Download Week 5 Lecture 1 Chapter 4 The Tissue Level of Organization

Week 5
The Tissue Level of Organization
• Group of similar
cells
– common embryonic
origin
– common function
• Histology
– study of tissues
• Pathologist
– looks for tissue
changes that indicate
4 Basic Tissues (1)
• Epithelial Tissue
– covers exposed surfaces ( skin )
– lines hollow organs, internal passageways and
ducts ( digestive tract, urinary tract,
reproductive)
– forms glands- when cells sink under the surface
• Connective Tissue
– material found between cells
– supports and binds structures together
– stores energy as fat
– provides immunity to disease
4 Basic Tissues (2)
• Muscle Tissue
– cells shorten in length producing movement
• Nerve Tissue
– cells that conduct electrical signals
– detects changes inside and outside the body
– responds with nerve impulses
Biopsy
• Removal of living tissue for microscopic
examination
– surgery
– needle biopsy
• Useful for diagnosis, especially cancer
• Tissue preserved, sectioned and stained
before microscopic viewing
Maintaining the integrity of Epithelium
To be effective as a barrier, an epithelium must form a
complete cover or lining.
3 factors help maintain the integrity of the epithelium
1)
2)
3)
Intercellular connection -Cell adhesion molecule,
cell junctions
Attachment to basement membrane – 2 layers,
clear and dense layer
Maintenance and repair –epithelium live hard lives.
Exposed to enzymes, toxic chemicals, bacteria, and
mechanical abrasions. Stem cells called GERMATIVE
cells divide continually.
Cell Junctions
• Tight junctions
• Adherens
junctions
• Gap junctions
• Desmosomes
• Hemidesmosomes
Tight Junctions
• Watertight seal between
cells. Preventing passage of
water and solutes
• Plasma membranes
fused with a strip of
proteins
• Common between cells
that line GI and bladder
• Don’t want acids, enzymes
and waste leaking.
Adherens Junctions
• Holds epithelial cells
together
• Structural components
– plaque = dense layer of
proteins inside the cell
membrane
– microfilaments extend
into cytoplasm
– integral membrane
proteins connect to
membrane of other cell
Desmosomes
• Resists cellular
separation, cell disruption,
twisting, compression.
• Similar structure to
adherens junction except
intracellular intermediate
filaments cross cytoplasm
of cell
• Found in superficial
layer of skin. (Skin peels
when damages.)
Gap Junctions
• Tiny space between plasma
membranes of 2 cells
• Crossed by protein channels called
connexons forming fluid filled
tunnels allowing sugars, amino
acids, and electrolytes to pass.
• Cell communication rapidly with
ions & small molecules
• Muscle and nerve impulses
spread from cell to cell
– heart and smooth muscle of gut
Epithelial Tissue -- General Features
• Closely packed cells forming continuous
sheets held together by cell junctions.
• Cells sit on basement membrane
• Apical (upper) free surface
• Avascular---without blood vessels
– nutrients diffuse in from underlying connective
tissue
• Good nerve supply
• Rapid cell division if damaged via stem cells
• Covering- line all passage ways that come into contact
with outside world. Skin, Digestive, respiratory,
reproductive, urinary, brain, blood vessels, heart.
Functions
• Physical protection – protects exposed and internal surfaces from
abrasions, dehydration, and destruction from chemical agents.
• Absorption – The lining of the gut and respiratory tract allow for
nutrients to be absorbed from the gut and the exchange of gases
between air in lungs and blood.
• Excretion- The unique lining of the kidney tubules makes the
excretion and concentration of excretory products in the urine
possible.
• Produces secretions – Glandular epithelial is adapted for
secretory activity (hormones, mucus, digestive juices, and sweat)
• Provides sensation – good nerve supply- sensory nerves of eyes,
ears, nose, skin.
• Specialized Epithelium – a) Microvilli – absorption/secretion –
found in digestive and urinary tracts b) Cilia – Respiratory tracts,
the synchronized beating moves mucous up from lungs to throat.
