referential”.
296
chapter 7 biodiversity
Global Environment Facility
17] See http://
www.thegef.org/
gef/gef_country_prg/CL
The participation in the Convention on Biological Diversity has allowed the Ministry of the
Environment to be the focal point of the Global
Environment Facility (GEF), and allocate more
than 24 million dollars17 for implementing several
conservation projects in the country.
These projects allow the promotion of publicprivate cooperation, such as in the GEF project
for the Biodiversity Conservation in Altos de
Cantillana (2005-2010) or the Valdivian Forest
Zone: Private-Public Mechanisms for Biodiversity
Conservation (2000-2004).
Other GEF projects have allowed the strengthening of biodiversity management capacities in
the public sector. Some of the projects developed
along this line are the Design and Implementation of a Biodiversity Management System in the
Ministry of Public Works (2009-2014) and Strengthening National Frameworks for Invasive Alien
Species Governance - Piloting in Juan Fernandez
Archipelago (2011-2015).
In addition, financing from this fund has
allowed work in the removal of barriers that halt
the development of new institutional schemes
for biodiversity conservation, such as the projects Conserving Globally Significant Biodiversity
along the Chilean Coast (2007-2011), the Regional
System of Protected Areas for Sustainable Conservation and Use of Valdivian Temperate Rainforest (2007-2012) and Building a Comprehensive
National Protected Areas System: A Financial and
Operational Framework (2008-2013).
297
The implementation of economic instruments to encourage public-private
cooperation in biodiversity conservation is still pending. The environmental
performance review the country went through in 2005 (OCDE and ECLAC,
2005) suggests developing a strategic vision of the complementary roles of
state and private protected areas in order to achieve a coherent network of
core protected areas, buffer zones and ecological corridors. Recent progress
has been made in this direction through the bill for the creation of the
Biodiversity and Protected Areas Service (SBAP by its acronym in Spanish),
which incorporates incentives to the private sector for the creation of
private protected areas.
At the same time, consumer information regarding the sustainable management of biodiversity must be promoted. One example is the certification
of products from forests managed under sustainability criteria. This certification is given by the Chilean System for Sustainable Forest Management
Certification (CERTFOR by its acronym in Spanish) and by the Program for
Standardization of National Schemes (PEFC by its acronym in Spanish). At
present, 75 percent of Chilean plantations are certified (CERTFOR, available
at http://www.certfor.org/so¬bre_certificacion_ec.html).
Regarding the measures to reduce pressures such as forest fires, a bill
was recently sent to increase the fines and penalties for causing them. In
addition, it includes the creation of a new institutional framework to prevent
these damages. In other words, it aims to toughen up the low sanctions
imposed by the Forest Law, dating from 1931, on those who cause forest fires.
Species Diversity
In order to learn about species and determine priorities for their conservation Chile has, since 2005, a standard procedure set forth in the Species
Classification Regulation (RCE by its acronym in Spanish), which is mandated
by article 37 Environmental Framework (Law N° 19.300) and established
through Decree N° 75 (2005) of the Ministry of the General Secretariat of the
Presidency. In 2010, Law N° 20.417 was passed, modifying article 37 of Law
N° 19.300, in order to extend the taxonomic groups that can be classified
as “plants, algae, fungi and wild animals, based on technical-scientific
background and according to their conservation status." The RCE establishes
regulations for the classification procedure of wild flora and fauna species.
This classification has implications on a series of processes and administrative acts, especially within the Environmental Impact Assessment System,
the Hunting Law, the General Law on Fishing and Aquaculture and the Native
chapter 7 biodiversity
298
18] Modification introduced by
Law Nº20.417, in 2010.
chapter 7 biodiversity
Forest Law. In addition, it provides the basis for actions aimed at recovering
endangered species and restorating their habitat.
This regulation18 establishes a unique procedure for species classification.
Proposals are made by a 12-member classification committee composed of representatives from academic institutions and public agencies with competence
in the matter, basing their work on the criteria of the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
This procedure includes citizen participation mechanisms for the proposal
of species, background contributions and observations regarding the classification methods. The formalization of a classification requires a statement by the
Council of Ministers for Sustainability and the passing of a Supreme Decree. The
modification to the environmental institutional framework, in 2010, updated the
conservation categories to equate them to the ones currently used by the UICN.
