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Part I. GENERAL ASPECTS
Food engineering
Vocabulary of the text
Food engineering – технология продуктов питания
Food production – производство продуктов питания
Agricultural engineering – технология в сельском хозяйстве
Chemical engineering – химическая технология
Genetic engineering – генная инженерия
Implementation – осуществление, выполнение
Emulsification - эмульгирование
Comminution – дробление, превращение в порошок
Raw materials – сырьё, сырые материалы
Large-scale manufacture – крупномасштабное производство
Dicing – нарезание в форме кубиков
Fibril – тонкое нервное волокно
Food engineering refers to the engineering aspects of food production and processing.
Food engineering includes, but is not limited to, the application of agricultural engineering and
chemical engineering principles to food materials. Genetic engineering of plants and animals is
not normally the work of a food engineer.
Food engineering is a very wide field of activities. Among its domain of knowledge and
action are:
Design of machinery and processes to produce foods
Design and implementation of food safety and preservation measures in the production
of foods
Biotechnological processes of food production
Choice and design of food packaging materials
Quality control of food production
Food engineering research is based on mathematical modelling of phenomena occurring
in the food processing chain. Its scientific foundation is heat and mass transfer, fluid
mechanics, biophysics, colloid science and physical chemistry, and understanding of
compositional and structural complexities of foods and biomaterials. The unit operations
studied include membrane separations, mixing, emulsification, cleaning, osmotic dehydration,
pulsed electric field application and comminution.
Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of
physical scienc (e.g. chemistry and physics), with mathematics, to the process of converting
raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. As well as producing useful
materials, chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering valuable new materials and
techniques, an important form of research and development. A person employed in this field is
called a chemical engineer.
Chemical engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes
for large-scale manufacture. Chemical engineers in this branch are usually employed under the
title of process engineer. The development of the large-scale processes characteristic of
industrialized economies is a feat of chemical engineering, not chemistry. Indeed, chemical
engineers are responsible for the availability of the modern high-quality materials that are
essential for running an industrial economy.
Dairy Engineering and Technology
The group is working with education as well as research in dairy technology. The
research program is focused towards process engineering and technology issues regarding milk
and
milk
systems.
Studies
on
structure and physico-chemical properties of caseins, whey proteins, peptides and milk lipid
systems and effect of changes of environmental conditions and functionality are of principal
interest. Further, effects of processing, processing parameters and fouling on individual milk
components and dairy products like cheese and yoghurt are also main research activities.
Experimental techniques involves studies by 2-D electrophoresis, light scattering techniques,
DSC, ellipsometry, atomic force microscopy, Cryo-TEM, as well as fluid and solid rheology.
Fluid dynamics and flow effects in processing equipment studies comprising effects of
the flow field on heat and mass transfer and the fluid mechanical effects on components of the
product. Examples are impinging jet heat transfer in ovens, transport of surfactants to interfaces
in emulsification processes, adsorption of proteins on product contact surfaces, drop break-up
in homogenisers and mixing processes. Used experimental methods are particle image
velocimetry (PIV) and planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF) in collaboration with Division
of Fluid Mechanics. Numerical simulation using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and the
development of mathematical models are important activities.
Meat- and fibre products
The research in meat products, such as ham, beef burgers and emulsion sausages, and
fibre products, for example tomato ketchup, is focused on the physical-chemical background of
the quality of these products and how these properties vary in relation to processing. Relevant
processes for meat products are marinating, salting, dicing, comminuting, mass- and heat
transfer during cooking of the product. For tomato ketchup the micro-structural changes are
followed on pumping and heating/cooling in heat exchangers.
An important research area within meat research is to explain the relation between eating
quality and water-holding of the meat product and its micro-structure on both a molecular and
colloidal level. This approach is also imaged by the titles of the three latest PhD thesis: Waterand fat-holding in comminuted meat products, 2001, Factors controlling meat quality of pork in
relation to breed and RN genotype, 2002 and The mechanisms controlling heat and mass
transfer in comminuted meat products, 2004.
The research in the fibre area is mainly focused on two approaches. The first one deals
with tomato ketchup, which is a suspension of cell wall material, such as cellulose fibrils,
hemi-cellulose and pectins. The rheological behaviour under flow (heating, cooling and
pumping) and under gravity alone (serum-separation) is studied. The second one concerns
dietary fibres as fat replacer in protein-rich foods, such as cheese, sausages, beef burgers and
liver paté. The aim of these studies is to find out what physical-chemical properties of the
fibres that from a sensory point of you make it substitute fat in protein-rich food.
Membrane Technology research covers mainly nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, membrane
emulsification, and pervaporation. Transport phenomena, membrane characterisation and
fouling and cleaning as well as process and applications development and design are studied
and modelled.
EXERСISES
1.Answer the questions:
1. What does food engineering refer to?
2. What does food engineering include?
3. Do you know the domain of knowledge and action of food engineering?
Enumerate them.
4. What is food engineering research based on?
5. How can you describe such branch of engineering as chemical engineering?
6. What does chemical engineering involve?
7. How is a person employed in chemical engineering?
8. Describe the field of research of dairy engineering and technology.
9. Tell about fluid dynamics and low effects in processing equipment.
10.How are meat and fibre products studied?
11.What does membrane technology research cover?
2.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
engineering aspects, application, food materials, wide field of activities, design of
machinery, quality control, food engineering research, mathematical modelling, scientific
foundation, heat and mass transfer, compositional and structural complexities, unit operations,
to deal with, valuable forms, to involve, under the title of, running an industrial economy, dairy
technology, physico-chemical properties of caseins.
3.Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Главная исследовательская деятельность, компоненты продукта, исследования
мясных продуктов, томатный кетчуп, маринование, соление, объяснить связь между,
подход, цель, явление, превращение сырьевых материалов, адсорбция белков,
молекулярный уровень.
4.Insert prepositions where necessary:
1) Food engineering refers … the engineering aspects … food production and
processing. 2) Food engineering includes the application … agricultural engineering and
chemical engineering principles … food materials. 3) Genetic engineering …plants and
animals is not normally the work … a food engineer. 4) Food engineering research is based …
mathematical modelling … phenomena occurring … the food processing chain. 5) Chemical
engineering is the branch … engineering that deals … the application … physical science, with
mathematics, to the process … converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or
valuable forms. 6) Chemical engineering largely involves the design and maintenance …
chemical processes for large-scale manufacture.
5. Give the summary of the text.
Biotechnology
Vocabulary of the text
Biotechnology - биотехнология
Exploitation - эксплуатация
To manipulate – манипулировать, воздействовать, влиять, управлять
To manufature biological products – производить биологическую продукцию
Drugs – лекарства, медикаменты
Gene splicing – сращивание генов
Hybrid - гибрид
Livestock – живой инвентарь домашний скот
Genetic disorder – генетическое расстройство
Dairying – производство, хранение и продажа молочных продуктов
To surpass – превосходить, превышать, перегонять
Pasteurization - пастеризация
To encompass – включать в себя
Artificial selection – искусственный отбор
Indigenous – природный, врождённый
Bioremediation – биологическое лечение
Biotechnology is technology based on biology especially when used in agriculture, food
science, and medicine; the use of biological processes, as through the exploitation and
manipulation of living organisms or biological systems, in the development or manufacture of a
product or in the technological solution to a problem. As such, biotechnology is a general
category that has applications in pharmacology, medicine, agriculture, and many other fields.
The techniques of genetic engineering have been used to manipulate the DNA (genetic
material) of bacteria and other organisms to manufacture biological products such as drugs
(insulin, interferon, and growth hormones). A common technique involved in this process is
gene splicing, in which a gene that produces a desired product can be inserted into bacterial
DNA. Bacteria can then be grown in large quantities and processed to extract the desired
substance; specially cultured plant and animal cells can be similarly grown and processed.
Hybrids of cancer and antibody-producing cells (hybridomas) have been cloned in the
laboratory to produce experimental monoclonal antibodies which are being studied for the
treatment of cancer and other diseases. Bacteria have also been altered to break down oil slicks
and industrial waste products.
Plants and foods with such desired qualities as prolonged shelf life or increased
resistance to diseases and pests have been created through genetic engineering; that is, by
inserting DNA from other organisms. Much of the corn and soybeans grown in the United
States, for example, are now genetically modified in some way. Livestock have also been
genetically altered to produce medically useful substances. The field of biotechnology also
includes gene therapy, in which attempts are made to insert normal or genetically altered genes
into cells to treat genetic disorders and chronic diseases.
Dairying is a business of producing, processing, and distributing milk and milk
products. Ninety percent of the world's milk is obtained from cows; the remainder comes from
goats, buffaloes, sheep, reindeer, yaks, and other ruminants. In the United States, dairy
products account for nearly 16% of the food consumed annually. California, Wisconsin, New
York, Pennsylvania, and Minnesota are the top five dairy states. About 17% of the milk
produced is made into butter, 35%–40% is sold as beverage milk, and the remainder is devoted
to farm uses and the making of cheese, concentrated milks, ice cream, dried milk solids (e.g.
lactose and casein), yogurt and sour cream, and other processed products. About 60% of total
beverage milk sold is low-fat or skim milk, which surpassed whole milk in sales in 1987.
The development of modern dairying, which began around 1850, has been driven by the
growth of urban markets and by scientific, technological, and economic factors: the invention
of specialized machines, notably the cream separator; research in chemistry, physics, and
bacteriology; the discovery of pasteriuzation; the introduction of the test devised by American
agricultural chemist S. M. Babcock for determining the fat content of milk; improved
refrigeration and transportation; the discovery of new uses for the byproducts of milk
processing; and increased milk productivity. Traditional small-scale dairy farms have
increasingly been replaced by larger operations with herds of 1,000 cows or more.
Вiotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st
century, however the term encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying
biological organisms according to the needs of humanity, going back to the initial
modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and
hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are
based. With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional
biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality
of their products and increase the productivity of their systems.
Before 1971, the term biotechnology was primarily used in the food processing and
agriculture industries. Since the 1970s, it began to be used by the Western scientific
establishment to refer to laboratory-based techniques being developed in biological research,
such as recombinant DNA or tissue culture-based processes, or horizontal gene transfer in
living plants, using vectors such as the Agrobacterium bacteria to transfer DNA into a host
organism. In fact, the term should be used in a much broader sense to describe the whole range
of methods, both ancient and modern, used to manipulate organic materials to reach the
demands of food production. So the term could be defined as, "The application of indigenous
and/or scientific knowledge to the management of (parts of) microorganisms, or of cells and
tissues of higher organisms, so that these supply goods and services of use to the food industry
and its consumers.
Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry,
embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical
engineering, information technology, and robotics. Patho-biotechnology describes the
exploitation of pathogens or pathogen derived compounds for beneficial effect.
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care
(medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other
products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil), and environmental uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the
manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example
is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also
used to recycle, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also
to produce biological weapons.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
1) What is biotechnology?
2) What applications does biotechnology have?
3) Do you know the purpose of using the techniques of genetic engineering?
4) What is gene splicing?
5) Plants and foods with some desired qualities are created through genetic engineering,
aren’t they?
6) What is dairying?
7) How is milk obtained?
8) When did the development of modern dairying begin?
9) Who introduced the test for determining the fat content of milk?
10) What does the term “biotechnology” encompass?
11) Speak about the history of the term “biotechnology”.
12) Can you enumerate the disciplines that biotechnology combines?
2.Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Живые организмы, биологические системы, технологическое решение проблемы,
фармакология, извлечь желаемое вещество, клетки, производящие антитела,
клонировать, лечение рака, жирные пятна, промышленные отходы, сопротивление
болезням, паразиты, генетически изменённые гены, хронические болезни, северный
олень, жвачное животное, снятое молоко, нужды людей, улучшить качество продуктов,
увеличить продуктивность систем, более широкий смысл, эмбриология, клеточная
биология, биовыщелачивание, биологическое оружие.
3.Match the following expressions:
General category
молоко низкой жирности
Genetic material
стадо
Growth hormones
ткани высших организмов
Low-fat milk
выгодное влияние
Increased milk productivity
потребитель
Small-scale dairy farms
использование в окружающей среде
Herd
общая категория
Tissues of higher organisms
гормоны роста
Consumer
генетический материал
Beneficial effect
повышенная производительность молока
Environmental uses
выработка сельскохозяйственных культур
Crop production
мелкие молочные фермы
4.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
food science, the use of biological processes, common technique, specially cultured plant
and animal cells, to produce experimental monoclonal antibodies, to break down, prolonged
shelf life, genetically modified, to produce medically useful substances, distributing milk and
milk products, the remainder, to account for, annually, dried milk solids, sour cream, urban
markets, the invention of specialized machines, byproducts of milk processing, modifying
biological organisms, initial modifications of native plants, laboratory-based techniques,
culture-based processes, to reach the demands, pathogens.
5.Retell the text using the following plan:
1) The definition of biotechnology
2) The techniques of genetic engineering
3) Daiyring and its development
4) The connection of biotechnology with other disciplines
Food processing
Vocabulary of the text
Food processing – обработка, переработка пищевых продуктов
To transform – превращать, изменять, преобразовывать
Consumption - потребление
To utilize – использовать, утилизировать
Marketable product – рыночный продукт
Feed – питание, кормление, еда, пища
Macerating – вымачивание, размачивание
Liquefaction – сжижение, ожижение, разжижение
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients
into food for consumption by humans or animals. The food processing industry utilizes these
processes. Food processing often takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and butchered
components and uses these to produce attractive and marketable food products. Similar
processes are used to produce animal feed.
Common food processing techniques include:
Removal of unwanted outer layers, such as potato peeling or the skinning of
peaches
Chopping or slicing ,e.g. diced carrots.
Mincing and macerating
Liquefaction, such as to produce fruit juice
Fermentation e.g. in beer breweries
Emulsification
Cooking, such as boiling, broiling, frying, steaming or grilling
Deep frying
Baking
Mixing
Addition of gas such as air entrainment for bread or gasification of soft drinks
Proofing
Spray drying
Pasteurization
Extreme examples of food processing include the delicate preparation of deadly fugu fish
or preparing space food for consumption under zero gravity.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
1) What is food processing?
2) What is the function of food processing ?
3) Enumerate the techniques of food processing.
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Набор методов, сырьевые ингредиенты, потребление людьми или животными,
подобные процессы, удаление нежелательных наружных слоёв, крошение, производить
фруктовый сок, кипячение, глубокая жарка, смешивание, жарка, добавление газа,
пастеризация.
3.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
food processing industry, harvested or slaughtered and butchered components, to
produce animal feed, skinning of peaches , diced carrots, beer breweries, broiling, air
entrainment, proofing, the delicate preparation, under zero gravity.
4. Retell the text.
Food technology
Vocabulary of the text
Food technology – технология продуктов питания
Packaging - упаковывание
Wholesome food – полезная, здоровая пища
Makeup of food – состав пищи
Array – масса, множество
Impact – влияние, воздействие
Spoilage - порча
Souring – прокисание, заквашивание
Aseptically - асептически
Solvent - растворитель
Sophisticated – сложный, утончённый
Food technology, or Food tech for short is the application of food science to the
selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe, nutritious, and
wholesome food.
Food scientists and food technologists study the physical, microbiological, and chemical
makeup of food. Depending on their area of specialization, food scientists may develop ways to
process, preserve, package, or store food, according to industry and government specifications
and regulations. Consumers seldom think of the vast array of foods and the research and
development that has resulted in the means to deliver tasty, nutritious, safe, and convenient
foods.
In some schools, food technology is part of the curriculum and teaches, alongside how to
cook, nutrition and the food manufacturing process.
Research in the field now known as food technology has been conducted for decades.
Nicolas Appert’s development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The
process wasn’t called canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his
process worked, but canning has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
Louis Pasteur's research on the spoilage of wine and his description of how to avoid
spoilage in 1864 was an early attempt to put food technology on a scientific basis. Besides
research into wine spoilage, Pasteur did research on the production of alcohol, vinegar, wines
and beer, and the souring of milk. He developed pasteurization—the process of heating milk
and milk products to destroy food spoilage and disease-producing organisms. In his research
into food technology, Pasteur became the pioneer into bacteriology and of modern preventive
medicine.
By 1945, the original four departments that had taught the subject under different names
(including those at the University of Massachusetts and the University of California) had been
retitled "food science", "food science and technology", or a similar variant. The founding of the
Institute of Food Technologists in 1939 has led to the general use of the term “food
technologist.”
Several companies in the food industry have played a role in the development of food
technology. These developments have contributed greatly to the food supply. Some of these
developments are:
Instantized Milk Powder - D.D. Peebles (U.S. patent 2,835,586) developed the first
instant milk powder, which has become the basis for a variety of new products that are
rehydratable in cold water or milk. This process increases the surface area of the powdered
product by partially rehydrating spray-dried milk powder.
Freeze Drying - The first application of freeze drying was most likely in the
pharmaceutical industry; however, a successful large-scale industrial application of the process
was the development of continuous freeze drying of coffee.
High-Temperature Short Time Processing - These processes for the most part are
characterized by rapid heating and cooling, holding for a short time at a relatively high
temperature and filling aseptically into sterilisation (microbiology) sterile containers.
Decaffeination of Coffee and Tea - Decaffeinated coffee and tea was first developed on a
commercial basis in Europe around 1900. The process is described in U.S. patent 897,763.
Green coffee beans are treated with steam or water to around 20% moisture. The added water
and heat separate the caffeine from the bean to its surface. Solvents are then used to remove the
caffeine from the beans. In the 1980s, new non-organic solvent techniques have been
developed for the decaffeination of coffee and tea. Carbon dioxide under supercritical
conditions is one of these new techniques. U.S. patent 4,820,537 was issued to General Food
Corp. for a CO2 decaffeination process.
Process optimization- Food Technology now allows production of foods to be more
efficient. Oil saving technologies are now available on different forms. Production methods and
methodology have also become increasingly sophisticated.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food technology?
2) What do food scientists and food technologists study?
3) Who was . Nicolas Appert?
4) Who was Louis Pasteur?
5) Enumerate the developments of food technology.
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Применение науки о пище, отбор, сохранение, питательная пища, область
специализации, учебный план, десятилетие, ранняя попытка, уксус, организмы,
вызывающие болезнь, подобный вариант,
молочный порошок, частично,
фармацевтическая промышленность, стерильные контейнеры, относительно высокая
температура, коммерческая основа.
3. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Food scientists, to store food, government specifications, convenient foods, the canning
process, decisive event, food preservation techniques, to avoid spoilage, scientific basis,
modern preventive medicine, under different names, food supply, powdered product, nonorganic solvent, continuous freeze drying.
4. Insert prepositions where necessary:
1) Food scientists and food technologists study the physical, microbiological, and
chemical makeup … food. 2) … some schools, food technology is part … the curriculum and
teaches, alongside how to cook, nutrition and the food manufacturing process. 3) Research …
the field now known as food technology has been conducted … decades. 4) Pasteur did
research … the production … alcohol, vinegar, wines and beer, and the souring … milk. 5)
Several companies … the food industry have played a role … the development … food
technology. 6) Decaffeinated coffee and tea was first developed … a commercial basis …
Europe around 1900.
5. Give the summary of the text.
Food chemistry
Vocabulary of the text
Food chemistry - химия продуктов питания
Interaction - взаимодействие
Poultry – домашняя птица
Lettuce – салат-латук
To enhance – увеличивать, повышать
To encourage – поощрять, поддерживать
Contamination – заражение
Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and
non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat,
poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main
components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water,
vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also
encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to
enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to
encourage fermentation of dairy products with lactic acid; an example of a preventing process
would be stopping the Maillard reaction on the surface of freshly cut red delicious apples
whether by hand or mechanical methods.
Food chemistry's history dates back as far as the late 1700s when many famous chemists
were involved in discovering chemicals important in foods, including Carl Wilhelm Scheele
(isolated malic acid from apples in 1785), and Sir Humphry Davy (published the first ever book
on agricultural and food chemistry in 1813 titled Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a
Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture in the United Kingdom which would serve as a
foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition.
In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical
methods to the benefit of the public. It's early experiments were based on bread, milk and wine.
It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration
and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with
chemical food additives by the 1950s.
EXERSISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food chemistry?
2) What do biological substances include?
3) Give the examples of enhancing a process and of a preventing process.
4) Speak about food chemistry’s history.
5) Do you know the famous chemists involved in food chemistry?
6) When was the Society of Public Analysts formed?
