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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
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Volume 20, Number 2, summer 2016
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ARTICLES

Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Explain Hotel Managers’ Intentions to Offer
Internships in Jamaica: A Qualitative Inquiry.
June E. Clarke, David Njite.................................................................................................. 1

The Role of Human Resource Specialists in Motivation, Training and Engagement in the
Hospitality Industry.
Jacqueline Awadzi-Calloway, Carrie Awadzi, Winston Awadzi ........................................32

Using Importance-Performance Analysis to Identify the Travel Characteristics of African
Americans.
Kim Williams, Bridget M. Bordelon, David Njite...............................................................38

SMART SWOT Strategic Planning Analysis: For Service Robot Utilization in the Hospitality
Industry.
Chun-Min Kuo, Guo-Shing Huang, Chin-Yao Tseng, Ernest P. Boger.........................60

Historically Black Colleges and Universities Consortium (HBCU Consortium)
Cynthia R. Mayo, Ernest P. Boger.................................................................................75
Authors’ Profiles………………………………………………………………………………….……..79
Call for Papers ………………………………………………………………………………….…...….81
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Executive Committee
President (2015 – 2017)
Ivan Turnipssed
Cheyney State University
Vice President
Rashawn Dennison
Bethune Cookman University
Secretary
Ruth Lee
University of Maryland, Shady Grove
Treasurer
Cynthia R. Mayo
Delaware State University
Assistant Treasurer
June E. Clarke
Delaware State University
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Explain Hotel Managers’
Intentions to Offer Internships in Jamaica: A Qualitative Inquiry.
JUNE E. CLARKE, PhD
Hospitality & Tourism Program
Delaware State University, USA
DAVID NJITE, PhD
Hospitality and Tourism,
The University of New Orleans, USA
The purpose of the study was to apply the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to
examine hotel managers’ intentions to offer internships in Jamaica. The Specific
objective of the study was to determine the salient beliefs that motivate hotel
managers to offer internships to hospitality management college students in
Jamaica. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussions. Twentyfive managers participated in the focus group discussions. Data were analyzed
and reported using content analysis. The results indicate that several belief
factors influence managers’ intention to offer the internship experience.
KEYWORDS hotel managers; intentions; internships; theory of planned behavior;
salient beliefs, Jamaica
experiential learning is following suit
(Cantor, 1995). Even though no single or
universal definition for the term
“Experiential Learning” exists, Hoover and
Whitehead (1975), offer the following
definition:
"Experiential learning exists when a
personally responsible participant
cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally
processes knowledge, skills, and/or
attitudes in a learning situation
characterized by a high level of active
involvement” (p. 25). On the other hand,
Inkster & Ross (1995, 11) defined an
internship as a “structured and supervised
professional experience within an
approved agency” for which students can
earn academic credit. The importance of
experiential learning is perhaps reflected
in The AACSB Memorandum (Carter et
al. 1986) which quotes: “Tell me and I’ll
Introduction and Background
Information
During the last few decades, the
educational environment has undergone
several radical changes. The turbulent and
increasingly competitive job markets have
dictated the role of higher learning
institutions in preparing their graduates.
Post-secondary institutions have been
compelled to provide what would be
considered more relevant academic
preparation in order to increase
competency. Generally, institutions are
striving to provide a more holistic
experience-based education. This shift in
emphasis is reflected in the introductory
statements of a majority of college catalogs
(Jernstedt, 1980).
Not only are the curricula and
activities of institutions of higher education
changing, the importance of the role of
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
forget. Show me and I’ll remember.
Involve me and I’ll understand.”
Volume 20, Number 2
Some authors point to other characteristics
of internships. For instance, O’Neil
stresses that “an internship should be “a
deliberative form of learning” that
involves “doing”, reflection, and
“feedback for improvement” (O’Neill,
2010). Allen (2009, 23) utilizing the
conclusions of Allen, Wachter, Blum and
Gilchrist (2009), as well as Diambra, ColeZakrzewski and Booher (2004), suggested
that “a successful business internship
should (1) provide and conduct (2) provide
feedback, (3) give challenging
assignments, (4) provide opportunity for
exposure to the larger organization, and
(5) establish a clear understanding of what
is to be accomplished.” This description
reflects the Assure Model of Teaching or
(conducting an internship), which requires
the university and the internship
supervisor to analyze participants
strengths, state internship objectives, select
specific tasks, provide for the utilization of
current media and materials associated
with the tasks, require extensive
participation and evaluate as students
participate and revise plans if needed
(Mayo, 2014).
Although there is no universal
definition for ‘internship,’ it can be
described as a process that is short-term,
ranging from six to twelve weeks, and
takes place at a site of employment.
Students are expected to spend time at the
location and be a part of the company: its
employees, culture, and decision making
processes. An internship involves learning
through practical application, which is
considered an extremely effective learning
strategy as it engages the learner and
provides the opportunity to relate theory to
practice through observation, interaction,
and reflection (Stanton, 1995; Lewis &
Williams, 1994). Due to its almost
Experiential learning has been
loosely used as an encompassing term
associated with several other terms such as
internship (Gault, Reddington, & Schlager,
2000; Moore, 2010), service learning
(Moore, 2010; Cantor, 1995; Stanton,
1995), cooperative education (Gault et al.,
2000; Moore, 2010), experiential
education (Chapman, McPhee, &
Proudman, 1995; Conrad & Hedin, 1981;
Druian, Owens, & Owen, 1980; Joplin,
1980), learning at work (Ellström, 2001),
and community service learning (Parker et
al., 2009), among others. The term
internship however, has been used
extensively and almost synonymously with
‘experiential learning’ (Moore, 2010;
Parilla & Hesser, 1998; Gentry, 1990) and
most visible (Stanton, 1995). For the
purpose of this study, we shall utilize the
term internship.
Defining Internship
Several authors have attempted to
define the term internship in order to
provide not only structure to the concept,
but also develop approaches for the
successful implementation of internship.
Even though shy to provide a definition,
these authors state that internship should
reflect the following features: an extended
period of practical work placement;
ranging from several weeks to a year or
more. Generally the practice involves three
groups: the students/interns, the
management of Host Company and the
faculty. Therefore, internship should
involve both the universities and
companies in its implementation and
supervision (DiLorenzo-Aiss & Mathisen,
1996; Narayanan, Olk, & Fukami, 2010).
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universal acceptability and the investment
institutions, companies, and students place
on this experience, there is a need to
undertake inquiry.
Summarily, internships can be
described as a “structured and career
relevant work experiences obtained by
students prior to graduation from an
academic program” (Taylor, 1988, p. 393).
The purpose of an internship is to enrich
student learning by blending classroom
learning with practical experience (Jiang
& Tribe, 2010), in order for the student to
develop a realistic preview of their
potential career (Siu, Cheung, & Law,
2012), as well as develop some workplaceoriented common sense before graduation
(Aggett & Busby, 2011). For this purpose,
many if not all hospitality programs have
made internship a required experience for
undergraduates, while some have made
this a prerequisite graduate curriculum
(Fidgeon, 2010). Such kind of practice is
not unexpected as internship programs
provide considerable benefits for various
stakeholders including students,
employers, and academic institutions
(Fong, Lee, Luk, & Law, 2014; Singh &
Dutta, 2010).
Volume 20, Number 2
programs (Siu et al., 2012; Barron, 2008;
Lam & Ching, 2007). Minimal studies
have focused on the employing entity. As
mentioned, an internship is an activity that
not only involves the students, but also the
organizations hosting these students. This
paucity in the literature led Cook, Parker,
& Pettijohn (2004) to propose the need for
further research regarding internships;
specifically this author emphasized that
research should focus on managers’
attitudes towards internships. This study
was therefore undertaken to fill this gap.
The purpose of this study was to
examine the managers’ motivations to
offer internships to hospitality college
students in Jamaica. The study is designed
to accomplish the following specific
objectives:
1. Determine the salient beliefs that
motivate hotel managers to offer
internships to hospitality
management college students in
Jamaica.
2. Document managerial and
theoretical implications of the
findings.
The findings provide insights into
understanding what specifically motivates
hotel managers to offer internships to
college students in Jamaica and therefore
provide a framework for managing the
concept of internship.
While internships have attracted
widespread attention from scholars in
different disciplines (Hejmadi et al., 2011;
Lam & Ching, 2007; Nancy, Marcia, &
Robert, 2007; Zhao & Liden, 2011), a
thorough check and search of literature
reveals several gaps. Firstly, these studies
produce inconsistent findings.
Furthermore, these studies tend to be
extremely skewed. Most of the published
studies have tended to heavily examine the
student perspective. Specifically, these
studies have tended to focus on students’
expectations and perceptions of internship
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Hotel/Hospitality Industry
Information from the Jamaica
Tourist Board’s annual travel statistics
2010 indicates that the accommodation
sector directly employs approximately
fourteen percent of the workforce in
Jamaica (Jamaica Tourist Board, 2010).
The industry in general employs labor
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from varying educational levels and
backgrounds, selected mainly on prior
experience and qualifications (Ruzki,
2002). Employees with work experiences
are considered more professional, more
productive and able to attain a sense of job
satisfaction (Ruzki, 2002). This could
explain one reason that institutions
encourage internship.
Volume 20, Number 2
order to fulfill this important aspect of
their education. On the other hand,
hospitality management education in
institutions of higher learning originated
from a vocational foundation that was
intended to acquaint the learner with
professional practice (Airey & Tribe,
2000). Therefore, to a large degree,
experiential learning in the form of “onthe-job-training” has been crucial to
hospitality management education
development (Airey & Tribe, 2000).
However, the factors that motivate
managers for offering internship
experiences have not been investigated.
The hospitality and tourism
industry in Jamaica has experienced
phenomenal growth since the early 1800’s
when Jamaicans would travel aboard the
banana ship to England and visitors from
Europe, in particular England would travel
to Jamaica on the ship’s return (Weiss,
2007). This growth was also spurred by
the Jamaica International Exhibition in
1892 and the Jamaica Hotels Law that was
passed in 1890 (Jamaica Tourist Board,
2013). Then, in the 1930’s and 1960’s,
development and changes in the political
landscape in the region and other areas of
the world including the mode of travel and
large all-inclusive tourist accommodations
in Jamaica saw an increase in the number
of tourists to the island.
Experiential learning in Jamaica
dates back to colonial times when the
British government introduced the
apprenticeship bill to train the residents of
the island as craftsmen. The purpose of the
training was to provide young men and
women, based on their abilities, the skills
necessary either for further studies, or,
those not capable of excelling
academically, for employment (The
Comptroller for Development, 1956). This
aspect of learning has continued to be a
vital part of the educational system.
The “hospitality industry” is an
encompassing term that includes the hotel
industry, which is the focus of this study.
The hospitality industry is a knowledgebased industry (Pizam, 2007), that is labor
intensive and requires a well-educated
workforce (Charles, 1997). In addition, the
hospitality industry is characterized by
high employee turnover. Therefore,
attracting and retaining employees is
crucial. This turnover rate appears to occur
even before the hospitality management
graduates accept positions in the industry.
This is corroborated by studies conducted
in Australia that reveal over fifty percent
The liberalization of the hospitality
and tourism industry in Jamaica brought in
more foreign investments (multinational
all-inclusive hotels), as well as, created
more job opportunities. Even though
educational institutions in Jamaica
provided the population with the formal
education necessary to meet the growing
demand of the industry’s labor needs, the
practical on-the-job training component
was usually missing. This is because
students learn in lab-like settings in the
schools which is totally different from the
actual work-setting. Hence, they engaged
in internships in the hospitality industry in
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Volume 20, Number 2
tool’ by the corporate world (Degravel,
2011).
Dev (1990) as well as Grantz and
Thanos (1996) found that there existed
negligible evidence that experiential
learning provides better learning or
enables students in higher education to
critically examine arguments and analyze
their own (Sims-Muhammad, 2012).
However, institutions, schools, and the
employing entity continue to emphasize
the value of experiential learning. These
institutions continually invest in this
practice; therefore it becomes important to
examine the factors that actually motivate
their engagement in internship.
However, the success of an
internship, as suggested by Tackett, Wolf,
and Law (2001) depends on several
components which create a balanced
environment of consistent standards,
systems, and structures. Students, faculty,
and employing organization must all play
their roles for internships to be successful.
Students as recipients of knowledge are
expected to learn and practice what they
have learned. The faculty, whom Kolb
(1984) describes as “the curators of social
knowledge” (p. 161), prepares students
through honing and developing their
knowledge base, skills, and abilities. In
return, the faculty expects the students to
do well. Therefore, hotel managers play a
significant role in the development of the
student during the internship phase.
of the students enrolled in hospitality and
tourism programs had the intention to find
jobs in other industries (Richardson,
2008).
Findings from studies in Ireland
show a high dropout rate from hospitality
and tourism jobs (O'Leary & Deegan,
2005). In Hong Kong, a recent study
shows that hospitality students were
reluctant to join the industry after
graduation (Chang & Tse, 2011). To curb
this problem, several authors (Breakey,
Robinson, & Beesley, 2009; Fidgeon,
2010) suggested that students should be
exposed to internships so they understand
the expectations of the industry. This is
because, a positive internship experience
encourages hospitality and tourism
students to join the industry after
graduation and it promotes job satisfaction
and willingness to stay in the industry
(Chathoth, Mak, Sim, Jauhari, &
Manaktola, 2011; Chuang & Jenkins,
2010).
Advantages and Dis-advantages of
Internship
Studies relating to internships have
yielded inconsistent results. Nosow
(1975), Woods (1986), Lang (1991), Gault
et al. (2000), and Cook et al. (2004)
indicate that internships result in superior
learning. While, Little (1981) and
Rothman (2003) indicate that educational
institutions engage students in internship
learning as one of the ways to enhance
their knowledge and personal
development. Yet, Etheridge (1987) cited
in Gault et al. (2000) and Belanger and
Tremblay (1983) reveal a small to no
significant effect on learning through
internship. Many educators perceived
internships as significant, but not worthy
of academic credit (Lipka, 2010; Dwyer,
2004). It is often viewed as a ‘low-value
Managers Role and Perception of
Internships
Students’ internship learning
constitutes challenges that hotel managers
have to address (Chi & Gursoy, 2009): for
example, the way students learn, what they
learn and how, and what they expect from
the internship learning environment.
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During the internship, the manager
provides students the opportunity to work,
learn, and contribute to the organization, in
addition to the possibility for future
employment (Ellington, 1993).
Volume 20, Number 2
Furthermore, managers look for
individuals with the best and brightest
minds, leadership qualities, and the ability
to function within their immediate and
global business environment (Black &
Gregersen, 2000; Lashley, 1999). While
theory lays the foundation for students
future assignments, managers also
anticipate the following as important:
interest and passion for the job; the
knowledge, skills, and abilities to do the
job; and high-quality performance
(Daugherty, 2001). Even though the
literature (Daugherty, 2001; Gualt et al.,
2010; Basow & Byrne, 1993) mentions
students’ preparedness, competency, and
performance abilities as some areas on
which managers’ focus, the literature does
not discuss or mention managers’
intentions to offer internships. Therefore, a
formal study on managers’ intentions to
offer internships in Jamaica needs to be
conducted.
Based on Nebel, Ju-Soon, and
Vidakovic (1995) observations, hotel
managers believe that exposure to a
position before becoming fully committed
not only provide interns with most of the
skills necessary but enables them to do
their main jobs more effectively. Hence,
managers see their roles in general as
geared towards developing the workrelated skills of the intern. For example, in
areas such as: commitment, personal
responsibility, collaboration, career
development, problem solving, and
decision making abilities. While the
managers’ participation and input in
internships are crucial to their
development and effective functioning, the
implications of managers’ intentions to
offer internships have not been examined.
Theory
The framework selected to guide
and provide the theoretical background for
this study is the theory of planned
behavior (TPB). As faculty, students and
managers begin to strategize on
appropriate approaches to the process of
internship, theory should serve as the
foundation for planning, implementation
and evaluation. To achieve this, formative
and theory-grounded qualitative data can
provide information needed to understand
cultural perspectives and develop specific
operational strategies for internship.
Most managers perceive that
students’ performance during an internship
is an important indicator of career
preparedness (Basow & Byrne, 1993).
This means that once the student enters the
internship site, the manager is expecting a
high level of know-how and productivity.
No matter the work area, managers look
for strong leadership, communication,
problem solving, and employability skills
in their prospective employees (Black &
Gregersen, 2000; Lashley, 1999). Gault,
Leach, and Duey (2010) identified other
attributes important to managers, such as
creative and analytical skills, computer
literacy, and the ability to locate
information.
The TPB can be used to explain
almost every phase of behavior: its
development, implementation and
evaluation (Ajzen, 1991). However,
despite its versatility, very few studies
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Volume 20, Number 2
related to internship have been known to
incorporate the TPB in the understanding
of planning, implementation and
evaluation of internships. For example, a
thorough search of literature on internship
revealed that of the 14 studies on
internship examined, only two (Hsu, 2012;
Clarke, 2013) had utilized the TPB to
assess behavior of the entities involved in
the process of internship (students,
managers and faculty). This is perhaps not
surprising; Conner and Sparks (2005)
pointed out that researchers rarely applied
the TPB in formative qualitative studies.
In fact a majority of the TPB studies have
been quantitative in nature (Conner,
Norman, and Bell, 2002). While these
quantitative studies illustrate the
usefulness of the TPB in predicting
behaviors, qualitative studies provide a
better understanding of the cultural beliefs
associated with managerial behaviors
(Hofstede, 2001).
We therefore theorize internships
by relating it to the constructs of the theory
of planned behavior. The TPB was
designed to offer prediction and
explanation of human behaviors in several
specific contexts and situations. The TPB
has been successfully used to examine a
variety of human behavior in the
workplace and learning environment. TPB
can specifically be focused and applied to
students’ internship. The process of
offering an internship involves great
planning and decision making; and
therefore can be justified as a planned
behavior.
The TPB was developed by Ajzen
(1985) as a modification to the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein,
1980). The TPB proposes that individual
behavior can be directly predicted by
intention and perceived behavioral control
(PBC) (Ajzen, 1985). Further, the TPB
proposes that three independent variables
predict intentions.