It also established that, in accordance with these classifications, the Ministry of
the Environment must approve species recovery, conservation and management
plans, with the RCE as the responsible entity for defining their preparation procedures, public information system and content.
As a result of the Species Classification Regulation, between 2005 and 2009
four processes were carried out to classify 298 species, representing 32 percent
of the species described in the country. Other four processes, completed between
2010 and 2011, catalogued 393 species, but their results are still in the formalization process. In total, these eight processes have classified 621 taxa. From
the sixth process, species already classified in the five previous processes have
been reclassified, in order to update them to the new categories included in the
legal modification of Law N° 19.300. Of these 621 species, 301 had already been
classified by other processes, some of them based on legislation such as the
Hunting Law Regulation, while others were done based on institutional initiatives, like the Red Books published by CONAF, or academic initiatives, such as the
classifications published in Newsletter N° 47 of the National Museum of Natural
History. Likewise, 435 species classified within the framework of these initiatives have not yet been revised through the official procedure, maintaining their
previous classifications and representing a priority for the following processes.
On the other hand, the Operational Committee for the Control of Invasive Alien
Species (COCEI by its acronym in Spanish) was created within the framework of
the Policy on Endangered Species, with responsibility for preparing an Integrated
National Program for the Control of Alien Species.
The COCEI is formed by representatives of different public services: the
Ministry of the Environment, the Agriculture and Livestock Service (SAG), the
National Forestry Corporation (CONAF), the Fishing Undersecretariat (SUBPESCA),
chapter 7 biodiversity
299
fig.
Other
68%
Non-classified
Described Species
97%
3%
Classified
Species
24
RCE
32%
the National Fishing Service (SERNAPESCA), the National Museum of Natural
History (MHHN), Directorate General of the Maritime Territory and Merchant
Marine (DIRECTEMAR), the Agricultural Policies and Studies Agency (ODEPA
by its acronym in Spanish), the National Customs Service, the National
Police, National Investigation Police and the Chilean Air Force (FACH by its
acronym in Spanish).
In other scopes, the hunting and capture of otters, sea lions, cetaceans
and penguins is regulated by the Fishing Law, while the rest of mammals
and birds are regulated by the Hunting Law. The protection of forest species
is regulated by the Law N° 20.283 on the Recovery of Native Forests and
Forestry Development.
It is worth noting that, since 2008, Law N° 20.293 has established that the
entire maritime territory in the country is a sanctuary for the 43 cetacean
species in national waters.
Regarding the overexploitation of fisheries, a bill is currently being analyzed to modify the Fishing Law and resolve the debate on fishing quotas
once the Law on Maximum Catch Limits by Ship-owners expires. This project
proposes an Experts Panel, whose recommendations will be binding on the
annual catch quotas of the resources subject to the maximum limits regime.
Classified Species in Chile
Source: Own elaboration.
Included information is until
the RCE’s fourth classification
process and other classification
mechanisms, different from
the RCE.
300
chapter 7 biodiversity
Genetic diversity
19] United Nations, Convention
on Biological Diversity, article 9.
Genetic diversity has an ecological, genetic, economic, social, scientific,
cultural, recreational and ornamental value (Seguel in CONAMA, 2008), hence
the importance of preserving it. The Convention on Biological Diversity points
out the need to maintain “facilities for ex-situ conservation of and research
on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of
genetic resources19.”
In Chile, this topic is particularly relevant, due to the high degree of endemism
of its national flora, as well as the genetic diversity between and within species.
This phytogenetic heritage is the basis for the country's forestry-agiculturelivestock development and, at the same time, contributes to the preservation
of the unique features of national biodiversity.
Chile currently does not have a National Conservation Program on this issue,
but there is a series of public-private initiatives working to conserve species,
mainly by means of germplasm banks, botanical gardens and nurseries.
According to Salazar (2005, cited by Seguel in CONAMA, 2008), in Chile there are
approximately 20 institutions claiming to carry out ex situ species conservation.
