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Sports Nutrition
January/February 2016
by Steve Myers
INSIDER Takes
• Restoring the fuel and helper compounds that make ATP, the energy molecule, helps
future workouts.
• Protecting muscle from oxidative damage and inflammation helps speed recovery and
promote gains.
• Strengthening the immune system and supporting sleep are emerging areas of recovery.
No pain, no gain. This is the sports mantra heard by many athletes and exercise enthusiasts throughout
their active lives. No doubt exercise can be rough on the body’s systems, structures and nutrients. Intense
and long-term exercise can be particularly damaging to muscles, joints and immune function. Many
athletes go with simple recovery nutrition, such as a banana or chocolate milk. However, the world of
sports science has learned of specific benefits various dietary ingredients can offer the recovering
athlete/exerciser, such as limiting muscle damage, regenerating lean muscle, restoring energy and restrengthening immune function. The marketplace for recovery is expanding with tons of ingredients new to
the segment; we will look at a few from both the mainstay sports nutrition ingredients to the up-andcoming ingredients new to the space.
Whey protein has been a sports staple for muscle development and, despite the emergence of new
protein sources, it is still popular, with more interest in its post-workout benefits. In recovery stages, whey
supplementation appears to decrease creatine kinase (CK), an indirect marker of muscle damage, as well
as boost skeletal muscle satellite cells essential for muscle regeneration.1,2 Chris Schmidt, a consumer
health analyst for Euromonitor International, noted while whey has not lost any of its luster, a growing
number of producers have been exploring protein blends. He said meat-based proteins are gaining a
stronger foothold in the protein powder segment, and plant-based proteins are starting to gain attention,
especially in the case of pea and rice proteins.
Micellar casein is slow-digesting source of protein that works well in both foods and beverages.
Researchers back in 2006 published results from a human study comparing postprandial amino acid
levels from casein and whey.3 They noted whey (milk soluble protein isolate) is faster absorbed than is
micellar casein and leads to an excess of amino acids (aminoacidemia) for too long; the rate of amino
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Sports Nutrition
January/February 2016
acid delivery is too quick and cannot support anabolic gains throughout the postprandial period.
On the contrary, the slower digesting micellar casein better utilized amino acids throughout the
postprandial period.
Also wildly popular in the sports world are the branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, isoleucine
and valine. These nutrients help reduce muscle soreness and improve muscle protein synthesis (MPS),
which helps rebuild muscle.4,5 Research has shown BCAA supplementation after exercise also decreases
CK levels, suggesting a limitation of muscle damage.6
An emerging star in this area is beta-alanine, one of the two amino acids that form the dipeptide called
carnosine. Muscle levels of carnosine are closely related to fatigue and short-term muscle soreness from
lactic acid buildup.7 According to Mark LeDoux, CEO of Natural Alternatives International (NAI), several
human clinical studies have looked at such muscle benefits from a unique beta-alanine form branded
CarnoSyn® not only in typical elite athletes, but also in other demographics increasingly drawn to sports
nutrition, including older consumers who take longer to recover from exercise. “Additional studies of specific market segments, such as military personnel (who are often called upon for significant energy
expenditure with low levels of sleep) are also underway,” LeDoux said. “And based on preliminary studies, CarnoSyn shows great promise in enhancing mental acuity and essential stamina and focus.”8
One crucial factor in muscle recovery may be improved blood flow. In sports circles, the amino acid
arginine is the go-to for muscle strength, power and growth due to its ability to increase nitric oxide (NO)
levels that open up blood vessels (vasodilation). A 2015 study on inositol-stabilized arginine silicate (as
Nitrosigine®, from Nutrition 21) concluded taking the supplement prior to working out increases muscle
pump and decreases biomarkers of muscle damage immediately following exercise and during recovery.9
Where there is damage and soreness, there is inflammation. Schmidt reported Euromonitor International
data showed an uptick in use of both standard and herbal/traditional anti-inflammatory ingredients such as
fish oils, glucosamine/chondroitin, turmeric/curcumin and amla. “The future of natural inflammation remedies looks bright, especially considering the growing concern of overuse of over-the-counter (OTC)
anti-inflammatory products like analgesics among both the elite athletic community and national drug
regulators alike,” he said. Curcumin from turmeric has been found to reduce inflammation and muscle damage, and also improve
performance.10 A Japanese study in 2015 reported curcumin supplementation after exercise decreased
CK levels and maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) loss, resulting in reduced muscle damage.11
Omega-3 fatty acids, primarily eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are key
components of the inflammatory cascade in the body and produce anti-inflammatory compounds called
eicosanoids. Specific to recovery, research has shown omega-3 supplementation limits post-exercise
inflammation and muscle damage,12 and curbs muscle pain by significantly reducing blood levels of
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Sports Nutrition