Basement Membrane
• Basal lamina
– from epithelial cells
– collagen fibers
• Reticular lamina
– secreted by connective
tissue cells
– reticular fibers-strength
• holds cells to
connective tissue
• guide for cell migration
during development
Types of Epithelium
• Covering and lining epithelium
– epidermis of skin
– lining of blood vessels and ducts
– lining respiratory, reproductive, urinary & GI
tract
• Glandular epithelium
– secreting portion of glands
– thyroid, adrenal, and sweat glands
Classification of Epithelium
•
Classified by arrangement of cells into layers
– simple = one cell layer thick. Secretion or absorption (intestine ,lungs)
– stratified = many cell layers thick. Located where protection
from mechanical or chemical stresses are needed. ( skin ,
mouth )
– pseudostratified = single layer of cells where all cells don’t
reach apical surface
• nuclei at found at different levels so it looks multilayered
• Classified by shape of surface cells
– squamous =flat
– cuboidal = cube-shaped
– columnar = tall column
– transitional = shape varies with tissue stretching
Simple Squamous Epithelium
• Single layer of flat cells
– lines blood vessels (endothelium heart chambers), body
cavities (mesothelium :pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)
– very thin --- controls diffusion, osmosis and filtration
– nuclei centrally located
• Cells in direct contact with each other
• Good for gas exchange at lungs(alveoli), absorption at
intestines, and re-absorption loop of henley at kidneys
Examples of Simple Squamous
• Surface view of lining
of peritoneal cavity
• Section of intestinal
showing serosa
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
•
•
•
•
Single layer of cube-shaped cells viewed from the side
Nuclei round and centrally located
Lines tubes of kidney – proximal and distal tubules
Absorption or secretion
Example of Simple Cuboidal
• Sectional view of kidney tubules
Nonciliated Simple Columnar
• Single layer rectangular cells
• Unicellular glands =goblet cells secrete mucus
– lubricate GI, respiratory, reproductive and urinary
systems
• Microvilli = fingerlike cytoplasmic projections
– for absorption in GI tract (stomach to anus)
Ex. Nonciliated Simple Columnar
• Section from small intestine
Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Single layer rectangular cells with cilia
• Mucus from goblet cells moved along by cilia
– found in respiratory system and uterine tubes
Ex. Ciliated Simple Columnar
• Section of uterine tube
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Several cell layers thick
• Surface cells flat. Located
where mechanical and
chemical stresses are severe
• Keratinized = surface cells dead
and filled with keratin. This layer
is tough and water resistant.
– skin (epidermis)
• Nonkeratinized- resists
abrasions, but will dry out if
not kept moist. No keratin in
moist living cells at surface
– mouth, vagina
Example of Stratified Squamous
• Section of vagina
Papanicolaou Smear (Pap smear)
• Collect sloughed off cells of uterus and
vaginal walls
• Detect cellular changes (precancerous
cells)
• Annually for women over 18 or if sexually
active
• HPV – 80 % of women over 50 have it.
• Low risk- irregular cells, high risk- leads to
cervix cancer.
• Guardasil – protects only 4 out of 10 strains.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• Multilayered
• Surface cells
cuboidal
– rare (only found in
sweat gland ducts
& male urethra)
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Multilayered
• Surface cells columnar
• Rare (very large ducts & part of male
urethra)
Transitional Epithelium
• Multilayered
• Surface cells varying in shape
from round to flat if stretched
• Lines hollow organs that
expand from within (urinary
bladder)
Pseudostratified Columnar
• Single cell layer
• All cells attach to
basement
membrane but not
all reach free
surface
• Nuclei at varying
depths
• Respiratory
system, male
urethra &
epididymis
Glandular Epithelium
• Derived from epithelial cells that sank below the surface
during development
• Exocrine glands
– cells that secrete---sweat, tears, milk, ear wax, saliva,
digestive enzymes onto free surface of epithelial layer
– connected to the surface by tubes (ducts)
• Endocrine glands – ductless glands (thyroid, pituitary,
adrenal glands)
– secrete hormones into the bloodstream
– hormones help maintain homeostasis
– Sjorgens syndrome – autoimmune disease of exocrine
glands. Dry eyes, mouth
Methods of Glandular Secretion
• Merocrine (part)-- Most glands
– cells release their products by
exocytosis---saliva, digestive
enzymes & sweat
• Apocrine (off)
– milk
– upper part of cell possibly
pinches off & dies
– Holocrine (entire) -- oil gland
– whole cells die & rupture to
release their products
Exocrine glands- 3 types
• 1) Serous Glands – Secretes a watery
solution that contains enzymes. Parotid
gland.