Figure 1. Diagram of the TPB directly predicted by Intention (I) and PBC
Behavioral
Beliefs
(BB)
Attitude
toward the
Behavior
(ATT)
Normative
Beliefs
(NB)
Subjective
Norm
(SN)
Control
Beliefs
(CB)
Perceived
Behavioral
Control
(PBC)
Intention
to Offer
Internships
(IOI)
These variables are: Subjective
norm (SN) of performing the behavior,
attitude (ATT) toward performing the
behavior and perceived control (PBC) over
the behavior. The stronger the intention,
Behavior
(B)
the more likely the individual will engage
in the behavior. The TPB is very cognitive
in nature and its variables regarded as
strong predictors of behavior (Casper,
2007; Franzoi, 2003; Conner & Armitage,
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1998). One of the strengths of TPB is its
broad applicability (Armitage & Christian,
2003). TPB has been proven to be robust,
yet extensive literature research revealed
no documented studies have been
conducted applying this theory in the
context of internship.
Ajzen (I991) further proposed a set
of what is referred to as “salient beliefs.”
These salient beliefs are the antecedents to
each of the three TPB concepts (see the
diagram). Behavioral beliefs are beliefs
about the perceived consequences of
engaging in a behavior (e.g., offering
internship to students will make the
students better workers in the future).
Thus, Behavioral beliefs are expected to
influence attitudes toward the behavior.
Normative beliefs are beliefs based on
whether significant others think a person
should or shouldn't engage in a behavior
(e.g., my co-workers think I should avoid
offer opportunities for internship to
college students). These normative beliefs
are expected to influence subjective
norms. Control beliefs are factors that
would facilitate or make it more difficult
to engage in the target behavior (e.g.,
having access to necessary resources such
as money to be able to offer internship).
Hence control beliefs are expected to
influence perceived behavioral control.
Ajzen (1991) suggests that these beliefs
are the informational foundation of
behavior and that the determinants of
behavior can be traced ultimately to these
beliefs. Thus, at the most primary level of
explanation, behavior is a function of
salient beliefs that are relevant to the
behavior.
One advantage of the TPB is that
there is a clearly specified procedure for
developing various constructs of the
theory including salient beliefs (Ajzen,
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1991). The "belief elicitation procedure"
involves a step in which the beliefs that are
salient for a particular population (e.g.,
managers) and context (e.g., hospitality
companies in Jamaica) are elicited from a
pilot sample. To establish a population's
salient beliefs, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)
recommended that researchers need to
select a sample of preliminary participants
from the population of interest and
conduct a beliefs elicitation procedure
with open-ended questions. These authors
recommended a qualitative procedure that
applies one-on-one interviews, focus
group interviews, a structured
questionnaire or all the above mentioned
procedures. Next, the investigator needs to
perform a content analysis to rank order
the beliefs, and determine the 3-10 most
salient beliefs. Results of these analyses of
the preliminary study are then used to
facilitate the development of the final data
collection instrument.
While the use of elicitation studies
and the TPB is common in the education
related fields such as teacher decision
making (Lee, Cerreto, & Lee, 2010) and
internship decision making (Hsu, 2012),
no known studies have actually been cited
applying the TPB in the area of internship
in relation to management or employers
decision and motivation. The present study
provides an example of the use of the
belief elicitation procedure in the study of
hospitality managers with regard to
intentions to offer internship.
METHODOLOGY
The procedures used for this study
were adopted from the theory of planned
behavior (Ajzen, 1991). An initial
elicitation process that involved twentyfive managers was conducted in order to
provide information on the salient beliefs
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(behavioral outcome, normative, referent)
of manager’s intentions. The process was
carried out through the use of focus
groups. During the discussions, the
participants interacted and were
encouraged to air any issue of concern for
clarification. The study provided an insight
into the salient beliefs that motivate
managers to offer internships as well as
interpret and explain concepts provided by
the participants from a smaller and more
focused sample. Items relating to the
managers demographic profile were also
added. Assessment methods include
content analysis techniques and descriptive
data such as frequencies and percentages.
Volume 20, Number 2
The instrument designed and used
in the data collection was developed from
the constructs of the TPB. The
questionnaire consisted of five parts. Each
part of the questionnaire from part one to
four contained a set of open-ended
questions that elicited the managers’
salient beliefs. Part one consisted of three
questions based on the managers thoughts
and what internship meant to them. Part
two involved three questions that were
related to the managers’ attitude towards
offering internships. Part three questions
sought answers related to the managers’
subjective norms as it relates to their
intentions. Part four of the questionnaire
asked questions on the managers’
perceived behavioral control and their
intentions to offer internships. The last
section consisted of questions on the
demographic characteristics of the
managers. See table 1 below for questions
asked in the focus group discussions.
The Research Instrument
These included questions about
what is internship, advantages and
disadvantages of offering internship
(behavioral beliefs), individuals or groups
that approve or disapprove of their offing
internship (normative beliefs), and factors
that make it easier and more difficult to
offer internships (control beliefs).
Table 1. Belief Elicitation Procedure Questions
#
Belief Elicitation Procedure Questions
1 What does it mean to you and the other managers and employees to refer to an
activity as an internship? What exactly does internship involve?
2 Do you think that you play a role in providing internship? How?
3 When you think about your actions to offering internship what comes to your
mind?
4 Please tell me some of the specific consequences that come to your mind if you
are offering internship opportunities?
5 Please tell me what are some of the specific consequences of you not offering
internship opportunities you can think of?
6 Please tell me what you think are some other advantages or disadvantages of you
offering internship opportunities?
7 Please tell me all the individuals or groups of people that would approve of you
offering internship opportunities to college students?
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Volume 20, Number 2
8
Please tell me all the individuals or groups of people that would disapprove of
you offering internship opportunities to college students?
9 Please tell me some of the factors or things that would make it easier for you to
offer internship opportunities to college students.
10 Please tell me some of the factors or things that would make it more difficult for
you to offer internship opportunities to college students?
11 Can you think of any additional aspects of your job, and the work you do, that
help or hinder your effort to offer internship opportunities to college students?
12 Are there additional things that constrain or limit your ability to act in ways to
offer internship opportunities to college students?
Respondents and Data Collection
The population for the study was
hotel managers in Jamaica who were
involved with the selection and hiring of
employees for the hotels. The participants
for the focus groups were identified using a
purposeful sampling technique (Patton,
1990). A comprehensive list of hotel
operations in Jamaica was generated from
the Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) and the
Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association
(JHTA) which were used to identify the
hotels. From this list, specific managers
with a background and expertise in the area
of selecting and hiring of students for
internships
were
selected.
These
individuals were contacted through e-mail
and informed about the study’s purpose and
their participation in the study was
requested. Based on the initial responses,
access to the confirmed participants was
followed-up on through additional e-mails,
letters, and telephone communications in
order to arrange and set-up appointment
dates.
Some of the managers in the focus
groups were also selected through expert
referencing. Information about their
expertise in the area of interest was
provided by other hotel managers. These
individuals were also contacted through emails,
letters,
and
telephone
communications. Following an indication
of their interest in participating,
arrangements were also made for the
ensuing discussions.
Focus Groups
Five focus group discussions were
conducted over a period of three days. Prior
to the discussions, each participant was
asked to read and sign a copy of the consent
script to ensure understanding of the
information and to confirm participation.
They were also asked to use an assigned
pseudonym to protect their identity. The
participants selected for the focus groups
were involved in the discussions for
approximately 40 minutes. The responses
were digitally recorded using an audio
recorder and pencil and paper. The
researcher moderated and controlled the
discussions to prevent any unwanted
circumstances and to give each participant
equal opportunity to participate in the
discussions.
Focus groups are group discussions
that are moderated by a facilitator using
scripted questions. The audience is
homogenous and made up of individuals
who are of interest to the researcher.
Studies using focus groups tend to be
qualitative in nature as they are used to
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
uncover individuals’ opinion on an idea or
issue. Because the participants are selected
using a non-random selection process and
the sample size is small, the findings cannot
be generalized to the wider population or be
used to draw cause and effect relationships.
However, focus groups are ideal to probe
and discover important insights about
topics of interest or a particular
phenomenon. Participants in focus groups
are able to respond to each other’s ideas, an
important aspect that would be difficult to
capture in seclusion.
Volume 20, Number 2
discussions: seventeen women and eight
men. All the participants identified
themselves as black non-Hispanic. The
participants each had major
responsibilities such as departmental
supervision, hiring of new employees,
training, and duty manager, among other
functions. The participants’ education
ranged from high-school to PhD level. At
the time of data collection, several of the
participants were enrolled in a course in
hospitality management at the bachelor’s
degree level. All except three of the
participants had obtained their current
position by rising through the ranks. The
respondents were familiar with the term
“internship,” as some of them had
previously been interns. Furthermore, their
job positions allow them to provide
internships and interact with interns on a
regular basis. Table 2 below list the
demographic characteristics of the focus
groups and individual interviews with
participants.
Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed
using content analysis techniques and a
priori coding followed by descriptive data
such as frequencies and percentages for
each open-ended item.
RESULTS
Demographic Profile of Respondents
Twenty-five (25) hotel managers
participated in the focus group
Table 2. Respondents Demographic Characteristics
Respondents Demographic
Management Levels
Gender
Respondents Description
General Manager
Hotel Manager
HR Manager
Food & Beverage Manager
Sales Manager
Training manager
Rooms Division Manager
Entertainment manager
Managers Front office
Total
Male
Female
Total
11
# of Respondents
3
3
5
5
2
1
6
1
5
31
12
19
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
such as recruitment, allocating resources,
evaluating the interns, orientation of new
interns, planning the work schedule with the
interns, and training the interns etc.
Managers Understanding of
Internships
To determine the salient beliefs, the
discussions started with an icebreaker
question intended to get a better
understanding of what “internship" meant to
these managers. Respondents were generally
in agreement to what they think internship
meant based on their experience and when
asked: What does it mean to you and the other
managers to refer to an activity as an
internship? What exactly does an internship
involve? (1) The participants’ responses
indicated that “internship” implied a wide
range of notions. The managers used words
and phrases including: knowledge, students,
practical or on-the-job experience and
exposure, short time, training and education,
free labor, collaboration, partnerships and
relationships, resources, career opportunity,
employee, and employment when responding
to the question.
“As managers, we play different roles in
providing internship opportunities. For one,
HR managers have to recruit and screen
students before they become our interns.
After that, both HR and department managers
and supervisors orientate them at the
operation and department level. Shifts and
schedules are also designed to ensure they
follow the company’s policies and
procedures. Importantly, at the request of the
schools, we also conduct evaluations on the
interns which are returned to the schools and
used as part of their final internship grade.”
Based on the question: When you
think about your actions to offering
internship what comes to your mind? The
managers believe that their actions to
offering internship is based on their ability to
provide assistance through activities such as:
mentorship, professional development,
fulfilling social obligation, helping students
to decide on a career path, and building
relationships with future employees. The
interviewer/data collector often asked
follow-up questions in order to clarify the
managers' answers.
“When I think about internship, partnership
is what comes to mind. I believe this is a
partnership between the company and the
student. The student receives the necessary
training for career development and the
opportunity for future employment within the
company. In addition, the company benefits
in various ways. For example, the student
provides free labor and contributes new ideas
to the company.”
“It is about mentoring the interns and
exposing them to our company. It is also the
opportunity to give back to the community in
which we operate. Also, having the students
in an environment where they can link theory
to practice and then watch them grow and
develop the requisite skills.”
To develop a list of specific behaviors
that the managers engage in as it relates to
internship, we also asked them: Do you think
that you play a role in offering and providing
opportunities for internship? How? The
managers' responses highlighted a number of
specific behaviors that have been observed
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
role as assisting and helping to prepare them,
not necessarily to work for us in this hotel,
but in whatever industry they see fit. So, we
are preparing people for work.”
Participants’ Behavioral Beliefs
To measure behavioral beliefs, the
managers were asked about the consequences
as well as the advantages and disadvantages
of offering or not offering internships to
college students. Please tell me what are
some of the specific consequences that come
to your mind of you offering internship
opportunities? In general, participant were
extremely positive when talking about
offering internships opportunities. The
managers used this opportunity to discuss the
positives of offering internships. The most
frequent mentioned positive consequence
was that of job-mentoring and the
recruitment of new employees. This was an
opportunity to produce good quality
experienced employees for the industry.
All
focus
group
participants
responded to the question. They noted that
the intentions to offer internships are an
appropriate way to recruit individuals who
have the potential and are likely to become
future employees. These concepts were not
just mentioned during the response to this
question, but throughout the entire
discussions. According to the managers,
internship is one form of an effective
recruitment tool. A number of reasons were
offered for offering internships. For example,
to secure future employees, for succession
planning, to prospect new employees, attract
interns from various places, and to allow
interns to learn job-related skills for
employment in the hotel industry.
“We are looking at the future; we are making
sure that we have people, so that, when they
come out of school, they really know what
they are getting into, when they choose the
hospitality industry. We want to make sure
they have a grasp, hopefully, so that they can
come back and work for us.”
When the managers were asked about
some of the specific consequences that they
could think of as it relates to them not
offering internship opportunities: The
resounding response was that, not offering
internships would limit the opportunity to
establish relationships with the students,
build a database of future employees, and
provide a career path for the students. During
the discussions, some of the managers
mentioned that the feedback and satisfaction
that they experienced from working with and
training the interns were not worth missing.
“Training the interns is a serious job that
requires a lot of dedication but it is always a
good feeling when you get the feedback from
the students. Although some of the comments
may not be what you want to hear, but it helps
us to realize that they can now be honest with
themselves. For the most part, they are very
grateful and thankful.”
“The students always call and say thanks or
come back and say thank you. It doesn’t
matter where they go, they always return and
say thank you, you did good for me, you
“Well, for many reasons, this is where we can
find our potential employees; that is one of
the reasons. Another reason is, we see our
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
helped me and you taught me, so now I am
able to work based on what I learned from
you.”
Volume 20, Number 2
to the students as it helps to develop and
prepare them for future employment.”
On the other hand, several of the
managers believe that by offering
internships, there could be an increase in
operation expenditures in term of materials
for the interns to work with, for example, if
the intern makes mistakes and products will
have to be replaced, thus increasing costs.
Some managers felt that based on the
positions the interns are allowed to work in,
they may get tired and not be able to keep up
with their academic work. One focus group
member thought that the disadvantages were
minimal but had concerns about interns
taking idea/knowledge learned in one
establishment to another entity.
On the issue of the advantages and
disadvantages of internships, the managers
were asked: Please tell me what you think are
some other advantages or disadvantages to
you offering internship opportunities? The
participants indicated that it is important to
them to know that because of offering
internships, there is a database from which
prospective job applicants can be sourced.
They mentioned that the interns not only
grow and develop professionally and
experientially during the internship process,
but they add to the organization by
suggesting new innovative ideas and just
being excited with being a part of the
establishment.
Across the focus groups, respondents
reported that internships were more
beneficial to the employer as the interns are
sometimes seen as free labor. The participant
indicated that the interns and the internship
process should not be treated as such as the
intern must be given the opportunity to learn
while on the job and internship should be
used as a learning process for the students.
“I don’t think there are many disadvantages
to offering internships, nonetheless, there
are concerns. A student may come to us for
an internship and due to his/her exceptional
capabilities s/he may excel and receive extra
or additional training. The drawback to that
is, if that student is not hired by that hotel or
refuse their employment offer, the
possibility exist that the student could take
that information/ knowledge to another
company. This results in your operation
having to invest in training another person.”
“I think an internship is more beneficial to the
employer. The employer gets students that
they can use as free labor, or labor without
pay. The students benefit as well, as they
receive training that they do not have to pay
for in the educational institutions.”
Other disadvantages expressed by the
managers include the belief that education
institutions fail to adequately prepare
students for the workplace. Additionally,
training the interns is time consuming and
expensive, hence internships are better
conducted during slower periods. The
managers felt that internship programs are
not well-structured; interns may provide less
“I think that most companies like to offer
internships because it is free labor, however,
I believe that internships are also beneficial
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
than acceptable service, and some welldeserving students may not get the
opportunity to access internships. However,
three respondents noted that there are no
disadvantages to offering internships.
Volume 20, Number 2
hands-on experience at a resort, as well as,
the students get to fulfill aspects of their
coursework. They are very thankful that we
are able to provide this opportunity for the
students. I can recall receiving letters of
appreciation from various principals and that
really gave me the desire to continue to assist
the students.”
“I am not sure if there is really a disadvantage
to offering internship. I think the participants
stand to really gain from offering
internships.”
“I would want to say, management and
colleagues since internships provide valuable
benefits such as immediate workers and
future employees. In each department or area
that the intern is going to be exposed to, there
needs to be an agreement and commitment
from that department to ensure that the intern
gets the most out of the experience. The
internship must be seen as a valuable learning
experience for that intern and not just him/her
coming here to spend some time or a few
hours. Therefore, it is very important that
everyone is committed to the internship
process, embrace it, and see the ultimate
benefits.”
“I think that there are greater advantages to
offering internships, it is a win, win situation
for both the intern and the organization. The
managers invest in the intern by providing
experience and other benefits, in return, they
receive production output from the interns,
hence a win, win situation.”
Participants’ Normative Beliefs
To develop a list of normative beliefs
that influence the managers’ intentions, they
were asked to identify and discuss the
individuals or groups who approve or
disapprove of their offering internship. The
following normative beliefs question was
addressed: Please tell me all the individuals
or groups of people that would approve of
you offering internship opportunities to
college students? The managers frequently
made reference to educators, management
and colleagues, and the students/interns as
people or groups who would approve of their
behavior to offer internships. Educators and
management and colleagues were mentioned
most frequently by the managers.
“To a large extent, I think it is the interns who
benefit a lot from the program, especially in
the hospitality industry, it is about attitude.
Therefore, the intern’s attitude and
personality say a lot. While the intern is going
through the process, it is a good opportunity
to develop this individual’s attitude as it
relates to the hospitality industry, more so
when I see the potential in them.”
