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Physical Anthropology 101 Notes & Assignments Packet Fall 2007 Professor K. Markley Table of Contents pages 4-7 Overview of the Reading Packet Tips for a Successful Semester How to figure out your grade/ Extra Credit First Day General Survey Science pages 7-9 What happened to the Dinosaurs- class exercise Natural Selection pages 10-12 Darwin and Lamarck Assignment What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions Genetics pages 13-22 Genetics Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia- Assignment Genetics/Punnett Squares- Assignment Nature/Nurture Debate Processes of Evolution pages 23-31 Sickle Cell Anemia Micro and Macro Evolution Pattern of Life on Earth Evolution, Creationism, and Pseudo-Science History of Life on Earth- Chart Brief History of Life on Earth- Notes Great Transformations- Video Questions Hardy Weinberg pages 32-36 Hardy Weinberg Sample Problem & Blank Tables for H/W problems Hardy Weinberg Assignments Taxonomic Categorization pages 37-46 Taxonomic Classifications Primates Primate Studies Overview Baboon Studies Ultimate Guide to the Great Apes- Video Questions New Chimpanzees- Video Questions Zoo Report- Extra Credit 2 Hominin Fossil Record pages 47- 62 Studying the Past Origin and Evolution of Primates Hominid Fossil Record Overview Hominid Family Tree 2002 In Search of Human Origins- Video Questions Last Neandertal Video Questions Study of Evolution in Human Popuations- pages 63-67 Human Biological Diversity and the Race Concept Human Variation Fieldwork Assignment Race: The Power of An Illusion – Video Questions Anthropology: The Study of Humans- information Annual Editions Article Questions and Assignments 3 Overview of Notes and Assignments Packet This reading packet contains notes to accompany classroom lecture and your homework assignments for the semester. Bring this packet to class each day. To get the most out of each class session it is recommended that you try and complete the questions before each class session (your class schedule will list what topics, readings are assigned for the day). SYLLABUS Read your syllabus!!! If you have a question more often than not the answer will be in your syllabus. CLASS SCHEDULE Your class schedule has three columns; the date, readings and topics, and assignments due. Refer to your class schedule EVERY week to keep up to date on reading assignments and homework assignments. The dates for when your assignments are due is listed in your class schedule but may also be announced in class (any changes will be announced in class- make sure that you either attend class every day or have a fellow student to get notes from). Attendance Success in this class (success= passing this class with a C or better) will require that you attend class regularly. It is likely that you will miss at least one class at some point during the semester, either due to an illness or some other serious problem. If you miss class it is your responsibility to get the information that you missed. I DO NOT GIVE OUT NOTES FROM A MISSED LECTURE. I advise you to get to know a couple of other students in the class and exchange email or phone numbers (if you feel comfortable doing this) so that you can find out what you missed if you are absent. Make sure that you hook up with a student who is reliable note taker. Annual Edition Articles (AE) At the back of this packet there are questions for all of the AE articles you are assigned to read. After you have finished reading each article you should be able to answer the questions and also understand the main point(s) the author is trying to get across. Often the author will state their main objective in the article at the beginning and/or the end of the article. To be able to understand the main idea(s) of the article as well as to be able to answer the questions for each article (the questions at the back of this packet) you will likely have to read the article a couple of times. AE articles are a source of both quiz and exam questions. 4 Tips for a Successful Semester Keep in mind that learning is an ACTIVE endeavor. At the college level if you are passively listening or passively reading classroom material you will not gain the type of understanding that is needed to be successful. To pass your exams you will need to know the definitions for concepts and terms but this is only the start, you will need to know how to recognize and apply what you are learning as well. If you can explain what you are learning to someone else that is generally a good test as to how well you know the material. Make sure you can put concepts into your own words (although make sure the words mean the same thing!). Ultimately to be successful you will need to be engaged in class lecture and discussion. Being an active learner includes; raising your hand and asking questions, making observations and comments on the material presented. Read your textbook and articles before class lecture. Check your class schedule and note the topics/readings for the day’s lecture. It is a good idea to first skim over the material to get an idea as to what the reading is about, where it is going and what you should look for. Then read the material before class lecture. Familiarize yourself with the terminology used. Make sure that you have a dictionary to look up unfamiliar words (words are often in the back of the text). Class lecture & Note taking: Use this notes packet and be an active note taking during lectures. Overheads are used to highlight important concepts and are useful for test reviews. One of my old professors gave students the following recommendations to do well in college classes; read your text at least 3 times (first just read it, then underline/highlight key points, lastly take notes on key parts and terms), read class notes at least 3 times (similar strategy as above), then write up your notes and review them at least 6 times. When I was in school I always made 3 x 5 cards for important concepts and terms. I found this very helpful in learning the material. Exam essay questions: Essay questions will be given to you at least one week ahead of time. To do well on an essay question you will generally need to outline your answer ahead of time and study your answer ahead of time. Make an outline of your essay on a 3 x 5 card and use it to study for the exam. Notes cannot be used while taking the exam, notes are for study purposes only. ASK QUESTIONS, if you are in doubt or unsure about something ask! If you are having difficulty in class take action EARLY. Make sure you are spending the appropriate amount of time studying (estimated to be 2 hours outside of class for every hour in class), make an appointment with the instructor, go to the skills center or writing center for assistance. Regular attendance is CRUCIAL to do well. 5 How to figure out your grade: It is important for you to keep track of your grades over the semester. This allows you to monitor how well you are doing in the class. I will pass back all of your assignments and exams so that you can keep track of how you are doing. To calculate your grade you will need to determine how many points you have earned in relationship to how many points are possible. Sample: If you want to figure out your grade after the first exam you can see from the grading page in your syllabus that the maximum points you can have earned is 120 points Maximum Points Possible Points that you earned Exam 1 - 100 pts. 72 pts Quiz 1 - 10 pts. 6 pts Quiz 2 - 10 pts. 9 pts -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------120 pts. possible 84 points earned Take the 84 points you have earned and divide it into the 120 points that were possible and you will get .70 this means that you are getting a C at this point (70% = C, 80%= B, etc.). Although if you have read your syllabus you will see that you get to drop one quiz so if you do well on your future quizzes you will likely want to drop quiz 1. Your syllabus contains a list of all the assignments and the points they are worth. I advise you to keep a list of the scores on each assignment in your syllabus. I also recommend that you keep all of your graded assignments until you receive your grade at the end of the semester. Extra Credit: Students have the option of turning in two extra credit assignments worth up to 20 points total. Extra credit work can be turned in at anytime during the semester just so long as it is before the deadline listed in your class schedule. You may only complete each option ONCE. Option One: Take advantage of one of the services offered on campus; skills center, library orientation, transfer center, campus activity, etc. Then write a ½ to 1 page description of what you did and what you learned. This option is worth up to 5 points. Option Two: Attend a museum, view a film, or read a book or article pertaining to physical anthropology. This option gives you a chance to further your knowledge of physical anthropology and it is worth up to 15 points. Write a three page, typed, double-spaced paper, with three subheadings: (1) What you read or observed, be specific as well as descriptive. Where did you go, what did you read, etc. Make sure to identify your source(s). (2) Incorporate three concepts or terms learned in class. This should be the bulk of your paper. Discuss what you did in relationship to what you have learned in this class this semester. You will earn the highest amount of points for the way in which relate what you did with terms and concepts from class. (3) Give your personal analyses and reaction to the event/reading/film. Prior verbal approval of the instructor is recommended for the Option Two extra credit assignment (just to make sure you’re on track with what you need to do). You may also visit the zoo for Option Two, see the instructions for the zoo option in this reading packet in the primate section. Physical Anthropology Museum Options: San Diego Museum of Man, Los Angeles Natural History Museum, and the Los Angeles La Brea Tar Pits. 6 Physical Anthropology K. Markley First Day General Survey Are the following statements true or false? Write an F or T next to each question (you will NOT be graded on this exercise). 1. Scientific knowledge can be used to answer any question that humans have. 2. Scientific knowledge operates according to the American cultural value for fairness. All scientific opinions are equally valued and given equal voice in the scientific community. 3. Survival of the fittest (in the theory of natural selection) is all about being the biggest, the strongest and the fastest. 4. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection has been dramatically revised since it was first formulated and is hotly debated in biology today 5. The four DNA bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine are the basis for all life on earth. Everything from bacteria, to flowers, to dogs, and humans are formed from these four bases. 6. Females are more likely than males to be red-green colorblind. 7. The completion of the Human Genome Project has revealed that aggression is a genetic trait coded for in human genes. 8. Orangutan’s are primates and they are in the same taxonomic Order as humans. 9. Humans are unique in both their physical and behavioral features as compared to other primates. 10. All scientists agree that there are only two sexes in the species Homo sapiens. 11. Early hominins, like Lucy, co-existed with dinosaurs. 12. Neanderthals co-existed and interbred with early modern Homo sapiens 13. The oldest “human-like ancestors” in the fossil record are some 4.5 million years and they are considered “human-like” (instead of ape-like) because of their big brains 14. Forensic anthropologists can determine the lifestyle, sex, and approximate age an individual was when they died by examining skeletal remains. 15. Humans, whales and dogs are all mammals which share a similar body plan in their limbs. 16. All Christian churches state that you must chose between accepting evolutionary theory and science or believing in God and being a good Christian. 17. The creation/evolution debate is largely an American phenomena. This debate does not exist, for the most part, in Europe. 18. Since the persecution of Galileo, science, politics and religion have pretty much stayed in their own separate spheres and there has not been a lot of conflict. 19. Evolutionary theory can explain the origin of life on earth. 20. Evolution is only a theory (and therefore not a fact). 7 Science: is a method of inquiry and a body of knowledge. Science is limited to studying the ___________________________________, it assumes the universe operates according to certain rules, and these rules or laws can be determined through __________________________and inference. These laws are thought to be the same over time and space. Method of Inquiry: Science involves the ____________________ collection of data (observed and inferred), hypothesis are formed, tested and then either accepted, rejected or _____________________. Science works both inductively and deductively. Induction: scientists gather evidence/data, and when they have sufficient data they work to generate a _________________________. Example: Darwin observed that life forms that existed in his day were similar to fossils found from earlier times (although they often were different in some ways) and he also noted that similar life forms existed in different _________________________locations (although they were often different in some ways, their size for instance). He formed a hypothesis, he stated that “Life forms change and evolve over time and space.” He was then left to discern the mechanism that produced these changes. He believed that the environment seemed to play a part…. Deduction: scientists develop hypotheses and then test these hypotheses against the data. Example: Darwin proposed the following hypothesis, “Life changes over time and space due to _________________________ differences.” Darwin stated (after much research) that “populations of species will be different in time and space due to different environments.” ____________________ or the environment will “select” which individuals are best adapted to a particular environment. These individuals, with the traits best suited to the environment will out-compete others in their population, they will live longer, produce more offspring and over time the population will change to reflect the “selection” for these traits. A good hypothesis should always make predictions as to what will be found in the data collection. Darwin proposed that animals would vary in specific traits in relationship to their environment. An example would be the way in which foxes vary in their coloring depending on the environment. White colored foxes are best suited to artic environments and that is where we find them. Brown and darker colored foxes are best suited to woodland environments and that is where we find them. Hypothesis testing: According to Karl Popper, a seminal philosopher of science, scientific hypotheses can never be __________________ absolutely. Science works best when scientists work to disprove or _______________________ their hypothesis. After many, many tests (always corroborated by other scientists) if a hypothesis is not falsified then it can be accepted as valid. It only takes one test in which a hypothesis is falsified to disproved it, and it takes numerous tests to provisionally validate a hypothesis. 8 What Happened to the Dinosaurs? In the article “Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of the Dinosaurs,” Stephen Jay Gould puts forth three explanations that have been given for the demise of the dinosaurs: sex, drugs, and disaster. We do know that the dinosaurs died off during a mass extinction event some 65 million years ago. The dinosaurs died off along with thousands of marine animals, and ocean plankton. The cause of this mass extinction event is the still the subject of debate. Your Assignment: Read the following explanations as to the demise of the dinosaurs. For each explanation state whether or not you think it constitutes a valid scientific hypotheses to explain the demise of the dinosaurs. Give your reasoning for your conclusions. Then, determine which explanation you think is most likely accurate to explain this extinction event. Make sure to have a rationale for your answer. Sex: In the 1940’s a study was conducted on alligators to determine their temperature tolerance. It was found that small alligators heated up and cooled down quickly and larger alligators heated up and cooled down more slowly (this is a function of size to surface area). The researchers speculated that dinosaurs lived in a time period where they lived close to their optimal temperature range. It is known that a slight warming trend occurred around the time the dinosaurs died off. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs warmed up, not enough to kill them outright, but enough to sterilize them. The testicles of male mammals often function within a narrow temperature range. It is speculated that the slight increase in temperature sterilized the male dinosaurs and caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Constitute a valid scientific hypothesis? Why or Why Not? Likely explanation for dinosaurs extinction? Why or Why Not? Drugs: It is known that flowering plants first evolved toward the end of the dinosaur’s reign. Many of these plants contain psychoactive agents that can be very harmful to animals. Mammals today generally don’t eat these flowers because of their bitter taste and they also have livers that work to eliminate the toxic nature of the plants. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs could not taste the bitterness that is present in these psychoactive plants, nor were their livers built to allow them to detoxify the plant and render it less devastating to them. The conclusion is that dinosaurs ingested the plants and then died of massive drug overdoses. Constitute a valid scientific hypothesis? Why or Why Not? Likely explanation for dinosaurs extinction? Why or Why Not? Disaster: There is a site in the Yucatan where a large comet hit the earth approximately 65 million year ago. The hypothesis is that as a result of this comet hitting the earth there was the formation of a huge, worldwide dust cloud, which blocked sunlight, suppressed photosynthesis and drastically lowered worldwide temperatures. The resulting changes in temperature and available sunlight caused the dinosaurs and a host of other creatures to go extinct. Constitute a valid scientific hypothesis? Why or Why Not? Likely explanation for dinosaurs extinction? Why or Why Not? What are the key things that you learned from this assignment? Note the following areas; 1) what can we learn through science? 