7) On what were the Society of Public Analysts’s early experiments based?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Химические процессы, подобный, пищевые добавки, красители, привкусы,
молочная кислота, свеженарезанные яблоки, вручную, механические методы, вести
начало от, быть вовлечённым, яблочная кислота, пятое издание, с целью, аналитические
методы, ранние опыты, продовольственная химия, биологические процессы, салат,
углеводы, витамины, поддерживать брожение продуктов, химические ингредиенты,
продовольственные подделки, заражение продуктов, диетические вещества, институт
продовольственных технологий, молочные продукты, способы обработки продуктов,
вкус домашней птицы.
3. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
biological and non-biological components, items, delicious apples, discovering
chemicals, worldwide, applying analytical methods, out of concern, food adulteration,
contamination, enzymes, flavors, to encompass, food processing techniques, dairy products, to
encourage fermentation, lactic acid, Maillard reaction, surface, the quality of the food supply,
food additives, dietary substances, singe-grain experiment, to establish Food Chemistry
Division, to be similar, to expand research, to cut by hand, to enhance a process.
4. Complete the sentences:
1) Food chemistry is …2) The biological substances include …3) It is similar to
biochemistry in …4) Food chemistry encompasses …5) Food chemistry's history dates back
…6) The famous chemists of food chemistry are… 7) The book by Humphry Davy is titled
…8) The aim of the Society of Public Analysts is …
5. Give the summary of the text in three extended sentences.
6. Make up word combinations with these words as much as possible:
Model: … quality …
To improve the quality, to concern the quality of the food products, to check the quality
of the food, not to pay attention to the quality,
Interactions, flavor, to cut, substances, chemistry, processes, food additives, acid,
products
7. Make up рarticiples:
Свеженарезанные овощи, продукты улучшенного качества, изучая новые способы
обработки товаров,
разговор касающийся качества продуктов питания, салат,
нарезанный механически, расширенный раздел химии, свеженарезанные вкусные
красные яблоки, предотвращенный процесс, часто используемая яблочная кислота,
улучшенный вкус домашней птицы, молочная кислота, усиливающая брожение
молочных продуктов, результаты, опубликованные в той статье, изученные химические
процессы и взаимосвязи.
8. Translate into English, paying attention to Infinitive:
Вам нужно тщательно изучить этот процесс. 2. Вот ингредиенты, которые нужно
смешать. 3. Что мы должны сделать, чтобы улучшить качество продуктов? 3. Вот овощи,
которые нужно нарезать. 4.Кушайте овощи, чтобы не полнеть. 5. Необходимо снабдить
рынок продуктами, улучшенного качества. 6. Им нужно использовать молочную
кислоту, чтобы поддержать брожение. 7. Вы должны развивать не только эту отрасль
промышленности. 8. Вот кислоты, которые нужно добавить. 9. Наши конкуренты не
хотят исследовать диетические продукты. 10. Вам лучше бы знать об основных
компонентах, входящих в состав этого продукта. 11. Химики были втянуты в процесс,
чтобы обнаружить новые свойства веществ.
9. Give the summary of the text in three extended sentences.
Food-Borne Illnesses
Vocabulary of the text
Food-Borne Illnesses – болезни, порождаемые пищей
Harmful - вредный
To cause - причинять, вызывать
Mold – плесень, плесенный грибок
Yeast – дрожжи, закваска
Aerobe - аэроб
Palatable – вкусный, аппетитный
Manmade – искусственный, созданный руками человека
Fungi – гриб, плесень
Some microorganisms are harmful to the human body. Other microorganisms in food
cause food to spoil. Three microorganisms that might cause food to spoil are bacteria, mold,
and yeast. Growth of these organisms in food can be undesirable.
Microorganisms, including bacteria, can be grouped according to their requirement for
oxygen. Some grow only in the presence of oxygen (aerobes). Others grow only in the absence
of oxygen (anaerobes). Some are able to grow with or without oxygen (facultative anaerobes).
This is important in keeping food safe and palatable.
Under natural conditions, anaerobes grow only in places protected from the air such as
deep in the soil or under water. They can also grow under manmade anaerobic conditions, such
as in canned or vacuum-packed foods which have not been processed or handled properly.
Most bacteria can be killed with heat; therefore, boiling water will often make food safe
to eat. Some strains, however, are so resistant to heat that they are only killed with very high
temperatures.
A food-borne illness is simply a sickness a person gets from eating contaminated food.
Many contaminants are in the form of a harmful bacteria being present. Food intoxications are
food- borne illnesses that come from consuming foods which contain toxins or poisons. Food
infections are food-borne illnesses caused by eating food which has organisms that grow and
cause illness after they enter the human body. Some of these are caused by molds and other
fungi.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) Can some microorganisms in food cause food to spoil?
2) What microorganisms cause food to spoil?
3) What are aerobes, anaerobes and facultative anaerobes?
4) Under what conditions can anaerobes grow?
5) How can bacteria be killed?
6) What is a food-borne illness?
7) What are food infections?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Рост организмов, нежелательный, потребность в кислороде, отсутствие кислорода,
в естественных условиях, места, защищённые от воздуха, глубоко в почве, под водой,
продукты в вакуумной упаковке, следовательно, кипящая вода, штамм, испорченная
пища, токсины, яд, стойкий.
3. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
1) All the microorganisms are harmful to the human body.
2) Growth of bacteria, mold, and yeast in food can be undesirable.
3) All the microorganisms grow with the presence of oxygen.
4) Most bacteria can be killed with heat.
5) Food infections are food-borne illnesses caused by eating food which has organisms
that grow and cause illness .
4. Speak on the following topics:
1) Mold.
2) Fungi.
3) Yeast.
Food additives
Vocabulary of the text
Food additives пищевые добавки
To enhance
увеличивать, усиливать, повышать, усугублять
Flavouring
приправа
Abundance
изобилие, избыток, множество
Sweetener
подсластитель
Coloring
краситель
Dye
краска, красящее вещество, краситель
To hinder
мешать, препятствовать, быть помехой
Awareness
сознание, знание, осведомлённость
To be vocal
высказывать открыто
Food additives are substances added to foods by manufacturers to prevent spoilage or to
enhance appearance, taste, texture, or nutritive value. By quantity, the most common food
additives are flavorings, which include spices, vinegar, synthetic flavors, and, in the greatest
abundance, sweeteners (e.g., sucrose, corn syrup, fructose, and dextrose). Colorings are another
type of additive. Most colorings are synthetic dyes, but some (e.g., chlorophyll, beta carotene,
and caramel) are naturally formed chemicals. Preservatives are divided into antioxidants, such
as BHT, BHA, and ascorbic acid, which help prevent fats and oils from turning rancid or fruit
from spoiling, and antimicrobial agents, which hinder the growth of mold and bacteria.
Additives that help produce a desired texture include emulsifiers, which keep substances such
as mayonnaise from separating, and stabilizers, including gelatin, pectin, and carrageenan,
which prevent the formation of ice crystals in ice cream. Other food additives include nutrients,
yeast and baking soda. Food additives comprise approximately 10% (about 150 lbs) of the food
consumed by the average American adult. As nutritional awareness grows, many health experts
and consumers have become more vocal in their criticism of the excessive and potentially
dangerous use of food additives, particularly food colorings.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What are food additives?
2. Can you enumerate the most common food additives?
3. Most colorings are synthetic dyes, aren’t they?
4. What are preservatives divided into?
5. Describe the functions of emulsifiers and stabilizers.
2. Translate the following word expressions into English:
предотвратить порчу, усилить вкус, по количеству, специи, синтеитческие
красящие вещества, рост плесени, желаемая текстура, эксперты по здоровью,
потенциально опасное использование.
3. Find the information:
1. Flavorings.
2. Sweeteners.
3. Colorings.
4. Preservatives.
5. Emulsifiers.
6. Stabilizers.
7. Nutrients, yeast and baking soda.
Food spoilage
Vocabulary of the text
Spoilage
порча
Unattractive непривлекательный
Maturity
зрелость, завершённость
And so forth и так далее
Perishable
скоропортящийся
Staple
основной
To lessen
уменьшить
Desirability желательность
Tо alter
изменить
All foods are subjects to spoilage, the extent of which depends upon a number of factors.
Among environmental factors affecting keeping quality are the temperature and humidity at
which the food is held; whether the food has been frozen,heated or dried; and the particular
nature of the food itself, its composition or structure. A food thought fit to eat by one person
may be quite unattractive to another. In general, acceptability of food is determined by its state
of development or maturity, absence of contamination in processing, and presence or absence
of microbial or enzymatic action. Causes of spoilage may be microorganisms, insects, enzyme
activity, natural metabolic reactions and environmental effects, such as freezing, burning,
drying, oxidation and so forth.
A three-part food-spoilage classification may be set up as follows: relatively stable,
protectable and perishable.
Staple foods are relatively stable: they do not perish or spoil unless handled carelessly.
These foods include sugar, flour, cereal grains and dry beans.
Protectable or semiperishable foods remain unspoiled for fairly long periods with proper
care. These are potatoes, certain varieties of apples, onions, dried fruits and other dehydrated
foods.
Perishable foods spoil readily without special preservative methods. To this class belong
meats, fish, most fruits, vegetables, poultry, eggs,milk and milk products.
Spoilage is any change in the natural state of the food that lessens its desirability, either
for aesthetic or health reasons. In general, these changes are of biological nature brought about
by growth of microorganisms. In some cases changes result from oxidation. These factors may
act alone or in combination. Microorganisms may synthesize compounds that alter the flavor,
color, or odor of the food.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What does the extent of food spoilage depend upon?
2. By what is the acceptability of food determined?
3. What are the causes of spoilage?
4. How may a three-part food-spoilage classification be set up?
5. Do you know the examples of staple foods?
6. Enumerate the kinds of perishable foods?
7. Spoilage is any change in the natural state of the food, isn’t it?
2. Match the following:
Extent
относительно
Humidity
соединения
Acceptability
мера, степень
Contamination
влажность
Natural metabolic reactions довольно, совершенно
Relatively
приемлемость
Fairly
естественные метаболические реакции
Compounds
заражение
3. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
зависеть от, факторы окружающей среды, в общем, определяться, насекомые,
замораживание, мука, оставаться, методы сохранения, принадлежать, естественное
состояние, биологического происхождения, рост микроорганизмов, в некоторых случаях,
действовать поодиночке.
4. Find in the text the adjectives with the suffix –able and translate them into
Russian.
5. Give the main idea of the text using the vocabulary of the text.
Food science
Vocabulary of the text
Food science – наука о пище
Interdisciplinary - междисциплинарный
Food safety – безопаснось пищи
Sensory analysis – сенсорный анализ
Molecular gastronomy – молекулярная гастрономия
Food science is a discipline concerned with all technical aspects of food, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption.
Examples of the activities of food scientists include the development of new food
products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life
studies, sensory evaluation of the product with trained expert panels or potential consumers, as
well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists at universities may study more
fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of particular food product
and its properties.
Food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts from
many different fields including microbiology, chemical engineering, biochemistry, and many
others.
Some of the subdisciplines of food science include:
Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication dealing with food borne illness
Food microbiology - the positive and negative interactions between micro-organisms and
foods
Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality degradation
Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food
Product development - the invention of new food products
Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the consumer's senses
Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and the involvement of these
molecules in chemical reactions
Food packaging - the study of how food is packaged to preserve the food after it has been
processed.
Molecular gastronomy - the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social &
gastronomical phenomena
Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as viscosity, texture...)
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food science?
2) Give the examples of the activities of food scientists.
3) What does food science incorporate?
4) Can you enumerate the subdisciplines of food science?
5) What does food safety study?
6) What is sensory analysis?
7) What is molecular gastronomy?
8) What is food physics occupied with?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Технические аспекты, развитие новых пищевых продуктов, выбор материала для
упаковывания, сенсорная оценка продукта, потенциальные потребители, химическое
тестирование, фундаментальное явление, прикладная наука, ухудшение качества,
научное исследование, текстура.
3.Fill in the blanks with the following words:
invention development
interactions applied senses properties
1) Examples of the activities of food scientists include the …of new food products. 2)
Food scientists at universities may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked
to the production of particular food product and its …. 3) Food science is a highly
interdisciplinary …science. 4) Food microbiology studies the positive and negative …between
micro-organisms and foods. 5) Product development studies the … of new food products. 6)
Sensory analysis is the study of how food is perceived by the consumer's ….
4. Speak on the following topics:
1) Product development.
2) Molecular gastronomy.
3) Food physics.
Food quality
Vocabulary of the text
Food quality – качество пищи
Acceptable – приемлемый, допустимый
External factors – внешние факторы
Gloss – внешний блеск
Susceptible – впечатлительный, восприимчивый
To rely on – полагаться на
Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This
includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency), texture,
and flavour; factors such as federal grade standards (e.g. of eggs) and internal (chemical,
physical, microbial).
Food quality is an important food manufacturing requirement, because food consumers
are susceptible to any form of contamination that may occur during the manufacturing process.
Many consumers also rely on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know
what ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements (vegetarian), or medical
conditions (e.g., diabetes, or allergies).
Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to
ensure that the food-processing environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the
safest possible food for the consumer.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food quality?
2) Do you know the external factors of characteristics of food?
3) Why is food quality an important food manufacturing requirement?
4) What do many consumers rely on?
2. Match the following:
quality characteristics
внутренний
consistency
требование
internal
заражение
requirement
санитария
contamination
качественные характеристики
sanitation
консистенция
3.Speak about medical food requirements.
Food packaging
Vocabulary of the text
Food packaging – упаковывание продуктов питания
Enclosing – окружение, заключение
Containment - содержание
Sealing system – система запечатывания
Durability – прочность, стойкость, продолжительность срока службы
Abrasion – стирание, снашивание
Ultraviolet light – ультрафиолетовый свет
Trauma - травма
Wrapper - бандероль
Flexibility - гибкость
Throughput – пропускная способность, производительность
Food packaging is the enclosing of food that requires protection from physical, chemical
or biological influence. It also shows any nutrition information on the food being consumed.
Food packaging's functions are as diverse as they are important. They are broken down
as follows.
Containment. For items that are granulated, paper-based packages are the best with a
sealing system to prevent moisture infiltration of the product. Other products are packaged
using metal cans, plastic bags and bottles. Another factor in containment is packaging
durability, meaning the packaged food has to survive transport from the packaging at the food
processing facility to the supermarket to the home for the consumer.
Protection. The packaging must protect the food from biological agents in rats, insects,
and microbes; from mechanical damage such as abrasion, compressive forces, and vibration;
and from chemical degradation such as oxidation, moisture transfer, and ultraviolet light.
Communication. Packaged food must be identified for consumer use mainly with label
text and graphics. It can also be shown with the food package's shape such as the Coca-Cola
bottle. Other well-known food package shapes include the potato chip bags and milk bottles.
Functionality.The package must be easy to use for both manufacturers and consumers.
These products can be purchased all at once such as frozen pizza. Another use may be to see if
the package can go through a microwave process.
Environmental issues. This means that we must reuse the packaging and reduce the size
of the packaging.
Package safety. Packing must be safe for products and the consumer. It should not render
harmful influence on food and put traumas to the consumer.
Food packaging types
Packaging
type
Type
container
of
Food examples
Aseptic
packages
Primary
whole eggs
Plastic trays
Primary
Portion of fish
Primary
Potato chips
Bags
Boxes
Cans
Secondary
Primary
Box of Coca-Cola
Can of Tomato soup.
Flexible
packaging
Pallets
Wrapper
s
Primary
Bagged salad
Tertiary
A series of boxes on a single pallet used to transport from
the manufacturing plant to a distribution center.
Tertiary
Serves to wrap the boxes on the pallet for transport
Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed.
Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made. Tertiary
packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet.
There are also special containers that combine different technologies for maximum
durability:
Bags-In-Boxes (used for soft drink syrup, other liquid products, and meat products)
Wine box (used for wine)
A choice of packaging machinery includes technical capabilities, labor requirements,
worker safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging
line, capital cost, floor space, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of
outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency,
productivity, ergonomics, etc.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food packaging?
2) Can you enumerate food packaging's functions?
3) What type of packaging can be used for granulated items?
4) From what must the packaging protect the food?
5) How must packaged food be identified for consumer use?
6) Why must the package be easy to use?
7) Packing must be safe for products and the consumer, mustn’t it?
8) Enumerate food packaging types.
9) What is primary packaging?
10) What is secondary packaging?
11) What is tertiary packaging?
12) Do you know the types of packaging machinery?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
физическое воздействие, разнообразный, предотвратить проникновение влаги в
продукт, металлические банки, насекомые, механическое поареждение, силы сжатия,
замороженная пицца, микроволновый процесс, уменьшить размер упаковки, причинять
травмы потребителю, эффективность.
3. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
nutrition information, paper-based packages, packaging durability, chemical degradation,
moisture transfer, label text, aseptic packages, plastic trays, pallets, worker safety, capital cost,
capital cost, ergonomics, floor space.
Food
Substance
Vocabulary of the text
вещество
To be composed of
состоять из
Item
каждый отдельный предмет (в списке), пункт, вопрос
Origin
происхождение
Ambient
окружающий, обтекающий
Gastronomy
кулинария, гастрономия
To diversify
разнообразить
To excrete
выделять, извергать
Spinach
шпинат
Inflorescence vegetables цветочные овощи
Scarcity
недостаток, нехватка, дефицит
Civet
виверра, циветта, цибетин
Slaughter
убой скота
Evisceration
потрошение
Constraint
принуждение, напряжение, скованность
Myriad
несметное число, десять тысяч, бесчисленный, несметный
Pottery
гончарные изделия, керамика, гончарное дело
Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or
proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human being for nutrition or pleasure.
Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus
or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through
hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting,
foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions,
preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have
diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also
includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of
food, not just by consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores,
religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume.
Food safety is also a concern with foodborne illness claiming many lives each year. In many
languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin, although there are some exceptions. Foods
not coming from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, including mushrooms.
Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods such as
leavened bread, wine, beer, cheese, pickles, and yogurt. Many cultures eat seaweed, which is a
protist, or blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as Spirulina. Additionally, salt is often eaten
as a flavoring or preservative, and baking soda is used in food preparation. Both of these are
inorganic substances, as is water, an important part of human diet.
Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which
are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. Plant-based foods can be
classified as with the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth. Because of this, seeds are
often packed with energy, and are good sources of food for animals, including humans. In fact,
the majority of all foods consumed by human beings are seeds. These include cereals (such as
maize, wheat, and rice), legumes (such as beans, peas, and lentils), and nuts. Oilseeds are often
pressed to produce rich oils, including sunflower, rape (including canola oil), and sesame.
Fruits are the ripened extensions of plants, including the seeds within. Fruits are made
attractive to animals so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds over long distances.
Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some fruits, such as
pumpkin and eggplant, are eaten as vegetables.
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter eaten as food. These include root vegetables
(such as potatoes and carrots), leaf vegetables (such as spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables
(such as bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (such as globe artichokes
and broccoli). Many herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.
Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they produce.
Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from either muscle
systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk produced by
mammals, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products such as cheese or
butter. In addition birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce
honey, a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, some in the form
of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, and
others
use
blood
in
stews
such
as
civet.
Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging
and other methods of subsistence locally important. More recently, there has been a growing
trend towards more sustainable agricultural practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by
consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and organic farming methods.
Major influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the World Trade
Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or law), and war.
While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation for
reasons of safety, palatability, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing,
cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve
mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. At
home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the
taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; and others may be
involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a
specific time and place.
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration,
hanging, portioning and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the
home in slaughterhouses which are used to process animals en mass for meat production. Many
countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example the United States has established
the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing.
This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such
as kosher shechita and dhabiha halal. Strict interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be
fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.
On the local level a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller
manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order in butcher paper. In
addition fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger at the local
level. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-froze for
preservation
of
quality.
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of
ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as culinary
art, generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered
procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the
variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cooking. The
diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural,
economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically
transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking
proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the boiling of water in a container, and was practiced at
least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery. There is archaeological
evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What is food?
2. How can you determine the term “gastronomy”?
3. Do you know anything about the origin of food?
4. Plants are cultivated for food, arent’ they?
5. What are fruits?
6. Are vegetables eaten as food?
7. In what way can animals be used as food? Speak on it in detail.
8. How is food obtained?
9. What does the preparation of animal-based food involve?
10. How is the term “cooking” determined?
11. What does cooking require?
2. Give the Russian equivalents of the following English words and expressions:
some exceptions, plant sources, leavened bread, pickles, protist, additionally, baking
soda, plant species, initial growth, legumes, lentils, ripened extensions, over long distances,
plant matter, stem vegetables, sweetener, thickener, foraging, sustainable, at the simplest level,
aesthetic appeal, slaughterhouse, fish monger, archaeological evidence.