Some of the respondents discussed a
number of other groups and individuals that
would influence their intentions to offer
internships. These include: government
entities, friends, and interestingly small hotel
“I am more inclined to say the education
institutions. The educators are happy
knowing that they can create a partnership in
which students will benefit from exposure to
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
operators within the industry. While some
focus group members previously voiced
concern about valuable information going to
other operations, two members suggested
that large hotel operations train interns to
help small hotel operators.
Volume 20, Number 2
disapprove of the managers were described
as those who think they do not have the time
or patience for the interns. As a result, these
workers are reluctant to train and share
knowledge with the interns. Several
managers mentioned the interns but were
quick to clarify that the interns would not
disapprove of participating in an internship
but would disapprove working without a
stipend or a salary. One member of the focus
groups mentioned customers on the basis
that, if the interns did not perform well when
serving the customers, then they would
become disgruntled.
“There are some small hotel operations who
do not want to take on the role of offering
internships to students because they may not
have the finances or employees to perform
the training, even though they would have
benefitted from the students internship
experience. As a result, the larger hotels that
offer internships could prepare these interns
to help meet the needs of the small hotels.
After going through the internship
experience, some of these interns could
access jobs within these hotels and help them
to enhance their service and product
offerings.”
“There are times when employees in some
department will say, I can’t bother with the
training and they will do so on the basis that
they really do not have the time or patience to
train and supervise an intern.”
“Overall, when I think about the whole
thing, the only group of persons that comes
to mind is perhaps our guest. If the interns
are not adequately prepared to go out and
serve, for example at the dining table, then
you will find that the guest will become
disgruntled.”
Moderator: Are you saying that large
operations such as your employer could train
interns to supply small operations who
cannot afford to offer internship experience
to these students?
“Most definitely, most definitely, that is what
we are suggesting.”
On the other hand, most of the focus
groups thought that because the benefits to
internships were so great, the idea of not
offering internships would be dismissed.
It was important to determine whether
there were individual or groups who would
disapprove of the managers’ intention, hence
the following question was posed. Please tell
me all the individuals or groups of people that
would disapprove of you offering internship
opportunities
to
college
students?
Interestingly, line employees/workers were
mentioned by some managers with regards to
disapproving of their offering internships.
The employees/workers who would
“I do not see any group or individuals who
would disapprove of us offering students
internship. This is one way that students can
become educated and the nation as a whole
can see youth being develop for positions in
the hospitality and tourism industry.”
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
definitely help in making the internship
process easier. Because we are investing in
human capital, it would be ideal to have
training managers involve in the training
process.”
Participants Control Beliefs
Control belief is the individual’s
perception of control over the particular
behavior and how easy or difficult the person
perceives performing the given behavior will
be (Ajzen, 1991). To measure control beliefs,
managers were asked about the factors or
things that make it easier or more difficult to
offer internships. For example, the managers
were asked: Please tell me some of the factors
or things that would make it easier for you to
offer internship opportunities to college
students. Across the focus groups, the most
frequently mentioned facilitating factors in
terms of the things that would make it easier
for managers to offer internship opportunities
included, the availability of resources.
Participants elaborated on resources and
associated it with expressions such as money
that is budgeted to assist the interns as well as
supervising and supporting staff. Other
things mentioned were the attitude of the
interns, the institution the intern was coming
from and how well prepared they were for the
world of work. One respondent mentioned
living accommodation for both local and
international interns.
Some of the focus group members felt
that the attitude of the interns was very
crucial to their decision to offer internships.
“The personality of the intern is a factor. That
student must display a positive work attitude
which goes back to preparing them
effectively for work. Although the process is
called internship, it is work, and it must be
seen as their first exposure to the job
experience. Therefore, it’s important how
this process is communicated to the students
and how they are prepared for these
internships.”
“It is important to note that many of these
students come with the attitude of not
wanting to learn or to excel. However,
sometimes, it is not always the intern, but the
issue of whether they were sufficiently
briefed about what to expect when they get to
the internship site. Hence, when they arrive,
what they saw compare to what they thought
it was is not matching up. So, it depends a lot
on the institutions that they are coming from
as well as the students themselves.”
“I would definitely say resources in terms of
finances would be a leading factor. This
could end up being an issue as it would help
to determine whether some operations offer
students internship.”
Some of the focus group members felt
that supervising and supporting staff were
important to the success of the internship
process.
Some of the focus group members felt
that some of the education institution that
request internships for their students were not
doing enough to adequately prepare the
students for the internship site.
“Having adequate individuals on hand to
assist with training the interns would
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
“Educational institutions need to ensure that
persons who are being sent out for internships
are pretty much ready to come into a work
system where practical training is done. They
need to be aware of what is expected; those
factors will help us, because it is difficult
when interns arrive and expect to be treated
as if they were in university. There is no sense
of responsibility. Therefore, those factors
would help in our decisions or help us better
to foster the internships.”
Volume 20, Number 2
whatever task is assigned to them. We should
always reward someone who has worked
hard because with true hard work comes
success. A person always wants to know that
s/he will be compensated at the end or be
rewarded for the hard work being done.”
The use of accommodation as a factor
in successful internship was discussed. This
is because the hotel industry not only attracts
domestic interns but international ones as
well. In addition, the hotels were located in
mostly rural areas and the majority of the
universities and colleges were in the urban
areas. As a result, a large number of students
traveled long distances to some internship
sites. Although some students would
successfully
earn
an
internship,
accommodation would always turn out to be
an issue that could discourage an employer
from offering internships, as the hotels were
unable to provide living accommodations.
The participants’ views are expressed in the
following statement:
“Also, the institution that the intern is coming
from plays a role in determining whether to
offer an internship. The background of the
school, including the history and
performance of prior interns and whether
they are productive members of society.
These factors are important and make it
easier for those students to get accepted.”
In this vain, some focus group
members also suggested that since the hotels
were providing interns with the training for
free, the government could provide funds to
assist with salary, or a stipend to students
who were on internships to help offset their
travel expenses. The following example
expressed such views:
“In some instances, and this is dependent on
where they may be coming from; there is a
need for accommodation. This we do not
readily have available, and that does present
a challenge. While we will extend a stipend
to interns at all levels, in most instances, if
one needs to find paid accommodation
somewhere, it would not readily cover these
costs. And that is maybe the biggest
dysfunction that there is in the exercise.”
“The only biggest challenge with internship,
whether it is for locals or students abroad, is
the right funding. It takes money to do a
proper internship. I think the government
could pay for their salary or pay their
stipend.”
When the question was asked
regarding the factors or things that would
make it more difficult for the managers’ to
offer internship opportunities to college
A positive comment was that:
“Interns are always diligent and hardworking; they always try to perform at
18
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
students, the key factors noted by managers
that make internship difficult were very
similar to the ones that facilitate, only that
these factors differed by focus groups
respondents. However, the resounding
objection across all groups of managers was
unlimited resources. Several focus group
members strongly think that unruly behavior
in terms of not following operations policies
and procedures, theft, and the requirements
of the education institution. Two managers
mentioned that the entire internship process
needs to be thought out and structured
appropriately so that everyone understands
their role and the benefits of internships that
can be achieved.
Volume 20, Number 2
difficult or require that they work at nights or
on specific days. However, if the individual
is a Seventh Day Adventist, it poses a
problem. In the service industry, Fridays,
Saturdays, and Sundays are sometimes our
busiest days. Due to their beliefs and
practices, this can become a conflict of
interest.”
“It is the whole internship process which
needs to be carefully thought out. For
instance, the length of the internship and
focus areas. It would be great if there was
some kind of relationship between the
organizations and the schools where
managers from the different hotels are invited
to speak to students from time to time about
internships. This type of initiative could
develop partnerships and make it easier for
everyone to understand the role of internships
and the value to be gained from internships.
It is for us the hotels and the schools to strike
that common ground, create that relationship,
and build on that commitment.”
“If the company were to experience limited
resources (funds, training personnel), despite
what one may believe, everything has a cost
associated to it. Therefore, taking on
additional persons would increase expenses.
Even though we may be developing people
and to a larger extent the company and our
country, it also depends on the economic
climate that we are operating in.”
DISCUSSIONS
Managers Understanding of Internships
“I think that if we have had very bad
experience with the interns, for example, if
they were to steal, become unruly in their
behavior, not adhering to the operations
policies and guidelines, that would affect our
decision and make it difficult for us to extend
the courtesy again, or would prevent us from
doing it in the future.”
The purpose of the study was to
examine managers’ motivations to offer
internships to college students in Jamaica.
The findings discussed in this study highlight
the complex and dynamic nature of the
internship process in the Jamaica hotel
industry. The questions discussed summarize
a range of challenges, positive as well as
negative reasons as to the managers’
intentions to offer internships. Based on the
questions posed during the focus group
discussions, reoccurring responses suggest
“It depends also on the requirements of the
school or institutions that they are coming
from. Religion also, as it is one of the most
challenging issues in the hotel industry.
Sometimes the work hours/shift may be a bit
19
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
that the managers share similar thoughts,
beliefs, and attitude towards internship.
The first focus group question was to
determine what it meant to managers to refer
to an activity as an internship and what
exactly does internship involve. The
managers share their thoughts and beliefs
using different words and phrases which
were not ranked as more important than the
other. This was not surprising as throughout
the literature, the term internship was not
identified with a specific definition but was
associated with various terms and phrases.
For instance, internship foster partnerships
(Westerberg & Wickersham, 2011), provide
valuable opportunity through experience and
exposure (Gault et al., 2000), and connect
educational institutions and the workplace.
The second question in this section was
whether managers think they play a role in
providing internship and how. The
resounding and reoccurring response
throughout the discussions was recruiting,
which Butler (2004) pointed out was an
activity that managers take an active role in,
as well as, they hire former interns at a faster
rate. The third discussion question asked
managers what comes to their mind when
they think about their actions to offering
internship. Managers mentioned providing
mentorship, personal and professional
development, assist students with deciding
on a career path among others. The responses
is consistent with Ellington, (1993); Basow
and Byrne (1993), and Hurst and Good
(2010) findings.
behavioral beliefs. The first question in this
section was to determine the consequences
that come to the managers’ mind of them
offering internships. To this question, the
managers all mentioned positive factors. All
the respondents indicated recruiting.
Securing and prospecting future employees,
succession planning, attracting interns from
various places and giving them the
opportunity to acquire job-related skills were
also valued by the managers. The managers’
responses were consistent with Dwyer (2004)
and Daugherty (2002) who indicated that
internship solve staffing needs. The need for
trained and qualified human resources cannot
be overemphasized as the lack of these skills
can hinder employment or make it difficult
for students to enter the job market.
The second question in this section
explored consequences of the managers not
offering internships. The manager’s biggest
concern of not offering internships was that it
would prevent them from building a database
of future employees and provide student with
a career path in the industry. This response
seems to suggest that it is easier to place
graduates who already have the experience
and can hit the ground running once they
become employed. This confirms Cannon
and Arnold (1998) observation of
undergraduate students who sees internship
as a competitive employment strategy. The
interns’ feedback and satisfaction based on
the internship experience was also of
importance to the managers.
Surprisingly, the managers did not
mention any disadvantages to offering
internships until they were asked whether
they believed there were any advantages and
disadvantages to internships. The managers
Managers Attitude towards Internships
The second
section
questions focused on the
Volume 20, Number 2
research
managers
20
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
noted that internships can be used for the
wrong reason, for example, free labor which
can take away from the purpose of the
internship. On the other hand, internship
could increase the operations expenses,
student could become burnt out and not be
able to keep up with school work, as well as,
important information could get transferred
to another entity. These beliefs are in line
with Cousins (1981) who revealed that
internships can subject students to high stress
levels.
Volume 20, Number 2
The second question asked managers
to identify the individuals or groups of people
that would disapprove of them offering
internship opportunities to college students.
The managers mentioned line employees
based on the fact that they claim not to have
the time or patience for the interns. In the
Jamaica hotel industry, anecdotal evidence
revealed that some managers/employers tend
to retire line employees in favor of new hires
such as interns who have graduated. Hence,
line employees are worried about training
interns to take over their jobs. Interestingly,
guests and interns were mentioned by some
managers. However, not on the basis that
they despised internships, but the outcome as
a result of what could happen during the
internship process. For example, guest would
disapprove of bad service from the intern
who would disapprove of not being rewarded
financially. This finding is consistent with
Hite and Bellizzi (1986) who found that
students agreed that internships should be
paid and Basow and Byrne (1993) who
confirmed that some students receive
payment while on internship.
Managers Perception of Others who
would Influence their Intentions
In order to determine the managers’
perception of individuals who would
influence their intentions to offer internships,
they were asked two questions. Question 1
focused on: The individuals or groups of
people that would approve of the managers
offering internship opportunities to college
students. According to the managers’
responses,
education
institutions,
management and colleagues of the hotel
operation, and the interns themselves would
approve of their intentions. A major reason
for this can be attributed to the institutions
who are pressured to fulfill curriculum
requirements, management ability to secure
future employees, and interns getting the
opportunity to stand out to potential
employers as well as determine the right area
to work in. The majority of college students
find an internship a valuable learning
experience (Hite & Bellizzi, 1986), which
allows students to interact with their
prospective managers without a lifetime
commitment (Coco, 2000).
Managers’ Feelings about their Control
over Resources
The fourth section which explored the
managers control beliefs focused on
questions which provided an understanding
to some of the factors or things that would
make it easier for the managers to offer
internship opportunities to college students.
Across the focus groups, the managers expect
to have certain resources to be able to
facilitate students on internships. However,
the managers believe they were challenged in
terms of money, adequate individuals to train
21
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
the interns, the attitude of some of the interns
and the institution they were coming from as
well as their level of preparedness for the
work world. The latter is similar to Clemence
and Handler (2001) findings, which indicated
that when students enter the jobsite without
the required basic skills, managers at the
internship sites may be burdened with
teaching them these basic skills.
The second question in this section to
which the managers responded was: Please
tell me some of the factors or things that
would make it more difficult for you to offer
internship opportunities to college students.
Not
surprisingly,
resources
were
unanimously mentioned by the managers.
Consistent with Belanger and Tremblay’s
(1983) study which concludes that internship
programs are costly and time consuming and
are affected by the way activities are
organized. Several focus group members
strongly think that disruptive behavior in
terms of not following operations policies
and procedures, theft, and some of the out of
the box requirements of the education
institution could interfere with their
intentions. Two managers mentioned that the
entire internship process needs to be thought
out and structured appropriately so that
everyone understands their role and the
benefits of internships can be achieved. De
Mott (1972) confirmed the managers concern
by noting that planning of internship is
crucial to the managers, educators, and
students. Poor planning of the internship
process can lead to students’ unwillingness to
participate in an internship, especially for
academic credit. Internships according to
Cunningham and Sherman (2008) should be
a collaborative effort.
Volume 20, Number 2
Within the context of this study, and
based on the responses, there is
overwhelming evidence to suggest that the
managers beliefs about a specific behavior
determine their attitude towards the behavior.
They perceive engaging in the act as
desirable; hence, their positive attitude
toward the behavior. However, since their
intention was related to work life, their
beliefs were more influenced by people
within similar settings. They also believed
that having the resources, support, and
cooperation of colleagues could determine
their intentions to offer internships.
CONCLUSION
The authors found that across all the
focus group discussions, the most notable
themes that emerged included prepping
future employees with experience, job
mentoring and recruitment, providing
professional development, availability of
resources including staff to supervise and
support staff training, as well as the fact that
educators would approve of their decision to
offer internships. Collectively, these findings
provide unique insight to better understand
the regional beliefs associated with
internships and associations between the
companies/employers and institutions of
higher learning.
In sum, the managers believe that the
challenges they currently face can be resolve
overtime if all the required elements are
appropriated. More importantly, they expect
to continue to make this internship
experience available to college students in
Jamaica as they believed that both the
students and employers benefit. The
managers also expect that college students,
22
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
who are the recipients of internships should
ensure they are equipped with the basic skills
and are prepared for the job site.
Additionally, educators need to ensure
students under their guidance are adequately
equipped with the necessary knowledge to
enter the internship site.
Volume 20, Number 2
with the position 3) educators would know
specifically what activities the students are
engaged in and be able to track their progress
4). A structured program would stipulate the
time frame of the internship, stipend/salary if
available, areas and activities to be covered
as well as the departments involve.
Additionally, managers would be better able
to assist interns in their professional
development, guide them on a career path and
job mentor them. Secondly, if managers
intend to continue attract interns, and since
accommodation is an issue, managers may
need to invest in appropriate low cost housing
accommodations for these interns. Also, the
managers mentioned lack of resources,
especially money, employers could provide a
salary/stipend that interns could use to offset
some expenses. Thirdly, prior to students
starting the internship, managers may want to
visit the education institutions to discuss their
operation structure, policies, and procedures.
Furthermore, managers may gain from doing
on-site screening of interns to ensure
personnel of the highest quality. This can
benefit the hotels, the educators, and the
students as well.
The findings of this study also have
importation implications for educators and
students desiring a career in the hospitality
industry. Colleges and universities have an
important role to play in the training and
developing of future hospitality and tourism
employees/managers. Educators may use the
findings to better prepare students for the
internship process, including where to intern
and what to expect when they arrive at the
internship site. Communication-related
courses, interpersonal and professional
development, as well as, human relation
IMPLICATIONS
The above information not only increased our
understanding with regards to the managers’
intentions to offer internships, it also revealed
important findings that may have both
managerial and theoretical implications.
The implications for the managers are
as follows: Based on the preceding findings,
the most apparent implication of the result
seems to suggest that there should be closer
relationships and collaboration between
educational institutions and the hotel
industry. The success of an internship,
according to Tackett et al. (2001), depends on
several components which create a balanced
environment of consistent standards,
systems, and structures. Students, faculty,
and managers must all play their roles for
internships to be successful. Firstly,
managers and educators should consider
using the findings to develop structured
internship programs that contribute to the
development of the hospitality education that
the students receive in the educational
settings. A structured process would ensure
that more than one of the issues or matters of
concern are taken care of. For instance: 1) a
structured program would ensure that
managers are getting the interns they need
based on the positions available 2) interns
would be aware of the specific positions
available and the different areas associated
23
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
courses should be incorporated as core
courses in the institutions hospitality and
tourism curriculum. These changes could
help to prepare the interns and provide the
necessary skills for the hotel industry as well
as other areas of the labor market. Educators
should ensure that the students practice the
learned behavior while in school so that it
becomes a part of their personality. Educators
should also focus on strengthening their
relationship with the hotel operations.