2) how does science work? 3) what can we learn about the past and how can we study the past? 4) what do the terms; fact, hypothesis, and theory mean in science? 9 Natural Selection Notes Natural Selection definition: a “process of evolutionary change based on differential reproductive success (fitness) of ________________________________ within a _______________________________.” Key aspects of natural selection: Variation: variation exists in all individuals within a population or species. Individuals within species vary in their traits such as their size, speed, ability to resist disease, coloring, etc. Variation is the _____________ material for natural selection. Competition: In all populations there are more individuals born than live to reproduce. Competition for survival exists between ________________________ within all populations. Individuals within the same population compete for survival based on the variable traits that they posses. Variation in traits allows some individuals to be better at getting food, avoiding predators, avoiding illness, and therefore live longer. The environment or nature “selects” for or against individuals based on their traits: Individuals with the “best” traits in a particular environment are “selected” for. The environment (nature) selects which ________________ are most advantageous for survival. Depending on the environment it may be better to be small or large, dark or light in coloring, etc. Selection is evidenced by the ______________________ reproductive fitness of individuals within a population. Fitness: fitness in Darwinian terms is merely “differential reproductive success.” Differential reproductive success is when an individual produces more ____________________ that live to a reproductive age than other individuals in their population. An individual has been “selected” for when they are more fit than others in their population (i.e. they produce more offspring than other individuals within their population). Inheritance: The traits that are significant in natural selection are those traits that are passed on by parents to offspring through _______________ inheritance. Offspring inherit their traits from their biological parents. Environments change: the environment or nature is not ____________________. Traits that are selected for today may not be positive or selected for in another environment. The “environment” includes the climate, predators, food availability, etc. Natural selection. The individual’s that make up a __________________ change as nature selects for or against individuals based on the variable traits that they posses. Individuals with “_________________” traits live and reproduce offspring, those with “_______________________” traits die young and do not produce offspring. Over enough time new ____________________ will form. As regards Natural Selection, keep in mind: Selection operates at the ___________________________ level. Selection is for or against individuals based on the ____________________ that they possess. We are not talking about selection at the population level. Populations evolve, not __________________. It is populations that change over time as individuals with the most advantageous traits are “selected” and produce offspring that inherit their parent’s traits. Natural Selection is not ____________ it doesn’t lead to more _________________________ organisms, it selects for traits that are “positive” in a particular environment, in relation to reproductive success. Natural selection does not have any particular direction or teleology. Natural Selection is not foolproof- ______________________________ is the norm o ________________________________ must be present to be selected o There must be _______________________ for selection to occur- if environmental change is too sudden or too drastic it won’t work 10 Darwin and Lamarck Assignment Which scenario reflects Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and which reflects Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection? Your assignment is to label the scenario’s as either Lamarck’s hypothesis or Darwin’s theory and then to match each numbered key components (listed below) to the appropriate sentence in the scenario. You can use this sheet of paper and underline each relevant sentence and then put the appropriate number next to it. General information for both scenario’s: Two species of birds exist on Daphne Major island in the Galapagos Islands. The cactus finch’s which eat cactus and the medium ground finch’s which eat seeds. The beaks of the finches are instrumental in their ability to get food. The size and shape of the finch’s beak determines what food they are able to eat. The cactus finch’s beak allows them to get the nectar out of cactus flowers and the medium ground finch’s beak allows them to crack and eat seeds. Scenario #1 All of the medium ground finches are very similar in their beak size and shape. A drought hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. Most all of the smaller seeds that the medium ground finches eat are consumed and the medium ground finches start dying off. The only seeds left are quite large and hard. Some of the medium ground finches are able to change their beak size and adapt to the changing environment. These finches adapt and change their beaks to be able to crack the only seeds that are left in the environment, large, hard seeds. The finches that are able to change their beaks are able to survive the change in their food source and live to produce offspring. The offspring of the surviving finches are born with the larger beaks that their parents developed in their lifetime. The population of medium ground finches is now different, it has evolved. The finches now have larger beaks and are able to eat larger and harder seeds. Scenario #2 The population of medium ground finches is highly variable in their individual beak size and shape. Some of the finches have smaller, shorter, weaker beaks and others have larger, deeper, stronger beaks. A drought hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. There is now a limited supply of seeds on the island. Fairly quickly all of the smaller, easier to crack seeds are eaten. The finches that have smaller, shorter beaks go hungry and start to die off. The medium ground finches with larger beaks are able to crack the larger, harder seeds, they live longer and reproduce offspring. The offspring inherit their parents larger beaks. The population of medium ground finches is now different. Overall a majority of the medium ground finches now have larger, deeper beaks and there are very few finches with smaller, shorter beaks. Components of Lamarcks hypothesis 1. Environments change 2. Individuals within a species are similar in the traits that they possess 3. Individuals bodies change in response to environmental change, variation is created during an individuals lifetime 5. Variation created within an individuals lifetime is inherited by their offspring Components of Darwin’s theory 1. Variation exists (in traits, among individuals within a species) 2. Competition exists 3. Environment selects desirable traits, as evidenced by fitness (differential reproductive success) 4. Traits are inherited by offspring 5. Environments change 6. Populations evolve over time 1. What is the key trait of selection among the finches? 2. What are the finches competing over? 3. Is the competition within or between species? 11 What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions K. Markley 1. In the beginning of the video the narrator uses two phrases which are incorrect in their scientific, biological context and in the way that he uses them. What should he have said? A. He said “…the finches held the secret to the origin of life.” He should have said “…the finches held the secret to the origin of _____________________ B. He said “…but it was only a theory.” He should have said “…but it was only a ______________________.” 2. What are the two species of finches the Grant’s are observing on Daphne Major? 3. The three questions the Grants were working to answer in their observations of the finches a. Do species compete? b. Why are some populations so variable? c. _________________________________________________________________ 4. How did the Galapagos Islands (which are fairly recent volcanic islands) become populated with the finches, plant life and other animals (speculate on this question)? 5. How many species of finches currently inhabit the Galapagos Islands? 6. What specific knowledge do the Grant’s need to document natural selection (think about the components of natural selection). -variation -competition -inheritance -environment -fitness 7. What species of finch undergo natural selection events and what is the most important trait impacting their survival? 8. The Grant’s observed two natural selection events. What happened? 9. (lecture) What were the two important things that the Grant’s study of Darwin’s finches revealed? 12 Genetics Notes: This is a general outline of what you need to know for the section on genetics. To make the best use of this information, read your text, attend class and take notes and use these sheets as an outline for key concepts and understandings. The section on genetics can often be a bit overwhelming at first, but if you follow my recommendations you should do well. When Darwin developed his theory of Natural Selection he understood the significance of variation but he did not know where it came from. He knew that _________________ reproduction and therefore ______________________ played a role in variation but he didn’t know exactly how. The study of genetics focuses on how sexual reproduction and inheritance play a role in variation. Genetics: the study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next. The study of genetics informs us as to where variation comes from and how inheritance works. Brief Overview: Humans (along with all other animals and plant life) are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of life in all living organisms. DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell directing cell replication (for growth and repair) and protein synthesis. DNA contains the genetic code. The four DNA bases (cytosine-C, guanine-G, adenine-A, and thymine-T), combine in units of three (codons) to form amino acids, which then code for the tens of thousands of proteins that comprise a human being. We are basically made up of proteins (enzymes, hormones, collagen, hemoglobin, are all proteins). How Genes Work: Once you have read and studied this section you should know; Where DNA resides _________________________________________________________ The structure or shape of the DNA molecule ______________________________________ How the bases (A, T, C, and G) hook up __________________________________________ How DNA directs cell replication and protein synthesis. Cell replication: Is a continual process in the body. It involves DNA directing the unwinding of the DNA molecule, where enzymes cut the base pairs apart, and new bases are picked up in the cell. The result (if all goes well) is an exact copy or daughter cell. In this process adenine hooks up with _____________ and cytosine hooks up with________. Protein Synthesis: starts in a similar way as cell replication does, but the DNA molecule is only partially unwound. Messenger RNA is assembled against one strand of the unwound DNA. mRNA transcribes the gene by matching complementary bases to the exposed coding strand of DNA, except that ________________ replaces thymine. mRNA then leaves the nucleus of the cell and moves to the _______________________. It is in the _____________________ that the message is decoded and translated into an actual _______________________. Transfer RNA reads the three letter code (also called a _____________). The _________________, or amino ________________ are then strung together to make a protein. 13 If we compare DNA to language we can see understand it in the following way: DNA language has the following 4 letters; ____________________________________________ DNA words are always _________letters long and they form _______________ or ____________ In the DNA language there are ___________________ words. DNA sentences create ____________________ with a string of amino acids. There are __________________________________ of proteins that make us what we are. All life on earth is made up of these four DNA bases. The different life forms that exist form are in part the result of the sequence, quantity and coding of the four DNA bases. From a Gene to a Trait: Genes are portions of the DNA molecule that code for specific traits or portions of a trait (specifically proteins, or portions of a protein). Humans have some 25,000 genes. Our genes code for tens of thousands of proteins. Each gene resides at a specific location on the chromosome (the locus) and each individual receives two “genes” or alleles at each location, one from each parent. Example: The trait of earlobes is coded for by one gene, but there are two possible ________for earlobes, attached and free hanging. Attached earlobes are when the bottom of the earlobe is attached to the neck, free hanging earlobes are not attached in this way. Locus- ___________________________________________ Alleles-________________________________, there are always _________alleles at each locus Genotype: _____________________________________________________________________ Phenotype: ____________________________________________________________________ Homozygous: __________________________________________________________________ Heterozygous: __________________________________________________________________ Alleles come in various forms and this impacts their expression in the individual Dominant: _____________________________________________________________ Recessive: ______________________________________________________________ co-dominance: ________________________________________, an example is the __________ blood system incomplete dominance: occurs when a recessive allele has some phenotypic effect, the recessive allele is not completely “masked” by the dominant allele (tay sachs is an example) 14 Example: The allele for free hanging earlobes is dominant and the allele for attached earlobes is recessive. Dominant alleles are shown using capital letters and recessive alleles are shown using lower case letters. For this trait there are three different genotypes and two possible phenotypes. Genotype Phenotype EE - homozygous dominant free hanging earlobes Ee - heterozygous free hanging earlobes ee - homozygous recessive attached earlobes Genetic Expression: The physical traits that we posses are determined by our genes or a combination of our genes and the environment. monogenic traits: __________________________________________________ examplepolygenic traits: ____________________________________________________ examplepleiotropy: __________________________________________________________ exampleHow Inheritance Works: As we learned above, genes (or alleles) come in pairs. When cells replicate, the result is an exact daughter cell. This process is ______________________. All of the cells in our body (except the sex cells or gametes) contain all of our genetic information. Generally our DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell in a long strand but during cell replication and protein synthesis DNA forms into discrete forms called ________________________________. We inherit the chromosomes that we posses from our biological parents. Typical humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, we get ___________ from each biological parent. Humans start life as a single cell. With cell division and replication we eventually end up as an adult human being comprised of some 1,000 billion cells. Cell division and replication of the somatic cells is responsible for growth and repair of our bodies. Somatic cells, which comprise the body tissue, muscle, bone, skin, nerves, etc. that make up our body. Each of our somatic cells contains all _________________pairs of our chromosomes, for a total of ___________chromosomes. Mitosis: is cell division of the __________________cells, and the result is two _______________ daughter cells. Mitosis is an ongoing process in the body. ___________ in the nucleus of the cell, directs this process. Mitosis works for repair and growth of the nails, hair, bone marrow, etc. which are constantly replaced. Sex cells or gametes are the cells of reproduction (eggs and sperm). The sex cells contain only half of our chromosomes (23 total). Meiosis: is cell division where sex cells are produced (gametes; ___________________& __________________). During meiosis the cells undergo an extra round of division and instead of two exact copies being produced as in mitosis, only one set of the twenty-three chromosomes are left. So, at the end of meiosis the sex cells only contain half of the individuals chromosomal complement. 