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Understanding Psychology 9th Edi4on Charles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto Chapter 2 The Biological Basis of Behavior • psychobiology-‐the area of psychology that focuses on the biological founda5ons of behavior and mental processes. • neuroscience -‐ the study of the brain and the nervous system. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ENDURING ISSUES • Person–Situa5on § To what extent is behavior caused by internal processes, as opposed to environmental factors? ENDURING ISSUES (con t) • Nature–Nurture § To what extent does heredity affect behavior? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ENDURING ISSUES (con t) • Stability–Change § Does the nervous system change due to experience? ENDURING ISSUES (con t) • Diversity–Universality § Are there differences between men and women in the way that the brain works? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 1 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET ENDURING ISSUES (con t) Practice at home • Mind–Body § What is the connec5on between what we experience and our biological processes? • Enduring Issues – Practice for the AP Test • Review and take notes on the enduring issues on pages Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved – 41(Introduction) – 42 (Mind/Body) – 48 (Stability/Change – Neural Plasticity) – 68 (Nature vs. nurture) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Practice at home • There are no special sections for PersonSituation or Diversity-Universality. Review your chapter and take notes on these enduring issues. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Neurons: The Messengers LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Describe a typical neuron. Dis4nguish between afferent, efferent, and associa4on neurons. • Describe how neurons transmit informa4on including the concepts of res4ng poten4al, polariza4on, ac4on poten4al, graded poten4al, threshold of excita4on, and the all-‐or-‐none law. • Describe the parts of the synapse and the role of neurotransmiRers in the synapse. • Explain neural plas4city and neurogenesis. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Biological Basis of Behavior Neurons The CNS (Central Nervous System) The PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) The Endocrine System Genetics Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Neurons • Neuron = typical cell + dendrites • Typical cell = nucleus (containing chromosomes and genes) + cytoplasm (keeps the cell alive) + cell membrane. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 2 Neurons: The Messengers • neurons -‐ individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system. – Average human being has 100 billion. – Neurons vary in size and shape. – All are specialized to receive and transmit informa5on. • • • • Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Glial/Glia cells – glue. It sticks in your head! • Axons – carry info to next cell • 1-2 mm to 3 feet in length • Axl with the white jacket/myelin sheath/glial cells. Parts of the Neuron dendrites -‐ short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages. axon -‐ single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages. nerve (or tract) -‐ group of axons bundled together. myelin sheath -‐ white faWy covering found on some axons. • • • • Hold neurons pin place Provide food Protect the brain from toxins in the bloodstream Form the myelin sheath • Astrocytes – star-shaped glial cell – neuron regeneration, learning, memory, communication Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Synapse - reset Synapse Neurotransmitters flows through the ...Terminal button into the synaptic space and… …they find specific receptor sites (lock and key), …then neurotransmitters detach and they are either… – Reabsorbed by axon terminals to be reused – Broken down and recycled for new neurotransmitters or – Disposed as waste Thus the synapse is reset. Synapse = sending axon + synaptic space/cleft + dendrites + cell body of 2nd neuron. Neurotransmitters flows through ...Axon/terminal button or synaptic knob/synaptic vesicles into the synaptic space… …they find specific receptor sites (lock and key), …then neurotransmitters detach and they are either… – Reabsorbed by axon terminals to be reused – Broken down and recycled for new neurotransmitters or – Disposed as waste Thus the synapse is reset. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 3 Neurotransmitters • neurotransmitter chart.docx.pdf Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Types of Neurons • sensory (or afferent) neurons -‐ neurons that carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord or brain. • motor (or efferent) neurons -‐ neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to the muscles and glands. • interneurons (or associa4on neurons) -‐ neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another. • mirror neurons -‐ specialized neurons that respond when we observe others perform a behavior or express an emo5on. • glial cells (or glia) -‐ cells that insulate and support neurons by holding them together, provide nourishment and remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing into the brain, and form the myelin sheath. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Neural Impulse Neurons communicate through electrochemical impulses. • graded poten4al -‐ a shiX in the electrical charge in a 5ny • ac4on poten4al -‐ the firing of a nerve cell. • threshold of excita4on -‐ the level an impulse must • res4ng poten4al -‐ electrical charge across a neuron membrane as a result of posi5ve ions outside and nega5ve ions inside the membrane. • Polariza4on -‐ the condi5on of a neuron when the inside is area of a neuron. exceed to cause a neuron to fire. • all-‐or-‐none law -‐ principle that the ac5on poten5al in a neuron does not vary in strength; either the neuron fires at full strength, or it does not fire at all. nega5vely charged rela5ve to outside; when a neuron is at rest. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 4 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Synapse Neurons never touch • synap4c space (or synap4c cleU) -‐ 5ny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron. • synapse -‐ area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synap5c space, and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron. • terminal buRon (or synap4c knob) -‐ structure at the end of an axon terminal branch. • receptor sites -‐ loca5ons on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmiWer fits like a key into a lock. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved • synap4c vesicles -‐ 5ny sacs in a terminal buWon that release chemicals into the synapse. • NeurotransmiRers -‐ chemicals released by the synap5c vesicles that travel across the synap5c space and affect adjacent neurons. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 5 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Neural Plas5city and Neurogenesis Experience can lead to significant changes in the number of complexity of synap5c connec5ons in the brain. • neural plas4city -‐ the ability of the brain to change in response to experience. • Neurogenesis -‐ the growth of new neurons. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved In Rosenzweig s experiment, young rats lived in two kinds of cages: impoverished, with nothing to manipulate or explore, or enriched, with a variety of objects. When Rosenzweig examined the rats brains, he found that the enriched group had larger neurons with synap5c connec5ons (shown as dendrites in the drawing) than the rats that lived in the bare cages. Experience, then, can actually affect the structure of the brain. Source: From Brain changes in response to experience by M. R. Rosenzweig, E. L. Bennett, and M. C. Diamond. Copyright © 1972, Scientific American, Inc. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Central Nervous System The Organiza5on of the Nervous System • The nervous system has two parts: – The central nervous system (CNS) • the brain and spinal cord Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Central Nervous System LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Identify the parts of the brain and their function. Explain what is meant by hemispheric specialization and the functional differences between the two cerebral hemispheres. • Discuss how microelectrode techniques, macroelectrode techniques, structural imaging, and functional imaging provide information about the brain. • Explain how the spinal cord works. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The CNS (Central Nervous System) – Brain • Several ways to organize the brain • Hemispheres • Testing for function and health (fMRI, etc.) – Spinal Cord – The peripheral nervous system (PNS) • linking all of the body's parts to the CNS Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 6 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Brain • The human brain is the product of millions of years of evolu5on in three stages: – hindbrain (central core) -‐ area containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. – cerebral cortex -‐ the outer surface of the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior. – limbic system -‐ ring of structures that plays a role in learning and emo5onal behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Midbrain Hindbrain • medulla -‐ structure in the hindbrain that controls essen5al life support func5ons including breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. • pons -‐ structure in the midbrain that regulates sleep and wake cycles. • cerebellum -‐ structure in the hindbrain that controls certain reflexes and coordinates the body s movements. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight, and it is one of several places in the brain where pain is registered. • thalamus -‐ forebrain region that relays and translates incoming messages from the sense receptors, except those for smell. • hypothalamus -‐ forebrain region that governs mo5va5on and emo5onal responses. • re4cular forma4on (RF) -‐ network of neurons in the hindbrain, the midbrain, and part of the forebrain, whose primary func5on is to alert and arouse the higher parts of the brain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 7 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Deep fissures in the cortex separate these areas or lobes. Also shown are the primary somatosensory and motor areas. Cerebral Cortex • associa4on areas -‐ areas of the cerebral cortex where incoming messages from the separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions and outgoing messages from the motor areas are integrated. • frontal lobe -‐ part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for voluntary movement; it is also important for aWen5on, goal-‐directed behavior, and appropriate emo5onal experiences. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Cerebral Cortex (con t) • primary motor cortex -‐ the sec5on of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement. • prefrontal cortex -‐ the forward most region of the frontal cortex involved in impulse control, judgment, and conscious awareness. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Cerebral Cortex (con t) • primary somatosensory cortex -‐ area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered. • temporal lobe-‐part of the cerebral hemisphere that helps regulate hearing, balance and equilibrium, and certain emo5ons and mo5va5ons. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Cerebral Cortex (con t) • occipital lobe -‐ part of the cerebral hemisphere that receives and interprets visual informa5on. • parietal lobe -‐ part of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory informa5on from throughout the body. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Limbic System Includes frontal lobe, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and olfactory bulb. • hippocampus -‐ plays an essen5al role in the forma5on of new memories. • amygdala -‐ in conjunc5on with the hippocampus regulates emo5ons. • olfactory bulb -‐ the smell center in the brain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 8 Hemispheric Specializa5on The cerebrum has two separate hemispheres: • right hemisphere -‐ controls touch and movement of the opposite side of the body and is usually superior at nonverbal, visual, an spa5al tasks. • leU hemisphere -‐ controls wri5ng and movement of the opposite side of the body. Usually dominant in language and tasks involving symbolic reasoning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Func5ons of each half of the brain are coordinated via the: • corpus callosum -‐ a thick band of nerve fibers connec5ng the leX and right cerebral hemispheres. The most drama5c evidence for the role of the corpus callosum has come from pa5ents with severe epilepsy that have had the corpus callosum cut. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved (A) When split-brain patients stare at the X in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the right side of the screen goes to the patient s left hemisphere, which controls language. When asked what they see, patients can reply correctly. (B) When split-brain patients stare at the X in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the left side of the screen goes to the patients right hemisphere, which does not control language. When asked what they see, patients cannot name the object, but can pick it out by touch with the left hand. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved More evidence of hemispheric specializa5on from pa5ents who have had leX hemisphere stroke in areas of the brain associated with language: • aphasias -‐ impairments of the ability to either use or understand language as a result of brain damage. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 9 Processing of speech and language Tools for Studying the Brain More accurate and extensive study of the brain and its func5ons using one of four techniques: • Microelectrodes • Macroelectrodes • Structural imaging (CT & MRI) • Func5onal imaging (EEG, MEG, MSI, & PET) Broca s and Wernicke s areas, generally found only on the left side of the brain, work together, enabling us to produce and understand speech and language. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Spinal Cord The spinal cord func5ons as a communica5on superhighway. • spinal cord -‐ complex cable of neurons that runs down the spine, connec5ng the brain to most of the rest of the body. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Peripheral Nervous System LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Iden4fy the peripheral nervous system and contrast the func4ons of the soma4c and autonomic nervous systems. • Explain the differences between the sympathe4c and the parasympathe4c nervous systems. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 10 The Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains two types of neurons: • afferent neurons -‐ carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord and the brain. • efferent neurons -‐ carry messages from the spinal cord to the brain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The PNS is divided into two subsystems: • soma4c nervous system -‐ the part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the senses to the central nervous system and between the central nervous system and the skeletal muscles. • autonomic nervous system -‐ the part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages between the central nervous system and the internal organs. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The autonomic nervous system has two parts: • sympathe4c division -‐ branch of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for quick ac5on in an emergency. • parasympathe4c division -‐ branch of the autonomic nervous system; it calms and relaxes the body. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Endocrine System LEARNING OBJECTIVE Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The Endocrine System – hormones – chemicals in the blood • Describe the endocrine glands and the way their hormones affect behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 11 The Endocrine System The endocrine system works in conjunc5on with nervous system. • endocrine glands -‐5ssues that produce and release hormones • hormones -‐ chemical substances released by glands that help regulate bodily ac5vi5es Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved • pituitary gland -‐ gland located on the underside of the brain; it produces the largest number of the body s hormones. • parathyroids -‐ four 5ny glands embedded in the thyroid. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved • pineal gland -‐ a gland located roughly in the center of the brain that appears to regulate ac5vity levels over the course of a day. • thyroid gland -‐ endocrine gland located below the voice box; it produces the hormone thyroxin. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved • pancreas -‐ organ lying between the stomach and small intes5ne; it secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-‐sugar levels. • adrenal glands -‐ two endocrine glands located just above the kidneys. • gonads -‐ the reproduc5ve glands; testes in males and ovaries in females. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Genes, Evolu5on, and Behavior LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Dis4nguish between gene4cs, behavior gene4cs, and evolu4onary psychology. • Differen4ate between genes, chromosomes, DNA, and the human genome. Describe what is meant by dominant and recessive genes, polygenic inheritance, and genotype vs. phenotype. • Compare and contrast strain studies, selec4on studies, family studies, twin studies, and adop4on studies as sources of informa4on about the effects of heredity. • Iden4fy the key ethical issues that arise as society gains more control over gene4cs. • Describe how evolu4onary psychologists view the influence of natural selec4on on human social behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 12 Genetics – Behavior – Issues – Evolutionary Psychology Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Genes, Evolu5on, and Behavior Two different but related fields contribute to the understanding on the influence of heredity on behavior. • behavioral gene4cs -‐ study of the rela5onship between heredity and behavior. • evolu4onary psychology -‐ study of the evolu5onary roots of behaviors and mental processes. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Gene5cs • deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -‐ complex molecule in a double-‐helix configura5on that is the main ingredient of chromosomes and genes and that forms the code for all gene5c informa5on. • genes -‐ elements found on chromosomes that control the transmission of traits. • chromosomes -‐ pairs of threadlike bodies within the cell nucleus that contain the genes. • human genome -‐ the full complement of the genes and chromosomes of an organism. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved • dominant genes -‐ member of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a certain trait. • recessive genes -‐ member of a gene pair that can control the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with another recessive gene. • polygenic inheritance -‐ process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for our most important traits. • genotype -‐ an organism s en5re unique gene5c makeup. • phenotype -‐ the characteris5cs of an organism; determined by both gene5cs and experience. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 13 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Behavior Gene5cs A variety of methods are used to study the contribu5on of genes: • Animal behavior gene5cs • Human behavior gene5cs – family studies -‐ studies of heritability in humans based on the assump5on that if genes influence a certain trait, close rela5ves should be more similar on that trait than distant rela5ves. – strain studies -‐ studies of the heritability of behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are gene5cally similar to one another. – selec4on studies -‐ studies that es5mate the heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have the same trait. – adop4on studies -‐ research carried out on children, adopted at birth by parents not related to them, to determine the rela5ve influence of heredity and environment on human behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Average Risk of Schizophrenia Among Biological Relatives of People with Schizophrenia • Human behavior gene5cs (con t) – Twin studies -‐ studies of iden5cal and fraternal twins to determine the rela5ve influence of heredity and environment on human behavior. • iden4cal twins -‐ twins developed from a single fer5lized ovum and therefore iden5cal in gene5c makeup at the 5me of concep5on. • fraternal twins -‐ twins developed from two separate fer5lized ova and therefore different in gene5c makeup. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Evolu5onary Psychology Social Implica5ons • New challenges have arisen as a result of our beWer understanding of genes. – Modern prenatal screening can detect gene5c defects; do parents have the right to abort because of this? – Over-‐simplified repor5ng of gene5c technologies in mass media leading to misinterpreta5on of complex research findings. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Evolu5onary psychology examines adap5ve value of behaviors from an evolu5onary perspec5ve • natural selec4on -‐ The mechanism proposed by Darwin in his theory of evolu5on, which states that organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive, transmi`ng their gene5c characteris5cs to succeeding genera5ons, whereas organisms with less adap5ve characteris5cs tend to vanish from the earth. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 14 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET What’s new? • Mirror neurons – recently discovered. • They fire when and action is performed and when an action is witnessed! • We are wired to mimic other people’s feelings and to have empathy. • Implications for autism/plastic surgery Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Emotions Note – major areas of emotion are the limbic system, the Autonomic Nervous system and the pre-frontal cortex Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Neurogenesis – the brain does produce new brain cells. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 1990s – the decade of the brain • actually able to watch the brain as a person thinks or feels (language, emotions) fMRI Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 10:48:09 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved New information on the hindbrain • The cerebellum (in the hindbrain) – balance, attention, memory and some emotional control. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 15