• 2) Mucous glands –secrete mucins that
hydrate to form mucous. Salivary glands,
submucosal glands of the small intestine.
• 3) Mixed glands- submandibular
Week 5 Connective Tissues
• Cells rarely touch due to extracellular matrix
• Matrix (fibers & ground substance secreted
by cells
• Consistency varies from liquid, gel to solid
• Good nerve & blood supply except cartilage &
ligaments)
Extracellular Matrix
The ties that bind us together –
healthy ECM means reduced
pain/degenerative changes and
increased function
Support for Extra-Cellular
(Connective) Tissues
Unhealthy ECM is found in patients that:
– Are suffering from soft-tissue injury
– Routinely suffer from repetitive injury
– Have difficulty maintaining alignment
– Are experiencing degradation of connective
tissues
Down-regulate the expression collagen-damaging
enzymes (MMPs) to support balanced healing of
extracellular matrix tissues
Connective Tissues = Extracellular Matrix
tendons
joints
ligaments
cartilage
fascia
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Extracellular matrix is the structural scaffold for the cells
and is the defining feature of connective tissue
Non-cellular components
•
•
•
•
Heparan sulfate
•
Chondroitin sulfate •
Keratan sulfate
•
Laminin
•
Cellular Components
• Fibroblasts
• Chondrocytes
• Osteoblasts
Hyaluronic Acid
Collagen
Fibronectin
Elastin
The extracellular matrix is composed of tissues
that serve multiple purposes
“The ECM is a conglomerate of
substances in which biochemicals and
properties
for of
the connective tissues that
Abiophysical
complex
weballow
that
construction of a flexible network that
•integrates
Provideinformation
adhesion
toloading
cellsand
from
it into
mechanical capacities…It
•converts
Act as
a structural
scaffold
serves as a scaffold for adhesion of cells
•mediated
Actively
participate
in intracellular
signaling
by integrins,
dystroglycan,
and
at the
cell surface and loading
of
•proteoglycans
Translates
mechanical
into cellular response
tyrosine kinase receptors. The interaction
between the ECM and the adhesion
molecules leads to activation of
intracellular signaling pathways and
cytoskeletal rearrangement.”
http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Encyclopedia/images/
Kjaer, M. Physiol. Rev. 84:649-698, 2004.
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Extracellular matrix tissues are
degraded after injury
physiology of an injury
 Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are created
which signal pain and induce inflammation
 Chondrocytes in the extracellular matrix release
matrix metalloproteinase enzymes (MMPs)
into
the area of injury
 MMPs degrade collagens, elastins,
basement membranes
Down-regulate the expression of MMP-13
support connective tissue
• “MMP-1 and MMP-13 are collagenolytic MMPs that have
been most strongly associated with cartilage
collagenolysis”
• “chondrocytes are stimulated to secrete elevated levels
of MMPs that, once activated, mediate the proteolysis of
tendon, bone and cartilage.”
Litherland et al., JBC, Papers in press, March 10, 2008
to
Matrix metalloproteinases digest
collagen and connective tissue
Chondrocyte
MMP-13
MMPs further degrade collagen tissue
during injury or inflammation
Collagen Triple Helix
MMP-13
Modulate expression of MMPs to support
healthy remodeling of connective tissue
MMP-1
MMP-13
MMP- 2
MMPs are released from the chondrocyte in
response to injury or inflammation
MMP-9
Clinical conditions associated with
expression of MMPs
Periodontal disease
Tendon injury
Fracture healing
increased
MMPs
Wound repair
Degenerative discs
MMPs are a primary target to address tendonitis
and connective tissue disorder
Am J Sports Med. 2007 May;35(5):763-9. Epub 2007 Feb 9. Links
Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors prevent a decrease in the mechanical
properties of stress-deprived tendons: an in vitro experimental study.
Arnoczky SP, Lavagnino M, Egerbacher M, Caballero O, Gardner K.