15 Question: Why is it critical that the sex cells undergo another round of division? What role does this extra round of division play in shuffling existing variation? Meiosis is a powerful source for genetic diversity. In the production of each gamete or sex cell there is a _____________chance as to which one of the pair of chromosomes an individual passes onto to their offspring. Meiosis is a powerful source to reshuffle the existing variation. Each human has some 8 million possible combinations for their offspring. Punnett Squares: Show the possibilities for offspring (inheritance). The outside of the punnett square reflects the _____________________________for the parents for a particular trait. The inside of the square reflects the possibilities for their offspring’s _______________. During meiosis there is a __________ possibility as to which allele each parent passes onto their offspring. Example: A man with attached ear lobes marries a women with free hanging ear lobes (heterozygous). What are the possibilities for their children? (free hanging alleles are dominant and attached alleles are recessive) E e Ee ee Ee ee Offspring: there is a 50% possibility the children will have attached ear lobes and a 50% possibility they will have free hanging ear lobes e e Rules of Inheritence Segregation: during meiosis chromosomes segregate (and therefore allele pairs segregate) There is a ________chance for a parent to pass on either _________________ (this is what is represented in the punnett squares, you are displaying the __________chance for what the offspring will receive from their parents) Independent Assortment: genes on separate chromosomes are inherited ________________. It is chromosomes that segregate during meiosis not individual genes Linkage: genes on same chromosome are inherited ___________________, because it is _______________________________that segregate during meiosis Crossing Over: exception to linkage, during meiosis portions of chromosome pairs break off and cross over and are then recombined (recombination) Variation is increased through: Segregation, independent assortment, crossing over & recombination 16 Chromosomes are ____________________________________________________________ that reside in the nucleus of the cell. Generally DNA resides in a long strand inside the cell's nucleus but as the cell undergoes division the DNA becomes ___________________ and separates into chromosomes. Each species has a specific number of chromosomes. All typical humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 total (23 from each parent). Autosomes: chromosomes _____to _______. They contain most all of the genetic info for our physical characteristics except _____________determination. Sex Chromosomes: ___________ & _____________. Typical females have an _____& ____ sex chromosomes and thus have a matching pair for all of their chromosomes. The X chromosome is large and codes for _______________ traits. Typical males have an _______& _______ sex chromosome. Therefore males do not have a matching pair for their sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is small and for the most part codes for ___________________. Since males do not have a matching pair of sex chromosomes this makes them more susceptible to traits that reside on the X chromosome. Sex linked traits: Sex linked traits reside on either the _______or the ________ chromosome. Most sex linked traits reside on the ______chromosome (remember it carries many genes and functions more like an autosome). When you are working to determine the possibilities for offspring traits on a sex linked trait you need to put the sex chromosomes on the outside of the punnett square. Example: Trait under study is red green color blindness which is an X linked recessive disorder. A male with red green color blindness marries a female who is heterozygous for the trait. What are the possibilities for their children? Xr Y XR Xr XR Xr XR Y Xr Xr Xr Y Children: There is a 50% probability that their children will be red green colorblind. Things to keep in mind During meiosis parents pass on 50% of their chromosomal complement Punnett squares are used to calculate the possibilities for inheritance. The alleles the parents posses are on the outside and the possibilities for offspring’s alleles are on the inside. Offspring can express traits not expressed in parents (due to recessive alleles) Humans have pairs of all autosomes (22 from each parent, 44 total), females have a pair of sex chromosomes (two X’s, one from each parent), males have one X and one Y chromosome (males more likely to get conditions passed on X chromosome) 17 Human Genome: The completion of the Human Genome was an incredible accomplishment. The race to complete it involved many countries around the world, and also a competition between public and private interests. The completion of the genome means that we now know the sequence of the four bases for our species, Homo sapiens. It has lead to many new understandings and it has also left us with much more to learn. As you read this section make sure you can answer the following questions; what are the specific things we learned about coding and non-coding DNA (so called junk DNA), how many genes do we have, how do human genes differ from other animals in the way their genes code for traits, how many genes do we think we have, how many proteins do we think we have, what is a gene and how has the definition for a gene changed? (Hint- Read Park’s Contemporary Reflection on this topic). Genetics- Frequently Asked Questions What is DNA? Deoxyribonucleic acid. It’s a molecule that controls the structure of proteins and is the primary carrier of genetic (hereditary) information. What is a Gene? There are many different ways to define a “gene.” In this course we will be defining a gene as a sequence of DNA that codes for a particular protein, portions of a protein or regulates the expression of a protein. What do Proteins have to do with Genes? Genes store the recipe for making proteins. We are basically made up of proteins and proteins do the work of the body: they generate energy, fight infection, digest food, form hair, etc. Each protein in the body is made from a gene or genes by a translation of the genetic code (the DNA base sequences) What is a Genome? The complete set of genes carried by an individual. This analogy might help you better understand: the human genome is like a book which contains 23 chapters (chromosomes), and each chapter contains several thousand paragraphs (genes or proteins), each paragraph is made up of words (codons, amino acids), each word is written in letters (nucleic bases- adenine, thymine, cystosine, guanine) What is “junk DNA”? The majority of DNA does not code for proteins and until fairly recently it was thought that this DNA did nothing and so was labeled “junk.” Current research is showing that junk DNA often works to minimize or increase the impact of a protein or trait, and to regulate the expression of a protein. This noncoding DNA is no longer seen as junk. Characteristics of the DNA Code Code is universal: the same DNA code is present in all life on earth. Humans share some 200 genes with bacteria, this reflects a common ancestor with bacteria. Some 75% of our genes are shared with birds, we shared a common ancestor with birds some 310 million years ago. Code is triplet: each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases Code is continuous without pauses: there is no separation from one amino acid (codon) to another, so if a base is deleted then entire frame is moved, drastically altering the “message” downstream for other successive codons. Code is redundant: there are 20 amino acids, and 4 DNA bases which makes for 64 possible triplets (with 3 stop messages), so there are 61 codons specifying 20 amino acids o Many amino acids are coded for by more than one codon- (valine= UAA, UAG, UGA) o Redundancy helps if there is a change or mutation in the code it makes it less likely there will be drastic consequences 18 Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia- Assignment (Print) Name:________________________ Protein synthesis is the process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell. DNA, residing in the nucleus of the cell contains the blueprint for each specific protein. The four letters or “bases” in the DNA “alphabet” (adenine-A, thymine-T, cytosine-C, and guanine-G) combine in various sequences and quantities to form “words” or codons. Codons are made up of three “letters” or bases (A, T, C, G) and they form amino acids. Each amino acid is made up of three letters. There are 20 different amino acids which combine in various sequences and quantities to formulate the hundreds of thousands of proteins that make up human beings. The genetic code is redundant in that each amino acid can be coded for in more than one way (e.g. lysine can be coded for by TTT or TTC). Hemoglobin is a protein made up of two chains of amino acids. A mutation occasionally occurs in one of the bases of the second amino acid chain of hemoglobin. This mutation leads of one of the bases (A, T, C, or G) results in the formation of an abnormal protein. Individuals that have this abnormal protein have a condition called sickle-cell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia results in the red blood cells becoming distorted and rigid (sickle shaped) and small clots are formed which deprive the cells of oxygen. Individuals with sicklecell anemia are often ill and before modern medicine often didn’t live to reproduce. Below are the first twelve amino acids that make up the second chain in the hemoglobin molecule. The mutation that causes sickle cell resides in this part of the protein. Below is the sequence of amino acids for normal hemoglobin (each amino acid is indicated by the first three letters of its name): VAL-HIS-LEU-THR-PRO-GLU-GLU-LYS-SER-ALA-VAL-THR Assume you are a researcher studying sickle-cell anemia. You have been given two unlabeled samples of DNA sequences. One is from a healthy individual, and one is from an individual with sickle-cell anemia. Using the table of amino acids (below) and the sequence of amino acids for normal hemoglobin (above), determine which strand is normal and which codes for the abnormal hemoglobin. (HINT: Remember that a codon is a series of three nucleotide bases that code for a particular amino acid). Leucine: AAT, AAC, GAG, GAC Serine: AGA, AGG, AGT, AGC Alanine: CGG, CGA, CGG, CGT Proline: GGA, GGG, GGT, GGC Valine: CAT, CAG, CAA, CAC Glutamic Acid: CTT, CTC Lyseine: TTT, TTC Histidine: GTA, GTG Threnine: TGA, TGG, TGT, TGC DNA Sequences 1. Individual A: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C T T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________ 2. Individual B: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C A T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________ 3. Who has sickle-cell anemia? ________________ 4. How did you make this determination? ____________________________________________________ 19 Genetics Assignment (Punnett squares) (Print) Name:___________________________ Genetics Problems: Use punnett squares to answer the problems below. Answer each question completely using percentages to show the probabilities. 1. Cystic Fibrosis is inherited as a recessive disorder. Individuals recessive for the disorder experience excess mucus production, and respiratory problems/failure. If a female (heterozygous) mates with a male (homozygous dominant) what is the probability: a) their 1st child will have the condition? _____________ b) their 1st child will be a carrier? ___________________ 2. Albinism (little or no pigment in skin, hair, eyes) is inherited as a recessive condition. If an albino male mates with a female who is not an albino, but is a carrier what is the probability: a) their 1st child will be albino? _____________b) their 2nd child will be an albino? _________ 3. Predicting Offspring/ ABO Blood System: The blood types in the ABO system are determined by three alleles. A and B are codominant alleles, and O is recessive. In the problems below you have the phenotype of the parents. Do a punnett square for each problem and show the possible genotypes for their offspring. a. B (heterozygous) & A (homozygous) b. O & AB c. In a recent court case, a man of blood type B was accused of fathering a child of blood type A. The mother was blood type AB. Could this man have been the father _____________ ? What would his genotype have to be for him to be the father ____________________? 20 Page Two of Genetics Homework (STAPLE!) The following problems are in regards to traits that are sex-linked. 4. Hemophilia is inherited as an X-linked recessive. If a male who is a hemophiliac marries a female who is not afflicted (and not a carrier) what is the probability they will have a son who is a hemophiliac? ______ What is the probability they will have a daughter who is a hemophiliac? ________ 5. Tooth enamel: A form of defective tooth enamel which leads to brown teeth appears to be inherited as an X-linked dominant trait. Determine the probability of a son having the defect and then determine the probability a daughter will have the defect in the following cases: a) non-afflicted female & affected male, b) affected female (heterozygous) & non-afflicted male. Answer the following questions in your OWN words 6. What is represented on the outside of the punnett square? __________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 7. What is represented on the inside of the punnet square? ______________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Do problems 1-3 reflect traits that reside on an autosome or on a sex chromosome? ______________ How do you know? ______________________________________________________________________________________ 9. How many letters are in the DNA alphabet? ________________________________________________ 10. How many “words” (or amino acids) are in the DNA language? ________________________________ 11. What happens during meiosis to the parent’s genetic material? ________________________________ 12. Why are most sex-linked traits on the X chromosome? ______________________________________ 13. What is a codon?____________________________________________________________________ 14. What is an allele? ___________________________________________________________________ 15. Does the environment play a role in the expression of polygenic traits? _________. Give an example of a polygenic trait ______________________________________________________________________ 21 Nature/Nurture Debate An understanding of the nature/nurture debate requires a knowledge of genetics and critical thinking skills. The nature/nurture debate has been ongoing for millennia. This is a philosophical debate with profound, practical, everyday consequences. What do Genes Do? Genes code for _________________ or _________________ or portions of a ________________ or a _____________________. Genes give rise to our physical features, although our physical features are influenced by our _________________________ (the food we eat, levels of exercise, etc). Some genes code for hormones, and hormones affect feelings to a degree (the experience of feelings is very much influenced by culture and context). To what degree this affects behaviors is a matter of debate. The Nature argument states that our nature, our basic temperament is due to our _____________. The Nurture argument states that our basic temperament is due to our _____________________. Most anthropologists see a ___________________loop between our biology and our culture. This means that as Park states, we see that we have general potentials from our biology, but we our not committed to any one path or outcome. What do you need to evaluate this debate? To critique the nature debate you need to look at the following. 1. To state that genes lead to behaviors you first need to be able to find the ______________ and draw a direct link between gene and the behavior. This works great with monogenic traits, but it isn’t as easy with pleotropic and polygenic traits. 2. You need to define the ________________________. Some of the behaviors that have been labeled genetic include; violence, infidelity, alcoholism, etc. How would you come up with an operational definition for these behaviors? 3. You would need to rule out the environment as playing a role. The influence of the environment starts in the _______________ and continues until the day that we die To critique the nurture debate you need to look at the same factors. If you state that we are only a product of our environment you need to draw links between specific cultures and environments and specific behaviors. You would expect to find fairly divergent behaviors between different human populations. 22 Processes of Evolution Evolution is defined as a _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ and it implies that all life on earth has descended with modification from earlier forms. What is a species? What criteria are used to differentiate between species? 1. ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________________________ Niche: the environment and the adaptive response of the organism within the environment Mutation: ______________________________________________________________________ Mutation is the ultimate source of all __________ genetic variation. The effects of mutation can be; _________________, negative, and positive The two types of mutations are ___________________________ and chromosomal. The causes of mutations include ___________________________ and internal processes (especially as we age). Mutations are ______________________ but they occur at a regular rate. A mutation is rare for any given _______________. Gene Flow: ___________________________________________________________________ A population is where you are most likely to get your ______________from . Populations form due to environmental and cultural reasons. Gene flow works to __________________ variation or differences between populations and increases or introduces variation _____________________ populations. 23 Gene Drift: ___________________________________________________________________ Gene Drift can only change allele frequencies to any great degree in _______________________ populations. There are several different aspects of Gene Drift. Gamete sampling and sampling error: Gamete sampling is what happens during ________________________ In small populations allele frequencies can fluctuate dramatically, and sampling ______________ results. In __________________ populations sampling error is eliminated. Fission/founder effect: This occurs when there is a splitting of a population, or breaking away of a portion of population (___________________________), and a new _______________________ population is formed. The founder population is usually genetically from original population. Examples of this include (get examples from your text): ______________________________________________________________________________ Bottlenecks: This occurs when there is a ________________________ reduction in the population. Bottlenecks occur for various reasons. An environmental upheaval or __________________ is a common cause. 24 Sickle Cell Anemia: This is an excellent example of how evolutionary processes work and how biology and culture interact to affect human populations . What is sickle cell anemia? How many people die each year from sickle cell anemia and what is the average age at which they die? How does sickle cell anemia affect an individual’s reproductive success? Where does the sickle cell anemia allele come from (hint: think of a process of evolution)? What is the role of natural selection in regards to sickle cell anemia and malaria? How many people die each year from malaria? In what type of environment would the sickle cell allele be selected for? Is it ever positive to have one allele for sickle cell? Is it ever positive to have two alleles for sickle cell? Is there an environment in which it would be positive to have no alleles for sickle cell? Is there evidence for gene flow in relationship to the spread of the sickle cell allele? How has culture affected the spread of malaria and the sickle cell allele? Culture would include the way in which people get food for survival (the adaptive role of culture) as well as cultural practices in regards to economics. How can the holistic approach in anthropology help us understand the case of sickle cell anemia in human populations? 25 Micro and Macro Evolution Evolution: ______________________________________________________________ What are the 4 processes that can account for a change in allele frequencies over time? 1.