This would result in 324 genera and 633 species conserved. Annex 10 lists some
Chilean institutions working on ex situ conservation of phytogenetic resources.
Information
The Environmental Performance Review of the country carried out by the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2005 (OECD
and ECLAC) recommends mounting a coordinated effort by state agencies and
academia to build the scientific knowledge base (including the cataloguing of
living species) required for nature management. In this regard, and because
national level information is scarce, specific and often stored in databases
maintained by university professors, research centers, universities or privates
institutions, the Ministry of the Environment implemented a Biodiversity Clearing
House Mechanism (CHM) for Chile, whose purpose is to provide a cooperation
and coordination space for the scientific and technical community linked to
biodiversity issues, in order to have integrated information for the entire country.
301
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304
Annexes
Annex 1
Threat Hierarchy By Ecotype
Threats
Ecotypes
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Δ Alteration of shoreline
Saline
intrusion
Evaporation
dynamics
Δ Extraction and modification of surface water flow of
tributaries
Δ Riparian vegetation burning
Δ Agricultural activity
Δ Underground and surface
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
water extraction
Δ Riparian vegetation burning
trial Waste with high salt
concentration
Δ Surface water extraction
Infiltration (A)
Δ Drainage
Δ Sedimentation
Δ Deforestation
Δ Water residence time modi-
Saturated
infiltration (B)
fication
Δ Sedimentation
Δ Deforestation
Runoff
Δ Surface water extraction
Δ Deforestation
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
Δ Grazing
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Domestic predators
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high salt
concentration
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Grazing
Δ Single-crop farming
Δ Grazing
Δ Biomass extraction
Δ Domestic predators
Δ Deforestation of
riparian vegetation
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
Underground
upwellings
Δ Underground and surface
water extraction
Δ Riparian vegetation burning
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Discharge of Liquid Industrial Waste with high salt
concentration
Δ Agricultural activity
Δ Grazing
Δ Introduction of alien
species
Δ Domestic predators
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
Organic acids
0° C isotherm
Δ Deforestation
Δ Water resistance time mo-
dification
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Discharge of Liquid Indus-
trial Waste with high nutrient
concentration
Δ Introduction of alien
species
Δ Grazing
chapter 7 biodiversity
305
Annex 2
Endangered – rare
Endangered
Vulnerable - rare
Vulnerable
Rare
Regionally
Outstanding
Data Deficient Rare
Data Deficient
Not in Danger
Unclassified
Classified Species
Vascular plants
5
83
59
5
91
109
38
5
16
26
5063
437
Mollusks
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
37
0
1144
43
Crustaceans
0
0
1
0
3
0
4
0
10
0
18
18
Fish
0
5
15
1
9
0
9
1
3
3
1180
46
Amphibians
0
12
2
1
5
3
5
5
6
4
13
43
Reptiles
0
0
8
0
14
50
6
0
15
7
11
100
Birds
1
4
15
0
20
11
11
0
17
0
381
79
Mammals
0
1
19
0
12
13
10
1
42
5
47
103
Group
Extinct
Species Classified by Some Classification Process
Annex 3
Protection Figures
Year
Nº of Terrestrial Units
Terrestrial
Area (ha)
Nº of Marine