Students may use the findings to
prepare themselves for the work-world and to
determine whether a career in the hotel
industry suits their personality. Prior to
becoming an intern, student should ensure
that based on the desired position and the
qualification associated with the position;
they are prepared to work in that position.
Since the internship process can be used to
determine future employment, students may
want to work hard, show interest, and project
the right attitude while going through the
internship process.
Volume 20, Number 2
geographic location and was focused on
managers in the hotel industry. Although the
exploratory study provided useful and
insightful information based on the study’s
location and the population’s culture, it may
not produce similar results in other locations
or studies. Data were self-reported and total
analysis of the research was depended on
information provided by the respondents in
the focus group discussions. Despite these
limitations, the information discussed can be
used toward developing new dimensions and
strategies that can be applied in the internship
context.
It is recommended that future
research focuses on the following areas: 1)
Conduct an additional qualitative study to
identify other belief--based factors that could
motivate managers’ intentions to offer
internships. This approach should provide a
better perspective and more variations in
terms of participants’ responses and the
performance of the theory of planned
behavior, 2) This process could be replicated
in another geographic location to determine
the difference in the population salient
beliefs, 3) Repeat the entire process at a later
time to examine the role of time in a dynamic
industry, and 4) Focus on utilizing a larger
and more diverse sample or apply a global
approach to provide more results.
Although this study provides a
groundwork for future efforts to understand
internships from a managerial point of view,
further research is needed to evaluate if a
TPB-guided intervention can achieve
sustained interest of managers in offering
internship. It is important to note that even
though businesses such as hotels are
established for profitability, it was evident
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE
RESEARCH
While this study uses a rigorous
qualitative approach and fills a gap in the
literature on understanding the underlying
behavioral beliefs related to internships, there
were several limitations. Therefore due to the
focused region in which this study was
conducted, it may not be reasonable to
generalize the results to other geographical
regions.
The study was conducted in Jamaica.
This study was conceptualized to identify
potential differences among managers in
Jamaica. Data collection was limited to this
24
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
that the motives for offering internships were
not tied to profitability. Companies appear to
engage in this exercise with a desire to
continue a symbiotic relationship between
industry and educational institutions.
Armitage, C. J., & Christian, J. (2003).
From attitudes to behaviour: Basic and
applied research on the theory of planned
behavior. Current Psychology, 22(3), 187195.
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Past Achievements/Future Challenges. In
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The Role of Human Resource Specialists in Motivation, Training and Engagement in the
Hospitality Industry
JACQUELINE AWADZI-CALLOWAY, PhD
Associate Professor DeVry University, USA
CARRIE AWADZI, PhD
Adjunct Faculty, Delaware State University, USA
31
Welfare in the West Indies. (1956).
Memorandum on Technical Education in the
British
Caribbean.
Trinidad,
B.W.I:
The Consortium
Journal
of Hospitality
and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Government Printing Office.
The Role of Human Resource Specialists in Motivation, Training and Engagement in the
Hospitality Industry
WINSTON AWADZI, PhD
Professor, Delaware State University, USA
JACQUELINE AWADZI-CALLOWAY, PhD
Associate Professor DeVry University, USA
Abstract
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality
and Tourism
AWADZI, PhD Volume 20, Number 2
CARRIE
The collective knowledge and contributions that organizational members bring to the workforce
Adjunct Faculty, Delaware State University, USA
serves as the driving factor for the bulk of business success. The ability of any business to
transform its raw inputs into value-added outputs is directly attributable to its workforce (Awadzi
WADZI, PhD
WINSTON A31
Calloway, 2014). To that end, organizations employ
a variety of strategies toward achieving their
Professor, Delaware State University, USA
goals. Among these are efforts focused on finding and placing the employees that not only fit into
the organization, but also contribute to its success (Awadzi Calloway, 2014). As organizations
Abstract
strive to meet their strategic goals, people will continue to play a critical role in their success and
once selected and placed in the organization, they must be trained, motivated and engaged; they
The collective knowledge and contributions that organizational members bring to the workforce
must be given all of the tools necessary to succeed. It is human resource specialists who undertake
serves as the driving factor for the bulk of business success. The ability of any business to
this task. Human resource specialties play a critical role in the recruitment, hiring, compensation,
transform its raw inputs into value-added outputs is directly attributable to its workforce (Awadzi
and motivation of this valuable organizational resource (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2013). This
Calloway, 2014). To that end, organizations employ a variety of strategies toward achieving their
role is even more critical in the hospitality industry in which personality and ability to interact and
goals. Among these are efforts focused on finding and placing the employees that not only fit into
engage with customers is most crucial. This paper examines the role of human resource specialists
the organization, but also contribute to its success (Awadzi Calloway, 2014). As organizations
in a selected educational institution. The paper discusses key areas in the employee selection
strive to meet their strategic goals, people will continue to play a critical role in their success and
process.
once selected and placed in the organization, they must be trained, motivated and engaged; they
must be given all of the tools necessary to succeed. It is human resource specialists who undertake
KEYWORDS: human resource specialist, recruitment, organizational change, development,
this task. Human resource specialties play a critical role in the recruitment, hiring, compensation,
motivation
and motivation of this valuable organizational resource (Ivancevich & Konopaske, 2013). This
role is even more critical in the hospitality industry in which personality and ability to interact and
people-based competitive advantage, the
Introduction
engage with customers is most crucial. This paper examines the role of human resource specialists
success of corporate goals and
in
selected
educational
The paper discusses key areas in the employee selection
Thea role
of human
resourceinstitution.
(HR)
organizational strategy (Yeung, Brockbank
process.
departments is evolving as the business
& Ulrich, 1994). In the hospitality industry
environment becomes more competitive and
these changes are promulgated by the
KEYWORDS:
specialist,
recruitment, organizational change, development,
globally focused. human
Yeung, resource
Brockbank
and
increasing desire to enhance customer
motivation
Ulrich (1994) observed that “human
experiences and promote customer loyalty.
resource departments are operating more
Organizational strategy focuses on
people-based competitive advantage, the
Introduction
like a business within
the business, with a
identifying and utilizing the resources
success of corporate goals and
clear strategy and channels of distribution.
necessary to achieve organizational goals
The role of human resource (HR)
organizational strategy (Yeung, Brockbank
HR professionals are being asked to help
(Hill & Jones, 2012). Specific activities
departments is evolving as the business
& Ulrich, 1994). In the hospitality industry
businesses compete, and to do so, HR
involved include actions to boost combined
environment becomes more competitive and
these changes are promulgated by the
professionals must not only observe, but
performance of businesses, ways to capture
globally focused. Yeung, Brockbank and
increasing desire to enhance customer
also understand and adapt to these business
synergy among related businesses and
Ulrich (1994) observed that “human
experiences and promote customer loyalty.
trends” (p. 2). Furthermore, HR departments
establishing investment priorities and
resource departments are operating more
Organizational strategy focuses on
are now fueling organizational change,
like a business within the business, with a
identifying and utilizing the resources
clear strategy and channels of distribution.
32 necessary to achieve organizational goals
HR professionals are being asked to help
(Hill & Jones, 2012). Specific activities
businesses compete, and to do so, HR
involved include actions to boost combined
professionals must not only observe, but
performance of businesses, ways to capture
participation, and contribution relies on the
utions that organizational members bring to the workforce
KEYWORDS: human resource specialist, recruitment,
organizational
organization’s
overallchange,
strategy development,
(Awadzi
bulk of business success. The ability of any business to
motivation
2014).20, Number 2
ed outputs is directly
attributable
to itsof
workforce
(Awadzi
The Consortium
Journal
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ations employ a variety of strategies toward achieving their
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Introduction
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20, do
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The
Consortium
Journal
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Hospitality
and
Tourism
Volume
20, Number
establishment of autonomous subsidiaries
role of HR
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and work groups requires that line managers
focus on employee engagement.
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management
plans
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employees
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aid of an HR
unit,
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are
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linked
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Practical
Applications
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Hospitality
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Consortium
Journal
of
Hospitality
and
Tourism
Volume
20,
Number
2
policies that assist in areas such as conflict
development
appropriate and
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of the organization
and its
Industry
resolution; frequent feedback; opportunities
specific
goals” (pfeedback.
391). Understanding the
The
Consortium
Journal
of
Hospitality
and
Tourism
Volume
20,area
Number
2culture. The
for engagement,
site teambuilding
Lastlyisinorganizational
of employee
organization
a the
two-prong
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Without off
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33
shared
accountability.
of these
engagement,
Williams
(2010)
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job
expectations
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HR
what
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customer satisfaction.
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particularly
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engaged
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customer
loyalty
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to
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It
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be a focus,
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success
of this
indoctrination
is that
evaluated
well. Successful
customer
engagements
Kirkpatrick
(2009)
recognized
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34
industry
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building
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alsothat
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Ivancevich
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(2013)
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Florida. promoted
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performance
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2 assignment:
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my
include
performance
management
manner; helped channel employee behaviors
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school
– Pros &Unpublished
cons
of online
colleges?
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J. M.20,
& Konopaske,
R. (2013).
organization.
graduate
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The
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ofcommunication
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2
development
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and assisted
with employee
career
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36
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eengagement_101612_wp.pdf
Florida.
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Williams,loyalty
R. (2010).
Florida. those engaged in the hospitality
particularly
customer
is to Employee
marketing engagement:
and sales. It
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eengagement_101612_wp.pdf
Define
it,
measure
it
and
put
it
to
work
in
industry
in
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cohesive
and
is that oftenR.elusive
frame
of mind
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a
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team
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from
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12:assignment:
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performance
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R.
J.
(2007).
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HR’s
a
from
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and
Konopaske
(2013)
term
and
productive
tenure
of
the
faithful
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graduate
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paper.
HRA
HRA
596. Saint
Leo University,
Leo,
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HR Magazine, 52(4). Retrieved from
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px
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processes
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but despite its definition at its core, is the
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W., involved
& Ulrich,
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of
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notion
getting
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and
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strategies,
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environment
encourages
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methods.
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goals”
(p 391).
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theFlorida.
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engagement.
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engagement.
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G. R. (2012).
th
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(10
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integrated
Learning.
Awadzi Calloway, J. (2014). Week 2
approach. (10th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage
Heathfiel
environm
engageme
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yee-Enga
Engagem
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Learning.
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Human re
New York
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resource
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12)
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Without
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Hill,
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Dr.
Jacqueline
Awadzi
Calloway
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(10
managing the workforce must be aCengage
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She specializes in teaching organizational
begin
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Ivancevich,
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R. (2013).
hospitality
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Herstrategies
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resource
management.
(12th
ed.). on
collaboration
trust
building
and
employee
emotional
intelligence,
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New York: McGraw Hill/Irwin.
leadership. are important to the success of
engagement
Mello,
J. A. (2011).
human
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Carrie Awadzi
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Research
in
Global
Business.
on the quality, engagement and longevity of
employees’
organizations
are&subsequently
Yeung, A., Brockbank,
W.,
Ulrich, D.
able
to address
the goals
of value:
engagement,
(1994).
Lower cost,
higher
Human
team
building:
and in
training.
ThusHuman
focus will
resources
function
transition.
Resource
Planning
Journal,
17(3),
1–16.that
include performance management plans
are linked to engagement outcomes;
development of open door communication
36 policies that assist in areas such as conflict
resolution; frequent feedback; opportunities
for engagement, off site teambuilding and
shared accountability. Each of these
strategies could assist an organization,
particularly those engaged in the hospitality
industry in building a more cohesive and
successful team environment.
Ivancevich and Konopaske (2013)
observed that “training and development are
processes that attempt to provide an
employee with information, skills and an
understanding of the organization and its
goals” (p 391). Understanding the
organization is a two-prong activity
comprised of learning job expectations and
understanding
organizational culture. The
About
the Authors:
success of this indoctrination is evaluated by
Dr. Jacqueline Awadzi Calloway is an
customer satisfaction. Kirkpatrick and
Associate Professor at DeVry University.
Kirkpatrick
(2009)
that training
She
specializes
in recognized
teaching organizational
without a credible
measure
couldn’t be
behavior,
leadership,
information
systems
successful.
Training
also align
with on
and
statistics.
Her must
research
focuses
emotional
intelligence,
self-efficacy
and
organizational
strategies and
must be linked
leadership.
to overall performance management.
Likewise,
management
Carrie Awadzi
is aperformance
third year doctoral
student
systems
are
directly
linked
to
the
success
of
at Wilmington University. Her area of study
employees
within the organization.
is
Organizational
Leadership. This
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dissertation
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linkage iswriting
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Leadership”.
employee is the focal point of goal
achievement
the organization
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Dr.
Winstonwithin
Awadzi
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that his or her
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Delaware
State
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is athenoted
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of International
Business
customer
the tone
for their experience
and
served
as
editor
of
the
Journal
of
with the organization. Mello (2011) Current
Research
discussedin
theGlobal
value Business.
of performance
management systems. He noted that these
systems promoted the discovery of
performance deficiencies in a timely
manner; helped channel employee behaviors
toward the achievement of specific
objectives and assisted with employee career
development through appropriate and
specific feedback.
Lastly in the area of employee
engagement, Williams (2010) commented,
“Employee engagement is to HR what
customer loyalty is to marketing and sales. It
is that often elusive frame of mind that goes
beyond satisfaction and ensures the longterm and productive tenure of the faithful
employee with the employer” (para 1).
Employee engagement is an elusive term,
but despite its definition at its core, is the
notion of getting employees involved and
committed to the organization. The purpose
of employee engagement is to build
camaraderie, a sense of community and
34
37
37
V
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Using Importance-Performance Analysis to Identify the Travel Characteristics of
African Americans
KIM WILLIAMS, PhD.
Associate Professor
University of New Orleans
New Orleans, LA USA
[email protected]
BRIDGET M. BORDELON, PhD.
Associate Professor
University of New Orleans
New Orleans, LA USA
[email protected]
DAVID NJITE, PhD.
Assistant Professor
University of New Orleans
New Orleans, LA USA
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research study examined African American traveler’s expectations, perceptions, and
satisfaction with a popular U.S tourism destination as measured by the perceived Importance
Performance Analysis (IPA) tool. As a result of better educational and employment
opportunities, many African Americans have access to disposable income and the desire to
travel for leisure. New Orleans provides an interesting context of assessing destination
competitiveness in conditions of global environmental changes and the challenge of a tourism
destination recovering from a major disaster. The results of this research provide valuable
new insights and tools for travel organizations and stakeholders seeking to learn more about
the African American traveler market segment.
KEYWORDS: African American Travelers, New Orleans Tourism, Urban tourism,
destination’s competitiveness. Most
successful businesses attempt to develop
marketing strategies with the purpose of
achieving a competitive advantage (Day
INTRODUCTION
Recognizing the economic strength
of tourist segments and understanding their
specific vacation behavior is vital to a
38
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
and Wensley, 1988; Varadarajan and
Cunningham, 1995). Developed in the
discipline of Economics Theory, the
purpose of market segmentation is to
explain how a company selling a
homogeneous product in a diverse market
could maximize profits. Potential
consumers are segmented into meaningful
categories to better understand purchasing
behavior and select the most appropriate
marketing mix for each segment. The
marketing mix includes: the message, the
price, the availability of the product and
even the product levels and quality. In
essence, segmentation provides knowledge
for understanding the specific needs,
wants, behavior and limitations of a
smaller market that can be served better
(Kotler, Roberto and Lee, 2002).
According to Kotler, Bowen and
Makens (2014), several variables can be
used for segmentation but the most
common four include: geographic,
demographic, psychographic and
behavioral segmentation. The basic tenet
of market segmentation is achieving and
maintaining a competitive advantage in the
market that results in profits and superior
financial performance as a result of: (1)
identifying segments of demand, (2)
targeting specific segments, and (3)
developing specific marketing “mixes” for
each targeted market segment (Dibb,
Simkin, Pride, and Ferrell 1994; Hunt
2002b).
Several scholars have suggested
that ethnic marketing should be perceived
as a form of target marketing (Holland &
Gentry 1999), in which the segmenting
variable is ethnicity. These scholars have
defined ethnic marketing as a process of
developing marketing strategies and
actions that meet the needs of a subculture
that might behave differently from others
Volume 20, Number 2
due to their common values, beliefs,
attitudes, and practices. As demographic
shifts continue to act as a catalyst for
social and cultural change in both the
private and commercial spheres, many
companies are discovering that previously
ignored ethnic groups are growing in
market power. Meeting their needs is an
opportunity for success.
Demographic trends among the
largest ethnic groups reveal that each
group will continue to increase in
significance as a potential target market.
African Americans represent an attractive
marketing segment. As a result of better
educational and employment
opportunities, African Americans have
significant buying power. With higher
income, African Americans have more
disposable income that has afforded them
the opportunity to travel for leisure. They
possess the financial means and are
interested in traveling to destinations that
cater to their specific interests. According
to Mandala Research firm, seventeen
percent of African-Americans take one or
more international trips a year and spend
approximately $48 billion on travel in the
United States alone (Chideya, 2014).
This study focuses on New Orleans
as an urban tourism destination and
explores the travel behavior of African
Americans. According to the United
States Travel Association, African
Americans are more likely to travel to
destinations throughout the Southern U.S.
than the general population (Hospitality
Net, 2004). This research explores the
importance of key destination attributes to
determine African American visitors’
preferences and level of satisfaction.
39
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
factor in satisfaction to the respondent
(Silva & Fernandes, 2010). The combined
consumer ratings for the two components
provide an overall view of satisfaction
with clear managerial implications.