January/February 2016
lactate and CRP (C-reactive protein, an inflammatory marker).13 In fact, a 2015 study reported in the
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) found men who took a patented lipid and
omega-3 blend derived from New Zealand green-lipped mussel (as PCSO-524®, from Pharmalink) for 26
days prior and 96 hours following muscle-damaging exercise had significantly lower inflammatory
markers, pain and loss of strength and range of motion, compared to those taking placebo. 14 Omega-3
supplementation helped combat oxidative damage in another study.15
A new player in the sports market, tart cherry, also contains compounds that target both inflammation
and oxidative stress in exercise recovery. A 2014 Northumbria University, Newcastle, England, study on
tart cherry supplementation and oxidative stress, inflammation and muscle damage showed lower levels
of lipid hydroperoxides (an oxidative stress marker) and high-sensitivity CRP in trained cyclists taking tart
cherry, compared to those taking placebo.16 According to the report, the benefit was not due to direct free
radical scavenging, but rather to anthocyanins that increased expression of endogenous glutathionerelated antioxidant enzymes that inhibited lipid peroxidation. Most recently, a December 2015 research
publication reported Montmorency tart cherry powder supplementation can help speed recovery from
muscle soreness, limit strength declines and decrease markers of muscle catabolism in resistancetrained adults.17
Glucosamine and chondroitin have long been touted for inflammatory control in joint health, which has
made for good sports nutrition products, but the research on these recovery benefits has been both
positive and negative.18,19 Alternatively, hydrolyzed chicken sternal cartilage extract contains low
molecular weight glycosaminoglycans, such as chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid (HA), as well as a
naturally occurring matrix of hydrolyzed collagen type 1. Research has demonstrated supplementation
with this extract (as BioCell® Collagen, from BioCell Technology) for six weeks prior to muscle-damaging
resistance exercise favorably influenced markers of tissue damage, including CK, lactate dehydrogenase
and CRP.20
Amla, an Ayurvedic herbal remedy also known as Indian gooseberry, has shown anti-inflammatory
properties in both animal and human trials,21,22 but there is so far a lack of research specifically on
athletes and exercise. Amla has shown promise as an antioxidant and immunomodulatory compound, 23
but the evidence is still emerging and has, thus far, mostly been in animal and test tube studies, not on
humans and, specifically, athletes.
Other immune-support ingredients have demonstrated effectiveness in athletes and exercise—immune
function can be lowered directly following intense exercise, with upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) a
common consequence. Protein and amino acids can address post-workout deficiencies that can impair
immune function. BCAA supplementation both before and after exercise not only conveys normal muscle
development and protection benefits, but also boosts glutamine levels and immune regulation. 24 On its
own, supplementation with the amino acid glutamine can help limit exercise-induced suppression of
neutrophil (infection-fighting white blood cell) activity.25
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An emerging ingredient in this area for athletes is yeast-derived beta-glucan (as Wellmune® from
Biothera), which has been found to increase post-exercise levels of immune-modulating cells monocytes
and cytokines and to inhibit URTIs.26,27 A two-part trial published in 2013 reported male and female
marathon runners who took Wellmune and ran marathons experienced immune benefits. 28 In one part of
the study, those taking Wellmune, compared to those taking placebo, had 37-percent fewer total cold/flu
symptom days during a 28-day month post-marathon recovery period. In the other part, there was a
32-percent increase in salivary IgA (immunoglobulin A, an antibody) at two hours post-marathon, which
improved mucosal immunity in those taking Wellmune supplementation, compared to placebo.
One crucial area of recovery is energy balance. Depending on the type of exercise, various energyproducing systems may need replenishment. True energy production centers on adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is found in cell mitochondria and releases energy when its bonds are broken. For short
exercise, the body depletes its stored ATP, but creatine phosphate from the muscles can help restore
these ATP reserves. The science on the end benefit of creatine supplementation in this area is
conflicting, but one recent study noted creatine supplementation both before and after exercise tended to
decrease degradation of muscle glycogen and protein.29
The amino acid citrulline malate increases production of aerobic ATP, and it also accelerates the rate of
phosphocreatine recovery following exercise. Citrulline is involved in the urea cycle and supports muscle
and body excretion of ammonia, which accumulates in muscles as ATP turnover rises and
phosphocreatine levels fall. Malate is involved in the Krebs cycle where it is oxidized as part of a cascade
of chemical reactions that make ATP and additional compounds that regenerate ATP. One study reported
citrulline malate supplementation significantly reduced the sensation of fatigue following exercise, while
also increasing the rate of oxidative ATP production during exercise by 34 percent and increasing the
rate of phosphocreatine recovery after exercise by 24 percent.30 The researchers explained these
results suggested citrulline malate promotes a larger contribution of oxidative ATP synthesis to
energy production.