______________________________________ 2. ___________________________________ 3. ______________________________________ 4. ___________________________________ Microevolution: small-scale evolutionary change, detectable in ________________ populations Macroevolution: large-scale evolutionary change, speciation, generally detectable in the ______________ record (depends on reproductive cycle) Basic Unit of Evolution: Species-species are by definition reproductively isolated from other species. What prevents inter-breeding between species?_____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Speciation can be evidenced by the development of a __________________________________ Speciation occurs when a reproductive isolating mechanism exists. Reproductive isolating mechanisms prevent the production of fertile offspring. List at least three different types of reproductive isolating mechanisms. 1. _________________________________________________________________________ 2. _________________________________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________________________________ How does speciation occur? The first step is that a population within a species must be reproductively isolated and no _________________ can occur. The elimination of _____________________ provides the opportunity for speciation. Speciation requires that the other processes of evolution, __________, _____________________________, and _________________________________________ act on the population. Over enough time this can lead to _____________________________. 26 The Pattern of Life on Earth. Shows an incredible array of diversity. There is a incredible number of life forms on earth and an incredible amount of diversity of life forms on earth. The fossil record reveals that speciation, extinction and mass extinctions are a common pattern. Adaptive radiation is one process by which life forms on earth have evolved and spread out in great numbers. Adaptive radiation is the ____________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________. Give at least two examples of adaptive radiation: ______________________________________ How does adaptive radiation work? First of all there must be an ______________________ event that empties the environment of competition. Then species radiate into new environments. Species will be either specialized in their adaptation or___________________________________. Give an example of a species that is specialized _____________________________ and an example of a species that is generalized __________________________________. What event allowed for the adaptive radiation of mammals and therefore primates? _____________________________________________________________________. The Shape of the Family Tree- The Modes of Evolution Darwinian Gradualism- was Darwin’s concept and he speculated that populations would change and evolve at a slow, steady pace. Speciation would come about due to cumulative changes brought on by natural selection. Punctuated Equilibrium: developed by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge states that species will remain _____________ for long periods of time and then a small, isolated, fringe ____________________will undergo rapid ____________________ brought on by gene ______________ and natural selection. Does the shape of life on earth represent a tree or a bush? _______________________________ What are the key differences in the tree and bush models?________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 27 Evolution, Creationism and Pseudoscience Evolution is the central concept in ____________________. Evolution is considered to be a fact, a hypothesis and a theory in the natural sciences. It has been tested over and over again and while there are many debates as to the actual details of how evolution works there is no debate in science as to the fact or theory of evolution. Why is a knowledge of science and specifically evolution important to you as an individual and important to us as a society? Think of at least one example from your reading or lecture. ___________________________________________________________________________ What is the key difference between science and belief as ways of knowing about the world? ______________________________________________________________________________ What is pseudoscience___________________________________________________________. In what ways is scientific creationism a pseudoscience__________________________________? Park gives three reasons as to why the teaching of scientific creationism along with evolution (to ostensibly give creationism fair play) would be a problem. What are those three reasons? 1._____________________________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________________________ Intelligent Design is the newest form of scientific creationism. What are the two key problems that Park finds with Intelligent Design? 1._____________________________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________________________ The most recent court case involving Intelligent Design was in Dover, Pennsylvania. The school board voted to mandate that biology teachers make a statement in class that critiqued Evolutionary Theory and presented Intelligent Design as a viable alternative. Nine parents sued the school district because they were not teaching their children science. The case went all the way to the state Supreme Court and the judge ruled that Intelligent Design was pseudoscience, not science. Judge Jones stated the following; ID is not science, it is religion and it does not belong in science classrooms. His 139 page ruling included the following observations: 1. ID relies on supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, this is not science 2. ID does not rely on testing, testing is essential to scientific knowledge 3. ID relies on the same “contrived dualism” as creation-science, namely suggesting that if they can refute all or part of Evolutionary Theory this means that ID is accurate. 4. ID’s “irreducible complexity” argument is an attempted negative against evolution, not a proof of design. 28 History of Life on Earth- Overview Geological history is backdrop for life on earth, geological time scale divided into eras of biological and geological activity that stretch over long periods of time, use boundaries to mark periods of devastation or mass extinctions, eras subdivided into periods, w/in periods epochs MYA- BP 4,600-2,500(4.6 - 2.5 bya) 3000- (3 bya) Geological Era Archean Periods Precambrian Proterozoic Precambrian Paleozoic Precambrian 550 mya Cambrian 505 Ordovician 435 Silurian 410 Devonian 360 Carboniferous 290 Permian 240 205 138 Mesozoic Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous 65 Cenozoic Paleocene Mass Extinctions 545mya mass extinction- meteor? 440mya- mass extinction 370mya most fish, invertebrates die off 250mya-95% of marine species extinct Tertiary epoch 65mya- mass extinction event 54 38 25 5 1.65 Eocene Oligocene Miocene Pliocene Pleistocene .01 Recent Quaternary epoch Life Forms 3 BYA geological tumult died down, unicellular organisms everywhere, some photosynthesis, starts changing atmosphere, adding oxygen 1.4-1.9bya find eukaryotic cells, 1.2 bya multicellular life (red algae-Canada), Siberia 1 bya Prior to 600-700mya record sparse, intense heat/pressure destroyed most remains Ancestors of all modern animal groups appear + formation of many now extinct species Seas- algae, invertebrates, 1st vertebrates (jawless fishes) First land organisms, plants (had stems, no leaves, roots) & animals resembling scorpions Age of fishes; invertebrates, fish w/bone, cartilage, land mostly barren-scorpions, millipedes, invertebrates Age of Amphibians: sea animals spending more time on land 1st 4 limbed animals- mixed adaptations for water & land-Acanthostega (fin on tail like fish, hips/legs/ toes, ribcage not strong enough to support internal organs out of water, but footprints showed brief land ventures, flat feet to move thru water w/8 toes) earth- insects, plants flourished on land, huge ferns, Coal Age (produced coal of today) Mass extinctions- 95% of terrestrial, sea organisms reptiles gone- egg laying animals appearCotylosaurs gave rise to dinosaurs, mammals, reptiles, birds First mammals Dinosaurs everywhere Flowering plants spread in diversity, triceratops flourished (cockroaches of cretaceous) Extinction of dinosaurs other marine life & mammals proliferate - diverse hoofed mamals, many marsupials, egg-laying monotremes (ancestor to platypus), placental mammals appear, primate like animals appear First primates- primitive prosimians Anthropoid evolution Radiation of early apes First hominids, first members of genus Homo Evolution of genus Homo Humans develop agriculture, industry, explore space Stephen Gould perspective: With the appearance of each new type of animal we call it “The Age of Fish, The Age of Dinosaurs” and don’t discuss that many of the previous forms of life in existence continue to exist and often proliferate. For instance “the most salient feature of life has been the stability of its bacterial mode from the beginning of the fossil record until today and, with little doubt into all future time so long as the earth endures. This is truly the “age of bacteria” as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be.” Bacteria occupy a wider domain of environments and span a broader range of biochemistries than any other group. They are adaptable, indestructible, and astoundingly diverse. 29 Brief History of Life on Earth For this section you need to know the following: What do we know about the origin of life? Does evolutionary theory explain the origin of life on earth? What is the approximate age of the earth? What is the approximate age of the oldest life on earth? What type of life is the oldest life on earth? When do we first find multi-cellular organisms in the fossil record? What is the Cambrian Explosion? What do we find in the fossil record with fossils from the Cambrian Explosion? When did mammals first evolve? When did primates first evolve? What occurred just before the adaptive radiation of mammals and primates? What are the three themes that Park states are important to remember (chapt. 6 summary) Mammals Evolved some 220 million years ago from a reptilian ancestor. For most of their history (220 mya ago until 65 mya ago) mammals were all small rodent looking creatures. Then mammals underwent adaptive radiation some 65 million years ago. Mammal adaptive radiation coincided with the demise of the dinosaurs. Today mammals are an incredibly diverse group of animals from a the hog nosed bat the size of a bumblebee to the largest mammal, the blue whale which is up to 100 feet long. Thought Question: Why do you think that mammals remained so static for so long (some 220 million years to 65 million years)? Why did the adaptive radiation of mammals coincide with the demise of the dinosaurs? Animals are placed in the mammal class when they share many of the same traits. Mammal traits include; milk secreting mammary glands, hairy bodies, large braincases relative to body size, internal fertilization, and a constant body temperature. There are three basic types of mammals; monotremes, marsupials and placentals o Monotremes: egg-laying mammals (duck billed platypus, spiny anteater) o Marsupials: pouched animals, embryo finishes development in mothers pouch. o Placentals: nourish the embryo with a placenta There are 18 orders of placental mammals: dogs, cats, whales, hippos, primates Placental mammals are differentiated by dental patterns, specialized limbs, toes, claws, hooves, complexity of nervous system Primate Order: which is a part of the mammal class originated some 65 mya and underwent adaptive radiation some 55 mya. There are four broad groupings of primates: o Prosimians: these are the most primitive primates, they originated some 65 mya, o Monkeys: old world monkeys & new world monkeys o Apes: lesser or smaller and great apes o Hominids: humans & human-like ancestors Thought Question: What do you think was going on with the environment as primates underwent adaptive radiation? 30 Physical Anthropology Name_____________________ PBS Series- Great Transformations Video and Lecture Questions 1. What traits make up a mammal? 2. Why are whales classified as a mammal? 3. What is unusual about whales in relationship to other mammals? 4. What changes have whales undergone while transitioning from a terrestrial animal to an aquatic animal? 5. What is a transitional form? How many transitional forms have been identified to date in the evolution of whales? 6. What is a tetrapod? 7. Which scenario is accurate? A) fish became terrestrial and then there was a selection for limbs/legs, B) fish developed limbs/legs and then became terrestrial 8. What is the goal of evolution? 9. What is paleontology? 10. What is the Cambrian explosion? Where was evidence of the Cambrian explosion first found? 11. What does evolution tinker with? 31 Hardy Weinberg Overview 1. Evolution (definition): 2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Formula This formula is a tool researchers use to document evolution occurring. Researchers go into a population, select a trait for study and determine the genotype frequencies for that trait within the population. These “observed genotype frequencies” are then plugged into the Hardy-Weinberg formula (p2 + 2pq + q2=1) and the formula gives the “expected genotype frequencies” for this population under a hypothetical condition of no change. These “expected genotype frequencies” are hypothetical because populations are always being impacted to some degree by the processes of evolution. Comparison between the “observed” and “expected” genotype frequencies documents the change the population is undergoing and allows us to speculate as to what is going on in the population. 3. The Hardy Weinburg Equilibrium formula gives the expected genotype frequencies in a population in a hypothetical condition of no change. Why are these “expected” genotype frequencies of no change said to be hypothetical? 4. Steps to use the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium formula Determine the OBSERVED GENOTYPES for all individuals (3 options: homozygous dominant, heterozygous, homozygous recessive) Calculate the OBSERVED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES for all individuals (divide the total for each genotype into the total number of individuals in the population for the three genotype frequencies) Calculate the total number of dominant alleles and the total number of recessive alleles for the population and then calculate the ALLELE FREQUENCIES for both the dominant and recessive alleles (dividing the total number of each type of allele into the total number of alleles for the population) Plug the allele frequencies into the Hardy-Weinberg formula. Use “p” to represent the dominant allele frequency and “q” to represent the recessive allele frequency. Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium formula: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1 Your figures must add up to 1, to represent all possibilities. The resulting numbers will give you the EXPECTED GENOYPE FREQUENCIES p² = AA (homozygous dominant) 2 (p)(q) = Aa (heterozygous) q² = aa (homozygous recessive) Plug the EXPECTED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES into your table and compare the expected genotype frequencies with the observed genotype frequencies. Rememberthe expected genotype frequencies are what you would expect to find if the population was not undergoing any change 5. What can the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium model tells us? 6. For EACH process of evolution what information do we need to be able to speculate as to how allele frequencies can change over time (in relation to each process)? Mutation Gene Flow Gene Drift Natural Selection Sexual Selection 32 Hardy Weinburg Overview- continued Allele Frequencies should remain static unless there are processes that work to cause them to fluctuate. The Theory of Evolution has shown that the only processes that can work to change allele frequencies are: mutation, gene flow, gene drift, natural selection and sexual selection (an aspect of natural selection). So, if there are fluctuations in allele frequencies we must look to these processes to ascertain what is causing the fluctuations in allele frequencies. The Hardy Weinburg gives us a formula to see if change is going on in a population and then we can speculate which processes of evolution are interacting to change allele frequencies. Below are the definitions for each process, key information and key questions to keep in mind as you speculate as to which processes of evolution are interaction to change the population. Keep in mind we are only looking at one trait at a time. Mutation: “random change in the genetic code” it’s spontaneous & occurs at a regular rate o introduces variation to be selected for or against, mutations are rare for any given locus and can’t change allele frequencies more than 1%. gene flow “random exchange of alleles between populations” introduces variation into populations but doesn’t change allele frequencies more than 1% o can be stopped with geographic isolation or reproductive isolating mechanisms (or partially by cultural barriers in humans) gene drift “random fluctuation of alleles from one generation to the next” (think punnett squares) o genetic drift is always occurring, and it can lead to big changes in allele frequencies in populations under 100 (sampling error, gamate sampling) o in large populations, sampling error is eliminated and there cannot be large changes in allele frequencies natural selection “selection based on differential reproductive success” can lead to big change allele frequencies o selection only occurs for traits that impact reproductive fitness, environment (niche) is a determining factor, how does the trait interact with fitness and with the niche of the organism? Can we speculate that the trait under study is impacting the ability of the individual to survive, to out-compete others in their population? sexual selection “selection of mates based on phenotypic traits” selection is always taking place based on phenotypic differences. There are two aspects to sexual selection o Female choice- it is stated that females, who generally invest much more into offspring than males, make a choice of mates based on the traits a male possess. Females must make good choices so that their energy and time invested into offspring pays off. o Male competition- males, who generally invest very little into offspring except their sperm, compete with other males for access to females. Males will compete based on the traits that they posses. o As you evaluate sexual selection look at how the trait under study impacts the organism phenotypically? To what degree would female mate choice be impacted by this trait? To what degree would male competition be impacted by the trait? 