Bacon (2003) stated that in IPA
studies, importance/performance can be
evaluated through the use of direct ratings
(e.g. 5 or 7-point scales anchored to “not at
all important” and “extremely important”),
while other studies estimate importance of
services attributes through indirect
measures such as
standardized/unstandardized regression
coefficients or simple correlation
coefficients (Bacon, 2003). In this study,
we applied the direct measures to infer
importance and performance scores. Once
the IPA map is developed, four quadrants
are identified. The four quadrants in
importance-performance analysis are
characterized as (Martilla & James, 1977,
p. 78):
(i) Concentrate here - high importance,
low performance: requires immediate
attention for improvement (major
weaknesses).
(ii) Keep up the good work - high
importance, high performance:
indicates opportunities for achieving or
maintaining competitive advantage
(major strengths).
(iii) Low priority - low importance, low
performance: does not require
additional effort (minor weaknesses).
(iv) Possible overkill - low importance,
high performance: indicates that
business resources committed to these
attributes would be overkill and should
be deployed elsewhere.
The IPA (Importance Performance
Analysis) Theory
The IPA (Importance Performance
Analysis) technique has gained widespread
acceptance across many fields and is
extensively used in the hospitality and
tourism industry because of its simplicity
and attractiveness in projecting results and
in suggesting strategic action to improve
competitiveness.
The IPA technique is a basic
diagnostic decision tool (Matzler,
Sauerwein, & Heischmidt, 2003) that
facilitates the identification of
improvement prioritization (Sampson &
Showalter, 1999), the mobilization and
deployment of scarce resources to where
they are needed most (Levenburg &
Magal, 2005), and the harmonization of
strategic planning efforts to enhance
relative competitiveness (Matzler,
Bailomb, Hinterhuber, Renzl, & Pichler,
2004). Martilla and James (1977)
introduced this concept after recognizing
that analyzing expectations/importance
and satisfaction/perceived performance by
consumers were useful in addressing the
position of attributes. However, the ability
to analyze and relate these attributes to
each other as the IPA does was even more
valuable to decision making. Effectively
identifying better competitiveness drivers
as well as yielding greater marketing and
management insights is crucial for
decision making (Guadagnolo, 1985;
Martilla & James, 1977). The IPA
approach recognizes satisfaction as the
function of two components: the
importance of the attribute to the consumer
and the performance of a business in
providing that service or product (Martilla
& James, 1977). IPA examines not only
the performance of an item, but also the
importance of that item as a determining
40
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Concentrate here
High
Importance/low
Performance
Low Priority
Low
Importance/low
Performance
Volume 20, Number 2
may lead to a lack of understanding
because a consumer could be satisfied with
that specific product/service but not
satisfied with the other components and,
consequently, not overall satisfied with the
destination. The use of IPA addresses this
shortcoming.
Keep up the good
work
High
Importance/High
Performance
Possible Overkill
Low
Importance/high
performance
LITERATURE REVIEW
Contemporary Evolution of African
American Travel
Fig. 1. Importance-Performance Matrix
(Adapted from Martilla & James, 1977, p.
78).
The choice of the IPA paradigm to
guide this inquiry is deemed relevant as
IPA allows us to make a distinction
between the overall satisfaction with the
destination and the satisfaction with single
components/attributes of the destination
itself. Unlike other industries, the
hospitality and tourism industry can be
considered a “system”, with highly
interdependent-sub-sectors (Middleton and
Clarke, 2001). The customer experience is
made up of several services and activities,
such as hotels, restaurants, attractions,
transportation, and entertainment.
Furthermore, besides the functional
components, many contextual and
environmental factors contribute to the
self-evaluation of the tourist experience.
Travelers therefore evaluate each element
separately, and the overall satisfaction
with their experience at a given destination
is a function of satisfaction with the
different elements/attributes of all
products/services that make up the
experience (Oliver, 1993). According to
Oliver (1993), consumer satisfaction on
every attribute has a direct effect on the
overall satisfaction and it captures a
significant amount of variation in overall
satisfaction. A survey focused only on one
of the components (for instance, the hotel)
Washburne (1978) was one of the
first researchers to conceptualize the
framework of the effects of race and
ethnicity on leisure activities. The effects
of historical discrimination, limited
economic resources, and culture were
factors used to explain the underparticipation of African Americans in
outdoor recreation. Washburne (1978)
presented two theories, marginality and
ethnicity, based on a sample of urban
African American and White residents in
California. The marginality perspective
stated that poverty and the effects of
socioeconomic discrimination accounted
for African Americans’ under-participation
in wild land recreation (Washburne, 1978).
Although the marginality perspective
provides a viewpoint on reasons for low
participation in recreation among minority
groups, Floyd (1999) later challenged the
applicability of the marginality perspective
since many factors were no longer
relevant. First, historical discrimination
was considered, but it was not suggested
how contemporary discrimination (actual
or perceived) impacted minorities’
visitation patterns. Second, marginality,
Floyd (1999) argued, could not be applied
to cases where income or other
socioeconomic constraints were less
41
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
relevant. Thus, there was no explanation
for affluent individuals who avoided
recreational activities.
Contrary to the marginality theory,
the ethnicity perspective stated that the
African American leisure patterns
reflected African Americans’ unique
cultural style or ethnicity (Washburne,
1978). Cultural processes or ethnicity
provided a better explanation for the
differences in leisure participation patterns
than socioeconomic factors (Floyd,
McGuire, Shinew, & Noe, 1994). There
have been mixed results in terms of studies
of differences between ethnic groups
pertaining to tourism related factors.
Although Phillip (1993) initially reported
no differences between African Americans
and Whites in terms of destination
preferences, he eventually found that
differences did exist in the types of social
interaction preferred between the two
ethnic groups (Phillip, 1994). Klemm’s
(2002) study of an Asian ethnic group in
the United Kingdom concluded that there
was no evidence to support the marginality
perspective, but a case was made that there
were differences related to ethnicity. These
differences were mainly related to Asians’
preference for culturally relevant
marketing and promotion of tourism
products and services.
Goodrich (1985) was the first to
study the leisure travel behaviors of
African Americans (Willming, 2001).
Goodrich found that African Americans
preferred to travel to learn more about the
culture and lifestyles of the people (89%),
encounter new experiences (61%),
experience the beauty of the country
(40%), visit friends, relatives, and the land
of ancestors (31%), and to conduct
business (5%). Additionally, African
Americans cited a lack of money and time
Volume 20, Number 2
to travel, fear of flying, fear of change and
being alone, poor health conditions,
contentment in their community, and fear
for their safety in unknown places as
barriers to selecting vacations destinations.
Although the sample included only
African Americans, Goodrich (1985)
concluded that African Americans travel
behaviors were similar to Whites travel
behaviors.
The Travel Industry Association of
America (TIA) Travelscope Profile of U.S.
Travelers to Louisiana (2003) also found
that some similarities existed between
African American travelers to Louisiana
and overall visitors to Louisiana. The
study concluded that African Americans
exhibited similar traveler characteristics
like traveling mostly for leisure, by car,
enjoying shopping, attending social/family
events, gambling, and participating in
nightlife/dancing. Some differences in
travel behavior included African
Americans were more likely to travel for
the purpose of visiting family and friends
and attend social or family events, less
likely to travel for business, less likely to
travel by air, more likely to travel in
summer months, more likely to take day
trips, less likely to stay in a hotel, motel, or
B&B, less likely to travel alone, and more
likely to travel with children.
Williams and Chacko (2008)
studied the differences between African
American and White travelers to an urban
destination. Their study assessed whether
the differences in travel behaviors were
due to historical economic discrimination
(marginality) or related to differences in
culture (ethnicity). A major finding was
that both African Americans and Whites
selected the same top five important urban
destination attributes (friendly people,
cleanliness, safety, adult destination, and
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
affordable). The authors also concluded
that the differences in travel behavior were
more likely related to ethnicity than to
marginality. Thus, the differences in
African American and White traveler
behaviors were more likely due to interest
rather than income.
Volume 20, Number 2
resulted in $120 million in debt, it
successfully paved the way for the tourism
industry in New Orleans. The 1984 Fair
resulted in the construction of The Ernest
N. Morial Convention Center (formerly
the New Orleans Convention Center), a
hotel building boom, the Riverwalk Mall,
the Aquarium of the Americas, Entergy
IMAX theater, the redevelopment of the
city’s Warehouse District, and many other
attractions. The convention center was a
boost to the city’s economy when the oil
industry, corporate mergers, and decline in
blue-collar manufacturing all threatened
the financial stability of the city. Overall,
the World’s Fair exposed the city of New
Orleans to the world and was the catalyst
for the development and growth of
tourism.
Today, tourism is one of the top
industries in New Orleans. In 2004, New
Orleans boasted record attendance and
spending by visitors. According to the
University of New Orleans Hospitality
Research Center (2013), 10.1 million
visitors spent $4.9 billion in the city which
resulted in $57 million in local tax revenue
and 80,000 jobs in the metropolitan area.
In 2013, 9.28 million visitors spent $6.47
billion, a 4.5 percent increase over 2012
and the highest spending in the city's
history (University of New Orleans
Hospitality Research Center, 2013).
New Orleans and African American
Tourism
New Orleans has been an attractive
visitor destination for more than a century.
The initial emergence of tourism can be
attributed to the shipping and warehouse
activities established at the foot of Canal
Street during the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries which influenced the
size, configuration, and atmosphere of the
tourist-oriented landscape that emerged
during the late twentieth century. The
New Orleans shipping industry marked the
beginning of the “hospitality industry” as
the city became a major point of entry for
the country. The transient population of
seamen, immigrants, and tourists supplied
a lucrative demand for restaurants,
theatres, operas, bars, gambling houses,
and red-light establishments.
It wasn’t until the 1970s that
tourism officials were beginning to fulfill
their dreams of making New Orleans a
convention destination. In 1975, the
Louisiana Superdome and the Hyatt
Regency Hotel’s grand openings finally
fueled the surge in tourism in the city of
New Orleans, an occurrence that industry
officials anticipated. One year later, the
Hilton Riverside opened adding 1,250
rooms to the pool of 15,962 rooms.
Tourism’s growth was arguably
spawned by the 1984 Louisiana World’s
Fair which was held 100 years after the
1884 World’s Industrial and Cotton
Centennial Exposition. Although the Fair
The Lucrative African American Travel
Market
As a result of better educational and
employment opportunities, African
Americans have gained significant buying
power. African Americans have more
disposable income which has afforded
them the opportunity to travel for leisure.
African Americans currently represent
more than $1.1 trillion in purchasing
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
power (Baker, 2013); purchasing $2.8
billion on entertainment and leisure and
spending $6.4 billion on travel,
transportation, and lodging (Target Market
News, 2010).
Kilkenny (2009) interviewed
professionals that cater to the minority
travel industry and found that African
Americans represent a lucrative market
and historically are less impacted by
economic downturns than the general
public. African Americans spend
approximately $600 billion annually on
heritage travel alone, and destinations that
target African Americans could generate
profits (Kilkenny, 2009). The article
concluded that as domestic and
international travelers travel less,
destinations begin searching for new or
underserved niche markets to fill the gap.
African Americans were found to be a
flourishing market yet barely tapped by
tourism destinations. African Americans
account for seventy million person trips
annually, spend ten percent of money on
group travel with expenditures of
approximately $1000 per person on travel
excluding transportation (Kilkenny, 2009).
Jenkins (2010) found that 70
percent of African Americans between the
ages of 25 and 44 with incomes of greater
than $75,000 annually possess passports.
One-third of African Americans indicated
that they traveled internationally a
minimum of three times per year, and ten
percent said they traveled internationally at
least every other month. African
Americans were estimated to have spent 7
to 8 percent of the estimated $112.4 billion
spent by travelers to international
destinations in 2008. The most popular
international destinations for African
Americans included Paris, London;
Madrid, Spain, the Caribbean, South
Volume 20, Number 2
American particularly Brazil (Jenkins,
2010).
According to the American Hotel
and Lodging Association (2010), African
American hotel and bed and breakfast
users’ domestic travel is concentrated to
the top four states of Georgia (11%),
California (9%), Texas (8%), and Florida
(6%). States in the South such as
Louisiana and Mississippi as well as states
in the Northeast region such as New York
and Pennsylvania have some
concentrations of hotel and bed and
breakfast users. Other destinations,
however, can target the untapped African
American traveler to boost their visitation.
The purpose of this study was to
examine African American traveler’s
expectations, perceptions, and satisfaction
with the destination (CNO) as measured
by the perceived IPA tool. The results of
this research can provide valuable new
insights and tools for travel organizations
and stakeholders for the African American
traveler market segment. Additionally,
results of this study could assist the city’s
marketing organizations by providing an
understanding of the buying power and
travel behaviors of this untapped niche
market; allowing the CNO to best match
the destination’s appropriate attractions
and experiences to African American
travelers’ specific interests. This study
addresses what Page (1995) identified as a
demand for tourism by the African
American population to New Orleans.
To accomplish the purpose of the
study, the following research questions
were developed:
(i)
identify which attributes
African American travelers
perceive important when
visiting New Orleans
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
identify African American
travelers perceived
performance on these attributes
by the city of New Orleans
present managerial
implications of the findings and
make recommendations for the
city of New Orleans
discuss future research
emanating from the findings
Volume 20, Number 2
tourism leaders was utilized. The survey
was tested by professors and industry
stakeholders to ensure reliability and
validity.
A self-administered questionnaire
with four sections was developed. Section
I was designed to collect respondents’
travel behavior patterns, such as
frequency of travel to New Orleans,
number of people in the travel party, intent
to revisit, previous trip characteristics, trip
characteristics when planning any trip,
reasons for not visiting, and concerns
about visiting New Orleans.
Section II was designed to measure
consumers’ perceptions and performance
of the attributes of traveling to New
Orleans. Twenty-two statements adapted
from previous literature and the expert
panel were used for the survey. In this
section, consumers were asked to rate the
22 statements for their importance, as well
as their performance on a 5-point Likerttype scale. Importance ratings were 1 (not
important), 2 (somewhat important), 3
(fairly important), 4 (very important), and
5 (extremely important). Performance
ratings were 1 (not satisfied), 2 (somewhat
satisfied), 3 (fairly satisfied), 4 (very
satisfied), and 5 (extremely satisfied).
Section III asked the respondents to
rate their overall satisfaction with the visit,
overall experience, and their intention to
visit again. Respondents were asked to rate
how satisfied overall they were with this
visit experience on a scale of 1–5 (with 1 =
not satisfied and 5 = extremely satisfied).
Then, respondents were asked to rate how
likely it is that they will return to New
Orleans on a scale of 1–5 (with 1 = not
likely to return and 5 = definitely will
return).
Finally, Section IV was designed to
collect New Orleans African American
METHODOLOGY
Target Population and Sampling
The target population for this study
was customers who visited the city of New
Orleans Louisiana, United States. A
convenient sampling method was used for
the survey.
Survey Instrument
The proprietary survey instrument
was developed in 2012 from previous
survey instruments utilized by the
Louisiana Department of Culture,
Recreation, and Tourism and New Orleans
Convention and Visitor’s Bureau. The
initial questionnaire was developed by
tourism officials and university professors
based on an extensive literature review
including: Zhang and Chow (2008),
perception of tour guides by tourists, Duke
and Persia (1996) study of tourist pre-trip
expectations, post-trip satisfactions and
importance of each on an IPA grid to
consider potential decisions for escorted
tours design. In addition, the items of
performance of hotels (Chu and Choi,
2000; Wilkins, 2010), tourism events
(Smith and Costello, 2008) and the recent
work of Söresson and von Friedrichs
(2013) on tourism destinations with regard
to social and environmental sustainability
were considered. Finally, the input from
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
travelers’ demographic information, such
as gender, age, ethic group, etc.
Volume 20, Number 2
host site, SurveyMonkey.com. The data
were edited for accuracy and logical
consistency. SPSS 21.0 was used to
analyze the visitor surveys.
Pilot Test
A pilot test with 50 respondents
was conducted. The purpose was to test
the internal consistency of the
measurement scale. Pretesting was
important since the scale was developed
out of items adapted from previous studies,
travelers and experts and modified for the
purpose of this study. Cronbach’s alpha for
the importance scale was 0.94, and
Cronbach’s alpha for the performance
scale was 0.92. Since a value of 0.70 or
higher is considered acceptable in social
science (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994;
Santos, 1999), the scale used for this study
had high internal consistency. The scale
was therefore considered appropriate and
used for data collection.
Data Analysis
The reliability of the scale was first
examined. The scale performed well on
both importance and performance ratings.
Cronbach’s alpha for the importance
ratings was 0.89, and Cronbach’s alpha for
the performance ratings was 0.86. These
two values both dropped slightly compared
with the values of the pilot test but would
still be considered good considering the
cut-off value of 0.70 (Nunnally &
Bernstein, 1994; Santos, 1999). The scale
still displayed a high internal consistency,
and a relatively stable performance across
samples. Descriptive statistics (frequency,
mean, and standard deviation) were
performed first in order to gain the general
profile of the travelers. A paired-sample ttest was performed to test if significant
differences exist between the importance
and performance of the city of New
Orleans quality attributes. In addition, IPA
was performed to categorize the attracting
attributes and to identify the areas that
require different level of focus and
management strategy. The grand means of
the importance scale and the performance
scale were used as the center point of the
IPA figure (Figure 2). Then, the mean
scores of the importance and performance
of the attributes were calculated and
plotted into Figure 2.
Data Collection
Using a database containing over
17,000 names generated from Textures
within the last two years, a link to the
survey was sent to all users in the
database. Textures is the official African
American travel guide to Louisiana
produced by the Louisiana Office of
Tourism. Visitors can either call or
request a free copy from the Louisiana
Office of Tourism website. After
removing the undeliverable emails and the
request to unsubscribe emails, 14,759
emails remained in the database. A total
of 990 surveys were completed, but only
787 useable surveys were utilized since
Louisiana residents were excluded from
the study. Of the 787 useable surveys,
African American respondents completed
430 surveys. After cleaning the data, 271
surveys were available for analysis. The
survey data were downloaded from the
46
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
importance and performance on each
service quality attribute in Table 3. The
following attributes were significantly
different at .05 or lower:
Restaurant/Culinary Experience, Fairs and
Festivals, Watch Sports, Nightlife, Family
Reunion, Hotel Experience,
Safety/Security, Shopping, and Spa.