“An increase in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the resulting
degradation of the extracellular matrix have been implicated in the
pathogenesis of tendinopathy. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors prevented
the activation of MMP-13 and significantly inhibited pericellular matrix
degeneration and the loss of material properties associated with stress
“Matrix metalloproteinase
inhibitors
supportiverole
role
deprivation.
Matrix metalloproteinase
inhibitorsmay
mayplay
play aa supportive
treatment
of tendinopathy
by limiting
the MMPin in
thethe
treatment
of tendinopathy
by limiting
the MMP-mediated
degradation
the extracellular
mediatedof degradation
ofmatrix.”
the extracellular matrix.”
Nutritional strategy to balance the expression of
MMPs
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition reduces TNF-induced
inflammatory response in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts.
García S, Bodaño A, Pablos JL, Gómez-Reino JJ, Conde C.
Comparative effects of 2 antioxidants, selenomethionine and
onPARP
catabolic
and either
anabolic
“Weepigallocatechin-gallate,
show, for the first time, that
inhibition
withgene expression of
articular
chondrocytes.
specific
inhibitors
or by siRNA transfection significantly reduced
Andriamanalijaona
R, chemokine
Kypriotou expression
M, Baugé C,
Legendre F,
TNF-induced cytokine and
in Renard
fibroblastE,like
Raoudi
M,
Boumediene
K,
Gatto
H,
Monginoux
P,
Pujol
JP.
synoviocytes cells from RA patients. PARP inhibitors also
Laboratory of Connective Tissue Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, 14032 Caen Cedex,
decreased
TNF-induced RA FLS proliferation…PARP inhibition
France.
reduced
TNF-induced
JNK the
phosphorylation
and AP-1 (Se-met)
and
OBJECTIVE:. To determine
effects of selenomethionine
and epigallocatechinNFkappaB
binding
activities
were activation
partially of
impaired
by treatment
gallate (EGCg)
on gene
expression,
mitogen-activating
kinases, and DNA binding
nuclearinhibitors
factor-kappaB
(NF-kappaB)
and apolipoprotein-1 (AP-1)
in articular chondrocytes.
withofPARP
or by
PARP-1 knockdown…PARP
inhibition
METHODS:
Chondrocytes,
cultured
in
low-oxygen
tension,
were
pretreated
with Lreduces the production of inflammatory mediators and the
selenomethionine or EGCg for 24 h, followed by interleukin 1 (IL-1beta) for 1 h (nuclear and
proliferation of RA FLS (in response to TNF) suggesting that PARP
cytoplasmic extracts) or 24 h (RNA extraction). Reverse transcription-polymerase chain
inhibitors
have therapeutic
benefits
in RA.”
reactioncould
was performed
to determine
mRNA levels
of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1, -3, Ann13),
Rheum
Dis. 2007
21
aggrecanases
(-1, Sep
-2), IL-1beta,
inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenases (-1, -2),
• Hops & Berberine to modulate MMP-13
• Selenium to address MMP-1 & MMP-2
• Folic acid to impact MMP-9
• Niacinamide to address tissue-damaging PARS
type II collagen and aggrecan, and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta1, -2, -3) and
their receptors I and II. Activity of mitogen-activating protein kinases (MAPK) was assayed by
Western blot and AP-1/NF-kB DNA binding by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. RESULTS:
Pretreatment with 0.5 microM Se-met prevented IL-1beta-induced MMP-1 and aggrecanase-1
expression, and reduced the
IL-1(10ng/ml) ( g/ml) -
+
1
+
0.1
+
0.05
+
B
CT
• 1) Fibrous-CT Proper
• A) Loose (areolar)
• B) Adipose
• C) Reticular
• D) Dense 1) Irregular 2) Regular a) collagenous b) elastic
• 2) BONE
a) Compact b) Spongy
• 3) Cartilage a) Hyaline b) fibrocartilage c) elastic
• 4) Blood
CT
• Situated throughout the body but never exposed to outside
environment.
• Many CT are highly vascular except ligaments and cartilage.
• Has sensory receptors for pain, temperature and pressure.