3. Complete the sentences:
1. Items considered food may be sourced from…
2. Most traditions have…
3. Many cultures study…
4. Almost all foods are of…
5. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in…
6. Plant-based foods can be classified as…
7. Fruits are made attractive to…
8. Many herbs and spices are…
9. Food products produced by animals include…
10.Food is traditionally obtained through…
11.The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve…
12. The term "cooking" encompasses…
13. Cooking requires…
4. Insert the prepositions where necessary:
1. Many cultures have diversified their foods … means … preparation, cooking methods
and manufacturing.
2. … many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as … "food for
thought".
3. Foods not coming … animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, including
mushrooms.
4. Seeds are often packed … energy, and are good sources … food for animals, including
humans.
5. While some food can be eaten …raw, many foods undergo some form … preparation
for reasons … safety,
palatability.
5. Retell the text.
6. Word formation. Read the text below. Use the word given in capitals
underneath to form a word that fits in the space in the text. There is an example at the
beginning (0).
Functional foods
Good and plentiful food is one of the keys to human (O) survival , but for many people
eating is no longer (1) ______a way of satisfying their (2)______.In modern society, food is
often viewed as something to look forward to, as a (3) ______to be enjoed in moments of
relaxation or as a form of reward for some of life’s (4) _____. What’s more, people are now
choosing foods that are (5) ______ of both improving their mood and making them feel
(6)_______. And the (7)_______ of these so-called “functional foods” is booming, particularly
in the USA, where people are very interested in (8)_______ remedies of various kinds. If you
can prevent (9)_______ by eating the right kind of food, they argue, then all the pills and
medicines become (10)________.
(0) survive (4) achieve
(8) nature
(1) simple
(5) able
(9) ill
(2) hungry (6) health
(10) necessary
(3) please
(7) popular
Fermentation
Vocabulary of the text
Fermentation брожение, ферментация
Breakdown
распад, развал
Strenuous
сильный, энергичный, усердный, напряжённый
To bypass
обходить, пренебрегать, не принимать во внимание
Glycolysis
гликолиз
Antiquity
древность, античность
Malt
солод
Fermentation is the process by which the living cell is able to obtain energy through the
breakdown of glucose and other simple sugar molecules without requiring oxygen.
Fermentation is achieved by somewhat different chemical sequences in different species of
organisms. Two closely related paths of fermentation predominate for glucose. When muscle
tissue receives sufficient oxygen supply, it fully metabolizes its fuel glucose to water and
carbon dioxide. However, at times of strenuous activity, muscle tissue uses oxygen faster than
the blood can supply it. During this anaerobic condition, the six-carbon glucose molecule is
only partly broken down to two molecules of the three-carbon sugar called lactic acid. This
process, called lactic acid fermentation, also occurs in many microorganisms and in the cells of
most higher animals. In alcoholic fermentation, such as occurs in brewer's yeast and some
bacteria, the production of lactic acid is bypassed, and the glucose molecule is degraded to two
molecules of the two-carbon alcohol, ethanol, and to two molecules of carbon dioxide. Many of
the enzymes of lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation are identical to the enzymes that bring
about the metabolic conversion known as glycolysis. Alcoholic fermentation is a process that
was known to antiquity. Before 2000 B.C. the Egyptians apparently knew that crushed fruits
stored in a warm place would produce a substance with a pleasant intoxicating power. By 1500
B.C. the production of beer from germinating cereals (malt) and the preparation of wines from
crushed grapes were established arts in most of the Middle East. Aristotle believed that grape
juice was an infantile form of wine and that fermentation was, therefore, the maturation of the
grape extract. Interest in the process of fermentation has continued through the ages, and much
of modern biochemistry, especially enzyme studies, has emerged directly from early studies on
the fermentation process. One of the earliest laboratories established for the study of biological
chemistry was founded in Copenhagen in 1875 and financed by the brewing family of Jacob
Christian Jacobsen.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What is fermentation?
2.How is fermentation achieved?
3. Describe the process of lactic acid fermentation.
4. What is alcoholic fermentation?
5. Speak about the history of fermentation.
6. When was the one of the earliest laboratories, studying biological chemistry, founded?
2. Match the following:
Living cell
анаэробное состояние
chemical sequences
выжатый виноград
anaerobic condition
проросшие хлебные злаки
metabolic conversion живая клетка
germinating cereals
метаболическое изменение
crushed grapes
химические последовательности
3. Name 10-15 key words and expressions of the text (key words are words that
describe or define the
main idea of the text).
4. Speak on the following topics:
1. The production of beer.
2. Th production of wines.
Food adulteration
Vocabulary of the text
Аdulteration
фальсификация, подделка, подмешивание
To debase
понижать качество, портить
Admixture
примесь
Removal
устранение, удаление
Fraudulent
обманный, мошеннический
Standpoint
точка зрения
Welfare
благосостояние, благоденствие
To be superseded быть вытесненным, смещённым
Rigorous
строгий, точный, тщательный, скрупулёзный
To be amended быть улучшенным, исправленным
Food adulteration is the act of intentionally debasing the quality of food offered for sale
either by the admixture or substitution of inferior substances or by the removal of some
valuable ingredient. The Greek and Roman classics contain allusions to wine makers and
dealers who colored and flavored their wine. In England as early as the 13th century, bakers
cheapened their wares or scanted the weight, and lawmakers for the first time made an effort to
prevent fraudulent dealings on the part of butchers and brewers. In Great Britain in the 18th and
early 19th cent., coffee, tea, and cocoa were placed under protection laws by Parliament, passed
not so much in the interest of the consumer as to keep up internal revenues. About the middle
of the 19th cent. chemical and microscopal knowledge had reached the stage that food
substances could be analyzed, and the subject of food adulteration began to be studied from the
standpoint of the rights and welfare of the consumer. In 1860 the first food law framed in the
interest of the purchaser was passed. That law, lacking sufficient means of enforcement,
remained largely ineffective until 1872, when administrative officials were appointed and
penalties for violation provided. In the United States the federal Food and Drug Act of 1906
was the result of a long and stormy campaign led by Dr. Harvey Washington Wiley. This law
defined food adulteration and the misbranding of products; it provided regulations covering the
interstate movement of food and penalties for violations. The act was superseded in 1938 by
the more rigorous Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act administered since 1940 by the Food and
Drug Administration (now within the Dept. of Health and Human Services). It is charged with
enforcing truthful and informative labeling of essential commodities, maintaining staff
laboratories, and formulating definitions and standards promoting fair dealing in the interests of
the consumer. The 1938 act broadened the definitions of adulteration, misbranding, and lack of
informative labeling; it provided for factory inspections; and it increased the penalties for
violations. It was amended in 1958 and 1962 to define and regulate food additives and food
coloring. Imported goods that violate the provisions of the act may be denied admittance to the
United States and if not removed within a given time may be destroyed. The federal law
controls traffic from one state to another and is supplemented by local regulations that require
food handlers to be licensed, thereby discouraging the spread of disease; it provides for the
inspection by health officers of meat and other foods, of restaurants, and of dairies and cold
storage methods.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1.What is food afulteration?
2.When was the first food law framed in the interest of the purchaser passed?
3. What did the federal Food and Drug Act of 1906 define?
4. When was this act superseded?
5. What did the 1938 act broaden?
2. Make up a dialogue or prepare a report “Food adulteration and its consequences
nowdays”.
PROTEINS
Vocabulary of the text
Protein - белок
Organic compound – органическое соединение
Amino acid - аминокислота
Peptide bond- пептидная связь
Enzyme - фермент
Metabolism – обмен веществ
Digestion - пищеварение
Homogeneous – однородный, гомогенный
Fibrous – волокнистый, жилистый, фиброзный
Structural - структурный
Functional - функциональный
Tissue – ткань
Gene- ген
Genetic code- генетический код
Nucleic acid- нуклеиновая кислота
To catalyze-катализировать
Axis- ось
Helix- спираль, спиральная линия, винтовая линия
Tertiary structure- третичная структура
Ribosome- рибосома
Chemical linkage- химическая связь
Proteins are large organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and
joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups. The sequence of
amino acids in a protein is defined by a gene and encoded in the genetic code. Proteins can
also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable
complexes.
Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids,
proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in every process within cells. Many
proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins
also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle. Proteins are
also necessary in animals' diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need
and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals
break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism.
The word protein comes from the Greek word πρώτα ("prota"), meaning "of primary
importance." Proteins were first described and named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob
Berzelius in 1838. However, the central role of proteins in living organisms was not fully
appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein.
The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, who won the Nobel Prize
for this achievement in 1958. The three-dimensional structures of both proteins were first
determined by x-ray diffraction analysis; the structures of myoglobin and hemoglobin won the
1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discoverers.
Protein is any of the group of highly complex organic compounds found in all living
cells. Protein comprises approximately 50% of cellular dry weight. Hundreds of protein
molecules have been isolated in pure, homogeneous form; many have been crystallized. All
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and nearly all contain sulfur as well. Some proteins also
incorporate phosphorus, iron, zinc, and copper. Proteins are large molecules with high
molecular weights (from about 10,000 for small ones [of 50–100 amino acids] to more than
1,000,000 for certain forms); they are composed of varying amounts of the same 20 amino
acids, which in the intact protein are united through covalent chemical linkages called peptide
bonds. The amino acids, linked together, form linear unbranched polymeric structures called
polypeptide chains; such chains may contain hundreds of amino-acid residues; these are
arranged in specific order for a given species of protein. Every protein molecule has a
characteristic three-dimensional shape, or conformation. Fibrous proteins, such as collagen and
keratin, consist of polypeptide chains arranged in roughly parallel fashion along a single linear
axis, thus forming tough, usually water-insoluble, fibers or sheets. Globular proteins, e.g.,
many of the known enzymes, show a tightly folded structural geometry approximating the
shape of an ellipsoid or sphere. Because the physiological activity of most proteins is closely
linked to their three-dimensional architecture, specific terms are used to refer to different
aspects of protein structure. The term “primary structure” denotes the precise linear sequence
of amino acids that constitutes the polypeptide chain of the protein molecule. Automated
techniques for amino-acid sequencing have made possible the determination of the primary
structure of hundreds of proteins.
The physical interaction of sequential amino-acid subunits results in a so-called
secondary structure, which often can either be a twisting of the polypeptide chain
approximating a linear helix (α-configuration), or a zigzag pattern (β-configuration). Most
globular proteins also undergo extensive folding of the chain into a complex three-dimensional
geometry designated as tertiary structure. Many globular protein molecules are easily
crystallized and have been examined by X-ray diffraction, a technique that allows the
visualization of the precise three-dimensional positioning of atoms in relation to each other in a
crystal.
The tertiary structure of several protein molecules has been determined from X-ray
diffraction analysis. Two or more polypeptide chains that behave in many ways as a single
structural and functional entity are said to exhibit quaternary structure. The separate chains are
not linked through covalent chemical bonds but by weak forces of association.
The precise three-dimensional structure of a protein molecule is referred to as its native
state and appears, in almost all cases, to be required for proper biological function (especially
for the enzymes). Structure of a protein is altered, e.g., by such physical factors as extremes of
temperature, changes in pH, or variations in salt concentration, the protein is said to be
denatured; it usually exhibits reduction or loss of biological activity.
The cell's ability to synthesize protein is, in essence, the expression of its genetic
makeup. Protein synthesis is a sequence of chemical reactions that occur in four distinct stages,
i.e., activation of the amino acids that ultimately will be joined together by peptide bonds;
initiation of the polypeptide chain at a cell organelle known as the ribosome; elongation of the
polypeptide by stepwise addition of single amino acids to the chain; and termination of aminoacid additions and release of the completed protein from the ribosome. The information for the
synthesis of specific amino-acid sequences is carried by a nucleic acid molecule called
messenger RNA. Proteins are needed in the diet mainly for their amino acids. The mechanism
of action of many widely used antibiotics, such as streptomycin, chloramphenicol, and
tetracycline, can be understood in terms of their ability to interfere with some stage of protein
synthesis in bacteria. Due to the chemical structure of the individual amino acids, the protein
chain has directionality. The end of the protein with a free carboxyl group is known as the Cterminus or carboxyl terminus, whereas the end with a free amino group is known as the Nterminus or amino terminus.
The words protein, polypeptide, and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap in
meaning. Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable
conformation.
Structural proteins form most of the solid material in the human body. For example, the
structural proteins keratin and collagen are the main component of your hair, muscles, tendons
and skin. Functional proteins help carry out activities and functions in the human body. For
example, hemoglobin is a functional protein that occurs in the red blood cells and helps to
transport oxygen in the body. Myosin is a protein that occurs in muscle tissue and is
responsible for the ability of muscles to contract.
Insulin is a functional protein that helps regulate the storage of the sugar glucose in the
human body. A subclass of the functional proteins is the group of polypeptides referred to as
enzymes. Enzymes help to carry out specific chemical reactions in the body.
Proteins are the building blocks of the body. That means every tissue is made of some
form of protein. Even enzymes, antibodies, and hormones are proteins. Without a steady supply
of new protein, we couldn't grow new cells. Our wounds would not heal. Worn-out cells could
not be replaced. Protein can also be used for energy if the body doesn't get enough calories
from carbohydrates and fats. Excess protein is changed to fat and stored. Meat, fish, poultry,
dairy products, and eggs are good sources of protein. Grains, nuts, seeds, and legumes (dry
peas and beans) also contain some protein.
In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival and vary depending upon a
person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Proteins in food are commonly found in peanuts,
meat, poultry, and seafood.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1)What is protein?
2)How many per cent of dry weight does protein comprise?
3)What does protein contain?
4)What can you say about the molecular weights of molecules of proteins?
5)What are peptide bonds?
6)How are polypeptide chains formed?
7)What does every protein molecule have?
8)What fibrous proteins do you know?
9)Why are the specific terms used to refer to different aspects of protein structure?
10)What does the physical interaction of sequential amino-acid subunits result in?
11)How can you characterize protein synthesis?
12)What functions do proteins have?
13)What does the word “protein” come from?
14)Who was Berzelius?
15)Structural proteins form most of the solid material in the human body, don’t they?
16) Is insulin a functional protein?
2. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Protein, organic compound, living cell, cellular dry weight, homogeneous, amino acid,
peptide bond, polypeptide chain, fibrous protein, water-insoluble, tertiary structure, helix,
enzymes, protein synthesis, polysaccarides, nucleic acids, linear chain, to catalyze, metabolism,
muscle, digestion.
3. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Белок, включать, водород, кислород, медь, аминокислоты, ковалентные
химические связи, шаровидные белки, биологическая функция, последовательность,
рибосома, антибиотик, бактерия, включать в состав, фосфор, осадок, ось, эллипс,
спираль, удлинение, структурные белки, твёрдое вещество, функциональные белки
4. Match the following phrases:
Linear chain
нерастворимый в воде
Stable complexes
твёрдый материал
Cell
структура
Biochemical reactions
фиброзные белки
Conformation
дифракция
Fibrous proteins
сухожилие
Water-insoluble
устойчивые комплексы
Diffraction
изменять естественные войства
Quaternary structure
генетический состав
To denature
клетка
Genetic make-up
продолжение
Elongation
Solid material
Tendon
5. Complete the sentences:
1) Proteins are large organic compounds…
2) Many proteins are…
3) The first protein to be sequenced…
4) The amino acids, linked together, form…
5) The term “primary structure” denotes…
6) The cell’s ability to synthesize protein is…
7) Structural proteins form…
8) Insulin is…
9) Enzymes help to…
10) Without a steady supply of new protein…
биохимические реакции
линейная цепь
четвертная структура
Text A.Fats
Vocabulary of the text
Fats -жиры
Lipids -липиды
Hydrophobic -гидрофобный
Food consumption- потребление пищи
To release energy- освобождать энергию
Saturated fats –насыщенные жиры
To be beneficial – быть выгодным, полезным
To convert into –превращаться в
Hydroxyl groups –гидроксильные группы
Triglyceride - триглицерид
To be rigid – быть жёстким, неподвижным
Kink – перекручивание, петля, узел, изгиб
Nutrients – питательные вещества
The bulk – основная масса, большая часть
Polar solvents – полярные, диаметрально противоположные растворители
Soybean – соевый боб
Wax - воск
Phospholipids - фосфолипиды
Phospholipids bilayer - двойной слой фосфолипидов
Steroid - стероид
Anabolic – анаболический, ассимиляционный
Stamina – запас жизненных сил, выносливость, выдержка, стойкость
Fats are a subgroup of compounds known as lipids that are found in the body and have
the general property of being hydrophobic (they are insoluble in water). Fats are also known as
triglycerides, molecules made from the combination of one molecule of glycerol with three
fatty acids.
The main purpose of fats in the body is to serve as a storage system and reserve supply of
energy. During periods of low food consumption, fat reserves in the body can be mobilized and
broken down to release energy. Fats serve as an insulation material to allow body heat to be
conserved and fats line and protect delicate internal organs from physical damage. Fats in the
diet can be converted to other lipids that serve as the main structural material in the membranes
surrounding our cells. Fats are also used in the manufacture of some steroids and hormones that
help regulate proper growth and maintenance of tissue in the body.
Fats can be classified as either saturated or unsaturated depending on the structure of the
long carbon-carbon chains in the fatty acids . Fats that contain no double bonds in their fatty
acid chains are referred to as saturated fats. These fats tend to be solid at room temperature,
such as butter or animal fat. The consumption of saturated fats carries some health risks in that
they have been linked to atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) and heart disease. Some
fatty acids have one or more double bonds between their carbon atoms. They are called
unsaturated because they could hold more hydrogen atoms than they do. These fats are
generally liquid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats can be either polyunsaturated (many
double bonds) or monounsaturated fats (one or few double bonds). One system for naming
unsaturated fatty acids is to indicate the position of the first double bond counting from the
opposite end from the carboxyl group. That terminal carbon atom is called the omega carbon
atom. Thus a monounsaturated fatty acid with its single double bond after carbon #3 is called
an omega-3 fatty acid. Unsaturated fatty acids can exist in two different geometric forms.
These are called the cis and trans forms. Unsaturated fatty acids exist naturally in the cis form.
During food manufacturing processes these cis fatty acids may be changed to trans fatty acids.
Hydrogenation of margarine causes this to occur. It has been suggested that trans fatty acids
can increase the risk of heart disease.
Free radicals are highly reactive molecules which have been linked to both heart disease
and cancer. A number of factors, including alcohol, stress and environmental pollutants can
increase the generation of free radicals in the body. Polyunsaturated fats can also generate free
radicals, especially when exposed to heat or sunlight. Because of this it is suggested that
vegetable oils should be stored out of direct sunlight. Mono-unsaturated olive oil is less
vulnerable to free radical generation and so is a better choice for frying. Anti-oxidants such as
vitamins A, C and E offer protection against free radicals. Fresh fruit and vegetables are rich in
these anti-oxidants.
Recent research suggests that the healthiest of the fats in the human diet are the
monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil, because they appear to be beneficial in the fight against
heart disease.Through their metabolism, plants generally produce triglycerides that contain
unsaturated fatty acids such as peanut oil or olive oil, whereas animals generally produce
triglycerides that contain saturated fatty acids which humans sometimes convert into butter and
lard.
Each fatty acid consists of a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end. The
glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl groups, each able to interact with the carboxyl group of a
fatty acid. Removal of a water molecule at each of the three positions forms a triglyceride. The
three fatty acids in a single fat molecule may be all alike or they may be different. They may
contain as few as 4 carbon atoms or as many as 24.
Because fatty acids are synthesized from fragments containing two carbon atoms, the
number of carbon atoms in the chain is almost always an even number. In animal fats, 16carbon (palmitic acid) and 18-carbon (stearic acid) fatty acids are the most common.Double
bonds are rigid and those in natural fats introduce a kink in the molecule. This prevents the
fatty acids from packing close together and as a result, unsaturated fats have a lower melting
point than do saturated fats. Fats are the nutrients that supply the most energy-more than twice
as much as carbohydrates. They also carry four important vitamins (A,D,E, and K) through the
body and supply some fatty acids that are absolutely necessary for good health. The fat that is
stored in the body protect us. Foods such as butter, margarine, oils, and salad dressings are easy
to pick out as fats. But not all sources of fat are so obvious. Whole milk, cheeses, ice cream,
meat, poultry, fish, nuts, seeds, avocados, olives, gravies, sauces, bakery foods, fried foods, and
even some candies contain fats.
The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall
for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes,
fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids,
glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic
molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are
flexible, while others are rigid.
Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally,
the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does
not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or
hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This
makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).
Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are
parts of many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.
Waxes are similar to fats except that waxes are composed of only one long-chain fatty
acid bonded to a long-chain alcohol group attached. Because of their long, nonpolar carbon
chains, waxes are extremely hydrophobic ( they lack an affinity for water). Both plants and
animals use this waterproofing characteristic as part of their composition. Plants most
noticeably use waxes for a thin protective covering of stems and leaves to prevent water loss.
Similarly, animals employ waxes for protective purposes; for instance, earwax in humans
prevents foreign material from entering and possibly injuring the ear canal area.
Phospholipids are similar to fats except they have two fatty acid chains bonded to a
glycerol plus they contain the element phosphorus. Phospholipids are unique because they have
a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic (water-soluble) end. Phospholipids are biologically important
because they are the main structural components of cell membranes. The cell membrane is
called a phospholipid bilayer because it consists of two phospholipid layers oriented so that the
hydrophyllic “head” of both molecules face the exterior and the hydrophobic “tails” of both
molecules create the interior of the membrane. Therefore, water and other cellular fluids are
contained. The hydrophobic ends for both molecules face each other on the inside and allow for
passage of acceptable, and some objectionable, materials through the cell membrane.
Steroids are structurally different from the other lipids. The carbon skeleton of steroids is
bent to form four fused rings that do not contain fatty acids. The most common steroid,
cholesterol, is needed to make both the male (testosterone) and female (estrogen) sex
hormones, and it is a component of cell membranes and is needed for the proper function of
nerve cells. Excessive amounts of cholesterol, however, have been linked to heart disease.
Another popular steroid group is the anabolic steroids that are man-made and mimic the effect
of the male hormone, testosterone. Originally intended as a treatment for anemia and certain
diseases that destroy muscle, athletes have recently been using them to increase muscle mass,
stamina, and strength—which they will do. However, the performance-enhancement drugs
come with a price. The anabolic steroids are linked to increased cholesterol levels, mood
swings, reduced sex drive, possible infertility, and possible connections between liver damage
and the resulting liver cancer. Certain beneficial fat-soluble hormones, such as cortisol, are also
familiar steroids.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What are fats?
2. How can you determine the main purpose of fats?
3) What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
4) What does each fatty acid consist of?
5) How is a triglyceride formed?
6) Double bonds are rigid, aren’t they?
7) What sypplies the most energy- more than twice as much as carbohydrates?
8) Do some food products contain fats?
9) What does the term “lipid” comprise?
10) Are waxes similar to fats?
11) Why are waxes extremely hydrophobic?
12) How can you differentiate between fats and phospholipids?
13) Phospholipids are unique, aren’t they?
14) What is the biological value of phospholipids?
15) What are steroids?
16) What is the omega carbon atom?
17) What are two geometric forms of unsaturated fatty acids?
2. Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
General property, to serve as a storage system, internal organs, to carry health risks,
double bonds, to be liquid, at room temperature, carboxyl group, to interact with, removal of a
water molecule, catchall, nonpolar compound, ring structure, affinity for water, to prevent
water loss, cell membrane, cellular fluid, free radicals, hydrogenation, environmental
pollutants, anti-oxidants,.
3. Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Беречь запасы энергии, мобилизоваться, физический вред, регулировать
сохранение ткани в теле, животный жир, сердечная болезнь, в борьбе против,
биологическое происхождение, в целях защиты, нервные клетки, увеличить мышечную
массу, сердечная болезнь, реактивные молекулы, женский гормон, точка плавления.
4. Insert prepositions where necessary:
1) Fats are a subgroup … compounds known as lipids. 2) The main purpose … fats …the
body is to serve as a storage system and reserve supply …energy. 3) The saturated fats tend to
be solid …room temperature. 4) Each fatty acid consist …a hydrocarbon chain … a carboxyl
group …one end. 5) Most lipids have some polar character …addition to being largely
nonpolar. 6) Waxes are similar … fats except that waxes are composed … only one long-chain
fatty acid. 7) Phospholipids are biologically important because they are the main structural
components …cell membrane. 8) Steroids are structurally different …the other lipids.
5. Retell the text briefly using the following plan:
1) Fats are a subgroup of compounds that are found in the body.
2) The main purpose of fats.
3) Saturated and unsaturated fats.
4) Lipids.
5) Waxes.
6) Phospholipids.
7) Steroids.
Text B. Fat biological value
Vocabulary of the text
Cellular structure – клеточная структура
Fat depot – жировое хранилище
Availability – пригодность, наличие
Irreplaceable –незаменимый, невосстановимый, невозместимый
Daily consumption – суточное потребление
To absorb energy – поглощать энергию
Replenishment – повторное наполнение, пополнение
To split - расщепляться
Bile - жёлчь
Digestibility - удобоваримость
Combustion – горение, сгорание
Ignition – воспламенение, вспышка
Ghee – топлёное масло из молока буйволицы
Lard – сало
The role of fats in the diet is determined by their high calorie and protein together with
the participation of plastic processes. Fat is a part of the cellular structures, often referred to as
protoplazmatic or structural, as opposed to an emergency, or reserve, which accumulates in the
body's so-called fat depots.
In addition to the high caloric, fat biological value is determined by the availability of
vitamins (A, D, E) and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Vitamins A and D are found in animal fat,
especially a lot of them in the liver of fish and marine animals, vegetable oils prevail in vitamin
E.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids - linoleic and arachidonic - are irreplaceable because their
synthesis in the body is severely limited. They serve an important role in the exchange of
substances: lack of nutritional adversely affect the livelihood of the human body.
Linoleic acid is up to 50% or more of all fatty acids in the vegetable oil.
The most biologically useful fat content is 10% of polyunsaturated fatty acids, 30% of
saturated fatty acids, 60%
of oleic acid close to the bold-acid composition of pork lard,
peanut and olive oil, and some margarine.
The share of fats should account for about 30% of daily caloric diet rights, i.e., the daily
consumption of fat with food should be 90-100 y. Given the needs of the organism in the
polyunsaturated fatty acid 30% of fat should be consumed with vegetable oils and 70% of fatwith animal fats.
Much attention is now being paid to fat substances - phospholipids, cholesterol and
others which are actively involved in various vital body processes, The need for phospholipids
is about 5 y. per day. in a significant number contained in fatty meats, egg yolks and other
products. Cholesterol enters an organism with products of animal origin.
By its calorie fat is almost 2 times better than carbohydrates.
Fats should be used in quantities to fill most favorable energy costs. It is necessary,
however, to note that the amount of fat in the diet is determined by different circumstances,
which include the intensity of work, climatic conditions, and the age of people. Man taken by
intense physical labor needs to eat more calorie foods, therefore, and the conditions in the
north, requiring a large heat energy costs, also cause an increase in demand for fat. The more
the body absorbs energy, the greater is the amount of fat needed for its replenishment.
But we should not forget that excessive fat in the diet, even of a healthy person is
harmful. Fats do not dissolve in water or in digestive juices. In the body, they split and
emulsify, with the assistance of bile. Excess amount of fat violates the digestive process and
raises
the
unpleasant
feeling
of
heartburn.
Excessive fat in the diet reduces its uptake, especially essential part of food - proteins.
Nutritional value of various fats is not the same and depends largely on the digestibility
of fat body. Digestible fat, in turn, depends on its melting temperature. Thus, the fat with low
melting temperature not exceeding 370 (i.e., the temperature of the human body), has the
potential to be the fullest and most rapidly emulsifying in the body and, therefore, most fully
and easily digested.
Fats with low melting temperature include butter, pork fat, goose fat, all kinds of
margarines, and the liquid fat.
Fats with a high melting point are learnt much worse. While butter is digested in the
organism at 98.5%, sheep fat is digested only at 80-90%, beef fat, depending on the melting
point, is at 80-94%.
The value of fats in cooking is extremely high. One of the major cooking processes - hot
– is usually conducted with the help of fats, the heat allows fat to fuel product to a high
temperature without combustion and ignition. Forming a thin layer between the bottom and the
roasted product, fat contributes to a more equitable warm. Thanks to the ability of dissolving
some color and flavor substances derived from vegetables fat used to improve the appearance
and smell of food. Choosing fat for cooking a dish, the chief must take into account not only
the uptake of the body, which is especially important in the manufacture of dietary foods and
baby food, but also how this fat reacts to strong heating. Not all fats can be warmed to a high
temperature without decomposition, which is detected by the appearance of smoke.
The temperature varies smoke. Butter, for example, can heat only until 2080. When it warms it
decomposes and gives roast product unpleasant taste bitterness. Pork fat decomposition can be
without heat until 2210, kitchen margarine until 2300. Kitchen margarine, moreover, contains a
small amount of moisture, which makes them very convenient for frying different products.
Ghee also does not withstand heat up to high temperatures. It can be used for frying only
when there is no need to heat the product severely and the process of frying runs quickly. The
choice of fat also depends on its consistency with the culinary flavoring product.
All cooks know that the taste of food determine not only the basic product, but also fat
used for cooking. Fat is not an appropriate dish to taste this, it can worsen. You can not, for
example, produce sweet pancakes with preserve on beef or pork fat. Wrong selection of fat for
cooking this dish is a violation of one of the basic laws of cooking, and only the inexperienced,
inept cook uses fats outside their taste and conformity with the product.
Butter is used mainly for sandwiches, as well as a number of ready-to jelly foods. You
should not use butter for frying, especially because this oil contains up to 16% of moisture, so
much
shall
be
sprayed.
Butter, in many cases, can change all kinds of table margarine.
Animal fats - beef and pork fat - are used for hot meals and meat, roasting of certain
types of flour product. Mutton's lard is successfully used in many dishes in Caucasian and
Central Asian cuisine.
Liquid fats, vegetable oils are used in all cases according to recipe calls for a fat.
The use of different fat foods is often defined by its melting temperature For those foods
that are served on a table, refractory fats are not suitable because they give unpleasant taste, as
they say, "stay on lips." For these foods it is appropriate to use cow and vegetable oil,
margarine, pork lard. Although margarine and pork lard are also firm, they quickly melt in the
mouth and do not give dishes "tallow" taste.
Currently it is believed that around 42% of energy in the typical British diet is from fat.
Dietary advice is to reduce this. The COMA (Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy)
reports that no more than 35% of daily energy requirement should come from fat while the
NACNE (National Advisory Committee on Nutritional Education) paper recommends a
reduction to no more than 30%. Special emphasis is placed on reducing the amount of saturated
fat in the diet.
Vegetarian diets tend to be lower in fat than omnivore diets. However, vegetarians
consuming dairy products and processed foods high in fat may still be consuming too much.
Advice to vegetarians is to keep fat intake to a minimum, avoid high fat dairy products and
processed foods containing dairy fats and hydrogenated vegetable fats, and to use olive oil for
cooking purposes.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
What is the role of fats?
What is fat?
Where are vitamins A and D found?
What role do polyunsaturated fatty acids serve?
How can you determine the daily consumption of fat?
Do you know any fat substances?
How does a cholesterol enter the organism?
The amount of fat is determined by different circumstances, isn’t it?
Do fats dissolve in water or in digestive juices?
Should fats be used in quantities to fill most favourable energy costs?
What can you say about the value of fats in cooking?
What does the COMA advise?
Should vegetarians keep fat intake to a minimum?
2.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
To prevail, fat substance, egg yolks, to violate, heartburn, melting temperature, uptake of
the body, to react to strong heating, decomposition, to be detected, conformity, omnivore diet,
livelihood, to enter an organism, harmful, frying.
3. Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Биологическая ценность жиров, животный жир, растителтные масла, обмен
веществ, быть вовлечённым, продукты животного происхождения, здоровый человек,
питательная ценность, тонкий слой, принимать во внимание, диетические продукты,
консистенция, подходящее блюдо, для кулинарных целей.
4. Complete the sentences:
1. The role of fats in the diet is determined by…
2. Fat is a part of…
3. Fat biological value is determined by…
4. Vitamins A and D are found in…
5. Polyunsaturated fatty acids - linoleic and arachidonic - are irreplaceable because…
6. Cholesterol enters an organism with…
7. Excessive fat in the diet reduces…
8. Nutritional value of various fats depends largely on…
9. Choosing fat for cooking a dish, the chief must take into account…
10. Fats with low melting temperature include…
11. You should not use butter for…
12. The use of different fat foods is often defined by…
Text C. Fats & Cholesterol
Vocabulary of the text
To keep tissues in good repair –сохранять ткани в хорошем состоянии
Manufacture of hormones –производство гормонов
Plant foods - продукты растительного происхождения
Nerve function –нервная функция
Arthritis - артрит
Precursor – предшественник, предвестник
Sunflower - подсолнечник
Plaque – бляшка
Too much fat is bad for us, but a little is necessary to keep our tissues in good repair, for
the manufacture of hormones and to act as a carrier for some vitamins.Two of fatty acids,
linoleic and linolenic acids, are termed essential as they must be provided in the diet. This is no
problem as they are widely found in plant foods. Linoleic acid is converted into the body to
arachidonic acid from which prostoglandins and other vital compounds are made. Because of
this conversion, arachidonic acid is not an essential fatty acid as was once believed. ALinolenic acid is converted to eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) which is important in proper nerve
function. EPA is present in fish oils and is claimed to be beneficial in reducing the symptoms
of arthritis and the risk of heart disease. For this reason, fish oils are sometimes used
therapeutically. Plant oils containing large amounts of a-linolenic acid can be used as an
alternative by vegetarians. Linseeds and linseed oil are particularly rich sources of a-linolenic
acid.
A high intake of saturated fat can lead to a raised blood cholesterol level and this has
been linked to heart disease. Vegetable fats tend to be more unsaturated and this is one of the
benefits of a vegetarian diet. Mono-unsaturated fats, such as olive oil or peanut oil, are best
used for frying as the poly-unsaturated fats, like sunflower or safflower oil are unstable at high
temperatures. Animal fats (including butter and cheese) tend to be more saturated than
vegetable fats, with the exception of palm oil and coconut oil.
Cholesterol is present in animal foods but not plant foods. It is essential for metabolism
but is not needed in the diet as our bodies can produce all that is needed. Raised blood
cholesterol is associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
Cholesterol belongs to the sterol group of fats. Cholesterol is essential as a component of
cell membranes and a precursor of bile acids and certain hormones. The body can make its own
cholesterol and so a dietary source is not required.
Cholesterol is transported in to various proteins. These complex molecules are called
lipoproteins. There are four main types of lipoprotein involved in cholesterol transport. The
most commonly used types are low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein
(HDL).
Cholesterol may form plaques on artery walls if levels in the blood are too high. This can
lead to atherosclerosis. Because of this high blood cholesterol is linked with heart disease. It is
the LDL cholesterol which has been linked to heart disease. HDL cholesterol may help protect
against the risk of heart disease.
The amount of dietary cholesterol is not clearly linked to levels of cholesterol in the
blood. Blood cholesterol is more closely related to the amount of saturated fat in the diet,
saturated fat raising blood cholesterol. Unsaturated fats are not thought to raise blood
cholesterol and may indeed lower levels.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
1) Too much fat is bad for us, isn’t it?
2) What essential fatty acids do you know?
3) Where are they found?
4) What acid is linoleic acid converted into?
5) What can reduce the risk of heart disease?
6) Can plant oils be used by vegetarians?
7) What does a high intake of saturated fats lead to?
8) Is cholesterol present in plant foods?
9) Is cholesterol essential for metabolism?
10) To what group of fats does cholesterol belong to?
11) Do you know the types of lipoprotein?
12) In what cases may cholesterol form plaques on artery walls?
13) Can unsaturated fats raise blood cholesterol?
2.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
vital compounds, conversion, fish oils, reducing the symptoms of arthritis, the risk of
heart disease, therapeutically, large amounts of a-linolenic acid, linseeds, a high intake, a
raised blood cholesterol level, peanut oil, to be unstable at high temperatures, coconut oil,
increased risk, to be transported in to various proteins, low density, atherosclerosis, the amount
of dietary cholesterol.
3. Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Действовать в качестве носителя витаминов, альтернатива, льняное масло, богатые
источники, быть связанным с, одна из выгод, оливковое масло, иметь тенденцию,
пальмовое масло, определённые гормоны, сложные молекулы, наиболее используемые
типы, высокая плотность, формировать бляшки на стенках артерий, уровни в крови,
привести к, уровни холестерина, снизить уровни.
4. Insert prepositions where necessary without consulting the text:
1) Too much fat is bad … us, but a little is necessary … keep our tissues … good repair,
for the manufacture … hormones and to act as a carrier … some vitamins. 2) They are widely
found … plant foods. 3) Plant oils containing large amounts … a-linolenic acid can be used as
an alternative … vegetarians. 4) Linseeds and linseed oil are particularly rich sources … alinolenic acid. 5) Vegetable fats tend to be more unsaturated and this is one … the benefits … a
vegetarian diet. 6) There are four main types … lipoprotein involved … cholesterol transport.
7) Cholesterol may form plaques … artery walls if levels … the blood are too high. 8) The
amount … dietary cholesterol is not clearly linked … levels … cholesterol … the blood.
5. Give the summary of the text.
AMINO ACIDS
Vocabulary of the text
Organic compounds органические соединения
Nourishment value питательная ценность
To bind
связывать, переплетать
Release
освобождение
Intestinal tract
пищеварительный тракт
Bloodstream
поток крови
To suck from
высасывать из
Irreplaceable
незаменимый, невосстановимый, невозместимый
Array
масса, множество
Versatility
многосторонность
Aqueous
водяной, водянистый
Amino acids are organic compounds, which are fundamental component by the part of
the proteins, and they contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. Amino acids determine the
biological specificity of proteins and their food nourishment value. The disturbance of the
exchange of amino acids is the reason for many illnesses. In nature more than 20 amino acids
are discovered. Every amino acid except glycine can occur as either of two optically active
stereoisomers, d or l; the more common isomer in nature is the l-form. When the carboxyl
carbon atom of one amino acid covalently binds to the amino nitrogen atom of another amino
acid with the release of a water molecule, a peptide bond is formed. Amino acids are released
in the intestinal tract by the digestion of food proteins and are then carried in the bloodstream to
the body cells, where they are used for growth, maintenance, and repair. Cellular catabolism
breaks amino acids down into smaller fragments. Many of the amino acids necessary in
metabolism can be synthesized in the human or animal body when needed; these are called
nonessential. Others cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities; these are termed essential
and must be provided in the diet. Amino acids are sucked from the gastrointestinal tract and
with the blood enter all organs and cloths, where they are used for the synthesis of proteins and
undergo different changes. In the blood a constant concentration of amino acids is supported. In
the muscles, the cloth of the brain and liver the content of free amino acids is many times
higher than in the blood, and is less constant. Amino acid concentration in the blood makes it
possible to judge the functional state of the liver and kidneys. The content of amino acids in the
blood can noticeably increase with the disturbances of the function of kidneys, the feverish
states, the diseases, connected with the increased content of protein.
Amino acids are divided into
1) irreplaceable (valine, leucine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, methionine, tryptophan,
threonine, lysine);
2) partially replaced (arginine and histidine);
3) replaced (alanine, asparagine, asparitic acid, glycine (glycocoll), serine, glutamine,
proline, tyrosine, glutamic acid, cysteine (cystine).
Irreplaceable amino acids are not synthesized in the human organism,
but they are necessary for the normal vital activity. They must enter organism with the food.
With a deficiency in the irreplaceable amino acids inhibits the growth itself and development of
organism. The optimum content of irreplaceable amino acids in the food protein depends on the
age, the profession of man, and also on other reasons. The replaceable amino acids are
synthesized in the human organism.
Amino acids are very small biomolecules with an average molecular weight of
about 135 daltons. The 20 amino acids that are found within proteins convey a vast array of
chemical versatility. Amino acid is a molecule that contains both amine and carboxyl
functional groups. Amino acids play central roles both as building blocks of proteins and as
intermediates in metabolism. Protein substances make up the muscles, tendons, organs, glands,
nails, and hair. Amino acid side chains can be polar, non-polar, or practically neutral. Polar side
chains tend to be present on the surface of a protein where they can interact with the aqueous
environment found in cells. On the other hand, non-polar amino acids tend to reside within the
center of the protein where they can interact with similar non-polar neighbors.
EXERCISES
1)
1)
2)
3)
isn’t it?
Answer the questions:
What are amino acids?
What does amino acids determine?
The disturbance of the exchange of amino acids is the reason for many illnesses,
4)
How many amino acids are discovered in nature?
5)
How is a peptide bond formed?