33 Hardy Weinberg Sample problem: The Nacirema have a population of 98 individuals. They live in a secluded valley that is accessible only to travelers on foot. Visitors must hike for three days through rugged terrain to reach the Nacirema (they are rarely visited by anyone.) The Nacirema subsist by foraging for foods that grow naturally in the environment, hunting for small animals and diving for clams & shrimp (these are high status foods). Roving physical anthropologist Rosa Rodriguez and her research assistants are the first visitors the Nacirema have had in 3 years. Rosa examines the entire population to determine their genotypes for ear wax. As you recall ear wax comes in two forms, wet, brown, sticky and dry, gray and brittle, the dry ear wax is inherited as a recessive. Ear wax was chosen as a trait for study because the Nacirema really do not like the wet, sticky variety and they want to know what is going on with their population. The Nacirema find the wet, sticky earwax gross and it is hard to keep their kids ears clean. Rosa finds 27 individuals with dry ear wax and 36 individuals who are heterozygous for the trait and 35 individuals who are homozygous dominant. genotype number of individuals observed genotype frequencies expected genotype frequencies total number of dominant alleles total number of recessive alleles EE Ee ee Total number of alleles= p = frequency of dominant alleles p= q = frequency of recessive alleles q= Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1 Is change occurring in this population? What can we speculate as to what is happening in this population (you must list and address all of the five processes that can affect a change in allele frequencies over time)? 34 Tables for Hardy Weinberg Sample Problems genotype genotype # of individuals # of individuals observed genotype frequencies expected genotype frequencies 1.00 1.00 observed genotype frequencies expected genotype frequencies 1.00 1.00 total # number of Dominant alleles total # of Recessive alleles total # number of Dominant alleles total # of Recessive alleles 35 Hardy Weinberg Assignments Hardy Weinberg Problems: These problems will be graded in class and are due on the date listed in your class schedule. You may handwrite the table for each problem (neatly, legibly) but you must type your answers For each of the following problems set up and fill in a Hardy Weinburg table and then answer the following questions for each problem: state whether change is occurring list each of the processes of evolution and then speculate (with EACH process) as to whether or not it could be working to change the allele frequencies in the population. State whether or not each process could be changing the allele frequencies either to a small or large degree and why you would speculate that the process of evolution can change the allele frequency. Sample problems- to be done in class Population under study: The Dorje are a community of198 individuals living in a secluded commune in Nepal. They live in a harsh environment where cold, wind, rain, and snow are frequent and severe especially in the winter months. The Dorje survive by foraging for food and hunting for small game animals and so they spend a great deal of time outdoors. The trait under study is hairy nostrils (very hairy!). Hairy nostrils are a dominant condition. Genotype distribution: HH= 99, Hh= 66, hh= 33 Population under study: 80 humans. Trait under study: sneezing fits in bright sunlight. The population is located on a small oasis on the edge of a large desert. The population faces frequent threats from roving bands of guerilla’s who will kidnap and/or kill the inhabitants if they find them. The people move frequently to keep themselves safe. They frequently trade goods with other populations of nomads like themselves. Sneezing fits in bright sunlight is a recessive trait. Genotype Distribution: SS= 20, Ss= 52, ss= 8 Homework Problems 1. Population under study: 98 individuals who have agreed to take part in a multi-generational study to give insights into social group relations. These individuals are isolated in a self-contained environment for the duration of the study, which is expected to take 100 years. The population is responsible for growing their own food and periodically they have had significant problems with some crops. Brussel sprouts are one of the few vegetables that they have been able to grow consistently. Trait under study: ability to taste PTC. The individuals who have this trait find brussel sprouts to be very bitter tasting. The ability to taste is a dominant trait. Genotype distribution: TT= 35, Tt= 36, tt= 27 2. Population under study: 923 coyotes. Trait under Study: color variation within this population called “mottled coloring.” This population of coyotes have learned to adapt to suburban conditions, often taking food left out for domestic pets. The coyotes traditionally have had a grayish brown coat color but lately quite a number of these coyotes have been observed with a mottled coat of various colors. This mottled coloring often makes it difficult to tell that the animal is a coyote. Mottled coloring has been determined to be a dominant trait. Genotype Distribution: MM= 200, Mm= 93, mm=630 3. Population under study: 1158 humans. Trait under study: the large toe. This population resides in an isolated area of the Andes Mountains and survive by foraging for food, hunting small animals and maintaining small gardens. For several generations there have been a number of individuals born with an especially large, strong big toe. The individuals born with the extra large big toe are very adept at climbing steep walls to retrieve condor eggs for food (these eggs are highly valued for both food & status), however they have not been very good hunters or foragers. Having an extra large big toe is a dominant trait. Genotype distribution: TT= 255, Tt= 276, tt= 627 36 Taxonomic Categorization Anthropology is the holistic study of humans. A holistic study of humans includes using the comparative approach. To compare and contrast the human primate with ____________primates. Unique in kind? Different by degree? One overriding question for this section is to what degree and in what aspects are humans unique in kind or just different by degree in comparison to other primates. This question can be looked at in a variety of ways. We can compare and contrast primates physically, genetically, socially, and behaviorally. Physically: Non-human primates are physically similar to the human primate in many ways. This is why monkeys and apes are used in medical research. In your text Park looks at different aspects of primates; the______________, movement, reproduction, intelligence and behavior patterns. Read this section and note the similarities and differences between primates. As you read about the similarities and differences in the different primates keep in mind the broad taxonomic classifications of primates; prosimians, _____________________________, old world monkeys, smaller apes, and the____________________. Why are they put in these different categories, what criteria is used? Genetically: Comparisons between chimps and humans reveals that upwards of ________ of our genetic code is identical. In fact we are more similar genetically to chimps than chimps are to gorillas. Recently a mutation that occurred some 2 mya has been found in humans. This mutation regulates jaw size which affected the space available in the cranium and is also seen as being related language. Socially: Primates are _________________animals. This means that we live and operate in social groups. As we cover primates you will find many similarities between us and other primates. We recognize individuals, and have ________________________ hierarchies that we constantly negotiate. Read your text and Annual Edition articles to gain further insights into primate social behaviors. Behaviorally: As we engage in the study of non-human primates we will see how certain physical features as well as different environments affect the behaviors of primates. Primates have different features that affect reproductive patterns and mate selection and mating behaviors. How intelligent are other primates? All of the great apes have been taught to use computers and sign language to communicate. Researchers believe that the great apes have a sense of self that other primates don’t have. 37 Taxonomic Classifications “People impose order on their social universe by classifying it…but how we classify is not based on nature, but is a construction of our social minds” Jonathan Marks The human brain is clearly a classification device par excellence. We constantly work to classify the world around us, both _______________________ and ____________________. The culture that we are raised in tells us what to focus on in regards to categorization. Jonathan Marks, a physical anthropologist, puts forth three important things to consider as we go over taxonomic classifications. One, he notes that we make sense of our place in the universe by the ways in which we classify it. Two, our classifications are not necessarily derived from nature. And lastly, he notes that even when we use nature as a basis, our classifications encode cultural information. Classifications are ideally said to be ____________________ and scientifically based but often classifications rest on cultural, social, economic, and political criteria. There are two major scientific classification system used today. Traditional _____________ taxonomic classification and _________________________. Traditional Linnaean Taxonomic system: This system categorizes life forms based on present day _____________________ and differences, the adaptation of the organism to its environment (niche), and it gives us “relative” evolutionary relationships. Cladistics: This classification system looks at how long ago a species shared a common ancestor with another species, it gives us evolutionary relationships utilizing ____________ derived traits and genetic comparison. Shared derived traits are those traits that two or more groups of organisms. A phenotypic feature that is not found in other groups is used to look at evolutionary relationships. The trait selected must be shared between the two groups and it is assumed the feature is inherited from a shared ancestry. _____________________ comparison, using DNA is used as well to determine evolutionary relationships. Taxonomic Classifications are Problematic: The two different systems lead to different classifications (cladistics is preferred in anthropology). Genetic analysis still a new field and cultural, and political issues often confuse classifications. Lastly there are those who emphasize similarities, the ____________________, and those who emphasize differences, the _________________. 38 Primates: In this section we will be comparing and contrasting nonhuman primates physically and behaviorally with each other and with the human primate. For the primate section you will need to know the five major groupings of nonhuman primates (listed below) and the key differences between them. You will also need to know key features of all of the great apes. 1. Prosimians: primitive primates, marginalized today, Physical features: wet _____________, often nocturnal, claw on one ___________, scent glands (lemurs, lorises), more specialized than other primates 2. New World Monkeys (NWM): Nose shape- broad-nosed Environment_________________________________, _____________________ tails, They show estrus, and have little to no sexual __________________________________ Dental formula - 2-1-3-3 (incisors, canine, pre-molars, molars), Geographic locations: __________________________________________________ 3. Old World Monkeys (OWM): nose shape- closely spaced nostrils, looks like __________ Environment ___________________________, they are both arboreal and __________________ They have more behavioral ________________________, than the NWM’s. They are sexually dimorphic, and females show ____________________, no prehensile tail Dental Formula: 2-1-2-3 (same dental formula as both apes and humans). 4. Lesser or Smaller Apes: gibbons, siamongs, Smaller body & brain size, Southeastern Asia, fruit eaters, brachiators, social groups structure is one female, one male and their sub-adult offspring, they work together to defend their territory 39 5. Great Apes- the four groups below comprise the great apes Orangutans: geographic location __________________________________________________ They primarily move about and live _________________________________________________ they are sexually ____________________________, males are on average twice the size of females (males some 200lbs, females 100lbs), their social group structure is very unusual for a primate they are primarily ____________________________________, and their diet is primarily _________________________________________. Gorillas: geographic location____________________________________________________ Environment____________________________________, they are sexually _________________, males are on average twice the size of females (males some 400lbs, females 200lbs), they primarily live and operate )_________________________________________________________, Their mode of locomotion is ______________________________________, they live in groups of 10-15 individuals with one-male (silverback), multiple females, and their sub-adult offspring, their diet is primarily____________________________, behaviorally they are ____________________ Chimpanzee’s: geographic location is equatorial Africa, they have mild _____________________ dimorphism, their form of locomotion is _______________________________________________ Their diet is varied and includes _____________________________________________________ Chimpanzees will hunt for ___________________________, especially during the dry season. They live and operate both _______________________ and ______________________________ Their social groups are large fission/fussion communities of 50+ individuals, made up of adult males and adult females and offspring. Bonded __________________ form the core of the community, females show ____________________. Chimpanzees have been observed using a variety of tools including __________________________________________________________. Bonobo’s: geographic area is south Zaire, they are physically leaner than chimps, and live and operate more in the _____________________ than chimps. They also walk ______________ more often than chimps. Their diet is similar to chimps except that they don’t eat ______________ to any great degree. Like chimps they live in large fission/fussion communities of 50+ individuals, made up of adult males and adult females and offspring. Bonded _________________ form the core of their group. Females show almost continuous _____________________ and bonobos use G-G rubbing and _______________as a means of negotiating relationships and to reduce group tensions. 40 Primate Studies: there are two major “theoretical” orientations used to explain and analyze primate behavior. Socioecology looks at the relationship between the environment and__________________. It is understood that animals interact with their environment and it impacts their behavior. The “environment” includes quantity and ________________of food, predators, seasonal variation, etc. ___________________species differences (differences within species) can be explained in relationship to the environment. Sociobiology states that _______________________selects not only for physical traits but also for behavioral traits. Sociobiologists state that different behavioral traits have been selected for in males and females because they have different strategies for reproductive fitness. Reproductive Strategies for Females Reproductive Strategies for Males Critiques of Sociobiology include; The difficulty of showing increased reproductive fitness for specific ________________________ The difficulty of formulating an operational definition for a ____________________ to test for differential reproductive success. The difficulty of associating specific genes with a specific behavior. And, lastly, a key feature of primates is the role of learning. The idea that primate behaviors are biologically as opposed to environmentally (or learning) based is very difficult to test for and show. Park discusses inclusive ________________and altruism in his section on primate behaviors. It is proposed that sociobiology can explain altruistic acts among primates. This focuses on behaviors as being biologically based and being driven (albeit at the unconscious level) by reproductive success. Can you think of alternative explanations for altruistic acts? ______________________________________________________________________________ Can you think of any way to account for altruism between individuals who are not genetically related?________________________________________________________________________ Sociobiology applied to humans is called Evolutionary Psychology and it is highly controversial. Evolutionary Psychology posits that females and males have different basic __________________ traits that are biologically based. Evolutionary psychologists come down on the ____________ side of the nature/nurture debate. They state that a basic template for human behaviors, with different behaviors for females and males, was set once we evolved as a species. 41 Baboon Studies In your text Park discusses the earlier view of baboons and the current views of baboon behaviors and social group structures. Even though baboons are __________________________________ and much more distantly related to us than the apes they have been held up as an example of how early hominins might have lived and survived. Baboons live in woodland and savanna environments, surviving in large multi-female and multi-male social groups. This was thought to be similar to how early hominins lived. What are the key features that were put forth as typical for baboons in the old view? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What are some of the current views of baboon behaviors and social group interactions? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ The first anthropology book that I read was Shirley Strums “Almost Human.” When Strum did her research she had conducted the longest ongoing study of baboons at that time. In her book Strum describes her studies of baboons and how the data that she collected was as odds with the perceived wisdoms of the day in regards to baboon behaviors and baboon social group interactions. When Strum went to present her research at various primatology conferences she was virtually shunned. Strum was one of the first to complicate our understanding of baboons and to bring forth our current, more nuanced understandings. One of the topics we are covering this semester is the nature of science, and how science works. Thomas Kuhn wrote “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” a seminal book in which he describes how science actually operates based on his observations. 