Units
Marine
Area (ha)
Total
Units
Total Area
1900-1909
1
16,532
1
16,532
1910-1919
2
94,237
2
94,237
1920-1929
1
250,415
1
250,415
1930-1939
7
1,141,023
7
1,141,023
1940-1949
4
237,358
4
237,358
1950-1959
3
1,721,535
3
1,721,535
1960-1969
12
4,297,333
12
4,297,333
1970-1979
17
502,688
4
250
21
502,937
1980-1989
38
5,407,946
1
2
39
5,407,948
1990-1999
26
691,260
7
17,205
33
708,465
2000-2009
19
630,576
12
82,772
31
713,348
2010
2
118,276
1
15,000,000
3
15,118,276
Total
132
15,109,179
25
15,100,229
157
30,209,408
306
Annex 4
chapter 7 biodiversity
Wetland area in SNASPE
Wetland Area in
SNASPE (ha)
Wetland Area in
SNASPE
in total SNASPE Area
(%)
Arica and Parinacota
10,070
2.8
Tarapacá
12,090
3.2
Antofagasta
25,380
7.0
Atacama
Region
6,900
4.9
Coquimbo
180
1.3
Valparaíso
1,890
8.6
Metropolitan
440
2.0
Libertador General Bernardo O’higgins
70
1.8
Maule
120
0.7
Biobío
300
0.2
La Araucanía
1,520
0.5
Los Ríos
3,280
3.3
Los Lagos
36,390
4.5
Aysén
95,960
2.0
Magallanes and Chilean
Antarctica (*)
186,170
2.8
Total
381,400
2.7
307
Annex 5
chapter 7 biodiversity
Ecosystem Representation in IUCN Category Protected Areas 20
Natural
Monument
(%)
II
III
IV
IV
Deciduous Forest
4.9
0
3.5
1.1
9
Sclerophyll Forest
0.2
0
0.8
0.7
2
Thorn Forest
0.3
0.2
1.9
0
2
Laurifolia Forest
6.5
0.5
0.4
7
Resinous Forest
5.6
27.2
4.3
37
Evergreen Forest
15.8
0
5.1
1.9
23
Absolute Desert
0
0
1
0
1
Steppes and Grasslands
0.2
0
0.8
Altitude Grasslands
2.3
0
5.5
0.6
8
Arborescent Shrubland
4
0
4.5
0.1
9
Low Altitude Shrubland
9.8
0.1
3.2
0.5
14
Low Desert Shrubland
0.1
0.8
0
0.2
1
Deciduous Shrubland
0
45
1,2
0
46
Desert Shrubland
0
1.5
0.3
0.2
2
0
0.4
0.4
Vegetation
Formation
Thorn Shrubland
National
Nature
Reserve Sanctuary
(%)
(%)
%Total
Representation
in Protected
Areas
National
Park (%)
1
Evergreen Shrubland
56.9
37.2
94
Peat bog
40.9
43.2
84
20] Main conservation objectives: IUCN categories, I (to protect
undisturbed biodiversity, allowing very controlled visits), II (to
provide spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitation
opportunities that are environmentally and culturally compatible),
III (to protect specific, natural and outstanding features, biodiversity
and habitats related to them), IV (to maintain, conserve and restore
species and habitats), V (to protect and maintain important terrestrial/marine landscapes, the observation of nature and cultural
values associated to them), VI (to protect natural ecosystems and
use natural resources in a sustainable manner).
chapter 7 biodiversity
308
Annex 6
Ecosystem Representation in Marine Protected Areas
Ecosystem Representation Protected area / UICN6 category
% marinecoastal
Protected
Areas
% Marine
Park
% Marine
Reserves
% Nature
Sanctuary
VI
Ia
IV
IV
ZONE I
0.3
0.3
ZONE II
ZONE III
2.8
2.9
5.6
ZONE IV
0.02
0.02
ZONE V
0.01
0.1
0.2
ZONE VI
0.9
0.9
ZONEVII
0.01
0.1
0.5
0.6
ZONE VIII
1.1
0.02
1.1
ZONE IX
Coastal
Zoogeographic
al Zone
% Total
Representation
in Protected
Areas
309
Annex
7
chapter 7 biodiversity
Vegetation Belts by Region, Luebert and Pliscoff
Region
Arica and Parinacota Region
Vegetation Formation
Thorn Forest
190,853.92
0.27
381,192.48
0.54
Low Altitude Shrubland
932,365.22
1.33
Low Desert Shrubland
101,244.32
0.14
Desert Shrubland
54,012.08
0.08
176,769.60
0.25
Absolute Desert
1,816,093.93
2.60
Low Altitude Shrubland
1,323,445.67
1.89
Low Desert Shrubland
440,907.94
0.63
Desert Shrubland
420,217.97
0.60
3,587,921.65
5.13
12,204.52
0.02
Low Altitude Shrubland
2,770,021.92
3.96
Low Desert Shrubland
4,497,145.11