RESULTS
Demographics
Of the 271 usable African
American respondents’ surveys, 85.3%
were female and 14.7% were male.
Respondents reported that they were
married (40.8%), single (32.6%), divorced
(19.7%), living with a partner (4.0%), and
widowed (2.9%). The respondent’s age
was mostly 45-54 (35.3%) followed by 3544 (31.1%), 55-64 (15.1%), and 25-34
(15.0%). Most African American
respondents were employed (93%) and not
students (80.4%). The largest household
income range was $25,001-$50,000
(30.3%) followed by $50,001-$75,000
(28.3%). Together, 58.6% of African
Americans reported income ranges from
$25,001-$75,000 annually.
Table 1: Demographics Table
Gender
Female
Male
Total
Marital
Married
Single
Divorced
Partnered
Widowed
Total
Age Group
20 to 24
25 to 34
35 to 44
45 to 54
55 to 64
65+
Total
Perceived Importance-Performance of
the City of New Orleans
The means and standard deviations
(SD) of all the importance attributes and
performance attributes were analyzed. The
means of the perceived importance and
performance of the attributes are shown in
Table 2.
The following attributes: Value for
Money, Nightlife, Restaurant/Culinary
Experience, Fairs and Festivals, and
Cultural Activities were perceived as the
top five most important for the city of New
Orleans. On the other hand, customers
perceived that New Orleans performed the
highest on the following attributes:
Restaurant/Culinary Experience, Fairs and
Festivals, Watching Sports, Nightlife,
Family Reunion, and Visit Historic Sites.
A paired-sample t-test was performed to
analyze if a significant difference exists
between customers’ perception toward
Number
231
40
271
Percent
85.3
14.7
100
111
88
53
11
8
271
40.8
32.6
19.7
4.0
2.9
100
4
40
85
96
41
6
271
1.4
14.9
31.2
35.3
15.1
2.1
100
252
19
271
93
7
100
Employment Status
Employed
Retired/unemployed
Total
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
2: Perceived Importance –Performance on the Attributes
Attribute
Performance
Attribute
Restaurant/Culinary Experience
4.94
Fairs and Festivals
4.78
Watch Sports
4.78
Nightlife
4.67
Family Reunion
Visit Historic Sites
Museums
Hotel Experience
Cultural Activities
Unique Attractions
Zoos
Safety/Security
Value for Money
Family Attractions
4.44
4.44
4.39
4.33
4.06
3.94
3.94
3.66
3.44
3.44
Shopping
2.94
Exciting Gaming
Golf
Gambling
Spa
2.78
2.50
2.25
1.83
Importance
Value for Money
4.28
Nightlife
Restaurant/Culinary Experience
Fairs and Festivals
Cultural Activities
Family Attractions
Family Reunion
Visit Historic Sites
Safety/Security
Shopping
Gambling
Unique Attractions
Exciting Gaming
Museums
Hotel Experience
Watch Sports
Golf
Spa
Zoos
4.25
4.20
4.06
4.06
4.01
3.90
3.78
3.78
3.50
3.23
3.22
3.22
3.12
3.11
2.80
2.22
1.94
1.08
Table 3: Differences between Performance/Importance of Attributes
Attribute
Restaurant/Culinary Experience
Performance
4.94
Importance
4.20
P-I
0.74
t-Value
9.35
0.000
Fairs and Festivals
4.78
4.06
0.72
6.75
0.000
Watch Sports
4.78
2.80
1.98
3.24
0.005
Nightlife
4.67
4.25
0.42
8.88
0.000
Family Reunion
4.44
3.90
0.54
6.68
Visit Historic Sites
4.44
3.78
0.66
2.99
0.000
0.062
Museums
4.39
3.12
1.27
0.64
0.532
Hotel Experience
Cultural Activities
4.33
4.06
3.11
4.06
1.22
0.00
5.17
0.00
0.000
1.000
Unique Attractions
3.94
3.22
0.72
1.34
0.200
Zoos
3.94
1.08
2.86
4.35
Safety/Security
3.66
3.78
-0.12
-1.17
0.034
0.260
Value for Money
3.44
4.28
-0.84
-1.71
0.105
Family Attractions
3.44
4.01
-0.57
-1.59
0.131
Shopping
2.94
3.50
-0.56
-8.10
Exciting Gaming
2.78
3.22
-0.44
-1.72
0.000
0.104
Golf
2.50
2.22
0.28
-1.32
0.205
Gambling
2.25
3.23
-0.98
-0.16
0.875
Spa
1.83
1.94
-0.11
-3.83
0.001
*Significant attributes are in bold.
48
Sig*
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Experience, Fairs and Festivals, and Hotel
Experience. Notably, the attribute, “Safety
and Security” fell exactly on the line that
separates “Keep up the good work” and
the “Concentrate Here” quadrants.
Attributes in the “Concentrate Here”
area are perceived as important by
travelers but not well developed/performed
by the city. Based on the results, the city
is not fully meeting the needs and
expectations of the respondents. These are
considered areas with potential and if
developed and nurtured, could provide the
city with a future competitive advantage.
The IPA Results
Based on the data analysis as well as
the results of the paired-sample t-tests, the
IPA was conducted. The results of IPA are
presented in Figure 2. Attributes in the
“Keep up the good work” quadrant are
attributes that are perceived as important
and performing well by customers, so
managers need to keep up the good work.
They included: Cultural Activities,
Nightlife, Reunion, Restaurants
Figure 2: IPA Results
IPA New-Orleans
4.50
4.00
3.50
Gambling
Importance
3.00
Nightlife
Value for Money Cultural Activities
Restaurants
Fairs and Festivals
Family Attraction
Reunion
Security
Historic Sites
Shopping
Unique Attrations
Gaming
Hotel ExperienceMuseums
Watch Sports
2.50
Golf
2.00
Spa
1.50
Zoos
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
Performance
3.00
Tourism stakeholders and the city therefore
need to pay further attention to these
attributes and make efforts to improve the
performance of the attributes falling into this
area or develop strategies that justify this type
of performance. Typically, there is a need for
reallocation of resources, time, and attention
4.00
5.00
6.00
into this area. These attributes include: Family
Attractions, Gambling, Exciting Gaming,
Shopping, and Value for Money. The spring
2014 opening of the Outlet Collection at
Riverwalk, considered the nation's first upscale
outlet center in the New Orleans downtown
setting is exactly the type of retail infusion that
49
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
will support the “Concentrate Here” area for the
city.
Several attributes fell into the “Low
Priority” area. Customers perceive
attributes that fall into this area as not so
important for their destination experience.
In addition, these attributes are perceived
as not being well performed by the city.
Therefore, they should not be the
stakeholder’s immediate priority. These
attributes for the city of New Orleans
include: Spa and Golf.
Under the “Overkill” quadrant:
Museums, Watch Sport, and Zoo are areas
that the city is providing a positive
experience for the African American
traveler. African American travelers enjoy
visiting museums and historic sites in New
Orleans. New Orleans offers specific
attractions that would appeal to the
African American visitor. For example,
the New Orleans African American
Museum of Art, Culture, and History is
located in Tremé, the oldest surviving
black community in the United States. The
museum is “dedicated to protecting,
preserving, and promoting the history and
art of African Americans both in New
Orleans and throughout the African
diaspora”.
tourism products. This study, therefore,
presented the results of a quantitative
analysis of African American visitors’
perceptions toward the city of New
Orleans as a tourist destination. The
purpose of the analysis was to identify
tourists’ perceptions regarding the
importance and performance of tourism
product attributes, services, and other
destination attributes crucial for travelers.
Another important goal of this study was
to compare the mean tourists’ assessments
regarding the importance and performance
of the distinguished tourism product
attributes. The implications of the research
findings are discussed with regard to the
destination management, tourist services
providers and other entities involved in
hospitality and tourism development.
Specifically, this study was
designed to meet the following objectives
and outcomes:
(i)
(ii)
Discussions and Conclusions
(iii)
Destination managers face the
challenge of 1) properly identifying
tourism attributes that appeal to specific
market segments and 2) making sure to
provide the identified services and
experiences in a high quality manner. In
order to meet these challenges, it is
necessary to conduct customer satisfaction
surveys that consider tourists’ perceptions
and preferences when developing new
(iv)
identify which attributes
African American travelers
perceive important when
visiting New Orleans
identify African American
travelers perceived
performance on these attributes
by the city of New Orleans
present managerial
implications of the findings and
make recommendations for the
city of New Orleans
discuss future research
emanating from the findings
Regarding objectives (i) and (ii): “identify
which attributes African American
travelers perceive important when visiting
New Orleans” and “identify African
50
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
American travelers perceived performance
on these attributes by the city of New
Orleans”, the following attributes were
identified as important to the travelers:
Value for money, family attractions,
security, shopping, gambling, gaming,
hotel experience, restaurant/cuisine
experience, nightlife, fairs and festivals,
unique attractions, historic sites. The
following were identified as less important
to the African American travelers:
Golfing, spa, museums, watch sports and
zoos. Of the identified attributes, the city
of New Orleans was perceived to perform
well on the following items that fell in the
“keep the good work” quadrant; Hotel
experience, restaurant/cuisine experience,
nightlife, fairs and festivals, unique
attractions, historic sites. These attributes
represent the strength of the city. They are
high priority attributes for the travelers and
they are the attributes on which the city is
perceived to perform well.
The results revealed that African
American travelers enjoy attending fairs,
festivals, concerts, plays, or performances
when traveling. Capitalizing on this fact, a
major music festival is held annually
during the typically slow summer month
of July. The Essence Music Festival,
which is held during July 4th weekend,
draws large numbers of African American
tourists to New Orleans each year. In
2014, The Essence Festival brought over a
half-million people to the city, generating
about $200 million during a weekend that
was at one time very slow for tourism
(Waller, 2014). Other musical festivals
such as the Jazz and Heritage Festival and
Satchmo Festival are held annually in New
Orleans, and these festivals may increase
attendance by targeting African American
travelers. Other destinations may consider
marketing existing festivals and events or
Volume 20, Number 2
creating new festivals and events during
the summer months, which may also
attract African American visitors to their
destination.
Even though New Orleans is home
to one of the oldest outdoor shopping
markets in the United States, the French
Market, which has been operating for three
centuries, it is possible that the travelers
are looking for more than what is
available. In addition, the city boasts some
of the most famous Creole food restaurants
in the world. New Orleans offers some
limited gambling casinos and facilities
such as Harrah’s and the New Orleans Fair
Grounds Race Course and Slots. All of
these areas can be harnessed by the city of
New Orleans so they can match the
interests of African American travelers.
Cultural activities were among the
top activities of Africans Americans
visiting New Orleans: visiting historic
sites (52.3%) and attending museums or
art galleries (40.5%). New Orleans has a
large inventory of significant cultural
attractions, monuments, museums, and
galleries. For example, the New Orleans
African American Museum (NOAAM) is
located in Tremé, which is the oldest
surviving African American community
in the Unites States. NOAAM provides
resources, exhibits, and tours of this
historic neighborhood. The Backstreet
Cultural Museum is another cultural
treasure in the African American
community promoting art and culture in
the Tremé neighborhood since 1999. In
attempting to attract more African
American travelers to not just New
Orleans, better communication of cultural
resources could be an important strategy.
The “Concentrate Here” attributes,
even though identified as important by the
travelers were found to fall short of the
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
traveler expectations. Thus, they are
perceived as not well performed by the
city of New Orleans. This represents a
potential threat to the city tourism. These
attributes are those found in the
“Concentrate Here” quadrant: Value for
money, family attractions, security,
shopping, gambling and gaming.
The attributes considered not important
by the respondents yet the city appeared to
perform very well on include: museums,
watch sports and zoos. While golfing,
biking/hiking and visiting a spa were not
considered important and the city did not
perform well on these. These represent a
potential weakness of the city.
The following discussion will examine
some of the attributes that should be
addressed. The attributes that fall in the
“Concentrate Here” quadrant represent the
greatest challenge to New Orleans
stakeholders. Security and safety appears
to fall right on the borderline of
“Concentrate Here” and “Keep up the
Good Work” quadrants. The implication is
that security sparks mixed feelings among
respondents. It is an attribute perceived as
important yet depending on who is
evaluating the issue; security will either
earn the favorable or unfavorable
quadrant. It is important for the city to find
a position for this attribute. Particularly,
officials should strive to position the City
as a safe place to visit. This is especially
important for leisure travelers, who are
likely to travel with families. Currently,
security in New Orleans has been
identified as a major concern for residents
and tourism stakeholders. Initiatives are in
place to address the perception of tourist
safety. One new program that New
Orleans has established includes a special
crime prevention unit to protect tourists.
Personnel must be specially trained in
Volume 20, Number 2
issues of interest to tourists and be able to
work with local associations and bureaus.
Funding for the 50 uniformed civilians that
comprise the "NOLA Patrol," is from the
hotel industry. A portion of the city's hotel
tax, 0.25 percent, is devoted for services in
the French Quarter. Estimates are up to
$200,000 each month under agreement
with the New Orleans Convention &
Visitors Bureau and the City Council.
Value for money is another attribute of
concern. Travelers rated value for money
as the most important attribute (M= 4.28).
This finding is not surprising. Generally,
since the 1990s, travelers have appeared to
be more practical, taking a cautious
approach to discretionary spending by
cutting back their travel budgets and
looking for ways to pay less for more
(Sellers, 1991). This importance of value
is also corroborated the findings of
Shalini, Tripathi and Siddiqui (2010). In
their conjoint analysis study, they found
that consumers place value as a high
importance attribute. The analyses of the
study findings reveal that there is a
statistically significant gap between the
importance and performance of this
attribute. By implication, the travelers
placed a high importance on price and
value. They however, found that the City
of New Orleans (CNO) was of a lower
value than expected. Given that value can
be captured in the tourism context value
can be captured in two constructs: price
and quality that travelers experience, value
should therefore include the overall price
worthiness of visiting a destination, the
price worthiness of the accommodation,
the price worthiness of food and
restaurants as well as the price worthiness
of the goods, products and services offered
in the shops and other places at the
destination (Narayan, Rajendran, Sai, and
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Gopalan, 2009), the CNO should strive to
develop strategies that justify the
perceived lower value for the dollar. The
CNO needs recognize that due to
heightened competition for travelers
among destinations, consumers have
developed greater desire greater value for
money (Kandampully and Suhartanto,
2000). It is therefore recommended that
the city adapts the optimal pricing strategy
particularly if the city has a desire to
capture travelers as part of a growth in
arrivals numbers (Woodruff, 1997).
However, like Kandampully and
Suhartanto (2000) caution, the focus
should not necessarily be on price and
pricing strategies but rather on
emphasizing unique benefits as a means of
creating greater perceived value and
customer satisfaction, thus, New Orleans
could deflect the consumer focus toward
the benefits versus the price as mere
reduction in price does not yield value for
money. Value is only felt when the
benefits are perceived to outweigh costs.
Therefore the city should pursue valuebased pricing strategies.
Another important attribute on which
the CNO did not perform well is shopping.
The importance of shopping as a tourist
attraction has remained underrepresented
(Heung and Cheung, 2000; Lay and Au,
2000). As growth of urban tourism sprawls
across the United States, more intense
competition for the traveler has emerged.
One way for these cities to achieve an
edge over the competition is to embark on
marketing strategies that depict the
destination as unique as possible.
Shopping facilities could be one of the
attributes that would position a city in a
unique point. Indeed, it is presented in the
extant literature that, the desire for
relaxation, escaping from the mundane and
Volume 20, Number 2
accepting a challenge associated with
shopping could draw people to cross the
border to a destination country (Law and
Au, 2000). Many tourists in nature base
their motivation for travel in pursuit of
pleasurable experiences (Timothy and
Butler, 1995) and shopping has been
determined as one of the pleasurable
activities. Therefore, shopping and tourism
should be perceived as activities that occur
concurrently and can fulfill the desire for
products, lifestyle brands, and images
from other cultures; a phenomenon that
has become attractive and exciting to
consumers (Cornwell and Drennan, 2004).
In the meantime, shopping malls play a
significant role in fulfilling the tourists
shopping desires These shopping malls not
only provide a place to shop, but also
provide entertainment, food, drink and
places to socialize. The timing has been
very good for New Orleans in regard to
new retail experiences. The spring 2014
opening of the Outlet Collection at
Riverwalk – the nation's first upscale outlet
center in the New Orleans downtown
setting is exactly the type of retail infusion
that will support the desire for shopping.
Conclusions and Future Research
Many scholars agree that market
segmentation is not only desirable but
should be a continued focus of study.
These authors propose that heterogeneity
of demand is not only existent but is a
natural phenomenon (e.g., Alderson, 1965;
Allenby, Arora, and Ginter 1998;
McCarthy 1960; Smith 1956) that should
be pursued by all businesses. According to
Allenby, Arora, and Ginter (1998, p. 384) :
“demand heterogeneity is a critical
element of marketing” and that a “lack of
homogeneity on the demand side may be
based upon different customs, desire for
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
variety, or desire for exclusivity or may
arise from basic differences in user needs.”
Smith’s (1956, p. 4). Smith (1956)
suggested that segmentation and targeting
can be attributed to consumers’ desires for
more precise satisfaction of their varying
wants. Heterogeneity has been emphasized
by Sawhney’s (1998, p. 54) statement:
“Customers are becoming very
sophisticated and are demanding
customized products and services to match
individual preferences and tastes.”
Similarly, Lancaster (1990) maintains that
the existence of segmentation can be a
result of consumers seeking variety in their
own consumption and/or different
consumers wanting different variants
because tastes differ. From this
perspective, companies and businesses are
encouraged to pursue segmentation
strategies.
African Americans present an
attractive marketing segment. They
possess the financial means and are
interested in traveling to destinations,
which cater to their specific interests.
Results from this study indicated a variety
of activities that African Americans chose
to participate in while vacationing. The
city of New Orleans could utilize this
technique (IPA) to improve its marketing
efforts; for example, make certain that
cultural venues, are available and
effectively promoted to this important part
of the travel population.