The body’s long-term fuel is from ATP produced via glycolysis, which involves muscle glycogen (a storage
molecule for glucose). Decreased glycogen in the muscles can promote muscle fatigue due to
subsequently depleted ATP production. The easy fix would be to utilize quick carbs such as sucrose and
maltodextrin, but there may be better solutions, including ribose, a five-carbon carbohydrate and the
backbone of ATP.
A study conducted at the Institute for Exercise and Sport Science at the Copenhagen Muscle Research
Centre, Denmark, found ribose supplementation (as Bioenergy Ribose®, from Bioenergy Life Science
Inc.) following high-intensity cycling training restored ATP levels to pre-workout levels by 72 hours postworkout.31 The placebo of sucrose and maltodextrin also regenerated ATP, but not to pre-workout levels
by 72 hours post-workout.
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Per the sports nutrition tradition of discovering unique compounds for performance benefit, there are new
options in the area of energy-producing carbohydrates. A unique polyglucoside extracted from barley
starch (as Vitargo S2®, from Genr8) has been shown to help athletes more quickly recover energy.
Researchers from the Karolinska Institute at the University College of Physical Education and Sports,
Stockholm, Sweden, noted Vitargo S2’s low osmolality allows it to replenish glycogen levels quicker than glucose.32 Another study out of Queen’s Medical Centre at the University of Nottingham, England, showed
when athletes took the Vitargo S2 predecessor Vitargo (from Swecarb AB) immediately following intense
cycling sessions, they had 20-percent higher work output for a subsequent intense workout two hours
later, compared to those taking a low-molecular weight glucose supplement.33
Vitargo also may help increase muscle levels of carnitine, thereby improving muscle bioenergetics
potential. In a 2011 European study, a combination of carnitine tartrate (as CarniPure™ from Lonza) and Vitargo generated higher total muscle carnitine concentration and muscle glycogen levels than did
controls.34 Also, muscle lactate levels were significantly lower, while work output was higher in the
combination group.
Carnitine shuttles fatty acids from the outside to the inside mitochondria to be converted into ATP. This is
a slower process involving oxidation and the Krebs cycle. The body makes carnitine, but this dipeptide is
also available from the diet, most notably from meat and dairy. It is stored in the skeletal muscle and the
heart. In addition to facilitating ATP production cycles, carnitine offers antioxidant and properties and can
be protective against exercise-induced muscle damage.35,36 In fact, research has shown carnitine
supplementation decreases markers of post-exercise chemical damage (xanthine oxidase,
molandialdehyde, serum myoglobin and creatine kinase) and promotes muscle tissue repair and
remodeling.37 Carnitine can also inhibit depletion of carnitine levels in blood vessels surrounding muscles,
which can boost blood flow and limit hypoxic stress that causes muscle damage. 38
On the flip side of the energy fulcrum is rest. Not only do tired and injured muscles and joints need rest to
replenish and heal, but sleep may also be crucial to solidifying muscle memory—sleep spindles (tightly
packed brain waves) may be key to transferring learned muscle movements, say during practice, to
muscle memory.
The winner of the 2015 SupplySide Editor’s Choice Award for Sports Nutrition, Force Factor, combined these benefits of sleep into the design of its winning GainZzz supplement. The formulation aims to
“recover, relax, rebuild” with three special blends of ingredients. The Body Recuperation Complex
features Wellmune, tart cherry powder (as CherryPURE®, from Shoreline Fruit) and the antioxidant
Alaskan blueberry (as AuroraBlue®, from Denali Biotetchnologies). The Mind Relaxation Matrix contains
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid), L-theanine and L-glutamic acid. The Sleep Rejuvenation Blend
includes taurine, holy basil leaf powder and melatonin.
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January/February 2016
Schmidt reported Euromonitor International has found products that promote sleep are increasingly
positioned as part of the recovery process. He highlighted ZMA (zinc, magnesium and vitamin B6) as an
emerging player in this area. ZMA is commonly promoted as a sleep enhancer, he said, noting this
supplement is particularly important for those users who take caffeinated supplements and beverages
before working out at night. Zinc and magnesium also help to restore energy reserves and increase both
MPS and muscle production.
Scientific research and market trends offer insight into the many ingredients comprising the burgeoning
category of recovery in the sports nutrition segment. These natural products contribute specific
mechanisms that can help replenish fuel and energy, protect and regenerate muscle, restore immune
function and promote healing, learning and other gains following exercise.
References
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