6.43
Desert Shrubland
1,535,675.13
2.19
317,042.89
0.45
Low Altitude Shrubland
2,479,689.70
3.54
Low Desert Shrubland
1,373,731.09
1.96
Absolute Desert
Altitude Grasslands
Antofagasta Region
Altitude Grasslands
Atacama Region
Coquimbo Region
% Potential Area
of the Country
Absolute Desert
Thorn Forest
Tarapacá Region
Area (ha)
Desert Shrubland
3,251,083.47
4.65
Sclerophyll Forest
228,194.29
0.33
Altitude Grasslands
143,340.31
0.20
Arborescent Shrubland
402,348.04
0.58
Low Altitude Shrubland
1,169,895.14
1.67
131,077.87
0.19
Desert Shrubland
1,872,710.66
2.68
Thorn Shrubland
92,782.20
0.13
Low Desert Shrubland
Continues on next page
310
Region
Valparaíso Region
Metropolitan Region
chapter 7 biodiversity
Vegetation Formation
Maule Region
% Potential Area
of the Country
Deciduous Forest
18,529.42
0.03
Sclerophyll Forest
626,748.09
0.90
Thorn Forest
184,335.52
0.26
92,159.19
0.13
Arborescent Shrubland
272,291.87
0.39
Low Altitude Shrubland
216,869.80
0.31
Thorn Shrubland
156,176.68
0.22
Deciduous Forest
56,094.25
0.08
Sclerophyll Forest
584,557.50
0.84
Thorn Forest
335,062.42
0.48
Altitude Grasslands
170,538.09
0.24
Arborescent Shrubland
54,265.33
0.08
Low Altitude Shrubland
252,317.49
0.36
2,865.31
0.00
Deciduous Forest
63,165.13
0.09
Sclerophyll Forest
828,559.71
1.18
Thorn Forest
330,991.23
0.47
Altitude Grasslands
165,906.89
0.24
Low Altitude Shrubland
231,603.94
0.33
Altitude Grasslands
Thorn Shrubland
Libertador General Bernardo
O´Higgins Region
Area (ha)
Deciduous Forest
789,890.54
1.13
Sclerophyll Forest
721,619.54
1.03
Thorn Forest
800,683.19
1.14
Altitude Grasslands
120,007.87
0.17
Low Altitude Shrubland
586,518.56
0.84
Continues on next page
311
Region
Vegetation Formation
Deciduous Forest
2,464,258.59
3.52
856,186.75
1.22
77,322.33
0.11
Laurifolia Forest
120,686.27
0.17
Resinous Forest
104,906.25
0.15
Evergreen Forest
16,945.69
0.02
Low Altitude Shrubland
51,237.58
0.07
2,729,812.78
3.90
Laurifolia Forest
25,403.81
0.04
Resinous Forest
349,259.06
0.50
Evergreen Forest
27,501.20
0.04
9,098.29
0.01
1,054,137.42
1.51
564,422.88
0.81
Resinous Forest
16,990.82
0.02
Evergreen Forest
104,438.75
0.15
872.22
0.00
Deciduous Forest
1,303,448.35
1.86
Sclerophyll Forest
673,101.58
0.96
Resinous Forest
680,989.88
0.97
1,967,104.98
2.81
14,631.53
0.02
Low Altitude Shrubland
1,093.15
0.00
Deciduous Shrubland
3,725.03
0.01
Deciduous Forest
Araucanía Region
Low Altitude Shrubland
Deciduous Forest
Laurifolia Forest
Los Ríos Region
Low Altitude Shrubland
Los Lagos Region
% Potential Area
of the Country
Sclerophyll Forest
Thorn Forest
Biobío Region
Area (ha)
chapter 7 biodiversity
Evergreen Forest
Altitude Grasslands
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chapter 7 biodiversity
312
Region
Vegetation Formation
Deciduous Forest
2.63
791,860.65
1.13
2,133,539.59
3.05
Steppes and Grasslands
460,572.48
0.66
Altitude Grasslands
361,116.44
0.52
Arborescent Shrubland
366,015.89
0.52
Deciduous Shrubland
388,296.59
0.55
Evergreen Shrubland
324,054.14
0.46
Peat bog
Evergreen Forest
Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica Region
% Potential Area
of the Country
1,841,835.11
Resinous Forest
Aysén Region
Area (ha)
1,928,08.31
2.76
Deciduous Forest
886,415.79
1.27
Evergreen Forest
1,339,028.98
1.91
Steppes and Grasslands
2,032,617.16
2.90
Altitude Grasslands
158,402.94
0.23
Arborescent Shrubland
768,026.38
1.10
Low Altitude Shrubland
982,784.98
1.40
Deciduous Shrubland
227,274.80
0.32
4,401,674.97
6.29
Peat bog
Source: Own elaboration, based on MMA data, 2011.