6)
In what way are amino acids released?
7)
Does cellular catabolism break amino acids down into smaller fragments?
8)
How can you characterize essential and non-essential amino acids?
9)
What are amino acids used for in the organisms?
10) What are amino acids divided into?
11) Irreplaceable amino acids are not synthesized in the human organism, are they?
12) What central role do amino acids play?
2) Translate into Russian:
1) Every amino acid except glycine can occur as either of two optically active
stereoisomers. 2) Amino acids are released in the intestinal tract by the digestion of food
proteins. 3) In the blood a constant concentration of amino acids is supported. 4) Amino acid
concentration in the blood makes it possible to judge he functional state of the liver and
kidneys. 5) The 20 amino acids that are found within proteins convey a vast array of chemical
versatility.
3. Match the following:
Fundamental component
постоянная концентрация
Exchange of amino acids
оптимальное содержание
Release of a water molecule
дефицит
Sufficient quantities
средний молекулярный вес
Constant concentration
обмен аминокислот
Increased content
освобождение молекулы воды
Deficiency
основной компонент
Optimum content
достаточные количества
Average molecular weight
повышенное содержание
4.Retell the text using the following word combinations and phrases:
Organic compounds, disturbance of the exchange of amino acids, are discovered, active
stereoisomers, to bind to, digestion of food proteins, smaller fragments, to be sucked from, to
undergo different changes, to be divided into, small biomolecules, intermediate, in metabolism.
5.Give synonyms to the following words: component, to contain, common, to be
formed, necessary, changes, constant, to make up, to interact.
Pesticide
Vocabulary of the text
Pesticide
Roundworm
Weed
Rodent
Predator
Pest
Mating
Moth larvae
Fumigant
Targeted
Inhalation
Adult
пестицид
круглый червь
сорная трава, сорняк
грызун
хищник
паразит, вредитель
спаривание птиц, животных
личинки моли
дезинфектор, окуриватель
являющийся мишенью
вдыхание, ингаляция
взрослый, совершеннолетний, зрелый человек
Pesticide is a biological, physical, or chemical agent used to kill plants or animals that
are harmful to people; in practice, the term pesticide is often applied only to chemical agents.
Various pesticides are known as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and rodenticides, i.e.,
agents primarily effective against insects, nematodes (or roundworms), fungi, weeds, and
rodents, respectively.
Pesticides can be derived from plants (e.g., pyrethrin, neem) or minerals, or they can be
chemically manufactured (e.g., DDT, 2,4-D). Natural predators and other biological methods
are also used. Among the biological agents, parasites and predators feed on pests, pathogens
sicken them, and pheromones interfere with insect mating. There are also genetically
engineered pesticides, such as the toxin-producing Bacillus thuringiensis strain used against
moth larvae.
Chemical pesticides are usually contact, stomach, or fumigant poisons. Contact poisons
may have immediate or delayed effects after physical contact with a pest. Fumigants, which
may initially have the form of a solid, liquid, or gas, kill pests while in a gaseous state.
Some insecticides and fungicides are systemic, i.e., they are translocated by a plant from
the area of application to other plant parts, where they affect only pests that feed on the crop.
Nonselective pesticides can affect both the targeted pest and other organisms; selective
pesticides affect only the target pest. Persistent pesticides are those that remain in the
environment for a long time.
In the environment, the biological concentration of chemical pesticides (the amount
retained in an organism through direct contact or consumption of affected plants or animals)
tends to increase the higher the animal is in the food chain. DDT, for example, severely
reduced the rate of reproduction in many fish and birds.
Chemical pesticides now undergo exhaustive and expensive trials prior to government
registration and release. The carcinogenicity of some pesticide components, however, is a
vigorously debated topic. Government testing often uses massive amounts of such substances
on laboratory animals, creating what some critics feel is an exaggerated assessment of their
danger. Humans are heavily exposed to pesticides usually as a result of acute exposure, such as
accidental inhalation, on the job.
Potential dangers from pesticide use must be weighed against improved crop quality and
yield and greatly improved human health around the world, as well as the availability of fresh
fruits and vegetables that the use of pesticides has made possible. Nevertheless, many
consumers are concerned about the effects of pesticide residues in foods, especially for infants,
whose systems may not be able to convert toxic chemicals into harmless substances as readily
as adult systems can.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1)
What is a pesticide?
2)
Can you enumerate the kinds of pesticides?
3)
How can pesticides be obtained?
4)
Give the example of genetically engineered pesticide?
5)
Describe chemical pesticides.
6)
Why are insecticides and fungicides systemic?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following Russian words and expressions:
биологический агент, вредный для людей, гербициды, производиться химическим
путём,природные хищники, питаться чем-либо, немедленный эффект, первоначально,
газообразное состояние, территория применения, снизить уровень репродуктивности,
энергично обсуждаемая тема, потенциальная опасность, дети, преобразовывать
токсичные химические препараты в безвредные вещества, система взрослого человека.
3. Are these statements true or false?
1. Pesticide is a biological, physical, or chemical agent used to kill plants or animals that
are harmless to people.
2. The only way to obtain pesticides is to manufacture chemically.
3. The toxin-producing Bacillus thuringiensis strain is an example of genetically
engineered pesticides.
4. Fumigants may initially have only the form of a solid.
4. Speak on the following topics:
1. Insecticides.
2. Fungicides.
3. Herbicides.
4. Rodenticides.
Carbohydrates
Vocabulary of the text
Carbohydrate - углевод
Starch - крахмал
Cellulose -целлюлоза
To supply energy – снабжать энергией
Polymeric compound – полимерное соединение
To yield – производить, поддаваться
Energy source – источник энергии
Organic molecule – органическая молекула
Ratio – отношение, пропорция, коэффициент, соотношение
Photosynthesis - фотосинтез
Soluble -растворимый
Hydroxyl group –гидроксильная группа
Refined sugar – сахар-рафинад
Lollilop – леденец на палочке
To store glucose – запасать глюкозу
Seeds – семена, зёрна
Bean – боб, фасоль
Salive - слюна
Intestines - кишки
Bloodstream – поток крови
Stiff – жёсткий, густой
Fiber – волокно, фибра
Digestive system – пищеварительная система
To overeat - переедать
Carbohydrate is any member of a large class of chemical compounds that includes
sugars, starches, cellulose, and related compounds. These compounds are produced naturally by
green plants from carbon dioxide and water. Carbohydrates are important as foods; they supply
energy and are used in the production of fats. They are also used in various forms in industry
and commerce. There are three main classes of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are the simple
sugars, e.g., fructose and glucose; they have the general formula (CH2O)n, in which n is an
integer larger than 2. Dissaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Upon hydrolysis, a
disaccharide molecule yields two monosaccharide molecules. Most disaccharides have the
general formula Cn(H2O)n-1, with n larger than 5. Polysaccharides include such substances as
cellulose, dextrin, glycogen, and starch; they are polymeric compounds made up of the simple
sugars and can be hydrolyzed to yield simple sugars. The disaccharides are sometimes grouped
with the simpler polysaccharides (usually those made up of three or four simple sugar units) to
form a class of carbohydrates called the oligosaccharides.
Carbohydrates are the main energy source for the human body. Chemically,
carbohydrates are organic molecules in which carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen bond together in
the ratio: Cx(H2O)y, where x and y are whole numbers that differ depending on the specific
carbohydrate to which we are referring. Animals (including humans) break down carbohydrates
during the process of metabolism to release energy. For example, the chemical metabolism of
the sugar glucose is shown below
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
+energy
Animals obtain carbohydrates by eating foods that contain them, for example potatoes,
rice, breads, and so on. These carbohydrates are manufactured by plants during the process of
photosynthesis. Plants harvest energy from sunlight to run the reaction just described in
reverse:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight) C6H12O6 + 6
O2
A potato, for example, is primarily a chemical storage system containing glucose
molecules manufactured during photosynthesis. In a potato, however, those glucose molecules
are bound together in a long chain. As it turns out, there are two types of carbohydrates, the
simple sugars and those carbohydrates that are made of long chains of sugars - the complex
carbohydrates.
All carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar (also called saccharide units).
Carbohydrates that contain only one sugar unit (monosaccharides) or two sugar units
(disaccharides) are referred to as simple sugars. Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken
down quickly in the body to release energy. Two of the most common monosaccharides are
glucose and fructose. Glucose is the primary form of sugar stored in the human body for
energy. Fructose is the main sugar found in most fruits. Both glucose and fructose have the
same chemical formula (C6H12O6); however, they have different structures, as shown (note:
the carbon atoms that sit in the "corners" of the rings are not labeled):
Glucose
Fructose
Disaccharides have two sugar units bonded together. For example, common table sugar
is sucrose, a disaccharide that consists of a glucose unit bonded to a fructose unit.
Glucose, galactose, and fructose are "single" sugars or monosaccharides. Two
monosaccharides can be linked together to form a "double" sugar or disaccharide.
There are three common disaccharides:
sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose
lactose — major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose
maltose — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose
Although the process of linking the two monomers is rather complex, the end result in
each case is the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one of the monosaccharides and a hydroxyl
group (OH) from the other. The resulting linkage between the sugars is called a glycosidic
bond. The molecular formula of each of these disaccharides is
C12H22O11 = 2 C6H12O6 − H2O .All sugars are very soluble in water because of their
many hydroxyl groups. Sugars are the most important source of energy for many cells.
Carbohydrates provide the bulk of the calories (4 kcal/gram) in most diets, and starches
provide the bulk of that. Starches are polysaccharides.
Simple carbohydrates are also called simple sugars. Simple sugars are found in refined
sugars, like the white sugar you'd find in a sugar bowl. If you have a lollipop, you're eating
simple carbohydrates. But you'll also find simple sugars in more nutritious foods, such as fruit
and milk. It's better to get your simple sugars from food like fruit and milk. Why? Because they
contain vitamins, fiber, and important nutrients like calcium. A lollipop does not.
Complex carbohydrates are polymers of the simple sugars. In other words, the complex
carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugar units bonded together (for this reason the
complex carbohydrates are often referred to as polysaccharides). The potato we discussed
earlier actually contains the complex carbohydrate starch. Starch is a polymer of the
monosaccharide glucose:
Starch is the principal polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose for later use as
energy. Plants often store starch in seeds or other specialized organs; for example, common
sources of starch include rice, beans, wheat, corn, potatoes, and so on. When humans eat starch,
an enzyme that occurs in saliva and in the intestines called amylase breaks the bonds between
the repeating glucose units, thus allowing the sugar to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Once
absorbed into the bloodstream, the human body distributes glucose to the areas where it is
needed for energy or stores it as its own special polymer - glycogen. Glycogen, another
polymer of glucose, is the polysaccharide used by animals to store energy. Excess glucose is
bonded together to form glycogen molecules, which the animal stores in the liver and muscle
tissue as an "instant" source of energy. Both starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose;
however, starch is a long, straight chain of glucose units, whereas glycogen is a branched chain
of glucose units, as seen in the illustrations linked below:
Another important polysaccharide is cellulose. Cellulose is yet a third polymer of the
monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose differs from starch and glycogen because the glucose units
form a two-dimensional structure, with hydrogen bonds holding together nearby polymers, thus
giving the molecule added stability. Cellulose, also known as plant fiber, cannot be digested by
human beings, therefore cellulose passes through the digestive tract without being absorbed
into the body. Some animals, such as cows and termites, contain bacteria in their digestive tract
that help them to digest cellulose. Cellulose is a relatively stiff material, and in plants cellulose
is used as a structural molecule to add support to the leaves, stem, and other plant parts. Despite
the fact that it cannot be used as an energy source in most animals, cellulose fiber is essential in
the diet because it helps exercise the digestive track and keep it clean and healthy.
Fiber is the complex carbohydrate that forms the tough cell walls in plants. Even though
humans can't digest fiber, it is important because it helps keep food moving though the
digestive tract. Fiber may also help keep the intestines in good working order. All plants supply
some fiber, but whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are especially good sources.
As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are better choices than others.
Refined grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been processed, which removes
nutrients and fiber. But unrefined grains still contain these vitamins and minerals. Unrefined
grains also are rich in fiber, which helps your digestive system work well. Fiber helps you feel
full, so you are less likely to overeat these foods. That explains why a bowl of oatmeal fills you
up better than sugary candy that has the same amount of calories as the oatmeal.So which type
of carbs should you eat? Both can be part of a healthy diet.
When you eat carbohydrates, the body breaks them down into simple sugars. These
sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas
releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells,
where the sugar can be used as a source of energy.
When this process goes fast - as with simple sugars - you're more likely to feel hungry
again soon. When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll be satisfied longer.
These types of complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time.
The carbohydrates in some foods (mostly those that contain a lot of simple sugars) cause
the blood sugar level to rise more quickly than others. Scientists have been studying whether
eating foods that cause big jumps in blood sugar may be related to health problems like
diabetes and heart disease. You're probably already on the right track if you are limiting simple
sugars (such as candy) and eating more complex carbohydrates (like vegetables, oatmeal, and
whole-grain wheat bread).
In many ways, our bodies can be thought of as chemical processing plants. Chemicals are
taken in, processed through various types of reactions, and then distributed throughout the body
to be used immediately or stored for later use. The chemicals used by the body can be divided
into two broad categories: macronutrients, those substances that we need to eat regularly in
fairly large quantities, and micronutrients, those substances that we need only in small
amounts. Three major classes of macronutrients are essential to living organisms:
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
The main function of carbohydrates is to supply energy. That's a tall order because all
100 trillion cells in the body need a constant supply of fuel. Even when you don't think you are
doing a thing, your heart is beating and your lungs are working. In fact, every organ is busy
doing something.
Approximately a pound of carbohydrate is stored in the liver in a form called glycogen.
This glycogen is used when the body needs quick energy. Any other excess carbohydrate is
converted to fat and stored as fatty tissue.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is carbohydrate?
2) What does carbohydrate include?
3) By what are chemical compounds of carbohydrate produced?
4) Do you know the classe of carbohydrates?
5) Polysaccharides include cellulose, dextrin, glycogen and starch, don’t they?
6) What is the main function of carbohydrate?
7) How do animals obtain carbohydrates?
8) What are simple sugars?
9) Glucose is a simple sugar, isn’t it?
10) Where is fructose found?
11) Can you enumerate three common disaccharides?
12) Where are simple sugars found?
13) What are complex carbohydrates?
14) Describe starch as the principal polysaccharide.
15) What is cellulose?
16) How does cellulose differ from starch and glycogen?
17) What is fiber?
18) Are unrefined grains rich in fiber?
19) Describe the process in the organism when eating carbohydrates?
20) Do you know any problems with the health connected with simple sugars?
21) Why can our bodies be thought of as chemical processing plants?
2.Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Green plants, production of fats, various forms, energy source, human body, to be
manufactured, to harvest energy, sunlight, long chains, to be sweet in taste, primary form,
chemical formula, the process of linking, molecular formula, to be absorbed, plant fiber, human
being, digestive tract, to add support, stem, a bowl of oatmeal, amount of calories, carb.
3.Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Различные типы реакций, быть использованным немедленно, есть регулярно,
малые количества, постоянный запас топлива, приблизительно, большой класс
химических соединений, производиться естественным образом, общая формула,
группироваться с, различные структуры, обычный столовый сахар, конечный результат,
потеря атома водорода, мышечная ткань, жёсткие стенки клетки, чувствовать себя
голодным.
4.Match the following:
Включать такие вещества, как
healthy diet
Полимерные соединения
branched chain
Длинная цепь
good working order
Большинство диет
long chain
Обычные источники
polymeric compounds
Распределять
common sources
Разветвлённая цепь
most diets
Хорошее рабочее состояние
to include such substances as
Здоровая диета
to distribute
5. Retell the text briefly following the plan:
The general information about carbohydrates.
The main function of carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates.
Complex carbohydrates.
6. Remember all the examples of food that you eat every day. Put them into the
correct group in the table below, according to the nutrients they are richest in.
Some items may go in more than one group.
Carbohydrates Proteins
Vitamins
Fat
Fibre
Salt
Now add more items to the table from the following list: cream, shellfish, French
fries, cheese, chocolate, green vegetables, lentils, root vegetables, crisps, butter, salad
vegetables, milk, nuts.
Bacteria
Vocabulary of the text
Unicellular
Eventually
To evolve
Domain
Bacteriology
Adaptable
Diverse
Terrain
Glacier
Hot spring
To thrive
Vent
Fertail soil
одноклеточный
в конечном счёте, в конце концов, со временем
развиваться, эволюционировать
владение, имение, территория, область, сфера
бактериология
легко приспосабливающийся, поддающийся адаптации
разнообразный, разный
местность, территория
ледник, глетчер
жаркий источник, родник, ключ
процветать, преуспевать, пышно расти, разрастаться
входное или выходное отверстие, отдушина, выход
плодородная почва
Bacteria [pl. of bacterium] are microscopic unicellular prokaryotic organisms
characterized by the lack of a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Once
considered a part of the plant kingdom, bacteria were eventually placed in a separate kingdom.
Monera Bacteria fall into one of two groups, Archaebacteria (ancient forms thought to have
evolved separately from other bacteria) and Eubacteria. A recently proposed system classifies
the Archaebacteria, or archaea, and the Eubacteria as major groupings (sometimes called
domains) above the kingdom level.
Bacteria were the only form of life on earth for 2 billion years. They were first observed
by Antony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th cent.; bacteriology as an applied science began to
develop in the late 19th cent. as a result of research in medicine and in fermentation processes,
especially by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
Bacteria are remarkably adaptable to diverse environmental conditions: they are found in
the bodies of all living organisms and on all parts of the earth—in land terrains and ocean
depths, in arctic ice and glaciers, in hot springs, and even in the stratosphere. Our
understanding of bacteria and their metabolic processes has been expanded by the discovery of
species that can live only deep below the earth's surface and by species that thrive without
sunlight in the high temperature and pressure near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. There
are more bacteria, as separate individuals, than any other type of organism; there can be as
many as 2.5 billion bacteria in one gram of fertile soil.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1. What are bacteria?
2. Into what groups does Monera Bacteria fall?
3. By whom were bacteria first observed?
4. Bacteriology as an applied science began to develop in the late 19th century, didn’t it?
5. Are bacteria adaptable to different environmental conditios?
6. How many bacteria are there in one gram of fertile soil?
2. Translate the following words and expressions into Russian:
одноклеточные организмы, часть растительного королевства, распадаться на,
древние формы, единственная форма жизни, прикладная наука, все части земли,
океанические глубины, арктичесикй лёд, наше понимание, разновидности, поверхность
земли, солнечный свет.
3. Find in the text participles II, give their infinitives and translate them into
Russian.
4. Retell the text.
Methods of food preservation
Benign bacteria
Rancidity
Discolouration
Pickling
Sultanas
Millet
Rye
Smoke-house
To saponify
Lye
Vocabulary of the text
благотворные бактерии
прогорклость
потеря цвета
маринование
кишмиш
просо
рожь
коптильня
омылять(ся)
щёлок
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in a way that preserves its
value as food. The main effort is to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne
illness (e.g. salting, cooling, cooking). However some methods utilise benign bacteria, yeasts or
fungi to add specific qualities and to preserve food (e.g. cheese, wine). While maintaining or
creating nutritional value, texture and flavour is important in preserving its value as food; this
is a culturally dependent determinant as what qualifies as food fit for humans in one culture
may not qualify in another culture.
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. It also includes
processes to inhibit natural ageing and discolouration that can occur during food preparation
such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples which causes browning when apples are cut.
Some preservation methods require the food to be sealed after treatment to prevent recontamination with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to be stored without any
special containment for long periods.
Common methods of applying these processes include drying, spray drying, freeze
drying, freezing,vacuum-packing, canning, preserving in syrup, sugar crystallisation, food
irradiation, adding preservatives or inert gases such as carbon dioxide. Other methods that not
only help to preserve food, but also add flavour, include pickling, salting, smoking, preserving
in syrup or alcohol, sugar crystallisation and curing.
Preservation processes include:
Heating to kill or denature organisms (e.g. boiling)
Oxidation (e.g use of sulphur dioxide)
Toxic inhibition (e.g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar, alcohol etc)
Dehydration (drying)
Osmotic inhibition ( e.g use of syrups)
Low temperature inactivation (e.g. freezing)
Ultra high water pressure (e.g. fresherized, a kind of “cold” pasteurization, the pressure
kills naturally occurring pathogens, which cause food deterioration and affect food safety.)
Chelation
Drying
One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by drying, which reduces water
activity sufficiently to delay or prevent bacterial growth. Most types of meat can be dried. This
is especially valuable in the case of pork, since it is difficult to keep without preservation.