• FUNCTIONS
• 1) structural framework – bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments
• 2) transports fluids and dissolved materials – blood
• 3) protects delicate organs
• 4) stores energy reserves especially in the form of lipids – adipose
• 5) defends body from invading microorganisms – WBC’s
• 3 components 1) specialized cells, 2) extracellular proteins
3) ground substance #’s 2 & 3 = MATRIX
1st type of CT to appear in embryo is MESENCHYME. It has STEM CELLS which
gives rise to all other CT’s.
Blast type cells = retain ability to divide & produce matrix (fibroblasts- most abundant
and permanent resident of CT, it’s always present, secretes hyaluronan which is the
cement that holds epithelial cells together, chondroblasts, & osteoblasts)
Cyte type cells = mature cell that can not divide or produce matrix (chondrocytes &
osteocytes)
Macrophages develop from monocytes ( mesenchymal cells- stem cells )
engulf bacteria & debris by phagocytosis
Plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes
produce antibodies that fight against foreign substances
Mast cells (WBC- produces heparin, histamine, serotonin) produce histamine that dilate
small BV
Adipocytes (fat cells) store fat
Fibroblasts, adipocytes, mesenchymal permanent residents.
Connective Tissue Ground Substance
• Supports the cells and fibers
• Helps determine the consistency of
the matrix
– fluid, gel or solid
• Contains many large molecules
– hyaluronic acid is thick, viscous and
slippery
– condroitin sulfate is jellylike substance
providing support
– adhesion proteins (fibronectin) binds
collagen fibers to ground substance
Types of Connective Tissue Fibers
• Collagen (25% of protein in your body TENDONS & LIGAMENTS)
– tough, resistant to pull, yet pliable
– formed from the protein collagen
• Elastin (lungs, blood vessels, ear cartilage)
– smaller diameter fibers formed from protein elastin
surrounded by glycoprotein (fibrillin)
– can stretch up to 150% of relaxed length and return
to original shape ( Diabetes, Glucose )
• Reticular (spleen, lymph nodes, liver)
– thin, branched fibers that form framework of organs
– Stabilize organs, blood vessels/nerves despite gravity
– Similar to collagen but arranged differently, not aligned
Marfan Syndrome
• Inherited disorder of fibrillin gene
• Abnormal development of elastic fibers
• Tendency to be tall with very long legs,
arms, fingers and toes
• Life-threatening weakening of aorta may
lead to rupture or aneurism.
Mature Connective Tissue
• CT proper – many cells with fibers in ground substance
• Loose connective tissue – adipose or fat
• Dense connective tissue – tendons
• Supporting CT – less diverse cells more dense fibers
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Fluid CT – Contains dissolved proteins
• Blood
• Lymph
Loose Connective Tissues
• Loosely woven fibers throughout tissues.
• The PACKING MATERIAL of the body.
• Surrounds and supports blood vessels, nerves, store lipids, route for
diffusion, and fills spaces between organs.
• Types of loose connective tissue
– areolar connective tissue
– adipose tissue
– reticular tissue
Areolar Connective Tissue
• Cell types = fibroblasts, plasma cells, macrophages, mast
cells and a few white blood cells
• All 3 types of fibers present: collagen, elastin, reticular
• Gelatinous ground substance- can distort without damage
b/c loosely arranged fibers. Forms layer that separates
skin from muscle.
• Good blood supply so common injection site for drugs.
Areolar Connective Tissue
• Black = elastic fibers,
• Pink = collagen fibers
• Nuclei are mostly fibroblasts
Adipose Tissue
•
•
•
•
•
•
Peripheral nuclei due to large fat storage droplet
Deeper layer of skin, organ padding, yellow marrow
Reduces heat loss, energy storage, protection
Stores toxins- insects & pesticides
Fat cells increase until puberty
Liposuction is temp fix b/c mesenchyme cells regenerate fat cells
Reticular Connective Tissue
• Network of fibers & cells that produce framework of
organ
• Holds organ together (liver, spleen, lymph nodes,
bone marrow)
Dense Connective Tissue
• More fibers present but fewer cells
• Types of dense connective tissue
– 1) dense regular connective tissue – tendons,
ligaments
– 2) dense irregular connective tissue- Dermis,
scars, deep fascia, surrounds organs like liver and
spleen
– 3) elastic connective tissue – walls of arteries,
spinal ligaments
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• Collagen fibers in parallel bundles with
fibroblasts between bundles of collagen fibers
• White, tough and pliable when unstained (forms
tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis)
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
•
•
•
•
Collagen fibers are irregularly arranged (interwoven)
Tissue can resist tension from any direction
Found in Liver, kidneys, spleen.