This study presents some
weaknesses that pave the way for future
studies. Considering that a significant
percentage of respondents ages were
between 35-54 (66.4%), it would be
important to follow up with future research
on this population to determine if parents
or a single parent travel with children
under the age of 18 and what their
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perceptions of New Orleans are as a
family destination. As cities are
increasingly competing for tourists and
niche travel markets, this could be an
important benchmark to gauge African
American leisure travelers. Other
destinations that offer family friendly
attractions may consider marketing to
African Americans.
Results from the current study
could be used as lessons learned for
understanding travel preferences of
African Americans traveling to a variety of
destinations. Attending festivals, cultural
events, and shopping are among the top
preferred activities of African Americans
visiting any destination. Because the
wording of the survey question
specifically focused on activities at any
destination, these results could be applied
to a variety of locations. DMOs and travel
professionals could utilize this information
to pull the African American leisure
traveler to their specific locations.
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59
SMART SWOT Strategic Planning Analysis: For Service Robot Utilization in the
Hospitality Industry
Chun-Min Kuo
Professor, Leisure Industry Management - National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taiwan
Guo-Shing Huang
Professor, Electronic Engineering - National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taiwan
Chin-Yao Tseng
Assistant Professor, Tourism & Leisure Management-Yuanpei University of Medical
Technology, Corresponding author, Taiwan,
Ernest P. Boger
Associate Professor & Department Chairman, Hospitality & Tourism Management- University
of Maryland Eastern Shore, USA
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand the values of introducing service robots, and
to develop a robotics strategy, potentially for the hospitality industry in Taiwan. Experts and
semi-structured interviews with SMART SWOT survey were used to explore the perspectives of
robotics experts and hotel practitioners. Five sets of the perspectives, along with 60 items as key
issues, were identified. Findings showed that the media awareness was good for business in
short-term strategic planning. The labor cost savings were a potential benefit for business in
long-term strategic planning. Last, it suggested that educators should modify their training
courses since robotics services will require skilled workers.
Keywords: Hospitality Industry, Hospitality Attitude, Service Robots, SMART SWOT
Analysis, Strategic Planning
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Number 2
Volume 20,
1. Introduction
1.2 Purpose of this study
1.1 The issue
The purpose of this study is to
understand what values shapes the
introduction of service robots for the
hospitality industry in Taiwan. The
objectives of this study include (1) identify
the benefits of introducing service robots
in the hospitality industry in Taiwan; (2)
understand the needs of the Taiwan
hospitality industry use of robotics
technology via the SMART SWOT
strategic method; and (3) provide
recommendation and guidelines for the
hospitality industry as it considers
introducing robotics service solutions.
Hospitality is a worldwide high
value-added chimney-free industry, which
can sustain the competitiveness of nations
with growth economies (Scowsill, 2015).
However, hospitality is a labor intensive
industry with heavy workloads, minimum
wages, and shift work. These work
conditions lead to labor shortages and high
turnover rates, which require constant
attention from management. In addition,
delivery of service quality may be also
affected by the emotions of inexperienced
or untrained part-time front line employees
(Nickson et al., 2005). Therefore, this
study explores the values of introducing
service robots by using the SMART
SWOT strategic method in the hospitality
industry.
Service robots are loosely defined
as interactive electronic devices
performing traditional human functions,
not necessarily electronic humanoids.
However, the latest service delivery
technology, with an interface offing video
images, voice, and touch sensors, is able to
interact, communicate, express and
entertain, thereby making robots closer
and friendlier to customers (Zalama et al.,
2014). These developments have the
potential to increase operational efficiency,
while providing a unique feature and
maintaining a high standard of service
quality to underpin the business with
competitive and economic advantages.
Despite this potential, few studies have
specifically addressed service robots for
the hospitality industry using the SMART
SWOT strategic planning analysis.
2. Literature review
2.1 Service and hospitality Innovation
The concept of ‘innovation’ as
introduced by Schumpeter in 1934 has
evolved in association with the hospitality
industry to embrace ‘outside-in’ and
‘inside-out’ openness to new technologies
and processes (Chesbrough, 2011).
‘Outside-in’ refers to ideas from outside
the company and ‘inside-out’ refers to
ideas from inside the company
(Chesbrough, 2011). This indicates that
service innovation is not a simple linear
process of changes to the traditional value
chain. Rather, it is an iterative process that
includes customer involvement and
participation (Chesbrough, 2011).
Incremental innovation and radical
innovation are the two main types of
service innovation (Frankel, 1990;
Schumann, 1994). Incremental innovation
involves new technology such as the use of
smartphones in hotels for on-line checkins, or the use of in-room entertainment
amenities, which have improved selfservice processes (Berezina and
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Volume 20,
Number 2
Cobanoglu, 2010; Victorini et al., 2005).
extend, and modify its resource for a long
The use of service robots for hotels, on the
term competitive advantage (Helfat and
other hand, is a radical innovation. It
Peteraf, 2003). Both theories enable a
involves a dramatic restructuring of the
business to develop competitive strategies
organizational and service processes. This
based on the view that its resources must
portends possible improvement in labor
be valuable, rare, inimitable and nonutilization and creation of new markets
substitutable if they are to support its
through the exploitation of a new
dynamic capabilities (Eisenhardt and
compelling technology (Lisboa et al.,
Martin, 2000; den Hertog et al., 2010).
2011).
Such strategies are developed in a
Any service innovation involves
sequential process that the business must
six dimensions: (1) a new service concept;
follow to identify difficult-to-imitate assets
(2) new customer interactions; (3) new
first and, based on this, integrate and
business partners; (4) a new revenue
reconfigure the business’s internal and
model; (5) a new delivery system,
external competencies to address its
involving new personnel, organization and
rapidly changing environment (Teece et
culture; and (6) a new delivery system,
al., 1997; den Hertog et al., 2010). This is
involving new technological options (den
the view of a strategy for successfully
Hertzog et al., 2010). A new service
innovating and capturing sufficient value
solution can be created in association with
for hotels to deliver superior long-term
one or several dimensions that sustain
financial performance (Teece, 2007).
competitiveness for hotels. For instance,
from a long-term financial performance
2.2 The hardware
perspective, an investment in service
From the hardware perspective, the
robots could be recouped in a certain
unit price of a service robot which can
period of time, reducing the costs of
independently perform some simple tasks
employment, personnel management, and
in a fixed environment in around
training (Bilgihan et al. 2011; den Hertog
USD22,000 (Pai, 2014). Such tasks
et al., 2010).
include greeting customers, carrying
A service innovation model has
luggage, showing surroundings, and
been developed and explained based on
providing service information using a
two theories: the resource-based view
touch screen. This type of the service
(Barney, 1991; Teece et al., 1997;
robots looks like a bellboy, whose body
Wernerfelt, 1984) and the dynamic
design includes expressive head, camera
capabilities view (Eisenhardt and Martin,
and microphone, eyes, mouth, two arms,
2000; Helfat and Peteraf, 2003; Teece et
and a touch screen in front of the torso
al., 1997). The resource-based view refers
(Zalama et al., 2014). In addition, the
to the core value or competence the
return on the service robot investment
company possesses which can be
could be expected within about 2.5 years
identified, and which sustains its
based on a porter’s annual salary of
competitiveness in the market (Wernerfelt,
USD8800. Van Dam et al. (2011) and
1984). The dynamic capability view refers
Garmann-Johnsen et al. (2014) further
to the capability of a company to create,
stress that service robots can enhance
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Number 2
efficiency of operations by 12 per cent,
highlights such products as the Spencer
with increased delivery stability and
entertainment robot developed in America
decreased delivery time. Although this
and the ASIM0 entertainment robot from
improvement is achieved based on proper
Japan. South Korea has a fledgling robot
training and acceptance of staff, this is a
museum that bears watching as innovation
significant outcome. This thus satisfies the
continues to unfold. Table 1 (Huang, 2010)
contention that the profitability of a new
shows the points out service robot
service concept must be confirmed before
development direction for America, Japan,
it is implemented.
Europe, and South Korea.
2.3 Global service robot development
Americas, Japanese and European
alliances have invested in the development
of industrial robot technology for many
decades. Such robots were initially
developed to perform dangerous, simple,
and repetitive work. The focus of
technology development for robots now
has shifted from industrial application to
service application. This is evident from
the global summary below which
Table 1: Summary of country service robot development
Countries
Focus of development
America
1.National defense
2.Space-based development
3.Innovation application
Japan
1.Humanoid robots
2.Service application
Government policies and
projects
1.Robotic cooperation
association (Human-robot
interaction)
2.Robotic industrial
association (New market)
Robot products
1.Roomba vacuum cleaner
robot
2. Spencer entertainment
robot
3. PELP entertainment
robot
1.ASIMO entertainment
robot
2.Tour guide robot
3.PAPERO healthcare robot
1.Next generation of robot
practical plan
2.New industry innovation
strategy
3.Research institutes of
robotic policy
4.New economic growth
strategy
Europe
1.Critical technology
1.International advanced
1.Medicare robot
2.Healthcare robots
robot plan
2.Cyberhand disability aids
3.National defense robots
2.Mobile assistant robot plan
robot
4.Household robots
3.European robotic
3. Da Vinci robotic surgical
technology network plan
robot
South Korea
1.Broadband network
1.Program of IT839 strategy
1.Genibo entertainment
connection
2.Ten new growth engine
electronic pet
2.Household robots
industries
2.SR9630 cleaner robot
3.Entertainment robots
3.Robot museum
4.Medical robots
4. Ubiquitous Robotic
Companion
Sources: Huang, L. S. (2010).Taiwan's service robot development planning strategy SWOT quantitative analysis,
business management, National Central University, unpublished Thesis.
63
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
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Volume 20,
Twenty individuals were invited to
participate in the study, including hotel
owners and managers, industrial robotics
technology experts, and mechanical and
precision instrument experts. The
interview was conducted in the months of
July to September 2013.
3. Methodology
3.1 Population and sampling
Initially experts in robotics study
were gathered from the group of three
scholars whose expertise is in the fields of
robotics technology, mechanical and
precision instruments, and hospitality.
They made up the value of this study using
the scenario that was this the right time to
introducing service robots for hospitality
to handle the issues of labor shortage and
high turnover. The positive outcome
enabled us to make the research question
on the possibility of introducing service
robots and probing possible beneficial
factors. In order to triangulate the results,
two hotel owners and three industrial
robotics experts were invited for the five
semi-structured interview conducted in
May to June of 2013. The interview
questions are given below.
1.
What do you think of the
possibility of introducing service robots to
the hospitality industry of Taiwan?
2. What do you think of the
possibility of introducing service robots to
act as waiters to deliver dishes or meals at
banquets or parties?
3. What do you think of the
possibility of introducing service robots to
act as guest welcoming staff at hotel front
desks?
4. Do you think service robots can
make (enhance profits for the hospitality
industry?
The semi-structured interview and
SMART SWOT survey were performed to
collect the items that can help analyze the
potential of service robots, particularly for
the restaurant and front desk office.
3.2 Instrument and ranking
A total of 60 items, 12 items on
each of the five semi-structure interview
questions were collected from the twenty
respondents, and ranked in order of
priority for the content analysis. The
respondents were surveyed to locate the
items on the dimensions of strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
factors. Each item was ranked from 1 to
10, where 1 represents least important and
10 represents most important, were
summed up for ranking the important
items. The outcomes of these important
rankings were the basis for
recommendations to hotel practitioners.
The SMART SWOT process as
applied here represents a qualitative
approach based on semi-structured
interviews. SWOT analysis is the most
popular technique used to assess strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for
strategic planning. SWOT also contains a
matrix for a diversity of execution
strategies (Glaister and Falshaw, 1999).
The SMART technique addresses a major
disadvantage of SWOT, the nonprioritization of analyzed factors (Hill and
Westbrook, 1997). The SMART multiattribute rating technique provides a
straightforward approach for making
comparisons and rating priorities,
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20,
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particularly in exploratory research
problems, including restricted interaction,
(Edwards, 1971).
immediate response delay, and impeded
fluent movement. These need to be
resolved for long-term strategic planning
4. Results and analysis
and implementation. In response to the
The results of the five interview
opportunities factor, the indication is that
questions were analyzed using the top
service robots may produce profits by
three responses on the SMART SWOT
satisfying customers and reducing the
outcome. Table 2 indicates that this is
number of humans employed. The
good for short-term operations. The
response to the threats factor indicates that
strengths factors show that introduction of
service robots may affect the mood and
service robots will attract significant media
behavior of employees concerned with the
and consumer attention. In response to the
loss of their jobs in the near future.
weaknesses factor, it appears that service
robot introduction currently face many
General Possibility of Service Robot Introduction
Table 2: Summary of SMART SWOT Expert Interview Responses and Prioritization – Question 1.
Question 1. What do you think of the possibility of introducing service robots to
the hospitality industry of Taiwan?
Strengths
Service robots can initially create novel,
fun, and attractive topics in the public
media which is a short term advantage.
Rank
1
Service robots is a high-end integration
industry and Taiwan is capable of
manufacturing robotic components and
developing software systems with
existing talent.
Service robots can save labor cost and
standardize operations all day long
without having an impact on gender
issues.
Opportunities
Increase of customers and service
satisfaction may produce profit with less
human labor.
2
Foundation of Taiwan’s industry has
firmly supported the development of
Robots.
2
Service robot is on the list of next
important industries in Taiwan which has
established
product
development
alliances and funding support to assist
manufacturers develop new products or
manufacture components. This can thus
lower risk of product development and
increase
competitiveness
of
manufacturers.
3
3
Weaknesses
Service robots cannot follow the order
that is not in the setting, as well as other
issues such as require instinctive
interaction, immediate response and
fluent movement.
Limited commitment of investment to
date has been caused by high unit cost of
manufacturing service robots and
unclear value of investment.
Rank
1
Different environments may require a
wide range of functions of service
robots. This may be difficult.
3
Threats
A service robot can replace one or more
humans so it could affect stability and
performance of existing human
employees.
Current service robots can only conduct
simple tasks which directly affects
young workers and/or those who work
part time primarily at the entry level.
Commercialization of service robots is
still low and most robotic projects are
conducted by the colleges of technology.
1
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2
1
2
3
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20,
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Table 3 shows the results for the
service robots can enhance the competitive
waiter robots. The strengths factor
advantages of restaurants by highlighting
indicates that introduction of service
brand image and maintaining a quality of
robots can enhance profits by creating
service standard as the IT industry in
curiosity via unique
Taiwan has a strong reputation and can
presentation/performance, thereby
support the robotics industry. The response
attracting new customers. The responses to
to the threats factor raises the alarm on
the new weaknesses factor show that the
issues of repair and maintenance requiring
new service robots may not be friendly
a human engineer on site for constant
enough to offer warm interaction and
management.
immediate customer service in the banquet
environment. In the opportunities factor,
Table 3: Summary of SMART SWOT Expert Interview Responses and Prioritization – Question 2.
Question 2. What do you think of the possibility of introducing service robots as waiters
in restaurant and banquet settings?
Strengths
Rank
Weaknesses
Rank
Service robots can create curiosity and
topicality in the market, which can attract
potential
customers.
McDonald’s
restaurants could see suitable application
as their food production/service process is
clear and simple.
Service robots can promote the image of
the company by presenting a culinary
preparation show or previewing menu
items and process of preparation with
sight, sound and action.
Service robots can be programed to fit
into banquet/restaurant environments and
automation via robots can cut down labor
cost and enhance profit.
1
1
Opportunities
Service robots can ally with IT industry
to enhance competitive advantages of
company.
Rank
1
Service robots give us a good
opportunity to market their brand image
as there is no current robot service
restaurant in Taiwan.
Service robots can ensure the quality of
standards and increase opportunities for
meal ordering.
2
The service robot is unable to respond
to the immediate non-programed
demands of customers, as well as is
unable to offer a warm interaction,
immediate response and immediate
customer service.
The service robot is unable to respond
to unexpected situations and is
vulnerable to environmental limitation.
Potential problems with operation and
maintenance.
High manufacturing cost and high
selling price are common disadvantages
of service robots. In order to sustain the
business, appearance of service robots
must be fashionable and process of
dishes delivery must be changed
regularly.
Threat
Limitation of the service robot itself is
associated with repair and maintenance,
barriers,
operating
environment,
immediate response to customer issues,
and unstoppable damage from humans.
Negative image of company could be
caused by a broken robot that cannot
function well and needs engineer to fix
it.
Service robots must be ensured with
stability and reliability or they could
accidently happen to threaten the
security and safety of the public.
2
3
3
66
2
3
Rank
1
2
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20,
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Table 4 shows the results of service
same time and are restricted to simple
robots located at the hotel front desk. The
designed service work. The responses to
strengths comments indicate that service
the opportunities factor show that service
robots can help hotels deal with labor
robots can differentiate the brand image of
supply issues as they are able to check
hotels from their competitors, attracting
customers in, check them out, and provide
and retaining customers. The responses on
hotel related information to customers
the threats factor highlight maintenance
around the clock. The responses to the
costs as a concern which could cause
weaknesses factor indicate that service
failed service delivery and increased
robots cannot conduct multiple tasks at the
overall operating costs.
Possibility of Service Robots in Hotel Front Office Mode
Table 4: Summary of SMART SWOT Expert Interview Responses and Prioritization – Question 3.
Question 3. What do you think of the possibility of introducing service robots to act as
guest welcoming staff at hotel front desks?
Strengths
Service robots can offer guided tours
introducing facilities and services of the
hotel, thus attracting customers to engage
offerings. This is merchandising.
Rank
1
Service robots can provide customers
immediate detailed information including
hotel, nearby attraction, transportation
and restaurant or ticket reservations. This
can resolve some labor supply issues of
the front desk.
The service robot offers 24 hours/ a day
service, which partly decreases the labor
supply burden.
Opportunities
Increasing exposure rate, enhancing
customer impression, and increasing
customer loyalty rate are definite
opportunities.
Travel service model with diversity,
culture and facilitation can be established
by combining different areas of leisure,
media, culture, communication and
marketing.
. The service robot has been just
introduced into the hospitality industry
which is a good opportunity for business.
Suggest evaluation of its performance
within half year.