313
Annex 8
chapter 7 biodiversity
Protection Categories
Protection
Category
Description
Legal source
National
Reserve
A generally reduced area, characterized by the presence
of native flora and fauna species or by the existence of
relevant geological sites from the scenic, cultural, educa- Law N° 19.300, article 10.
tional or scientific perspective. The objective of this
SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of
management category is to preserve samples of natural Foreign Affairs.
environments and cultural and scenic features related to
them and, provided that they are compatible with this,
to carry out education, research or recreation activities.
National Park
A generally vast area, in which there are many representative or unique environments of the country's natural
ecological diversity, not significantly disturbed by human
actions, capable of self-perpetuating and where flora
and fauna species or geological formations are especially interesting for education, science or recreation.
The objectives of this management category are the
preservation of samples of natural environments and
cultural and scenic features related to them; the continuity of evolution processes; and, provided that they are
compatible with this, carrying out education, research or
recreation activities.
Virgin Regions
Reserve
An area in which there are primitive natural conditions
in terms of flora, fauna, housing and communication,
with the absence of roads for motorized vehicle traffic
and prohibited to any commercial exploitation. The
objective of this management category is to keep such
reserves as untouched as possible, except for duly
authorized scientific research studies and for inspections by the Corporation or for other appropriate ends
that do not affect the purposes for which the reserve
was created. Despite the fact that this type of protected area is fully in force, no unit has been established
through this protection category in Chile.
Law N° 19.300, article 10.
SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of
Foreign Affairs.
SD N° 4363/31 Ministry of
Lands and Colonization
DWL Nº 1939/77 (article 21)
Law N° 19.300, article 10.
SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of
Foreign Affairs.
(Washington Convention)
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314
Protection
Category
Natural
Monument
chapter 7 biodiversity
Description
Legal source
An area whose natural resources must be conserved and
used with special care, because of their susceptibility to
suffer degradation or due to their relevance in providing
well-being to the community. The objectives of this ma- Law N° 19.300, article 10.
nagement category are to conserve and protect the soil
SD Nº 531/67 Ministry of
resource and threatened wild flora and fauna species, to Foreign Affairs.
maintain or improve water production, and to development and apply technologies for the rational use of flora
and fauna.
Nature
Sanctuary
Terrestrial or marine areas offering special possibilities
for geological, paleontological, zoological, botanical
o ecological studies and research or having natural
formations whose conservation is a matter of interest
for science or for the State. This type of protected area
is currently established by the Ministry of the Environment. The Council of National Monuments, according to
Law N° 17.288/70, modified by Law N° 20.417, prepares
a report on the proposal of each new sanctuary. This
is sent to the Ministry of the Environment, which then
passes it on to the Council of Ministers for Sustainability for a statement. The Ministry of the Environment is
responsible for the general custody of these (public or
private) areas.
Marine Parks
Marine parks are specific and defined marine areas set
aside to preserve ecological areas of interest for science
and to care for areas that will ensure the maintenance
and diversity of hydrobiological species, as well as those
related to their habitat. No activities can be carried out
in them, except for those authorized with observation,
research or study purposes. These areas are currently
under the care of the National Fishing Service and extractive activities can only be carried out in them during
transitory periods, provided that there is a well-justified
resolution by the Fishing Undersecretariat.