Many fruits can also be dried; for example, the process is often applied to apples, pears,
bananas, mangoes, papaya, apricot, and coconut. Zante currants, sultanas and raisins are all
forms of dried grapes. Drying is also the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as
wheat, maize, oats, barley, rice, millet and rye.
Smoking
Meat, fish and some other foods may be both preserved and flavoured through the use of
smoke, typically in a smoke-house. The combination of heat to dry the food without cooking it,
and the addition of the aromatic hydrocarbons from the smoke preserves the food.
Freezing
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and
domestically for preserving a very wide range of food stuffs including prepared food stuffs
which would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles
are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many
months' storage. Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks
held in case of national emergency in many countries.
Vacuum packing
Vacuum packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or
bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival, hence
preventing the food from spoiling. Vacuum packing is commonly used for storing nuts.
Salt
Salting is curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis. Meat is
cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to
cure meat.
Sugar
Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the
point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the
skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger. A modification of this process produces
glacé fruit such as glacé cherries where the fruit is preserved in sugar but is then extracted from
the syrup and sold, the preservation is being maintained by the sugar content of the fruit and the
superficial coating of syrup. The use of sugar is often combined with alcohol for preservation
of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other spirits. These should not be confused with
fruit flavored spirits such as Cherry Brandy or Sloe gin.
Pickling
Pickling is a method of preserving food by placing it or cooking it in a substance that
inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. This material must also be fit for human
consumption. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, ethanol, and
vegetable oil, especially olive oil but also many other oils. Most pickling processes also involve
heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.
Frequently pickled items include vegetables such as cabbage (to make sauerkraut and curtido),
peppers, and some animal products such as corned beef and eggs. EDTA may also be added to
chelate calcium. Calcium is essential for bacterial growth.
Lye
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify
fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk and hominy use lye in their
preparation, as do some olive recipes.
Canning and bottling
Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterile cans or jars, and
boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of pasteurization.
Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that
the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no
preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoes
require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Many vegetables require pressure
canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or
bottle has been opened.
Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or microorganisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes gas
production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor
manufacture and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate ,
Clostridium botulinum which produces an acute toxin within the food leading to severe illness
or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or
smell. Food contaminated in this way has included Corned beef and Tuna.
Jellying
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such
materials include gelatine, agar, maize flour and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a
protein gel when cooked such as eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms which are a delicacy in
the town of Xiamen in Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels are a
delicacy in the East End of London where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats in
aspic, (a gel made from gelatine and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat
off-cuts in the UK until the 1950s
Jugging
Meat can be preserved by jugging, the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or
fish) in a covered earthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into
pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the
animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of
preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.
Irradiation
Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either high-energy
electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources as
Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137). The treatment has a range of effects, including killing bacteria,
molds and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses
inducing sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called
'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated. Irradiation is not effective against viruses or
prions, it cannot eliminate toxins already formed by microorganisms, and is only useful for
food of high initial quality.
The radiation process is unrelated to nuclear energy, but it may use the radiation emitted
from radioactive nuclides produced in nuclear reactors. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to life;
for this reason irradiation facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process
takes place. Radiation safety procedures ensure that neither the workers in such facility nor the
environment receive any radiation dose from the facility. Irradiated food does not become
radioactive, and national and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as
wholesome. However, opponents and consumer organizations dispute the wholesomeness of
consuming such food. [3] National and international expert bodies have declared food
irradiation as 'wholesome'; UN-organizations as WHO and FAO are endorsing to utilize food
irradiation. International legislature’s opinion of whether food may be irradiated or not varies
worldwide from no regulation to full banning.
It is estimated that about 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year world-wide in
over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments with an increasing segment of fresh
fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.
Modified atmosphere
Modified atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it.
Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags
with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their
appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrients,
especially vitamins.
Grains may be preserved using carbon dioxide. A block of dry ice is placed in the bottom
and the can is filled with grain. The can is then "burped" of excess gas. The carbon dioxide
from the sublimation of the dry ice prevents insects, mold, and oxidation from damaging the
grain. Grain stored in this way can remain edible for five years.
Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher is also used effectively to kill
insects in grain through hypoxia. However, carbon dioxide has an advantage in this respect as it
kills organisms through both hypoxia and hypercarbia, requiring concentrations of only 80%,
or so. This makes carbon dioxide preferable for fumigation in situations where an hermetic seal
cannot be maintained.
Burial in the ground
Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen,
cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil.
Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation
other than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a
storage clamp.
Century eggs are created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance)
resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The
fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and
fats into simpler more flavorful ones.
Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant), or soil
that is frozen.
Cabbage was traditionally buried in the fall in northern farms in the USA for
preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut
Sometimes meat is buried under conditions, which cause preservation. If buried on hot
coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block
oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a
refrigerator. Fish (e.g. Gravlax) has been buried to preserve by fermentation.
Controlled use of micro-organism
Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers will keep for a long time because
their production uses specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less benign
organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic
for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Starter microorganisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures, controlled (usually low) levels of
oxygen and/or other methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will
support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.
High pressure food preservation
High pressure food preservation refers to high pressure used for food preservation.
Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square inch or more, food can be processed
so that it retains its fresh appearance, flavour, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful
microorganisms and slowing spoilage. By 2001, adequate commercial equipment was
developed so that by 2005 the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice
to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is food preservation?
2) What does preservation include?
3) How many kinds of preservation do you know?
4) Describe the process of drying.
5) What is a smoke-house?
6) Do cold stores provide long-term storage?
7) Vacuum packing stores food in a vacuum environment, doesn’t it?
8) What is salting?
9) When is sugar used?
10) What is pickling?
11) What does canning involve?
12) Do you know anything about jellying?
13) Can meat be preserved by jugging?
14) What is irradiation?
15) May food be buried in the ground?
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Главное усилие, рост бактерий, ценный, пшеница, ячмень, долгосрочное хранение,
вакуумная упаковка, выживание, груша, имбирь, стерильные банки, естественная
защита, тушение мяса, красное вино, насекомые, нехватка света, свежий вид.
3.Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
handling food, determinant, browning, osmotic inhibition, superficial coating, brine,
lutefisk, hominy, marginal fruits, tuna, arrowroot, eels, elvers, sipunculid worm, earthenware
jug, to eliminate toxins.
4. Retell the text briefly using the following plan:
1.Food preservation as a process.
2. Types of food preservation.
a) Drying.
b) Smoking.
c) Freezing.
d) Vacuum packing.
e) Salting.
f) Cooking in sugar.
g) Pickling.
h) The use of lye.
i) Canning and bottling.
j) Jellying.
k) Jugging.
l) Irradiation.
m) The use of modified atmosphere.
n) Burial in the ground.
o) The use of microorganisms.
p) High pressure food preservation.
Food Drying Basics
Vocabulary of the text
Drying
Currant
Snacks
Solar drying
To evaporate
To scorch
To be scalded
Blanching
Inferior
Tray
Batch
Squeezing
Pliable
Leathery
Brittle
To pasteurize
сушка
смородина
лёгкие закуски
сушка на солнце
выпаривать
опалять, обжигать
быть обваренным, пастеризованным
бланширование
худший (по качеству), плохой
поднос
партия, группа, пачка, кучка
выжимание
гибкий, мягкий
жёсткий
хрупкий, ломкий
пастеризовать
Drying is the oldest method of preserving food. The early American settlers dried foods
such as corn, apple slices, currants, grapes, and meat. Compared with other methods, drying is
quite simple. Dried foods keep well because the moisture content is so low that spoilage
organisms cannot grow.
Drying will never replace canning and freezing because these methods do a better job of
retaining the taste, appearance, and nutritive value of fresh food. But drying is an excellent way
to preserve foods that can add variety to meals and provide delicious, nutritious snacks.
Recommended methods for canning and freezing have been determined by research and
widespread experience. Food can be dried in several ways, for example, by the sun if the air is
hot and dry enough, or in an oven or dryer if the climate is humid.
Drying is not difficult, but it does take time and a lot of attention. Although there are
different drying methods, the guidelines remain the same.
Although solar drying is a popular and very inexpensive method. Dependable solar
dehydration of foods requires 3 to 5 consecutive days when the temperature is 95 degrees.
Speed
For a good-quality product, vegetables and fruits must be prepared for drying as soon as
possible after harvesting. They should be blanched, cooled, and laid out to dry without delay.
Foods should be dried rapidly, but not so fast that the outside becomes hard before the moisture
inside has a chance to evaporate.
Drying must not be interrupted. Once you start drying the food, don't let it cool down in
order to start drying again later. Mold and other spoilage organisms can grow on partly dried
food.
Temperature
During the first part of the drying process, the air temperature can be relatively high, that
is, 150 degrees to 160 degrees F. (65 degrees to 70 degrees C.), so that moisture can evaporate
quickly from the food. Because food loses heat during rapid evaporation, the air temperature
can be high without increasing the temperature of the food. But as soon as surface moisture is
lost (the outside begins to feel dry) and the rate of evaporation slows down, the food warms up.
The air temperature must then be reduced to about 140 degrees F. (60 degrees C.).
Toward the end of the drying process the food can scorch easily, so you must watch it
carefully. Each fruit and vegetable has a critical temperature above which a scorched taste
develops. The temperature should be high enough to evaporate moisture from the food, but not
high enough to cook the food. Carefully follow directions for regulating temperatures.
Humidity and Ventilation
Rapid dehydration is desirable. The higher the temperature and the lower the humidity,
the more rapid the rate of dehydration will be. Humid air slows down evaporation. If drying
takes place too fast, this means that the cells on the outside of the pieces of food give up
moisture faster than the cells on the inside.
Nutritive value
Dried fruits are a good source of energy because they contain concentrated fruit sugars.
Fruits also contain a rather large amount of vitamins and minerals. The drying process,
however, destroys some of the vitamins, especially A and C. Exposing fruit to sulfur before
drying helps retain vitamins A and C. Sulfur destroys thiamine, one of the B vitamins, but fruit
is not an important source of thiamine anyway. Many dried fruits are rich in riboflavin and
iron.
Vegetables are a good source of minerals and the B vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, and
niacin. Both fruits and vegetables provide useful amounts of the fiber (bulk) we need.
Types of food to dry
Many kinds of fresh fruits, vegetables, herbs, meat, and fish can be dried. If you have
never tried drying food before, though, it's a good idea to experiment first by drying a small
quantity in the oven. At the same time, you can become familiar with the drying process.
Blanching
Almost all vegetables need to be blanched (scalded in boiling water a short time before
drying. Blanching stops the enzyme action, which drying cannot stop. If vegetables are not
blanched, enzymes will destroy the color and flavor during drying and storage. A few
vegetables such as mushrooms and onions do not need to be blanched before drying.
Blanching also protects certain nutrients. Some nutrients however, are lost during
blanching in boiling water bеcause they dissolve into the water. Steam blanching takes more
time, but fewer water-soluble nutrients are lost. To minimize the loss of nutrients, blanch only
the required length of time. But don't underblanch; the enzymes will not be inactivated, and the
quality of the dried vegetables will be inferior.
Testing for dryness
Many factors affect the length of time needed for drying foods: temperature, air
circulation, humidity, the kind of food being dried, the amount of food on a tray, the size of the
pieces of food, and the total amount of food in the oven or dryer. Pieces on the edges of the
trays will dry faster than pieces in the center. If slices are not all the same thickness, thin pieces
will dry before the others. For these reasons you must test samples of the food from each batch
you dry.
You should test only a few pieces at a time. Be sure to let the pieces cool before testing.
Warm food will feel soft and moist even when it is dry. Remove the pieces of food from the
tray when they test dry. Return the rest of the food to the oven or dryer until drying is complete.
When you think the food is dry, there are several ways you can test it to be sure.
Test fruit by squeezing a handful. If the pieces of fruit spring apart and there is no
moisture left on your hand when you open it, then drying is complete. To double check, cut
through a piece of fruit; there should be no moisture on the inside. Dried fruit should be pliable
and leathery. When you use an oven, drying takes as little as 6 hours to more than 10 hours.
Most vegetables will be hard and brittle when completely dry. A dried piece will shatter
when hit with a hammer. Exceptions are mushrooms, green peppers, and squash; they will be
pliable and leathery. Vegetables usually dry in 4 to 12 hours.
Herbs require 2 to 3 days' drying time when air dried and 2 to 3 hours if dried in the
oven. You know herbs are dried when they are brittle and the leaves can be easily crushed.
Dried jerky is dark brown to black. To test for dryness, bend a piece. It should bend like
a green twig, not break apart completely like a dry stick. There should be no moisture inside.
Conditioning
It is very hard to dry all the pieces of food evenly. Depending on the size of the pieces
and the location on the tray, some pieces will be too dry and others will be not quite dry
enough. But you can condition food so that the whole batch will be uniformly dry.
After the food is dried, cool it on the tray, then put the pieces of food in a large closed
container such as a crock, a plastic jar, or a coffee can. Make sure the food is cool, because it
will sweat if it is put into the container while still warm.
Keep the container covered in a warm, dry, airy room. Stir the food once a day for a
week to 10 days. Then package the pieces of food in smaller airtight containers and store. This
conditioning allows the moisture from the underdried pieces to be absorbed by the overdried
pieces. If drops of moisture appear on the sides or lid of the container, the food is not dry
enough. Return it to the dryer and dry it some more.
Pasteurizing
Dried food is sometimes contaminated by insects or molds, which can cause spoilage.
Sulfuring fruit usually prevents this type of contamination. After meat and vegetables have
been dried, they can be pasteurized to make them safe. It is especially important to pasteurize
food dried outdoors, where it was probably contaminated.
To pasteurize, heat the oven to 175 degrees F. (80 C.). Set the pieces of dried food in a
single layer on a tray or cookie sheet. Heat in the oven with the door closed for 15 minutes.
Remove from the oven and allow the food to cool before packaging. Alternatively, the dried
food can be pasteurized by freezing it for 1 to 2 weeks and then storing it.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is drying?
2) What foods did the early American settlers dry?
3) Why do dried foods keep well?
4) Why will drying never replace canning and freezing?
5) In what way can food be dried?
6) Drying takes time, doesn’t it?
7) Must vegetables and fruits be prepared for drying as soon as possible after harvesting?
8) What is the air temperature during the first part of the drying process?
9) Is rapid dehydration desirable?
10) Does humid air slow down evaporation?
11) Dried fruits are a good source of energy, aren’t they?
12) What vitamins does the drying process destroy?
13) Why should all vegetables be blanched before drying?
14) What vegetables do not need to be blanched before drying?
15) What factors affect the length of time needed for druing foods?
16) How much drying time do herbs require?
17) How can foods be conditioned so that the whole batch will be uniformly dry?
18) What can cause spoilage to dried food?
19) Sulfuring fruit prevents the contamination, doesn’t it?
20) Describe the process of pasteurization.
2. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Старейший метод сохранения пищи, кусочки яблока, содержание влаги,
рекомендуемые методы, продукт хорошего качества, безотлагательно, без повышения
температуры пищи, влажный воздух, концентрированные фруктовые сахара, паровое
бланширование, растворимые в воде питательные вещества, минимизировать потерю
питательных веществ, качество сушёных овощей, циркулирование воздуха, горсть,
проветриваемая комната, пересушенные куски.
3. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
Settlers, corn, grapes, spoilage organisms, to replace, retaining the taste, excellent way,
widespread experience, guidelines, inexpensive method, solar dehydration of foods, harvesting,
surface moisture, rate of dehydration, to become familiar with, to be inactivated, dried jerky,
green twig, dry stick, evenly, underdried pieces, overdried pieces.
4.Retell the text according to the plan:
The general information.
Speed.
Temperature.
Humidity and ventilation.
Nutritive value.
Types of food to dry.
Blanching.
Testing for dryness.
Conditioning.
Pasteurizing.
STORING
Vocabulary of the text
Vaporproof
паронепроницаемый
To deteriorate
ухудшаться, портиться, разрушаться
tight-fitting lid
плотно облегающая крышка
pint-sized container сосуд, вмещающий одну пинту
After the food has been thoroughly dried, cooled, conditioned, and pasteurized, you can
be sure of its quality and safety if you store it properly. Place dried food in moisture- and
vaporproof containers with tight-fitting lids. Glass jars, coffee cans, and plastic freezer bags or
cartons may be used. Containers that keep out light are best.
If you use a coffee can, place sulfured fruit in a plastic bag first to prevent contact of the
fruit with the metal. The sulfur can react with the metal and give an off-flavor to the fruit.
It is best to package food in small quantities. Use pint-sized containers or small plastic
bags. The bags should then be put into a large can or jar. If food is stored in large quantities, the
unused portion may become contaminated each time you open the container. Be sure to pack
the food tightly. Force out as much air as possible from the package before closing it. But take
care not to crush the food.
All dried food deteriorates over a period of time, but storing it in a cool, dry, dark place
will help to preserve the color and flavor. Kitchen cupboards or a pantry are good places if they
don't get too hot. A dry basement or a closet on the north side of the house is also suitable. You
may store dried food in the refrigerator or freezer if you have the space. Once a package of
dried food is opened, it should be resealed tightly and if possible stored in the refrigerator to
prevent contamination and mold growth. Properly dried and stored, vegetables and jerky will
keep about 6 months, fruits and herbs about a year.
As a safety measure, examine stored food occasionally. If you find signs of a little
moisture but no spoilage, pasteurize the food. If the food appears quite moist, repeat the drying
process until thoroughly dry. Remember to cool the pieces before repackaging.
If you see any mold growth on the food, throw away the entire batch. It's not safe!
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) How can a person be sure of quality and safety of food?
2) What types of containers do you know?
3) Why is it best to package food in small quantities?
4) What should be done to preserve the color and flavor of food?
5) Stored food should be examined occasionally, should’t it?
2. Give the summary of the text.
Part II. FISH PROCESSING
SOME IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL FISHES
Fishes are cool-blooded, backboned animals adapted to live in water, breathing by means
of gills and having limbs represented by fins or rudiments of fins. The skin is usually covered
with scales, but these may be replaced by bony plates or rough tubercles and rarely the skin is
entirely naked. The scales vary greatly in size and structure among the species.
Whatever the nature of the diet of fish it is essential that it should contain the following
ingredients: water, minerals, fats or carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins; water makes up
about 75 per cent of the body weight of fish. Nearly all fishes are catholic in their choice of
food, and many alter their habits as they age and with the seasons.
For convenience fishes are classified according to their main methods of feeding in the
adult age: 1) plancton feeders, 2) weed eaters, 3) mud feeders, 4) feeders on insects, crustaceas,
worms and molluscs, 5) fish eaters, 6) parasites.
All fishes have their definite spawning seasons. The majority of fishes spawn in spring or
at the beginning of summer, but there are also fishes which spawn in other seasons.
Approximately 12000 distinct species have been ascertained by scientists, yet about 15
per cent of these are regarded as fishes of commerce. And among the common commercial
fishes the following species may be mentioned as the most important commercial fishes, on
account of their abundance, high productiveness and high food qualities.
The herring family. In productiveness none exceed those of the hering family numbering
more than 150 species distributed over the greater part of the earth in both salt and fresh water,
which contribute more to the support of the human race than any other family of fishes.
The cod family (cod, haddock, hake and others) include about 140 species. They are
distributed chiefly in the north temperate zone. These fishes are marketed largely in the fresh
state and preserved by salting both dry salted and pickled.
The family Salmonidae includes salmon, charr, trout (lake trout, brook trout, rainbow
trout) and others. Some of them are anadromous. The most important members of the family
are five species of salmon belonging to genus Onchorinchus, the more detailed description of
which will be given below.
The mackerels and mackerel- like fishes (including tunas) numbering 60 species are
widely distributed. They are highly praixed for food in fresh, salted and canned state.
Notes on the text
1. are marketed largely in the fresh state – поступают на рынок в основном в свежем
виде
2. preserved by salting both dry salted and pickled – консервируются как способом
сухого посола, так и тузлучного посола
Words to be memorized
Adapt (v), breathe (v), gills, limbs, represent (v), fins, rudiments, bony plates, tubercles,
entirely, naked, diet, ingredients, carbohydrates, protein, vitamin, choice, habit, classify (v),
feeder, weed, worm, mollusc, parasite, spawning, commercial, qualities, distribute (v),
temperate, salmon, charr, trout, brook trout, rainbow trout, anadromous, mackerel, tuna.
EXERCISES
1) Translate the following words into Russian:
fish, to fish, fishery, fisherman, fisherfolk; to cut, cut, cutter, cutting; to move,
movement, moving, moveless; to develop, developed, developing, development; to measure,
measure, measurement; to differ, different, difference; to evaporate, evaporation, evaporative,
evaporator.