Very tough tissue -- white of eyeball, dermis of skin
Elastic Connective Tissue
• Branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts
• Can stretch & still return to original shape-walls of
arteries
• Lung tissue, vocal cords, ligament between vertebrae
• Elastin –vs- Collagen in certain ligaments. Spine/knee
Cartilage
• Network of fibers in rubbery ground substance. Firm gel from
polysacharide derivative called chondroitin sulfate.
• Resilient and can endure more stress than loose or dense
connective tissue
• It’s avascular. Chondrocytes produce chemicals that
discourage their growth called anti-angiogenesis factor
• So all exchange of nutrients and wastes products must occur
by diffusion.
• Types of cartilage
– hyaline cartilage
– fibrocartilage
– elastic cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
•
•
•
•
Bluish-shiny white rubbery substance
Chondrocytes sit in spaces called lacunae
No blood vessels or nerves so repair is very slow
Reduces friction at joints as articular cartilage
Fibrocartilage
• Many more collagen fibers causes rigidity & stiffness
• Strongest type of cartilage (intervertebral discs)
Elastic Cartilage
• Elastic fibers help maintain shape after
deformations
• Ear(Eustachian tube), nose, vocal cartilages
Bone (Osseous) Tissue
• Spongy bone- found in epiphysis- framework for blood
production
– sponge-like with spaces and trabeculae
– trabeculae = struts of bone surrounded by red bone
marrow
– no osteons (cellular organization)
• Compact bone- found in diaphysis- mineral reservoir
– solid, dense bone
– basic unit of structure is osteon (haversian system)
• Protects, provides for movement, stores minerals, site of
blood cell formation
• 2/3 of matrix is calcium salts ( calcium phosphates)
cement
• 1/3 of matrix is collagen fibers= steel reinforcing rods
Compact Bone
• Osteon = lamellae (rings) of mineralized matrix
– calcium & phosphate---give it its hardness
– interwoven collagen fibers provide strength
• Osteocytes in spaces (lacunae) in between lamellae
• Canaliculi (tiny canals) connect cell to cell. They are the branching
network for the exchange of materials between blood vessels and
osteocytes.
Normal Bone VS Osteoporotic
Bone (Cod Fish Vertebra)
Hyperkyphosis
BLOOD
• Temp – 100-100.5, PH 7.35- 7.45, Volume for males is
5-6 liters for females 4-5 liters. ( if one eats too much
salt then one retains water. This increases blood volume
which will increase blood pressure.) DIURETICS- get rid
of excess water to decrease blood pressure.
• 55% of total blood volume is PLASMA : matrix
91.5% water / 7% proteins / 1.5% solutes
• 45% is RBC’s & WBC’s- formed elements
• RBC- NO NUCLEUS. Does not use oxygen to make
ATP. So it delivers all of it to lungs. PH of lung is basic
so hemoglobin carries oxygen, but at cell blood is acidic
so it is released.
Blood
• Connective tissue with a liquid matrix = the plasma
• Cell types = red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes) and cell fragments called platelets
• Provide clotting, immune functions, carry O2 and CO2
Whole Blood
Factors assisting with
circulation
• Skeletal muscle contraction and one way
valves in the veins
• Respiratory movements (Diaphragmatic)
• Massage therapy
• B-Vitamins
• Omega 3’s
• Red Wine
Anatomy of an Artery
Pathophysiology
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. Vascular irritants irritate the tunica interna of the blood vessel.
Vascular Irritants:
a. Smoking
b. Alcohol
c. Fried foods
d. Chemical produced during stress
e. Caffeine
f. Physical trauma
g. Normal wear and tear (aging) (anti-oxidant vitamins improve circulation)
h. Environmental toxins
I. Homocysteine: intermediate chemical substance in the metabolism of the
amino acid cysteine that is a strong vascular irritant. Folic acid, vitamin B12
and vitamin B6 will prevent the build up of homocysteine in the blood.