Law N° 19.300, article 10.
Law Nº 17.288/70 of National
Monuments (article 31).
Law N° 19.300, article 10.
SD N° 430/91. Ministry of
Economy and Development
(article 3rd, letter d).
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315
Protection
Category
Description
Marine
Reserves
Marine reserves are areas that shelter hydrobiological
resources in order to protect breeding areas, fishing
grounds and repopulation areas through management.
These areas are currently under the care of the National
Fishing Service and extractive activities can only be
carried out in them during transitory periods, provided
that there is a well-justified resolution by the Fishing
Undersecretariat.
Coastal-marine
Protected Areas
(AMCP-MU by
their acronym
in Spanish)
They are areas that include portions of water, sea
bottom, rocks, beaches and public beach lands (flora
and fauna), historical and cultural resources that the
law or other efficient means set aside to protect all
or part of the defined place. Therefore, the AMCP-MU
are created as a management tool for the protection,
management, maintenance and restoration of natural
and cultural resources of coastal and marine waters.
Communities living in them can develop sustainable
tourism, fishing and recreation activities.
chapter 7 biodiversity
Legal source
Law N° 19.300, article 10.
SD N° 430/91. Ministry of
Economy and Development
(article 2nd, Nº43)
SD Nº 827/95. Ministry of
Foreign Affairs.
DFL Nº 340/60. Ministry of
Defense.
DFL Nº 2.222/78. Ministry of
Defense.
DFL Nº 475/94. Ministry of
Defense
316
Annex 9
chapter 7 biodiversity
Chilean Institutions with Ex-situ Conservation of Phytogenetic Resources
Nº
Genera
Nº
Species
Universidad Arturo Prat
11
13
79
Cereals, forage plants,
fruit trees and vines, wild
species
Universidad de Antofagasta
36
38
si
Forage plants, fruit trees
and vines, wild species
Universidad Adventista de Chile
1
1
26
Ornamental plants
Universidad de Tarapacá
4
5
28
Cereals, fruit trees and
vines, oleaginous plants
Universidad de Talca
6
13
4,044
Wild species
Universidad Católica del Maule
1
1
20
Wild species
Instituto Forestal
2
5
550
Forest species
Universidad de Magallanes
21
26
43
Forest species, ornamental
plants, wild species
Pontificia Universidad Católica
de Valparaíso
3
10
282
Wild species
Pontificia Universidad Católica
de Chile
7
7
1,277
Ornamental plants and wild
species
Institution
Nº
Entries
20
Species Conserved
Ex-situ
Instituto de Investigaciones
Agropecuarias (INIA)
185
312
41,105
Cereals, forage plants, fruit
trees and vines, medicinal
plants, oleaginous, wild
species
Universidad de Concepción
32
33
147
Cereals, forage, fruit trees
and vines, fruit orchards,
medicinal, oleaginous
Fundación Chile
2
3
198
Aromatic plants
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317
Institution
Forestal Mininco
Universidad Austral de Chile
Nº
Genera
Nº
Species
35
48
Nº 21
Entries 20
13
75
4,834
chapter 7 biodiversity
Species Conserved
Ex-situ
Forest species
Forest species, fruit trees
and vines, forage plants,
vegetables, medicinal
plants, tubers and roots,
wild species
Aromatic plants, forest
species, forage plants, fruit
trees and vines, leguminous
plants, medicinal plants,
wild species
Universidad de Chile
40
99
566
Universidad de La Serena
1
11
si
Corporación Nacional Forestal
36
57
183
Forest species, ornamental
plants
Semillas Baer
1
1
85
Pseudocereals
Forestal El Álamo Ltda.
1
si
180
Forest species
Source: Salazar, 2005. Genetic Resource Unit, INIA, La Platina (personal communication)
21] This refers to a live sample, stock or population of a plant
maintained in a germplasm bank for its preservation and/or
use. A species can be represented by different entries that differ
according to the type of population to which they belong (i.e.
primitive variety, traditional variety, improved variety, advanced
lines of improvement, wild plants) and/or to their origin (site of
collection or creation). INIA Terms Glossary.
Wild species