2) A. State what parts of speech are the following words referred to and translate
them into English:
Harmful, waterless, movement, attraction, nonconductor, insulator, injector; coolest,
better, easier, easily, lately
B. Make up nouns of the following words by using the suffix –ness: ready, busy,
great, ill, bright, dark
3) Answer the following questions:
A. By what means do fish breathe?
B. What is the skin of fish covered with?
C. What ingredients should the diet of fish contain?
D. How are fishes classified according to their main methods of feeding in the adult
age?
E. In which season do the majority of fishes spawn?
F. Can you name the species of the cod family?
G. What are the mackerels highly praized for?
4) Fill in the blanks with prepositions by, with, without:
1. Do not cut fish …a knife when eating. 2. The bridge has been damaged… water. 3.
Tomorrow I shall go fishing… my brother. 4. She has been invited… me to the concert. 5. Try
to cut the rope… an axe. 6. The trawler has been wrecked… a storm. 7. She will not be able to
translate this text… your help. 8. Do not go out… putting on your raincoat, it is still raining.
Characteristics of fish as raw material for industry
Fish as food is one of our main sources of protein. But fish not only give a wide range of
foodstuffs, they are also used as a source of valuable medicinal, feeding and technjcal products.
That such full use can be made of fish is explained by the various histological structure and
chemical composition of their different parts. The size, chemical composition and food value of
fish depend on their species, age, sex, physiological state and on the conditions in which they
live (the hydrology of water and the nourishment they are able to obtain from it).
To be able to use fish properly and process them efficiently it is necessary to know their
properties: their body structure, the size-to-weight ratio of their different parts and organs, their
physical properties and chemical composition and the properties of proteins, fat, vitamins and
other substances they contain. Since fish is highly perishable product, it is also important to
know the nature and causes of the changes that take place in fish after death.
In addition to the scientific, biological classification of fish into families and species,
they are also divided, for practical purposes according to their size (whether large, medium or
small); sex (male or female); season of catch; physiological state (whether hunting for food,
laying down fat, in pick condition, filling or spent); according to fat content (fatty, medium or
lean); according to manner of feeding (whether predatory on other fish, or feeding on plancton,
benthos or vegetable matter); according to the region where they are found and caught (for
example, Caspian bream, Aral bream, Azov bream) and according to the method of capture
(trawled, netted or seined). All these classifications help to characterize the food value of fish,
in some measure, and to show whether they can be preserved or are suitable for processig into
various products.
Notes on the text
the size-to-weight ratio – соотношение размера и веса
highly perishable product – скоропортящийся продукт
laying down fat – жирующая (рыба)
pick condition – нагульная (рыба)
filling or spent – нерестующая или отнерестовавшая (рыба)
according to fat content – по упитанности
fatty – хорошо упитанная (рыба)
medium – средней упитанности (рыба)
predatory on other fish – хищная, поедающая других рыб
vegetable matter – растительная пища
trawled – траловая (рыба, выловленная тралом)
netted – сетная (рыба, выловленная сетью)
seined – неводная (рыба, выловленная неводом)
Words to be memorized
Histological, chemical, composition, hydrology, nourishment, properties, cause,
classification, purpose, fatty, lean, benthos, vegetable, bream, capture, suitable
EXERCISES
1)
Give nouns or adjectives of which the following verbs are formed:
characterize, realize, crystallize, metallize, theorize, organize
2)
Answer the follwing questions:
1) What do the size and chemical composition of fish depend on?
2) Is it necessary to know the properties of fish to be able to use them properly?
3) Why is it important to know the nature and cause of changes that take place in fish
after death?
4) What products may be obtained in processing fish?
5) What kinds of fishing gear do you know?
3) Translate the following sentences into Russian. (Mind the Infinitive).
1. It is important to know the weather conditions in the fishing area. 2. To know the
routes of migration of fish is to get rich catches. 3. To be able to use fish properly and process
them efficiently one must know their properties. 4. The trawler №45 has been put in the dock to
be repaired. 5. The humpback unloaded from the hold 2 is to be canned as soon as possible.
4) Put questions to the words in bold type: 1. By the time they have spawned the
salmon are weakened and often emaciated. 2. The chum salmon is of dirty silver colour. 3.
Students have come to our ship to have their practice. 4. Some fish feed on plancton. 5. Herring
is pelagic fish.
The food value of fish
The food value of fish depends first and foremost on whether it contains a large
proportion of high grade proteins with all the (nonconvertible) amino acids essential for health.
The other nutrients in fish – fat, vitamins and minerals are likewise important. When proteins
are digested, they break up giving amino acids which eventually serve to build up the specific
protein substances, enzymes and hormones peculiar to man. At the same time the amino acids
taking part in metabolism, go through a series of changes which are accompanied by the
evolution of eergy as vital heat. Hence proteins play the dual role of building and heat
generating material. The end products of their breakdown in the body are urea, creatine,
ammonia, carbon dioxide and water.
The small amount of non-protein (extractive) nitrogenous substances in fish plays an
important part in the digestive process, stimulating gastric juices and appetite.
The role of fat is mainly to produce heat. Being transformed into carbon dioxide and
water as a result of hydrolysis and oxidation, fat becomes the main source of the body heat
essential for physical and mental work.
The vitamins in fish are assimilated by man and serve to regulate metabolism. Vitamins
A and D are particularly valuable.
Minerals help to build up the bones, brain, nervous system, muscles and covering tissues
of man. If man is deprived of an adequate supply of vitamins and minerals, his metabolism is
upset, and serious illnesses result.
The whole fish is not usually used for food, but only such edible parts as the body
muscles (and sometimes milts, roes, liver and head muscle). To make a proper assessment of
fish as food it is necessary to know its relative content of edible material as well as proportion
and quality of the nitrogenous compounds, fat, vitamins and mineral salts.
Not all fishes are edible. Some and some parts of others are unfit for food because they
contain certain peculiar compounds with toxic properties. Poisonous material occurs
comparatively rarely in the muscular tissue, but is more frequently present in the internal
organs (gonads, liver, peritoneum) and in the head. The toxic matter is sometimes present at
certain times (usually during the breeding period), and then disappears.
Poisonous fishes live mainly in tropical waters and include the following: globefish,
surgeon fishes, puffers, ilisha, some types of mullet, barracuda and other species. The
poisonous fishes in the Russian waters are the Balkhash marinka, Issyk Kul osman (poisonous
roe and peritoneum) and the barbel and khramula (poisonous roe).
Words to be memorized
Amino acids, health, enzymes, hormones, metabolism, dual, urea, creatine, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, extractive, nitrogenous, gastric juices, hydrolysis, oxidation, mental, assimilate
(v), deprive (v), adequate, upset, poisonous, toxic, globefish, surgeon fish, puffer, ilisha, mullet,
barracuda, marinka, osman, barbel, khramula
EXERCISES
1) Add the suffix –ous to the following words and translate the derivatives into
Russian: fame, danger, thunder, continue, poison, vary, courage, glory
A. Translate the following words into Russian;
B. Define the parts of speech of the stems to which the prefix un- is added:
Unfit, unysual, unfair, unaccomplished, unjust, uneffective, untrue, uncertain,
unclean, unconcerned, unknown, unreasonable, unbearable
2)
Express the following in one word using the prefix un-: not able, not clean, not
lawful, not seen, not well, not intentioned, not explored, not common, not interesting
3)
Analyse the participle constructions in the following sentences:
When the proteins are digested, they break up giving amino acids. 2. The amino acids
taking part in metabolism, go through a series of changes. 3. Being transformed into carbon
dioxide and water fat becomes the main source of the body heat. 4. The vitamins in fish are
assimilated by man. 5. Having been tested in the laboratory the fish proved to be unfit for food.
6. Cod liver having been heated, iodine began liberating from the liver.
4)
Put 5 special questions on the text.
Topics for discussion:
The role of proteins in food.
The function of minerals in food.
Poisonous fishes.
Fish products
№1.Try to memorize the following word combinations:
Inhabit
населять, обитать
Species
вид
Commercial importance промышленное значение
Preserved fish
рыбные консервы
Normal metabolism
нормальный обмен веществ
Made-up fish
рыбные полуфабрикаты
Hot smoked
горячего копчения
Cold smoked
холодного копчения
Scaled-fish caviar
икра частиковых пород
Sturgeon fishes
осетровые породы рыб
Appetizers
закусочные консервы
To be ranked above
цениться выше (больше)
To be on sale
поступать в продажу
The Russian Federation is a great fishing country. Its seas, numerous lakes and rivers are
inhabited by more than 1000 species of fish 250 of which are of commercial importance.
Fish is good for everybody. The nutritiousness of fish is due to the amino acidic
composition of its proteins, biologically active fats, wide range of mineral substances and
vitamins, vital for normal metabolism.
On sale is live, chilled and frozen, filleted and made-up fish, smoked and cured fish, a
wide range of canned and preserved fish, culinary products and fish delicatessens. Over 600
kinds of canned natural fish and appetizers are now produced in Russia.
Canned sturgeon, both natural and appetite, is famous for its nutritiousness and excellent
taste. Canned natural salmon enjoys really wide fame and canned crabmeat is famous the world
over too. We must also mention smoked and cured fish products. The famous balyks are cold
smoked and cured products, they are extremely tasty.
Caviar is regarded as one of the finest delicacies. The fish industry of the Russian
federation produces salted caviar of sturgeon fishes, salmon and scaled fish. Russian sturgeon
and salmon are famous all over the world, while our caviars and balyks are ranked above all
other delicacies.
EXERCISES
№2.Answer the following questions:
1)
By how many fish species are the lakes and rivers of the Russian Federation
inhabited?
2)
Due to what factor is the nutritiousness of fish explained?
3)
What fish products are on sale in our country and abroad?
4)
What kind of fish product is extremely famous for its excellent taste?
5)
How is Russian canned crabment ranked?
6)
What kinds of caviar does the fish industry of the Russian Federation
produce?
№3.Form adjectives of the following nouns using the suffixes –ial or –al and
translate the derivatives into Russian:
Finance, commerce, nation, profession, centre, nutrition, addition, nature, norm
№4.Use the following word combinations in questions and answers of your own :
Example:
Student A.: What is your town famous for?
Student B.: Astrakhan is famous for the products of fish processing industry.
Student A.: Is Astrakhan famous for the products of fish processing industry?
Student B.: YES, it is.
To be good for
to be tasty
To be on sale
to be regarded as
To be famous for to be ranked
№5.Translate the sentences into English:
Рыба полезна всем. Это очень вкусный и питательный продукт. Постоянно
находится в продаже живая, охлаждённая и замороженная рыба. Астрахань славится
исключительно вкусными и питательными рыбными продуктами. Чёрную икру и
копчёные балыки считают деликатесами. Эти продукты ценятся выше всех других
деликатесов.
№6.Change the following sentences according to the pattern:
Black caviar is of great importance for anaemic people.
Black caviar is considered to be of great importance for anaemic people.
Shad roe and the roe of river herring are of commercial importance in the United States.
Sturgeon roe prepared as caviar is a delicacy.
Hot smoked mackerel is particularly delicious.
Russian canned crabmeat is famous the world over.
These canned goods are very nutritious.
These fishes are an excellent product
These fishes will be an excellent product.
They are sold frozen.
Our caviars and balyks are ranked above other delicacies.
Canned appetizers are made of different kinds of fish.
They are easily assimilated by the human organism.
The Russian fish processing industry expands the production of canned fish.
The Russian fish processing industry expanded the production of canned fish.
Canned natural salmon enjoys world-wide fame.
High protein content makes it suitable for dietic foods.
Smoked fish needs no special preparation before eating.
Cured fish is also in great demand.
Frozen fish ranks among the most popular fishery products.
№7.Correct the wrong statements using the following phrases:
On the contrary
Not quite so, I am afraid.
I don’t think this is just the case.
I doubt it.
Far from that.
Just the other way round.
Not at all. Quite the reverse.
Frozen fish do not rank among the most popular fishery products.
About 300 kinds of canned natural fish and appetizers are now produced in our country.
Scaled-fish caviar is regarded as one of the finest delicacies.
Fatty fish is good for everybody.
Only mineral substances and vitamins are vital for normal metabolism.
Fish caviar comes into the market frozen.
Smoked fish needs special preparation before eating.
Balyks are in demand only in the inner market.
The grainy caviar of sturgeon fishes is called red caviar.
Salmon fishes are devoid of easily assimilated proteins and fats.
№8.Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
Источник белкового питания, кормовые и технические продукты, использование и
переработка рыбного сырья, физические свойства, химический состав, особенности
белков, жиры и витамины, различные вещества, скоропортящееся сырьё, характер
изменений, обуславливающие причины, виды рыб, обитать, промысловые рыбы
№9.Render the text in English:
Рыба – один из важнейших источников белкового питания человека. Однако её
используют не только для приготовления, но и для получения ряда ценных кормовых и
технических продуктов. Для правильного использования и переработки рыбного сырья
необходимо знать его свойства: строение тела рыбы, физические свойства и химический
состав, а также особенности входящих в состав рыбы белков, жира, витаминов и других
веществ. Поскольку рыба – скоропортящееся сырьё, важно также знать характер
изменений, происходящих в рыбе после смерти.
В настоящее время известно более 12 тысяч видов рыб, обитающих в различных
океанах, морях, реках и озёрах, из которых к так называемым промысловым рыбам
относится около 1,5 тысячи видов рыб.
№10.Supply the omitted questions and answers to the following dialogue:
A.: What product is regarded as one of the finest delicacies?
B.: ...
A.: Is it really a high quality food poduct?
B.: ...
A.: ...
B.: The fish industry of Russia produces salted caviar of sturgeon, salmon and scaled
fish.
A.:...
B.: Extremely valued for its nutritive qualities is the caviar of sturgeon.
A.: ...
B.: It is rich in fats, proteins, minral substances and various ferments.
A.: Is the caviar of beluga and sturgeon more nutritious than meat and milk?
B.: ...
№11.Compose a dialogue using the following expressions:
To be ranked, to be famous for, to be on sale, to be known for, to enjoy well deserved
fame, to be regarded as, to be valued for, to be rich in, to be in great demand, cold smoked fish,
hot smoked fish, preserved fish, appetizers, made-up fish, grainy and pressed caviar, caviar of
salmon fishes, red caviar, dried and cured Caspian roach.
Canning of fish
№1. Try to memorize the following words and word combinations:
Canning
баночное консервирование
Trimming
разделка, зачистка
Viscera
внутренности
Cooking
варка
Frying
обжаривание
Drying
подсушивание (рыбы)
Filling (packing)
наполнение банок
Heat exhausting
тепловое эксгаустирование
Sealing devices
закаточные устройства
Vacuum sealing
вакуум-закатка
Destruction of vitamins разрушение витаминов
Air-tight
герметичный
Sterilization
стерилизация
Preliminary sealing
предварительная закатка
Testing for leaks
проверка банок на герметичность
Labelling
этикетировка
lacquering
лакировка
to keep indefinitely
хранить в течение длительного времени
It is pracice
принято
To be steamed
подвергаться паровой бланшировке
To dry
подсушивать
Net weight
чистый вес
To roll the curl of the cover and the flange of the can
завивать выступающий край
крышки вокруг фланца корпуса банки
Sealing compound
уплотняющий слой (пасты)
Air-tight double seam
плотный двойной закаточный шов
Shrinkage
уменьшение размеров продукта
Close packing
плотное заполнение банок продуктом
To toughen
делать (кожу, шкуру) более крепкой (жёсткой)
Rancidity in trout
прогоркание форели
Sealed jars
герметичная тара
Closing machine
закаточная машина
Conventional types or smoke treatment традиционные методы копчения
To commend
хвалить
Canning is a comparatively modern method of preserving food, its origin dating from the
discoveries of the French inventor, Nicholas Appert, in 1795. Heinvented a process of heating
foods sealed in glass cans, which caused them to keep indefinitely. Canning has advantages
over some of the more ancient method of food preservation such as drying, salting, freezing
and cold storage.
Fish canning comprises the following steps: cleaning and trimming, salting, cooking or
drying, packing into cans, exhausting, sterilizing or processing by heat and then sealing.
Cleaning and trimming. In the canning of fish products cleaning and trimming generally
consist of the removal of the head, viscera and tail fin, the washing of the viscerated fish to
remove blood, and the trimming of the fish into pieces of proper size to pack into cans.
Brining and pickling. In order to draw out the blood from the tissues, to give the flesh a
proper degree of firmness and the desired flavour, it is practice to hold many kinds of fish
before or after trimming in brine for a varied length of time. The time of holding and the
strength of the brine depend largely upon the size and fatness of the fish, the nature of
subsequent operation.
Cooking. Many kinds of fish are subjected to some cooking or drying process before
being packed in cans. This removes excess moisture and supplements the cooking of the fish in
the can during the subsequent sterilizing process. The fish may be steamed and dried before
packing or they are dried first and then cooked by a frying process.
Filling {packing]. Filling may b accomplished mechanically or by hand. Mechanical
filling is faster and gives a more accurate control of the net weight or volume of liquid.
Exhausting. The objective of the exhausting is to remove air and gas from the can that
the contents will be in a vacuum after processing and cooling.
But the disadvantage of heat exhausting are as follows: non-uniformity and insufficiency
of vacuum, protein denaturation and deterioration of flavour. That’s why exhausting is widely
replaced by vacuum-sealing devices. These devicesensure more uniform vacuum, lessen the
development of oxidizd flavours and lessen destruction of vitamins.
Sealing (seaming). Seaming is the step in which the cans are passed through a sealing
machine that rolls the curl of the cover and the flange or the can with the gasket or sealing
compound into air-tight double seam.
Sterilization. The canning of food products being based on the principle of sterilizingby
heat, the final cooking or “process” is the most vital process and important step in the canning
procedure.
The term ‘process” as used in the canning industry, is synonymous with cook,
anddesignates, in terms of temperature and time, the heat treatment given to the preliminary
sealed container. The minimum requirement for the process of any product is that it be
adequate to destroy the most heat-resistant organisms.
In order to secure adequate sterilization within a reasonable time it is cusomary to
sterilize cans in continuous rotary sterilizers where the cans are processed by steam under
pressure.
Testing. After the cans have ben cooled, it is customary to test them for leaks or
defective seams before they are lacquered in an automatic machine, labelled and finally packed.
EXERCISES
№2.Answer the following questions:
1)
By whom was the process of canning invented and when?
2)
What is the main principle of canning?
3)
What steps of canning do you know?
4)
Can you name some advantages of canning?
5)
What operations does cleaning consist of?
6)
What is the purpose of brining?
7)
What is the process of cooking necessary for?
8)
In what way may filling be accomplished?
9)
What are the main disadvantages of heat exhausting?
10) By what innovation is heat exhausting replaced?
11) What operations does a sealing machine perform?
12) What is the sterilization process necessary for?
№3. Add the prefixes pre-, super-, to the following words and translate the
derivatives into Russian:
Pre- : cooked, fried, smoked, heated, arranged, condition, determine
Super-: charged, cooled, heated, saturated, natural, structure
№4. Use the following words and word combinations in questions and answers of
your own:
To have advantages over
to be packed into
To be eviscerated
to be sterilized
To be beheaded
to be cooled
To be subjected to
to be tested
To be exhausted
to be labeled
№5. Translate the sentences into Russian:
Процесс производства стерилизованных консервов был впервые разработан
французским изобретателем Аппером в 1795 году. Затем новый метод стал применяться
для изготовления рыбных консервов. Консервы изготовляются из рыбы высокого
качества. Рыбу сортируют, моют, удаляют чешую, разделывают (удаляют голову,
плавники, хвост, внутренности) и порционируют, если рыба большая. Затем куски рыбы
солят в насыщенном солевом растворе. Продолжительность посола зависит от
концентрации тузлука, размеров кусков, содержания жира в мясе. Введение соли в банки
с заливкой позволяет обеспечить однородное содержание соли в готовых консервах.
№6. Change the statements to questions supplying short answers:
Enzyme activity is almost entirely halted by the heat treatment.
The removal of water resulted in a shrinkage which permitted close packing.
The cans are usually labeled by automatic machinery.
The vacuum inhibits the aerobic bacteria from developing.
The warm air moving about the fish removes the water and toughens the skin.
Sterilization of the contents of the cans is necessary to ensure their keeping qualities.
The cans are then placed in temporary storage for a few days, after which they are
labeled.
Quick freezing was first devised to improve the quality of frozen fish.