2
3
Rank
1.
2
3
Weaknesses
None-interactive service robots cannot
simultaneously offer service to many
customers and cannot manage, control
or comfort groups of guests. They are
restricted within arranged service
horizons.
Route and work content need to be
organized beforehand for service robots
as they are unable to respond to
unexpected situations.
Rank
1
Service robots cannot achieve warm
fuzzy interaction with customers who
may not feel a real service.
Threats
Maintenance issue of service robots
could increase cost of maintenance and
reduce time of use of the service robot,
thus delivering a failed service
Navigator of service robots in a
dynamic environment could behave in
an improper manner for customers.
3
A service robot cannot offer dynamic
service because it could be surrounded
by rude or curious individuals and
mistreated as a defenseless mascot.
3
For the willingness of owners to
introduce service robots, the results from
the strengths factor show that introduction
2
Rank
1
2
of service robots is perceived by owners as
a new way to attract customers’ attention,
thus potentially enhancing profits. The
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
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responses to the weaknesses factor show
robots into the hospitality industry; (2)
that making a proper functional service
Possibility of introducing service robots as
robot requires a large investment, which
waiters delivering meals or banquet
may retard the hotel operator’s deployment
services; (3) Possibility of introducing
of service robots. The opportunities factor
service robots to act as guest welcoming
responses show that introduction of service
staff at the front desk; (4) Willingness of
robots is perceived by the owners as a new
owners to introduce service robots into the
way to sustain competitive advantages for
hospitality industry; and (5) Profit
hotels. They can attract customers, thus
enhancement potential of service robots
increasing revenues. The responses on the
for the hospitality industry. These
threats factor indicate that the high unit
observations could be useful guidelines for
price for a proper functional service robot
hotels when they consider introducing
is a major concern for the owners.
service robot solutions, especially for the
In the last question explores the
restaurant and front desk office.
profit enhancement potential of service
In order to enhance the benefits of
robot introduction. The results for the
introducing service robots, short-term
strengths factor indicate that service robots
planning should emphasize increasing
will create an attractive sensation in the
media awareness. This may enable hotels
market initially, but the profitability of
to create a fresh media topic, attracting
hotels will be reliably enhanced when
potential customers. The labor cost savings
robots replace human labor in the longshould be the focus of long-term strategic
term. The weaknesses factor responses
planning. The new service delivered by
show that service robots cannot execute
robotics technology could enable hotels to
multiple tasks simultaneously and cannot
offer 24 hour service in the lobby, which
take final responsibility for the outcome of
will reduce the labor supply burden. Last,
a performance. The opportunities factor
robotics development is an important
responses highlight the observation that
industry of Taiwan, which lowers the risk
service robots can encourage customers to
of product and service development
consume more as well as provide a great
expenses, thereby increasing the
opportunity to increase revenues by selling
competitiveness of business operations.
peripheral merchandise. The threats factor
The SWOT technique used in this
conclusions indicate that a proper
study helps identify items that involve
functional service robot requires a
both internal and external business issues,
substantial financial investment which
followed by the SMART technique which
may deter investment.
helps rank these items. The combined
SMART SWOT technique is a costeffective approach to help hotels
5. Conclusions and implications
understand the situations in business
This study presents five sets of
competition. The outcomes of the top three
perspectives from the SMART SWOT
responses from the strengths and
strategic planning analysis that helps
opportunities appear to significantly
hotels understand the values of introducing
outweigh the weaknesses and threats.
service robots in Taiwan. They are: (1)
Consequently, introduction of service
General possibility of introducing service
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20,
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robots is clearly a competitive business
For practical implications, service
solution that hotels should consider.
robots can promote an IT innovative hotel
image via performances and customer
service. In addition, the culinary
5.1 Implications
preparation show at restaurant can impress
In regards to academic implication,
customers as well. However, unrest and
this new service concept using robotics
instability in the human work force is
technology supports the view of the
likely to be a challenge in the initial
service innovation model that new
introductory phase. For instance, service
technology use can sustain the operational
robots are not able to fully provide human
efficiency of business (den Hertog et al.,
service, but only menu promotion to
2010; Melian-Gonzalez and Bulchandcustomers at the present time. Challenges
Gidumal, 2016). Strategic use of service
also include ongoing reliability plus
robots can enhance the relationships
potential on-site technical maintenance
between employees’ tasks, technology
personnel expenses. Robotics failure
characteristics and utilization, and
during service interaction may result in
performance impacts (Kim et al., 2010).
hotel embarrassment or even customer
The rising demand for talent in the fields
injury, leading to a negative customer
of system integrations, robotics
judgment.
technology, mechanical and precision
instruments, and electrical and electronic
engineers is expected. This may result in a
skills shortage in the market that educators
should address (Chen and Tseng, 2014).
Further, training and development of
employees and new staff recruitment in
robotics related fields may need greater
strategic planning from hotels (Kim et al.,
2010).
Hotel financial performance relies
upon the integration and reconfiguration of
their difficult-to-imitate resources. The
beneficial values of fun and enjoyment as
well as the opportunities to sell peripheral
merchandise provided by service robots
signal the important strategic possibilities
of these dynamic capabilities (Kim et al.,
2013; Kokkinou and Cranage, 2015). The
outcomes for customer satisfaction depend
on the results of proper and attractive
robotics service delivery system (Kim et
al., 2010; Melian-Gonzalez and BulchandGidumal, 2016).
5.2 Limitations
Several limitations are identified.
Rigor could be enhanced if expert
responses were restricted to a set number
of comments per question and SWOT
categories. This study was conducted in
the Taiwan hospitality environment and
uses Taiwanese industry practitioners and
educators. The process and results are
thought to have universal application with
respect to the strategic decision making
process in general, and this specific work
product in particular.
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Edwards, W. (1971). Social utilities.
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72
Volume 20,
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Historically Black Colleges and Universities Consortium (HBCU Consortium)
Hospitality Management
By
Cynthia R. Mayo and Ernest Boger
The HBCU-Hospitality Management Consortium (HBCU-HMC) was initially formed following
an invitation in 1985 by the U.S. Department of Interiors Office of Black Colleges for HPBCU
Program Directors to meet in Washington, D.C. The focus of that meeting was to discuss the
various institutions’ participation in the National Parks summer employment program. What
grew out of that meeting was a need for further dialogue concerning the issues and problems of
developing hospitality management programs on historically Black College campuses.
The HBCU-HMC was subsequently
organized simultaneously in 1986 as its own
signature group and as a Special Interest
Group (SIG) of the International Council for
Restaurant and Institutional Education
(ICHRIE). In This event was hosted at
Bethune-Cookman College (now
University).in Daytona Beach, Florida by
Hospitality Program Director, Ron Cox. It
was organized to provide a networking
platform for program directors of hospitality
programs offered by HBCU colleges and
universities. Other leaders, present included
Hubert Alexander-Williamsburg
Foundation, Ernest Boger- TreasurerICHRIE, Carl Binns-Bethune-Cook man,
and Renee DuJean of the Urban LeagueBEEP. The next three meetings were
sponsored by the Walt Disney Company and
hosted Mid-Winter each January in Orlando,
Florida. As a SIG, a second meeting was
held at CHRIE. During the CHRIE
conference Program Directors networked to
talk about programs, meet industry recruiters
and to engage in dialogue designed to keep
programs viable and assisting students in
getting jobs.
Alexander, Williamsburg Foundation, later
Norfolk State University, Bob Ritz, Virginia
State University, Maurice Williams Howard
University, and Bill Williams, Cheyney
University.
Programs started later and fostered by the
HBCU-HMC include Morgan State U,
Delaware State University, Tennessee State
U and North Carolina Central University.
The Consortium elected presidents as
follows:
Some of the charter directors included
Ernest Boger, U. of South Carolina, Carl
Binns-Bethune-Cookman, Hubert
73
Ron Cox
Carl Binns
Ernest Boger
Hubert Alexander
Cynthia Mayo
Flora Galliard
Doris Marzett
1985-1986
1986-1990
1990-1994
1994-1996
1996-1998
1998-2000
2000-2003
John Dixon
Deanne Williams
Ivan Turnipseed
2004-2005
2006-2014
2015-
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Partners of the Consortium were recruited
early during its initial organization.
Marriott, Sheraton, Hyatt, Aramark, Walt
Disney World and Red Lobster were among
the first partners. Marriott was the sponsor
of many of the Consortium’s leadership
meetings. Other partners provided mini
internships, scholarships and information
about trends and issues impacting the
industry.
2003-Indian Wells, California
Starting in 1993 on the 5th Anniversary of
the National Society of Minorities in
Hospitality (NSMH) the mid-Winter
meeting was shifted to correspond with the
NSMH National Conference since all
Directors were already in attendance with
their students
2009-San Diego, California
The Consortium continued to meet every
year during the ICHRIE Conference to
discuss issues of importance related to
programs, funding, faculty and recruitment
of students. The meetings were held in the
following cities:
2012- Providence,
Rhode Island
2004-Philadelphia, PA
2005- Las Vegas, Nevada
2006- Arlington, Virginia
2007- Dallas, Texas
2008- Atlanta, Georgia
2010- San Juan,
Puerto Rico-The Consortium was hosted by
Marriott Hotels
2011- Denver, Colorado-The Consortium
was hosted by Hyatt Hotels
2013- St. Louis, Missouri-The consortium
was hosted by the Four Seasons Hotels
2014-San Diego, California
1991-Houston, Texas
2015-Orlanda Florida-The Consortium was
hosted by the four Seasons Hotels-Jorge
Luna was the facilitator and contact person
1992-Orlanda, Florida
1993-Chicaago, Illinois
1994-Palm Springs, California
2016- Dallas Texas
1995-Nashville, Tennessee
In 1997, under President Cynthia Mayo, the
Consortium Journal was started with Pender
Noriega as its founding editor. The Journal
was delivered during the ICHRIE
Conference that was held in Rhode Island.
The Journal has since achieved a Cabell’s
rating and is published twice annually. A
textbook, “Contemporary Issues in
Hospitality” was published by the HMC and
edited by members Mayo and Noriega.
1996-Washington, DC
1997-Providence, Rhode Island
1998-Miami, Florida
1999- Albuquerque,
New Mexico
2000-New Orleans, LA
In 1996, Hyatt Hotels sponsored a strategic
planning forum where the members
designed its plan to encourage its member
schools to seek ACPHA accreditation for
2001- Toronto
2002- Orlando, Florida
74
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
programs, encourage collaborative research,
identify and encourage graduates to obtain
terminal degrees to be able to fill the jobs of
retiring directors.
Volume 20, Number 2
Tuskegee University, AL
University of Maryland, Eastern Shore, MD
Virginia State University, VA
During 1996-2008, several programs had
completed the accreditation process and
included: Bethune –Cookman College and
Virginia State University. Delaware State
University, North Carolina Central
University and Cheyney State University.
Reports of the success of the programs were
reported during the ICHRIE Conference
held in Providence Rhode Island.
The following schools have conducted the
Bridge Programs, beginning in 2011-2014.
Hyatt Hotels also began an initiative where
HBCU students were invited to attend the
Hotel-Motel Show in New York each
November. Students were initially selected
by program directors and later were selected
through a competitive interview. All costs
were borne by Hyatt for one student from
each program and the hotel room was
provided for the program director. This
initiative lasted from 1995 to 2010. In 2006,
other minority programs were invited to
compete to participate, thus reducing the
number of HBCU students who could
attend. The program was eliminated after
Hyatt and the Consortium agreed that some
other initiative would provide opportunities
for all HBCU programs. In 2010, it was
decided that Hyatt would assist in funding a
Bridge Program and provide funds for
students to attend the NSMH Annual
Convention. The attendance would allow
more students to be exposed to industry
professionals, so that they could compete for
internships and positions.
Bethune-Cookman University
The 2011 initiation of the Hyatt-Consortium
Bridge Program started with the initiation of
a Request for Proposals (RFP). Each school
desiring to conduct a Bridge Program
submitted the proposal for funds to an
independent company in Delaware. The
schools initially funded included:
In 2016, the Bridge Program was expanded
to eight universities and include:
Delaware State University, DE
Florida Gulf Coast University
North Carolina Central University, NC
Monroe College
Delaware State University
Florida Gulf Coast University
North Carolina Central University
Tuskegee University
Virginia State University
University of Maryland, Eastern Shore
In 2015, the following schools were funded:
Bethune -Cookman College
Delaware State University
Florida Gulf Coast University
Cheyney University
Virginia State University
University of Maryland, Eastern Shore
Bethune Cookman University
Cheyney University
Delaware State University
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Morgan State University
18888 Mills, LLC
Taiping Carpets
Pacific Link
Courtest Products
Empirical Group
The Eli's Cheesecake Company
MGH Gourmet
TC Contract Furniture, Inc.
The Sugarman of Vermont, Inc.
Bigby Havis and Associates
Clipper Corporation
Garnier Thiebaut, Inc.
Amplify Snack Brands, Inc.
Great Lakes Cheese Co, Inc.
C. H. Guenther & Son
Beltmann Integrated Logistics
Virginia State University
University of Maryland Eastern Shore
Below is a summary of funding from Hyatt
Hotels, spearheaded under Ronisha
Goodwin
Hyatt Hotels
Funding Summary
Hotel Show, New
York
Rooms, NSMH
Bridge
NSMH
Bridge
NSMH (St. Louis,
Missouri)
Bridge
NSMH (Pittsburgh,
PA)
Bridge
NSMH (Arlington,
VA)
Bridge
Strategic Planning
Years
Amount
19952010
2011
2011
2012
2013
2014
$100,000
2014
2015
30,000
25,000
2015
2016
45,000
42,000
2016
31,000
$5,000
Volume 20, Number 2
40,000
20,000
25,000
19,000
25,000
Other companies that have been
instrumental in providing resources include:
Darden, Sodexo, Four Seasons, Apple, and
Sheraton.
During the 2015 school year, Darden
Restaurants, under Mollie Moore provided
face to face sessions with students about
Social Media, Career Opportunities and
Preparation for the Workforce. These were
delivered via Skype.
During the 2016 Hyatt Fundraiser, the
following companies provided funds for the
Bridge Programs and for students to attend
the NSMH Conference.:
Future HBCU-HMC initiatives include
collaboration for on-line course delivery,
coordinated multi-school travel/ study
abroad programs, and endowed long term
funding.
HBCU Donations, 2016
Mazzetta Co,
Franklin Associates
Halpens' Steak and Seafood
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The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Authors’ Profile
June E. Clarke, PhD
Associate Professor
Delaware State University,
[email protected]
Applying the theory of planned behavior to
explain hotel managers’
intentions to offer internships in Jamaica:
A qualitative inquiry.
David Njite, PhD
Assistant Professor
University of New Orleans
[email protected]
Jacqueline Awadzi-Calloway, PhD
Associate Professor
DeVry University
The Role of Human Resource Specialists in
Motivation, Training and Engagement in
the
Hospitality Industry
Carrie Awadzi, PhD
Visiting Faculty
Delaware State University
[email protected]
Winston Awadzi, PhD
Professor
Delaware State University
[email protected]
Kim Williams, PhD.
Associate Professor
University of New Orleans
[email protected]
Using Importance-Performance Analysis
to Identify the Travel Characteristics of
African Americans
Bridget M. Bordelon, PhD.
Associate Professor
University of New Orleans
[email protected]
David Njite, PhD.
Assistant Professor
University of New Orleans
[email protected]
77
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
Chun-Min (Mindy), Kuo, PhD
Professor, Department of Leisure Industry
Management,
National Chin-Yi University of Technology,
Taiwan
[email protected]
SMART SWOT Strategic Planning
Analysis: For Service Robot Utilization in
the Hospitality Industry
Guo-Shing Huang, PhD
Professor, Department of Electronic
Engineering,
National Chin-Yi University of Technology,
Taiwan
[email protected]
Chin-Yao Tseng*** (Corresponding Author),
D. of B.A.
Assistant Professor, Department of Tourism
and Leisure Management
Yuanpei University of Medical Technology,
Taiwan
[email protected]
Ernest P. Boger, D. of Mgt.
Associate Professor, Department Chairman of
Hospitality and Tourism Management
University of Maryland Eastern Shore, USA
[email protected]
Corresponding Author, Chin-Yao Tsent***
No. 306, Yuanpei Street,
HsinChu 30015, Taiwan
E-mail: [email protected]
Cynthia Mayo, PhD
Professor
Delaware State University
[email protected]
HBCU History
Ernest P. Boger
Professor
University of Maryland, Eastern Shore
[email protected]
78
The Consortium Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Number 2
CALL FOR PAPERS
HBCU Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Volume 20, Issue 2
ISSN: 1535-0568 (print)
ISSN: 2329-9479 (online)
Publication Type: Online and Print
We invite you to submit your research articles to the forthcoming edition of the HBCU Journal –
Volume 20, and Issue 2
the Journal is scheduled to be published July
The deadline for Online Submission for this volume is: 20th May
To submit your research paper, please visit the website listed below for detailed information.
[email protected]
The HBCU Journal is indexed with Ebsco, Cengage and Cabell’s Publishers
The HBCU Consortium Journal is a refereed Journal that is double blind reviewed and includes research
on all aspects of hospitality and Tourism. The Journal publishes theoretical, practical and empirical papers
in all areas of Hospitality, Tourism, Travel and Economics, especially related to African American and
Diaspora issues. The format for submission includes: Abstract, Introduction, Review of Literature,
Research Methods, Results, Conclusion and Practical applications to the hospitality industry.
References should be listed last. Charts and Tables should be noted in the paper and included at the end of
the submission. Submissions length should range between 3,000-5,000 words. Articles should be
submitted based on the APA style of research.
Once the paper is submitted, a waiver form will be emailed for signature of main author. The Consortium
Journal looks forward to receiving research articles in response to the call, and will be happy to respond
to inquiries from interested parties.
If you have any questions or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact us. We appreciate your
consideration of this invitation and hope to hear from you soon!
[email protected] or [email protected]
Best wishes. Your participation in this effort to produce new papers will contribute to the written body of
knowledge for hospitality educators.
IMPORTANT DATES: Submission Months: May and November
79