•
•
Homocysteine
•
•
Folic B12 B6
Acid
Normal Artery VS
Atherosclerotic Artery
Blocked Artery
Balloon Angioplasty and Stent
Balloon Catheter and Stent
Collateral Circulation
• Alternate routes of blood flow developed
primarily within the
arterial system which help to compensate
for atherosclerosis and
arteriosclerosis in the body. Collateral
circulation develops
with time and exercise.
High Density Lipoproteins
• High Density Lipoproteins/ HDL’s
(Good)
•
•
cholesterol
Tissues --------------> Liver
Low Density Lipoproteins
• Low Density Lipoproteins/ LDL’s (Bad)
•
•
cholesterol
Liver -----------------> Tissues
Lymph
• Interstitial fluid being transported in lymphatic vessels
• Contains less protein than plasma
• Move cells and substances (lipids) from one part of the
body to another
• Lymph vessels return lymph to larger veins near the
heart.
• Recirculation of fluid from the cardiovascular system to
the interstitial fluid to the lymph back to the
cardiovascular system. Wastes and toxins are removed,
alerts immune system of infections.
Microcirculation
The Lymphatic System
• The Lymphatic system is a separate and parallel
circulatory system designed to:
• a) retrieve fluids filtered out of blood vessels and
return it back to the general circulation
• b) perform important immune system functions
• c) absorb dietary fats and fat soluble nutrients
from the gastro-intestinal tract
The lymphatic system absorbs fluid,
macromolecules, microorganisms, toxins,
waste products and foreign substances
from the interstitial tissue. Numerous
substances (electrolytes, proteins,
hormones, toxins, debris) and immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes,
macrophages) pass through the regional
lymph nodes, where this fluid is filtered,
purified and concentrated.
The Lymphatic System
Muscle
• Cells that shorten, lengthen and remain
same length
• Provide us with motion, posture and
heat
• Types of muscle
– skeletal muscle-voluntary - striated
– cardiac muscle-involuntary -striated
– smooth muscle- involuntary
Skeletal Muscle
• Cells are long cylinders with many peripheral nuclei
• Visible light and dark banding (looks striated)
• Voluntary or conscious control
Cardiac Muscle
• Cells are branched cylinders with one central nuclei
• Involuntary and striated
• Attached to and communicate with each other by
intercalated discs and desmosomes
Smooth Muscle
• Spindle shaped cells with a single central nuclei
• Walls of hollow organs (blood vessels, GI tract, bladder)
• Involuntary and nonstriated
Nerve Tissue
•
Cell types -- neurons and neuroglial (supporting) cells
•
Nerve cell structure
– nucleus & long cell processes conduct nerve signals
• dendrite --- signal travels towards the cell body
• axon ---- signal travels away from cell body
Membranes
• Epithelial layer sitting on a thin layer of
connective tissue (lamina propria)
• Types of membranes
– mucous membrane
– serous membrane
– synovial membrane
– cutaneous membrane (skin)
Mucous Membranes
• Lines a body cavity that opens to the
outside
– mouth, vagina, anus etc
• Epithelial cells form a barrier to microbes
• Tight junctions between cells
• Mucous is secreted from underlying
glands to keep surface moist
Serous Membranes
• Simple squamous cells overlying loose CT
layer
• Squamous cells secrete slippery fluid
• Lines a body cavity that does not open to
the outside such as chest or abdominal
cavity
• Examples
– pleura, peritoneum and pericardium
– membrane on walls of cavity = parietal layer
– membrane over organs in cavity = visceral
layer
Synovial Membranes
• Line joint cavities of all freely movable
joints
• No epithelial cells---just special cells that
secrete slippery fluid
Tissue injury and repair
• The first sign of healing is inflammation- Redness,
swelling, warmth, pain.
• The repair process is called regeneration
• When there is an increase in pathogens, toxins,
waste, this will stimulate the release of mast cells
which will release histamines, heparin, and
prostoglandins.
• This will INCREASE the blood flow, pain, and
increase vessel permeability.
• This will INCREASE the temperature, oxygen and
nutrients, and phagocytic activity and removal of
toxins, and waste
• The RESULT is REGENERATION.
• Normal tissues are restored.