42 Kuhn found the following in his studies of science over time Traditional view of science: Kuhn noted that most scientists think that the “_____________” is out there just waiting to be discerned. Scientists conduct observations, gather data, formulate hypotheses, and when new understandings are found they are adopted and older understandings are replaced. Science is thought to be conducted in an objective, linear manner. Kuhn’s observations: Kuhn found that within science there are always ________________ that influence scientists (as they influence all of us everyday). Paradigms are the way in which we view the _______________ and they influence our observations and our interpretations. Paradigms are akin to culture in this way. He stated that paradigms always influence scientists and that most scientists conduct what he called “__________________” science. Normal science involves conducting research and experiments within the context of the dominant ____________________. Kuhn said that when new understandings are put forth they usually come from ________________________. He stated that these new understandings are not easily adopted and it is often more like a revolution than an easy transition. The Myth of _____________________ has come to light as a result of the work of philosophers of science like Kuhn. The myth of objectivity refers to the fact that even though scientists are trained to be objective in their work, no human being is capable of being completely objective. We are all impacted by the culture that we are a raised in. All of the following factors influence our interpretations; our gender, our socioeconomic class, our nationality, the timeframe that we live, our previous training and education, etc. Primatology allows anthropologists to compare and contrast non-human primates with the human primate. We can utilize an understanding of homologies and analogies in our studies. Homologies and analogies can be based on physical traits and behavioral traits. Homology __________________________________________________________________ Give an example of a homology:_________________________________________________ Analogy ____________________________________________________________________ Give an example of an analogy:__________________________________________________ When comparing non-human primates with human primates primatologists will look at physical traits, social behaviors, and adaptations to the environment (both physical and behavioral adaptations). What species or group of primates would it make the most sense to contrast with humans________________________________________________? 43 Ultimate Guide to the Great Apes- Video Questions 1. What are the 5 major classifications of primates (lecture, notes, video)? 2. What are the 4 groups of Great Apes? 3. Give one example of how the environment is related to a physical trait 4. Give one example of how the environment is related to a behavioral trait 5. When did Chimps and Bonobo’s speciate? What was going on with the environment at this time? 6. What is the Theory of Mind (lecture)? What is being studied with the experiments with the primates and mirrors and the hiding of the food under the buckets? 7. Define anthromorphize. 8. At the end of the video the narrator discusses the similarities and differences between human primates and non-human primates. Does he promote the idea that humans are unique in kind or that humans are different by degree from other primates? 44 The New Chimpanzees- Video Questions 1. What is the significance of the observation that Chimpanzees make and use tools (How many animals use tools? Make tools?)? 2. What is culture? Do Chimpanzee’s have culture? 3. What is the function of dominance displays in the Chimpanzee groups? Do dominance displays always involve violence? 4. What are the intra-species differences between the Gombe and Tai chimps in regards to; hunting strategies and success, food sharing, and tool making and use. What theoretical orientation would account for these differences? 5. State at least two similarities and two differences between chimps and bonobos 6. Did the film anthromorphize (attribute human emotions and intentions) to chimpanzees? Give a couple examples to support your opinion. 7. Did the video imply that humans are different in kind from Chimpanzees or different by degree? What data was used? What is your opinion? 45 Zoo Report- Extra Credit Option Assignment: Observe two primates (one ape & one monkey) at the zoo for a total of three hours. Take notes during your observation and then write your zoo report, following the directions below. Your report must include your notes (I don’t expect them to be completely legible, but I do require the attachment of the notes to the report). Zoo Arrival: Select one ape (preferably a great ape but a lesser ape will do) and either one new world or one old world monkey to observe. Observe each of your selections for at least 1 ½ hours. Total observation time, 3 hours. Field Observations: You must take notes during your observations (turn them in with your report). Your field notes should contain the following information: Physical environment: where primates are housed (a cage, outside enclosure, etc.) Primates: Describe each primate within the enclosure: sex (if known), relative age (i.e. infant, juvenile, adult), and general physical appearance. It is helpful to assign a number or name to each primate to help you organize your study Focal Primate: Select one or two primates in each enclosure to focus on for your study (it can be difficult to record the behaviors of more than a couple primates). Take notes of what you are observing, recording the actions of the primates. Note taking will be much easier if you use abbreviations to record your observations. The following are some examples of abbreviations to use: G- grooming E- eating R- resting P- playing V- vocalizations A- antagonistic behavior Report: Review your field notes and write your report (it must be typed). Your report should contain the following: One: name of the zoo where you conducted your observations, the date and time that you conducted your observation and a general description of the weather (hot, cold, etc.) Two: for EACH of the primate groups you observed include the following: Scientific and common names of the primates observed. State whether they are an ape (great or lesser), an old world or new world monkey. Brief description of the physical environment where the primates were observed, the total number of primates observed & approximate ages and sex if known (this info is sometimes posted outside of the enclosure) A synopsis of the activity that you observed. What were some of the frequent behaviors that you observed? What type of interactions did the primates engage in? Did they do anything that surprised you? Did what you observed conflict with what you expected to see? Your completed zoo report must include: a. Name, class day & time b. Receipt for entrance to the zoo c. Your field notes d. Your typed report 46 Studying the past What type of information can we gain from the past and how do we learn about the past? What can we learn from fossil remains? Osteology: _________________________________________________________________ How do we sex a skeleton? ____________________________________________________ How do we age a skeleton? _____________________________________________________ What can we learn about the health and life of an individual from skeletal remains? ______________________________________________________________________________ Read pgs 416-423 on forensic anthropology. What can we learn about the life and death of Otzi? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Recovering and Finding Fossils Are fossils common or rare? Why? __________________________________________________ In what type of environments are fossils likely to be preserved?____________________________ What type of information do we need about fossil remains for them to be useful in science? ______________________________________________________________________________ What is taphonomy? _____________________________________________________________ Give an example of what can be learned through taphonomic analysis ______________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What are the two main ways in which fossils are dated?__________________________________ Give two examples of absolute dating techniques_______________________________________ Can absolute dating techniques be used on all materials and in all timeframes ________________ What is the role of genes in learning about the past?_____________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 47 Origin and Evolution of Primates The primate fossil record spans a long time frame and it is quite convoluted. I want you to have a broad understanding of primate evolution. It is important to know what type of data is used to analyze our primate past and to have a general understanding of the major transitions in primate history. The oldest fossil evidence for primates is some __________________mya. However, genetic data points to the origin of primates as far back as ______ to ______mya. Undisputed primates appear in the fossil record about _____________mya. If we state that primates have been around for such a long period of time, what are the traits that identify a fossil as a primate? Primates are identified in the fossil record by _______________ digits, and _________________ vision. These traits are seen as being selected for to aid the earliest primates in obtaining _____________________ and ____________________ as food sources. Early primates lived in an _________________ environment and their primary form of locomotion was _______________. One of the oldest separations in the primate fossil record is between the ancestors of prosimians (lemurs, lorises) and the anthropoids (monkeys, apes and humans). Anthropoids have the following features, and adaptations as opposed to prosimians. 1. a _________________________lifestyle as opposed to a nocturnal lifestyle. 2. more _____________________and less _____________________ as the form of locomotion 3. a more varied diet including ____________________________ with less emphasis on insects. There are two hypothesis as to the origin of New World Monkeys. The first idea is that prosimians migrated into _______________________________________ from ________________________ when the two areas were joined together. New world monkeys evolved from prosmians over time (with similar evolutionary pressures leading to similar adaptations in new world and old world monkeys). The second hypotheses is that old world monkeys __________________________ or island hopped from Africa to South America when the two hemispheres were closer together. Why are the first apes in the fossil record called the dental apes? __________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Prosimians are very specialized primates and are very marginalized today. Why do you think that prosimians are so marginalized?____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What myth may possibly be associated with gigantipithecus?______________________________ 48 Hominin Fossil Record: Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going? Anthropologists use the four fields in anthropology (cultural, linguistic, archeology, physical) to answer these questions. All four of these fields are critical to gaining a holistic understanding of our past. “Human beings seem quite incapable of speaking about themselves & their history without becoming emotional in one way or another” Ernest Mayr “There are no final words. Human origins will always be enigmatic.” Donald Johanson Hominin Fossil Record: What is a Hominin? Hominin: ______________________________________________________________________ What are the two key criteria that we use to determine if a fossil is a hominin? ____________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What criteria can be used to determine bipedalism as a dedicated form of locomotion? skull (_________________________________), pelvis (shape, muscle attachments), knee (_____________________), big toe (________________________), limbs (arms weight-bearing) What are the key differences between ape and hominin dental features?_________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Key questions & issues for this section: What is the oldest hominin? Where did the oldest hominin(s) evolve? What were the lives of hominids like; social group, mating patterns, cognitive abilities, subsistence strategies? What led to the selection for bipedalism? What factors impacted the multiple hominin speciations and extinctions? What factors selected for bigger brains and what were the consequences of bigger brains? When and where did Homo sapiens originate? What was going on with the environment during the evolution of hominins? What is the significance of the Great Rift Valley? Of the Pleistocene? 49 Key factors to keep in mind; how do the processes of evolution work to change populations over time, what is the role of the environment, what factors lead to selection events), what role did competitive exclusion play in the multiple speciations and extinctions of hominins. Keep in mind that paradigms filter interpretations Know about the early debate as to what first defined a hominin big _______________, tools, _____________________ or small teeth What biases affected the interpretation of Piltdown Man? What biases affected the interpretation of the Taung Baby? All of the following biases have affected interpretations of the hominin fossil record- personal biases (vested interest of scientists), theoretical biases (single species, tree vs. bush, lumpers and splitters), nationalism, gender biases, humans as unique bias Why was bipedalism selected for? It is assumed that bipedalism was ___________________________for because it has affected many parts of the body and these changes occurred over millions of years. A selection for bipedalism would mean that being a dedicated biped increased the ______________________ success of individuals. To answer this question what type of information would you need to evaluate? (hint- review your notes on natural selection) Six models to explain the selection for Bipedalism: read the description of each of these models. Can only one of these models be used to explain the selection for bipedalism or could one or more of them be a part of the selection process?_____________________________________ Carrying model Vigilance model Heat dissipation model Energy efficiency model Foraging/harvesting model Display model 50 Hominin Fossil Record Overview: The following is a general outline of the species and genus in the hominin fossil record as it is known at this time. The information below is only a brief outline of key points. You will still need to take notes from class lecture, read your texts and take notes from class video’s. The species and genus underlined are those that you need to know for the final exam. Sahelanthropus tchadensis “Toumai”: found 2002 in Chad (North, Central Africa), dated 6-7 mya, nearly complete cranium, which has both “chimp-like” and “human-like” features. Some see Toumai as an early ape, others as an early hominid. Key questions/points: 1) Do Toumai’s fossil remains reveal a skeletal anatomy for quadropedalism or bipedalism______________________________________________________________? 2) The location (__________________________) and age of Toumai (_______________) has been quite shocking to some because it implies that hominids may have evolved in two locations (______________ and _________________) and hominin’s may have evolved later than previously thought. 3. What are the two major sources of data used to analyze this debate ______________ _______________________________________________? 4. What does the debate over Sahelanthropus tchadensis reveal about the nature of science__________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________? Orrorin tugenesis: (“original man”) found 2001 in Ethiopia (East Africa) dated 6-7 mya, some 12 bones including teeth, jaw, arm and femur bones were found. Key questions/points: 1. Do fossil remains for Orrorin tugenesis reveal a skeletal anatomy for bipedalism or quadropedalism _____________________________________________________ ? Ardipithecus ramidus: 4.4 mya, Ethiopia (East Africa), bipedal, “ape-like facial features,” foramen magnum and arm bone shows bipedalism. Found in a forest/ woodland environment. Remains of some 50+ individuals found. Key questions/points: 1. Why is Ardipithecus ramidus considered the oldest definitive hominid ______________ _______________________________________________________________________? 2. What type of environment did they live in ___________________________________? 3. In what type of environment was bipedalism selected for ______________________? 51 Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba: found 2001 Ethiopia, dated 5.2-5.8mya. Key questions/points: 1. Critics state that the ________________ data is too limited for a subspecies designation. Supporters of this taxonomic designation state that there is enough ____________________________________data to support ____________ species designation. Australopithecus: genus with multiple species, 4.2-2.3 mya, East & South Africa, “bipedal apes” Genus description: ______________________________________________________________ Key questions/points: 1. What was their lifestyle like, how similar were they to chimps in their adaptations? 2. How refined was the bipedalism of Australopithecus? 3. Was Australopithecus solely terrestrial or were they still partially arboreal? 4. They had reduced canines, increased manual dexterity, and were sexually dimorphic what type of mating patterns did they engage in and what was their social group formation like? 5. Were they the predator or the prey in their environment? A. anamensis: 4.2-3.9 mya, Kenya, (East Africa) forest/woodland environment, 21 individuals A. afarensis: 4-3 mya, Ethiopia, “Lucy,” 3’5”-5ft. 65-100lbs., 440cc average brain size, some adaptations for arboreal lifestyle, long arms, short legs, prognathus face, sexually dimorphic, 300+ specimens. A. africanus: 3-2.3mya, South Africa, few differences from afarensis, 1st find 1925. A. garhi: found 1999, Ethipia (East Africa), 5 individuals. Key points: garhi found with animal remains subject to stone scrape marks and bones crushed to get marrow, it was very surprising to find stone tool use in a small brained Australopithecus. A. bahrelghazalia: found 1995, Chad (North Africa), find initially subject to much debate because of age and location, unusual to find Australopithecus in northern Africa. This find now has more validity with the recent find of Sahelanthropus tchadensis in Northern Africa. 52 Paranthropus: genus with multiple species (about half the textbooks put the Paranthropus species under the Australopithecus genus designation) 2.8-1mya, East & South Africa, Genus description ______________________________________________________________ “Robusticity” is in molars, chewing muscles, otherwise similar to “gracile” hominids in overall physical size. Species: aethiopithecus, boisei, robustus. Key points/ questions: 1. Paranthropus overlaps with Australopithecus and early Homo, what allowed it to “out compete” Australopithecus? 2. Why did it go extinct with the arrival of early Homo? 3. Are the differences in teeth and chewing muscles enough to put these species in a different genus from Australopithecus? Should all of the Paranthropus species be included in the Australopithecus genus? Kenyathropus platyops: announced find 2001, in Kenya (Eastern Africa), dated 3.5 mya. Features include; fairly modern face, a “flat face”, small molars, near vertical cheekbones (all features associated with later hominids). Key questions/points: 1. Is K. platyops a more direct ancestor to the genus Homo than Australopithecus? 2. Do the morphological features of K. platyops warrant a new genus designation? Homo: genus with multiple species Genus description ______________________________________________________________ Homo trends toward larger brains, meat in diet, reduction of face & molars, making and using of stone tools. “Early Homo” 2.3 –1.5 mya, East & South Africa (with some question about recent finds in the Republic of Georgia- debate as to whether or not these finds are early or middle Homo) Homo habilis & Homo rudolfensis: features include less prognathus facial features, bit less sloping forehead, no sagittal crest, brain size 680 avg. (500-800). Body similar to Australopithecus, still longer arms & shorter legs (4-5 feet, 70-115 lbs.). Oldewan Tool Tradition/Pebble Tools. Key questions/points include: does 1. Does Homo habilis have a large enough brain to warrant inclusion in genus Homo? 2. How did Homo use their stone tools? 3. Did H. habilis process meat at home bases or did they utilize stone caches? 4. Did early Homo leave Africa with a “small” brain, short legs, and “primitive” tools (Dmansi finds)? 53 Middle Homo: 1.8-100,000 (27,000?), Africa, Southeast Asia, China, Europe Homo eragaster (generally seen as the “African” erectus) & Homo erectus. Features of middle Homo include bigger brains, more complex behaviors, more complex stone tools, and living in a variety of environments. Skull: heavy brow ridges, some prognathism, thick cranium, little forehead development, wide cranium base. Brain size: 980 avg (800-1250). Body: modern looking neck-down, modern gait, hairless?, 5-6 ft., 100lbs+. Auchulian Tools: flaked entire stone, controlled shape of core. Key questions/ points: 1. Why did erectus leave Africa (and what behavioral and/or physical features allowed them to be able to leave)? 2. When were hominids able to make and use fire (what data is used to analyze this question)? 3. When did infants become so helpless and how did this affect the social group structure of these hominins? 4. What are some of the pros and cons involved in the selection for larger brains? Archaic Homo sapiens : This section involves ongoing contested taxonomic classifications. As we get more recent in time there are increasing numbers of fossil finds and the fossils are found more widely distributed over the world (on three different continents). One debate is whether or not some or all of these species should be labeled as different species or as subspecies to our species (Homo sapiens). Homo antecessor: Spain, 780,000-300,000 found with primitive tools 1mya,hunters? Cannibals? Homo heidlbergensis: China, England, Africa, India; 500,000-100,000, more vertical foreheads, 1300cc avg. brain size, Levallois Tool Tradition: “prepared core” careful preparation of core to produce desired flake shape, more specialized purpose tools. 54 Homo neanderthalensis (Neandertals): 225,000-36,000 Europe, Croatia, Iraq, Israel (275+ individuals), Skull: sloped forehead, back of skull broad, large discontinuous brow ridges, large face, slightly prognathus, receding chin, large sinus cavities, Brain size: 1480 avg. (1200-1740), Body: robust, stocky, muscular, 5’3”-5’6”, Mousterian Tool: elaboration of Levallois, careful retouching of flakes, up to 63 tool types (Butchering, wood-working, some bone/ antler carving, cut animal hides, Haft stone points for spears). Key questions/ points: 1. Neandertals are a “cold-adapted” species, did they interbreed with early modern Homo sapiens (what is the data and reasoning used in this debate)? 2. Did neandertals have modern language (what is the data and reasoning used in this debate)? 3. How different were neandertals in behavior and abilities from early modern Homo sapiens (what is the data and reasoning used in this debate)? “Homo” floresiensis: 95,000-12,000, Indonesia, found 9/03, reported 10/27/04. These recent finds are the subject of a great deal of debate in anthropological circles. The so-called “Hobbit” fossil finds were found on the island of Flores. They are remarkable for several reasons including their size and the recent time frame in which they lived. The fossils reveal hominins (they are clearly bipeds) with a small chimp-sized brain, small stature (one nearly complete female skeleton shows her to be 3 feet tall), and they were found with sophisticated stone tools. They coexisted with giant tortoises, pony sized elephants, dog sized rats, and Komodo dragons. Key questions include: 1. What can we make of these finds? Are they Australopithecines that made their way out of Africa and developed sophisticated stone tools and hunting abilities (their body and brain size goes along with this)? Are they Homo erectus which “got small” with island pressures? Are they modern Homo sapiens which suffer from dwarfism? What does the data revel? 55 Anatomically modern Homo sapiens/ Upper Paleolithic peoples: Africa 200,000 (oldest sites), Europe, Asia, Australia (40k-80k), Americas (17k-30k), Skull: flat/small face, small teeth, no heavy brow ridges, globular skull, vertical forehead. Body: slender, taller, not as robust. Not visibly different from modern humans today. Upper Paleolithic Revolution: At about 30k the fossil record seems to reveal an explosion of; sophisticated, highly differentiated tools, tools that are works of art, the use of bone, antler and ivory, sophisticated hunting strategies (bow and arrow, net hunting, running game off cliffs), artwork (cave art and figurines), burials with artifacts, musical instruments, personal adornment art, etc. Key points and questions: 1. Was this truly a sudden, cultural transformation? We do find cave art and sophisticated tools in earlier times. As new finds come forth will we start seeing a gradual transition instead of an “explosion?” 2. Why did humans start engaging in these symbolic behaviors at this time? Was there a change in the brains of these hominids (a mutation that changed their cognitive abilities)? 3. What is the meaning of the cave art and the figurines that they made? Homo Sapiens idaltu: found June 2003, dated at 160,000 (previously oldest fossils were 200,000), three skulls (two adults, 1 child), living close to freshwater lake in Ethiopia, butchered remains of hippopotamuses, fish remains, and 640 stone tools found, skulls subject to de-fleshing, mortuary purposes? Cannibalism? 56 Study questions for Middle Homo- Homo erectus When and where was the first Homo erectus fossil found_________________________________ What Homo erectus fossils are the most famous and why are they famous?___________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Why did Homo erectus leave Africa? _________________________________________________ What is the Pleistocene and when did it occur?_________________________________________ What is the debate over where Homo erectus evolved? This issue first came up when Eugene Dubois found the first H. erectus fossil in Java. Park gives two explanations as to how H. erectus came to be in Java so quickly after they evolved. _______________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What are the key features of Homo erectus? Tool industry and how was it used __________________________________________________ The ability to make and use ___________. What were the advantages of the ability to make and use ________?__________________________________________________________________ What type of food did they eat and how did they get it?___________________________________ What is the data in regards to hunting and H. erectus?___________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What was their cognitive ability?_____________________________________________________ What was their social group structure? As infants were born more dependent and were dependent for a longer period of time what type of strategies did females use to be able to feed and care for their helpless infants? (Hint- for social group structures what do we see with other primates, what are their mating patterns, their social group compositions?) 57 Study Guide Questions- Archaic Hominins What are the differences physically between the archaic hominins, H. erectus and anatomically modern H. sapiens? Who are the archaic hominins?______________________________________________________________________ The Neandertals A historical look at the changing views of Neandertals within anthropology reveals two extremely divergent views. What are these two views? 1)____________________________________________________________________________ 2)_____________________________________________________________________________ What are the key features of the Neandertals? Physical features (below neck and above neck) :________________________________________ Tool technology:_________________________________________________________________ What were their tools used for ?_____________________________________________________ What were the new ways in which their tools were used?_________________________________ Were the Neandertals big game hunters (what data is used in this debate)____________________ Did the Neandertals bury their dead?______ What is the significance of their burying their dead? ______________________________________________________________________________ Did the Neandertals care for individuals who were sick or wounded and what data is used in this question?_______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Did the Neandertals have language and what data is used to answer this question? (Communication is seen as virtually universal in all animals. Communication is involuntary, it is generalized, only limited meanings are communicated and only information about the immediate environment is communicated. Language is seen as the domain of humans. Language can communicate unlimited meanings, it can be abstract, communicate about past, present and future events.) 58 Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens What are the key physical features that differentiate anatomically modern Homo sapiens from Neandertals?____________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What new tool technologies and tool features are associated with early H. sapiens? ______________________________________________________________________________ Were H. sapiens big game hunters? What data is used to evaluate this question? ______________________________________________________________________________ What symbolic behaviors did early H. sapiens engage in?_________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What was the Upper Paleolithic Revolution? ___________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ The Debate over Modern Human Origins What are the key features and evidence for the Recent African Origin Model (RAO)?___________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What are the key features and evidence for Multiregional Evolution Model (MRE)?_____________ ______________________________________________________________________________ What are the different areas of evidence and data to evaluate these two models? ______________________________________________________________________________ 59 60 Video Questions- In Search of Human Origins 1. Donald Johanson discusses early views about the lives and nature of early hominins. What are these three views and what data and context surround them? Man the _______________ Ape: Data, reasoning and context: Man the __________________ Hunter: Data, reasoning and context: Man the Efficient ____________________: Data, reasoning and context: 2. What is taphonomy and how did taphonomic analysis change our views of early hominins lives and behaviors? 3. What is the Great Rift Valley? 4. What is the goal of the study of early hominin fossils? What other data, besides fossils, is used to pursue this goal? 5. What is Olduvai Gorge? What tool technology is named after this site? 6. What has been found at Olduvai Gorge and how are these finds analyzed? 7. Based on the description what genus do you think they are describing when the video talks about Zinjanthropus? (the name Zinjanthropus is not used as any longer) 61 Physical Anthropology The Last of the Neandertals- Video Questions K. Markley This video discusses a number of the biases that scientists have in regards to Neandertals (their cognitive abilities and humanity) and the roles of females and males. 1. List at least one bias in regards to Neandertal cognitive abilities and state the bases or context of this bias. 2. List at least one bias in regards to the Neandertal’s humanity (i.e. their ability to feel compassion) and state the bases or context of this bias. 3. List at least one bias in regards to the role of females in early hominid groups and the bases or context of this bias. 4. List at least one bias in regards to the role of males in early hominid groups and the bases or context of this bias. 5. What type of tools did Neandertals make and use? What did they use these tools for? 6. A common assumption is that there was a Paleolithic Revolution. What is the Paleolithic Revolution and what has led to this assumption? 7. State at least two differences between the behaviors of the Neandertals and the Early Modern Homo sapiens (referred to in the film as Cro Magnon) 62 Study of Evolution in Human Populations What kind of data is collected in the study of the bioanthropology of individuals and how is this data collected? What are the changes and the rates of change that H. sapiens go through during their physical growth? ______________________________________________________________________________ What are the rates of sexual maturation for H. sapiens? Do they vary with environment? Do they vary by sex? What is the length of the reproductive cycle? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Describing populations What factors affect the size of a population? ____________, _______________, _____________ What are the differences between developing and developed nations as far as birth rates and death rates?____________________________________________________________________ What is the difference between the Hutterites and the general US population as far as births and deaths?________________________________________________________________________ What other types of criteria about a population are gathered in demographic information? ________, age, _____________, culture, ____________, religion, ________________________ Human Variation and Population Adaptations Human populations around the world vary in their features. What can we say about this variation? How do the processes of evolution account for human variation? Variations arise as adaptations to specific environments (_____________selection). Humans vary in their average body size and shape in relationship to the average temperature. In cold climates body shape and size tends towards ________________________________________________. In hotter climates body shape and size tends towards___________________________________. Skin color is a variable trait in human populations around the world. Populations in environments that are in the equatorial range tend to be _____________ in complexion and individuals in environments that are further north tend to be _____________ in complexion. Skin color is determined by many genes and the ____________________. All humans have a similar number of melanocytes, it is the production of ________________________ that varies. Dark skin color is selected for in environments with a lot of _______ radiation. Dark skin color protects individuals from the damaging effects of _______ radiation (folate deficiency, skin cancer). Light skin color is selected for in environments with less ______ radiation. Individuals who are exposed to less UV radiation are in danger of not getting enough vitamin D. A lack of vitamin D can lead to ______________, which can impact differential reproductive success. Question: Is skin cancer a likely factor in the selection for dark skin color? Why or why not? What are the three epidemiological transitions that human populations have undergone? 63 Human Biological Diversity Park uses a discussion of sex and gender categories as a lead in to discuss the topic of race. Sex is a _________________________ category. As a ____________________ category sex is based on three types of criteria; ____________________, reproductive organs, and secondary sex traits. Gender is a __________________ category. As a __________________ category gender is variable by culture. Gender is a folk taxonomy that rests on a ______________ category. Question: Is the categorization of humans into two biological sexes absolute and/or completely accurate? Race as a Biological Concept In biology race is the same things as _______________________. Is the use of race or ____________________ in biology is common or going out of fashion? Subspecies are defined as ____________________________________________________________________________. The race or subspecies concept is problematic in biology because of the criteria used to categorize a population as a subspecies. Problems with the subspecies concept include; what phenotypic traits should be used, how much __________________ is enough to grant subspecies designation. Biologists see subspecies as the first step toward ________________________ if they use it at all. Humans don’t meet the criteria for subspecies designation. Human populations, even spread out around the world, are mobile and tend to continually engage in __________________ flow. Human populations vary in the average biological traits that they posses but they often don’t match up to the _______________ categories that are based on culture, geographic area, nationality, language, etc. At this time most anthropologists state that race does not exist in human populations. The race concept implies that you can divide human populations into discrete categories. After some 200+ years of trying western scientists have been trying to come up with an agreed upon ____________ number of races to no avail. To determine the number of races there has to be unambiguous, set criteria that is to use to differentiate populations. A variety of methods have been used to try and separate humans into different _____________________ races. Continually variable traits such as _________________ color, hair color and type, and facial features have been used without success (there are always exceptions). Discrete traits such as _______________________________________ have been used as well without success. The inability to systematically divide humans into discrete races using phenotypic criteria shows that human populations vary _________________________ in their traits. The Human Genome Project also undermined the race concept when it disclosed that there are very few differences between populations around the world. It found that most of the ________________ variation that we have is within populations, not between them. 64 The American Anthropology Association (AAA) came out with a statement several years ago addressing the race concept. This is one quote from that statement “the race concept has been inappropriately used to explain, rationalize, and justify inequalities among human groups” “race is a socially constructed category” You can go to the American Anthropology Association website www.aaanet.org and read the entire statement. What is the significance of the race concept today? What are the political, economic and social ramifications of the race concept today? What have been some of the issues in the past? The race concept lays the foundation for biological ____________________________. This concept was prevalent certainly through the 1800’s and on into the mid 1900’s. It basically states that the ________________________ differences between populations of people reveal average ___________________________ and _________________________ differences between populations. Within this concept is the belief that some groups are __________________ and some groups are ____________________. The concept of biological __________________________ was accepted by many scientists in the past, although there are few that subscribe to it today. It is still not an uncommon belief among members of the general population today. The ________________ in biological determinism led to public policies with devastating effects. In the United States from the early 1920’s until the 1970’s there were _____________________ laws on the books. These laws allowed the government to decide what individuals were ____________________ and then forcibly sterilize them (often without their knowledge). The rationale was that these individuals were biologically unfit and should not be allowed to reproduce. A variety of criteria was used to determine individuals as unfit. IQ tests were one of the criteria used to determine someone’s fitness. What are some of the problems that Park lists in regards to using IQ tests to determine someone’s cognitive fitness or _______________________________? What do IQ tests measure and what is the data and reasoning used in this debate? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 65 Human Variation Fieldwork (Race Fieldwork): The purpose of this exercise is for you to explore how individuals within the United States categorize human variation. Interview ten people and ask them the following questions. You may interview friends, family members, and fellow students (except students in this class). How Define the term “race” (i.e. what does the List two ways in which you categorize List three races that you know many term race mean, what type of someone as coming from a particular of categorization is it?) race or ethnic group races are there? Key study points- Park book -What is the biological definition of race or subspecies? What is meant by the statement “There are no races only clines”? 66 Race: The Power of An Illusion/ Part 2- The Story We Tell K. Markley 1. How did the value for equality play a role in the formation of the race concept in the USA? 2. List at least two values that were key in the formation of American national identity. How did these values affect the formation of the race concept? 3. What role did politics (power issues) and economics (money, wealth issues) play in the formation of the race concept? Do you think the race concept would have been formulated in the United States in the way that it was without the issues of politics and economics? 4. What were you taught as a child about the history of the race concept in school? What did you learn about the concept of race outside of school? 5. What factor(s) do you think were the most important in the formation of the race concept? science, politics, economics, American national values 6. If race was a purely scientific taxonomic classification, which accurately categorized human populations into discrete groups, what would we expect to see in regards to the physical differences between human populations? 7. Either support or refute the statement “there are no races there are only clines 67 Anthropology: The Study of Humans Nothing is more fascinating than studying that ever variable creature, humans. Anthropologists have four fields which they use to study humans in their entirety. Anthropologists study humans in the past and present, in the United States and around the world. Join this exciting field of discovery and gain a practical degree that will help you work in most any field. Cultural Anthropology Cultural anthropologists study contemporary cultures around the world. What is culture? What are the different beliefs and practices of humans? Is monogamy or polygamy the norm for humans? How does romantic love impact marriage? What practices and institutions do all humans have? What are human universals (things that all humans do)? How do anthropologists conduct their fieldwork? How can our knowledge of humans be used to deal with current day problems and issues? Physical Anthropology Physical anthropologists utilize a variety of means to study humans biologically. What is the Human Genome Project and how will it change our world (designer babies, cloning)? How do scientists gain their understandings of the world? Is evolution fact or theory? What is natural selection? What is meant by the term survival of the fittest? Are humans still evolving? Are human behaviors genetically determined? Is race a valid biological concept? What do we know of the hominid fossil record? What is the difference between apes and monkeys? Archeology Linguistic Anthropology Linguistic anthropologists study the Archeologists examine past cultures and relationship between language and civilizations through the artifacts they left culture, and the nature of language. behind. Learn how peoples in the past When did humans first acquire worked to survive in different environlanguage? How does language affect ments. What type of shelters did they the way we see the world? How does live in, what were their lives like, our culture affect the way we see the archeologists use the artifacts people left world? Why do males and females have behind to reconstruct the lives of people communication problems? How does in the past. What are the scientific language work to reflect and reinforce methods and theories that are used to cultural conflicts and stratification? Can trace the ways in which humans worked apes learn language (sign language)? to survive throughout history? 68 Anthropology: As a field of study & as a career Anthropology as a field of study is always fascinating. Students find it exciting, and continually interesting, learning about humans in their entirety. Anthropologists study humans in the United States and around the world. We study humans in the past, present and gain insights for the future. o Skills acquired include knowledge about the diverse ways in which humans around the world live, their values and norms. These skills are critical for success and survival in today’s diverse world. o There are four major fields in anthropology and a virtually unlimited number of areas of specialization for anthropology students to explore including: business, medicine, law, religion, art, language, economics. Medical anthropology is one of the fasted growing fields today. Anthropology gives students the flexibility to go into almost any career they may be interested in. o Anthropology as an undergraduate degree gives students a foundation for almost any career. Students gain the skills & knowledge that both domestic and international companies are looking for. The acquisition of verbal and written communication skills are integral to anthropology programs. o Critical thinking skills, knowledge of domestic & international cultures, the ability to analyze large amounts of data, flexibility in diverse situations are all aspects of an anthropology degree. Go to the American Anthropology Website to get more information about Anthropology and Careers in Anthropology www.aaanet.org 69 Annual Edition Articles: Your Class Schedule lists the articles you are to read for this class. Make sure you read them by the date listed in the Class Schedule. After you have read the articles you should be ready to discuss and answer test questions for the articles. The Growth of Evolutionary Science 1. Within the framework of the concept of final causes what is the answer to the question “What purpose does this species serve?” Within the framework of Darwin’s theory of natural selection what is the answer to the question “What purpose does this species serve?” 2. What was the key observation that caused Darwin to change his views from a literal interpretation of the bible to being a proponent of evolution? State at least one key point from his first five chapters of “On the Origin of Species”? 3. State at least two of the major questions in evolutionary biology today. Darwin’s Influence on Modern Thought1. Mayr states that Darwin made four major contributions to evolutionary biology. What did Darwin mean when he said that there was a “non-constancy of species”? 2. What does the concept of branching evolution imply as to the relationship of all of life on earth? 3. Mayr notes that “Darwin rejects all supernatural phenomena and causations” in his theory of natural selection. What type of data is allowed in Darwin’s theory of natural selection and what type of data is not allowed? 4. Darwin put forth the concept of population thinking, what were Darwin’s key points in regards to individuals and populations? 5. What is teleology and why did Darwin reject it in his theory of natural selection? Why Should Students Learn Evolution 1. What is the simple answer as to why students should learn about evolution? 2. How does an understanding of evolution help us understand the processes that affect our health and day-to-day life? 2. What is the conclusion as to why students should learn about evolution? Curse and Blessing of the Ghetto 1. What are the four possible explanations for the higher rate of tay sachs among Eastern European Jews? (hint- these correlate with the four processes of evolution) 2. What is Jared Diamonds hypothesis as to why tay sachs is at such a high rate among Eastern European Jews? The Illusion of Design 1. According to Dawkins (the author) why do we see design in so much of everything around us? 2. What is the argument of improbability (put in your own words)? 3. What is the argument of the gaps (put in your own words)? 4. What are the barriers to the acceptance of evolutionary theory? 5. What did J.B.S. Haldane say would falsify evolution? Designer Thinking 1. What is the argument from design? How is the human eye used in this debate? 2. What is the relationship between the “argument from design” and the current form of creationism in the USA “intelligent design”? 70 Primate Articles What are friends for? 1. What is the question the author explores in this paper? Does she come to a conclusion? 2. What criteria did the author use to define friendships among baboons? 3. A prominent theory claims that males will only invest in infants that are closely related. Did the author’s research validate or invalidate this theory (explain your answer briefly)? 4. Bonus Question: The typical scenario that is assumed for early female and male relationships is that females and males started a reciprocal relationship when men started providing women with meat from the hunt and women provided men with foods they had gathered. At this point it is assumed that the nuclear family was formed. State at least one of the challenges to this assumed scenario (with the challenges coming from nonhuman primate observations) The Mind of the Chimpanzee 1. Jane Goodall discusses how she was soundly criticized for using terms and concepts that were seen as not applicable to nonhuman animals. Select one term or concept that she used that was considered inappropriate and briefly discuss why it was considered inappropriate and what her rationale was for using it. 2. When Jane Goodall observed chimpanzees both making and using tools Louis Leakey observed “Now we must redefine tool, redefine Man, or accept chimpanzee’s as humans.” Give me your definition to define humans as separate from all other animals? Do you see humans as unique in kind or different by degree from other animals? Dim Forest, Bright Chimps 1. State at least one difference between the Tai chimps and the Gombe chimps in regards to EACH of the following categories; hunting, tool use and food sharing. Mothers’ & Others 1. Briefly define “cooperative breeding” and state if humans can be “cooperative breeders” 2. What is the critical variable needed for infants to develop into “healthy” empathetic adults? 3. Bonus Question: In our society Can you think of public policy implications for Hrdy’s research (think in terms of child care)? What’s Love Got to Do With It? 1. What role does sex play in bonobo society (be specific)? 2. Some anthropologists are reluctant to include “the details of bonobo life, such as wide- ranging sexuality and a strong sisterhood into scenarios of human evolution.” Do you think that early hominid history involved a different role for sex, strong female relations and/or more egalitarian relations among females and males? 71 Salamander’s Tale 1. Dawkins (the author) states that the “obsession with discreet names” is an example of …. 2. Does this article validate or invalidate the concept of biological continuity? Specifically what is the data and reasoning that is used to answer this question 3. If we had a 100% complete fossil record what would happen to discrete names? Black, White, Other 1. Reflection question- How do you define yourself? To what degree does your physical make up influence your sense of self? To what degree do cultural factors influence your sense of self? To what degree does the political system in which you live influence your sense of who you are? 2. To what degree are the biological and/or racial labels we apply to ourselves valid and real? 3. The author notes that three forces of evolution have led to gradations of difference in human populations. What process does he leave out that introduces the variation needed for natural selection to work? The Tall and the Short of It 1. What is plasticity? 2. Height is an example of human plasticity. Our height is influenced by genes and ___________? 3. How is our understanding of plasticity different from Lamarck’s hypothesis (be specific)? 4. What public policy decisions led to the Dutch being taller on average than Americans? Dr. Darwin 1. How is Darwinian Medicine defined? 2. What are some of our bodies defenses? 3. What does Darwinian Medicine say about our defense mechanisms that flies in the face of traditional medicine? 4. What are the consequences or implications of having a body designed in the Stone Age? Saltshakers Curse 1. State two specific differences between the lifestyles (environment) between humans in the past and humans in the present. 2. Why are the two core reasons that different ethnic groups face diseases at different rates? 3. What are the two general hypotheses to explain the higher rates of hypertension among African Americans? 72 Hominids Articles The Scavenging of Peking Man 1. What species is the focus of this article (give the genus and species name)? 2. What is the field of taphonomy? List at least two ways in which taphonomic analysis has challenged our view of “peking man” (reference cannibalism and hyenas)? Erectus Rising 1. What are the two noteworthy accomplishments of H. erectus listed in the article? List at least one more (Park text, class lecture, video) 2. State at least one reason as to why is there disagreement as to the age of the H. erectus finds in Java. What is the likely age of H. erectus finds in Java? 3. How would H. erectus have been able to travel from Africa to Indonesia (how far is it, what would the obstacles be, what’s the likelihood they could have done this)? What is the speculation as to why H. erectus left Africa? Hard Times Among the Neanderthals 1. State one anatomical and one behavioral differences between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens 2. Why is “Shanidar 1” and the other Shanidar finds studied so extensively? What have been the traditional conclusions about these fossils and what are the more recent views? 3. What is Trinkaus’s (the author) final analysis as to what the evidence suggests about Neandertal lives (were they easy, difficult, were they brutes or thinking, caring individuals)? The Gift of Gab 1. When does Cartmill state we can be reasonably sure language existed? Which species does he believe had language? 2. What areas of the body (or fossil remains) can give insight into whether or not a species was able to have a spoken language? (list at least two areas) The Littlest Human 1. What has been the conventional wisdom in regards to how long humans have been the only hominin species on earth? 2. On islands what are the two tendencies of the evolution of animals? 3. This semester we have discussed the nature of science. Referencing the specific components of science briefly discuss how science works to evaluate hypothesis and then to either accept, reject and/or revise hypothesis. 73