№7. Change the following sentences according to the pattern:
A. The increase in sodium concentration was a little greater in the
partially frozen fish than it was in the fish stored at 30,5 C.
The increase in sodium concentration was a little greater in the partially
frozen fish than it was in those stored at 30,5 C.
The period allowed fordrip to escape was greater than the period likely to occur in
practice between cutting the fish and placing them into cans.
The duration of the storage period is its duration from the time of the commencement of
the experiment.
The odours accompanying lipid oxidation under these conditions may be quite different
form the odours associated with the oxidation or the three oils alone.
The cooking method used in the determination or cooking losses is the cooking method
or oven-baking.
Further experiments were conducted in which the development of rancidity in trout
stored at 25 C in open tanks was compared withthe development of rancidity in fish stored in
sealed jars.
B. Canning is a comparatively modern method of preserving fish and its
origin dates from the discoveries of the French inventor N. Appert.
Canning is a comparatively modern method of preserving fish, its origin dating from
the discoveries of the French inventor N. Appert.
The hot cans are then passed to the closing machine and the tops of the cans are rolled
firmly.
Smoked fish are produced by a combination of brining, drying and smoking and the two
conventional types of smoke treatment are known as “cold-smoke” and “hot-smoke”.
Hot smoking involves starting smoke treament of dressed fish or fish fillets at the
temperature of 120 C and the temperature increases to 180 C.
When the liquid is heated, then portion which is warmer becomes less dense and rises
and the heat is distributed throughout the product.
There are two methods of heat tranfer and convection is more rapid of them.
C. The workers of the smoking department were given anincentive to
because they had completed the production plan ahead of shedule.
The workers of the smoking department were given an incentive to for their having
completed the production plan ahead of shedule.
The foreman is angry with them because they have not dressed the fish properly.
They were reprimanded because they had roughly handled that lot of fish.
The students were commended because they had designed a new fish filleting machine.
Our foreman is not satisfied with us because we didn’t eviscerate the fish.
He won the first prize as he had submitted a very interesting report.
№8. Correct the following statements using the following phrases:
I can’t agree with you
I am afraid you are mistaken
On the contrary
To my mind
In my opinion
The hermetically sealed containers in which all commercially sterilized foods are packed
are not proof against the entrance of microorganisms.
Canning was discovered by Pasteur.
Canning is the most ancient method of preserving fish.
Most of the air is not eliminated form the cans before sealing.
The hermetic sealing does not halt evaporation, humidity and most other chemical and
physical causes of spoilage.
The most serious effects of physical actions are : 1. corrosion of the can and solution of
the tin in the food, 2. blackening of the interior of the can.
The fish are represented by lobster, shrimp, crabs, cysters and clams of various species.
The shell-fish are represented by salmon, sturgeon, herring, sardines and tuna.
Glass containers are less difficult to sterilize and inexpensive.
Paper lined cans are universally adopted for canning salmon and sturgeon.
№9.Give the English equivalents of the following words and phrases:
производство консервов, в меньшей степени, мясо ракообразных, моллюски, киты,
водоросли, охлаждённая и мороженая рыба, сырец, разделять по видам (размерам),
чистая проточная вода, освобождать от загрязнений, разделка рыбы, удаление чешуи,
клей, укладывать в банку, насыщенный солевой раствор, слизь, бланширование паром,
бланширование в кипящей воде, обжаривание в растительном масле, заливка,
предварительная закатка, сортировка, покрытие лаком, этикетировка.
№10.Render the text in English:
В рыбной промышленности для производства консервов в основном используют
рыбу и в меньшей степени мясо ракообразных, моллюсков, китов, а также водоросли. На
изготовление любого вида консервов направляют безупречную по качеству рыбу. Кроме
свежей и охлаждённой, используют мороженую рыбу.
Процесс подготовки сырца состоит из таких операций, как сортировка, мойка,
удаление чешуи, порционирование, окончательная мойка, посол рыбы. При работе с
мороженой рыбой первая операция – размораживание (дефростация).
При сортировке смешанные партии рыбы разделяются по видам и по размерам.
При мойке вчистой проточной воде рыба освобождается от микроорганизмов и
загрязнений (слизь, кровь, содержимое кишечника). Чешую удаляют до разделки рыбы.
Снятую с рыбы чешую собирают и заготавливают в качестве сырья для получения клея.
Технологическая цель разделки – отделить малоценные или несъедобные части тела
рыбы.
Порционируют рыбу в том случае, если тушки по своим размерам не могут быть
уложены целиком в банку. Затем рыба подвергается тепловой обработке. Существует
несколько способов тепловой обработки:
Бланширование паром, в кипящей воде, солевом растворе или растительном масле
при температуре 120-140 С.
Обжаривание в растительном масле при температуре не ниже 160 С.
Подсушивание при температуре 100С.
Пропекание горячим воздухом при температуре 120-140 С.
Заливка.
После заливки банки предварительно закатывают, эксгаустируют, окончательно
закатывают, стерилизуют. После стерилизации банки моют и охлаждают. Затем банки
сортируют, покрывают лаком, этикетируют и упаковывают в тару.
№11.Compose a dialogue using the expressions given below:
Fish processing industry, to be organized, to be steadily expanding, nutritious,
health-giving, canned goods, to improve appetite, to stimulate metabolism, to be explained by,
high content of, proteins, carbohydrates, mineral salts, vitamins, to be used for, different
culinary products, the former, the latter, to be canned in oil, to be canned in tomato sauce, to be
particularly delicious.
№12. Speak on the main stages of canning process.
By-products of the fishery industries
Vocabulary of the text
Feeding purposes
пищевые цели
To be of commercial importance
иметь промышленное значение
Curative agent
целебное средство
Malnutrition
недостаточное, неправильное питание
Marine mammals
морские млекопитающие
Seal oil
тюлений жир
Chopping machine
дезинтегратор
Stripping the blubbers
строжка подкожного сала
Cooker
котёл
Feed supplement
добавка в пищу
Grinding
измельчение, перемалывание
Resultant scrap
отпрессованная масса, сушёнка
Continuous drying drum
сушильный барабан непрерывного действия
Hacking device
дробилка
For sieving
на просеивание
Magnetic trapping device
магнитная ловушка
High protein meal
мука с высоким содержанием белковых веществ
Low protein meal
мука с низким содержанием белковых веществ
Trace elements
микроэлементы
Glue stock
клеевое сырьё
To get oxidized
подвергаться окислению
By –products
побочные продукты (отходы)
Fish glue
Fish isinglass
Cod liver oil
Blubber oil
Strip
Reduction process
Herring
Capelin
Pilchard
Fish serap
Swim bladder
Alkali
Saline acid
рыбный клей
рыбный клей, желатин
жир печени трески
жир из подкожного сала морских млекопитающих
сдирать, обдирать
процесс переработки рыбы (отходов рыбы на муку)
сельдь
мойва
сардина
сушенка
плавательный пузырь
щёлочь
соляная кислота
Ву-products include fish oil used both industrially and for feeding purposes, liver oil
used medicinally, fish meal, fish glue and isinglass.
Fish oils are liquid fats andconsist chiefly of various proportions of glycerides and
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Fish oils are obtained from oil parts of fish , whereas the
fish liver oils are prepared from the livers only. Increasing interest in fresh liver oils as
concentrated sources of vitamins A and D has led to a rather general use of many types of fish
livers for this purpose.
Although many liver oils have been examined from time to time the only one that is of
commercial importance is that of the cod, of which enormous quantities are produced. The
great importance of cod liver oil lies in its value as a curative agent in those diseases which are
caused either directly or indirectly by malnutrition.
Since the nutritive and therapeutic properties of cod liver oil is due to its content of the
vitamins A and D, it is necessary to use special precautions not to destroy these components
during the preparation, refining and storage of the oil. Seal oil is obtained from the blubber of
various species of seal.
Whale oil is extracted from the blubber of various species of whale. The first operation
consists in stripping the blubbers from the dead whale; huge pieces are put through the
chopping machine, taken up by an elevator and dropped into the cooker. Steam is turned on
and after a sufficient period, generally six to eight hours, the oil runs off through a system of
separating tanks to get rid of the free water, then into the store tanks.
Fish meal is highly concentrated, nutritious feed supplement consisting principally of
high-quality proteins, minerals and B-complex vitamins. It is obtained through the fish
reduction process which consists essentially of grinding, cooking, pressing and druing of fish
scrap obtained from filleting or canning operation or by processing whole fish as herring,
capelin and pilchards.
The moisture content of the resultant scrap must be 50-60 %. In the continuous drying
drum the moisture content is reduced to 8-10 %.
From the drying drum the material is fed to the hacking device then for sieving, and to
the magnetic trapping device.
Fish meal possesses exceptionally good nutritional values. It furnishes, in concentrated
form, high quality proteins which contain all of the essential amino acids and it isparticularly
high in lysine. It furnishes some of the B-complex vitamins, namely, riboflavin, niacin.
pentothetic acid, choline and B12.
Fish meal is high in mineral content ranging about 12% for a high protein meal to about
33% for a low protein meal. It is particularly high in bone and tooth building materials (calcium
and phosphorus). It also contains most of the minerals that are necessary for building up and
maintaining the animal body, namely, copper, and some trace elements.
Practically all of the glue manufactured today are made from the waste products of fish
especially from the sounds (bladders) and scale. The glue stock must be freed from salt or
freshened before being made into glue. And then after special treatment with alkali and saline
acid is cooked at 70-80 degrees C.
Isinglass is an excellent raw material for producing fish gelain.
The word “isinglass” is derived from a similarly sounding word in Dutch and German
meaning surgeon air bladder or swimming bladder.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
1) What is the main characteristics of fish oils?
2) What are fish and liver oils obtained from?
3) Why is cod liver oil so popular?
4) Due to what fact are the nutritive and theraupetic properties of cod liver pil explained?
5) Why is it necessary to use special precautions while preparing and refining cod liver
oil?
6) What are blubber oils obtained from?
7) What is the main characteristics of fish meal?
8) What are the main procedures of obtaining fish meal?
9) What are fish glue and isinglass made from?
10) Where is the word “isinglass” derived from?
2. Add the prefixes over-, under- to the following words and translate the
derivatives into Russian:
overcrowd, estimate, fulfil, mature, weight, pressure, load, work
undercool, change, estimate, load, pressure, produce, work
3. Use the following words and word cobinaions in questions and ansers of your
own:
to be obtained from
to be examined
to be caused
to be stripped from
to get rid of
to be reduced o
to take special precautions
to be high in
to be extracted from
to be freed from
4. Translate the sentences into English:
Жиры, получаемые из различного сырья, имеют широкое и разнообразное
применение для лечебных, пищевых и технических целей. Производство медицинского
жира разделяется на два процесса: процесс получения жира-сырца из печени или других
частей тела животного и процесс очистки и фильтрации жира для получения готового
продукта. Жиры печени трески и подкожный жир тюленей и китов используются в
лечебных целях. Жиры богаты витаминами А и Б. Рыбная кормовая мука тоже содержит
большое количество витаминов. Кормовая ценность рыбной муки зависит от содержания
в ней микроэлементов и витаминов.
5.Give the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Жир печени трески, подкожные жиры водных млекопитающих, лечебное
вещество, производство жиров, жирорастворимые витамины, терапевтическое действие
жиров, непредельные жирные кислоты, процесс выделения жира, разрушение структуры,
жировая ткань, вытопка жира, гидромеханический метод, измельчение сырья, сократить
продолжительность процесса, выход жира.
Chilled fish
Vocabulary of the text
Freezing point – точка замерзания
To prolong – продлевать, отсрочить, продолжать, протягивать дальше
To expose – подвергать действию ( солнца, ветра и т.д.)
Merely – только, просто, единственно
Raw fish – сырая рыба
Cellular - клеточный
Fluid - жидкость
Complex – сложный, комплексный, трудный
To grade - сортировать
To conform – сообразовать(ся), согласоваться (to-с), соответствовать (to или with –
чему-либо), приспособлять(ся)
Fillet - филе
Consumer - потребитель
To entail – влечь за собой, вызывать что-либо
Viscosity- вязкость, липкость, клейкость, тягучесть
Moisture – влажность, сырость, влага
Desication – высушивание, сушка, десикация
To subject – подвергать воздействию, влиянию
Dehydration - обезвоживание
Subcutaneous - подкожный
To impede – препятствовать, мешать, задерживать, затруднять
Hygroscopic - гигроскопический
Heterogeneous – гетерогенный, разнородный
Appearance – появление, внешний вид
Immersion – погружение, осадка
Brine-spraying – обрызгивание рассолом
The chilling of fish is a process by which the temperature of fish is reduced close to (but
not below) freezing point. It delays the biochemical and bacteriological processes in fish and
consequently prolongs the storage life of fish products.
Fresh fish or fish products that have been exposed to cold until they are near freezing
point are called chilled. The biochemical and bacteriological processes in them are merely
delayed and not stopped; their storage life is therefore prolonged and will last so long as
spoilage has not become sufficiently far advanced to impair their value as food. The storage life
of a chilled product depends mainly on the quality of the raw fish, on the method and duration
of chilling, and the conditions of storage.
The freezing point for fish is between -0.6 degrees and -2 degrees, depending on the
species and on the concentration of intercellular fluid. It is usually taken as -1 degrees. During
chilling the heat transfer between the food product and the coolant is often accompanied by
weight transfer (e.g. through evaporation from the surface with air chilling); chilling must
therefore be regarded as a complex process of heat and mass transfer.
The important considerations in preparing good quality chilled fish products are the
biochemical and physical changes in the fish during chilling time, the temperature conditions,
the chilling time and the equipment and technology used.
Before chilling the fish are graded for species and size, their quality must conform to the
technical requirements and is determined both by organoleptic signs and by physical and
chemical information derived from laboratory analysis of specimens or by other means. Fish to
be processed into frozen fillets or to be delivered in ice to the consumer may be live or dead,
but must be absolutely fresh.
During chilling important physical and biochemical changes take place in the product.
The physical changes generally entail an increase in the density of tissues and in the viscosity
of tissue juices and blood, and a loss in the weight due to partial evaporation of moisture from
the surface dessication during air chilling. The extent of dessication depends on the properties
of the product and coolant and on the conditions of chilling. The main properties of the product
on which dessication depends are its specific gravity, the size of the individual fish, and the
type of packaging during chilling and storage.
The more water there is in the product, the more moisture will evaporate from the fish;
lean fish consequently is more subject to dehydration than fatty, which contains relatively less
water. The subcutaneous layer of fat offers protection against evaporation from the tissues.
Products with a higher specific gravity contain more organic matter and therefore relatively less
water. The evaporation surface depends on the size of the individual fish. Depending on its
properties the packaging may offer complete protection against evaporation, or may impede
and delay the process; but if it is hygroscopic, it will absorb moisture from the fish.
The chilling time of fish and other marine products depends on their properties, the
properties of the coolant, and the conditions under which the process takes place (cross-section
of the product, thermal efficiency, specific gravity, temperature of the coolant, type of motion
and velocity of the coolant, humidity, heat transfer coefficient from product to coolant).
The methods employed for chilling fish and other fishery products are very varied, but
may be divided into two groups according to the type of coolant: a) methods of chilling in a
homogeneous coolant (as when fish are chilled in cold air or in a cold liquid, for example), and
b) methods of chilling in heterogeneous coolant (for instance in ice).
Fish are very seldom air-cooled at a temperature of -2 degrees to -3 degrees, because
they chill slowly in air and deteriorate in appearance both while being chilled and during
subsequent storage. The most used commercial methods of chilling are by immersion in a cold
liquid, by spraying with cold brine, or by packing in crushed ice. Og these three methods tle
least used is brine-spraying, and the most used is chilling in crushed ice. The method of chilling
in liquid is to immerse the raw fish in the cold liquid (fresh water, brine or sea water). Fresh
water which freezes at 0 degrees can only be used if the fish are to be lightly chilled. To chill
fish thoroughly down to 0 degrees or -1 degrees, it is necessary to use either brine (for example
a 2 per cent solution of sodium chloride) or sea water, both of which have a freezing point
below 0 degrees, and can be kept at a temperature within -3 degrees and -4 degrees throughout
the chilling process. It goes without saying that, since the fish are in direct contact with the
liquid during chilling, the solution must be perfectly harmless to man.
Notes on the text
That have been exposed to cold until they are near freezing point- которые охлаждены
почти до точки замерзания
storage life – продолжительность хранения
to impair their value- ухудшить их пищевые качества
intercellular fluid – внутриклеточный сок
heat transfer- теплообмен
weight transfer - массообмен
by spraying with cold brine – орошением холодным рассолом
EXERCISES
1)Answer the following questions:
1)
What is the chilling of fish?
2)
What is the freezing point of fish?
3)
How can you characterize changes occurring during chilling?
4)
What does the chilling time of fish depend on?
5)
Do you know the methods employed for chilling fish?
6)
What measures should be taken to retain the freshness of fish after they have been
captured?
7)
What is to be done if we want to hold fish in good edible conditions for a long
time?
8)
Have you ever seen the process of refrigeration? Can you describe this process?
2) Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the forms and
functions of the participle:
1. Fresh fish or fish products that have been exposed to cold are called chilled. 2. Their
storage life is therefore prolonged and will last so long as spoilage has not become far
advanced. 3. The freezing point for fish isbetween 0 degrees and -6 degrees depending on the
species. 4. Chilling must be regarded as a complex process. 5. Fish to be processed into frozen
fillets must be absolutely fresh. 6. The main conditions to be observed in chilling are coolants
with optimum thermal efficiency. 7. On one of the factory ships visited last week our students
were shown the newest equipment for cooling and freezing fish. 8. One of the most noticeable
features of the new freezers is the big increase in the quantities of fish mass frozen.
3) Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Существует много способов охлаждения рыбы; простейший из них – это укладка
рыбы в дроблёный лёд. 2. Вторжение бактерий начинается сразу, если рыбу хранить при
высоких температурах. 3. Низкие температуры применяются главным образом для того,
чтобы задержать разложение рыбы. 4. При охлаждении рыбы льдом нужно укладывать
её в мелкодроблёный лёд, а также засыпать лёд в брюшную полость.
PRODUCTION OF FROZEN FISH
Vocabulary of the text
The eutetic point of food products –эвтетическая температура пищевых продуктов
Powerconsumption – расход энергии
Tubular rack – трубчатый стеллаж
Ice-and-salt freezing – льдо-солевое замораживание
Layer by layer - послойно
Latent heat – теплота испарения
Assembly – агрегат
Perishable food products may be kept much longer by freezing, provided that two
conditions are observed: a) the product must be frozen to as low a temperature as possible; and
b) most of the fluid in the product must be converted into ice. The second factor is particularly
significant for fish, since the fluid in it constitutes a solvent for many organic and mineral
substances and flavours the growth of microorganisms and the development of biochemical
reactions.
Freezing is a process by which the temperature of the raw fish is reduced from the initial
level to between -16 degrees and -18 degrees, and most of the fluid in it is converted to ice.
The euteric point of food products, that is the minimum temperature at which all the fluid
in it is turned to ice, is -55 degrees to -65 degrees C, but such a low remperature cannot
generally be reached in the food industry. Heat transfer during freezing is accompanied by
mass transfer. Consequently, freezing must be regarded as a complex process of both heat and
mass transfer.
The biochemical and physical changes in the fish during freezing, the refrigeration
conditions (speed, duration, final temperature of the frozen fish), power consumption, and the
peculiarities of the refrigeration method used – all are very significant factors in preparing high
quality frozen fish.
Only live and perfectly fresh fish should be taken for freezing. It is also essential that
they be graded by species and size.
The freezing of fish is accompanied by important biological and chemical changes. The
biological changes include the inhibition of microorganisms at the surface and in the interior of
the fish, and even a reduction in the number of bacteria at the surface immediately after
freezing. Owing to the low temperatures and the changes that result in the state of aggregation
in the product, freezing is more lethal to microorganisms than chilling, and frozen fish
therefore will keep for a long time.
Biochemical reactions take place more slowly at low temperatures, but are not arrested
even when the product is frozen. Glycogen breaks down during freezing, and lactic acid forms.
The maximum accumulation of lactic acid occurs in the temperature range between -2.5
degrees C and – 3.7 degrees C known as the critical range. With slow freezing, that is, at a
comparatively high temperature, glycogen breaks down quickly.
During refrigeration substantial protein changes occur – the protein becomes denatured,
as a result of which solubility changes drastically ang the capacity of the product to swell and
retain tissue juices is reduced. All this detracts from the food quality of fish, the flesh becomes
dry and hard and loses certain properties essential for further processing particularly for
canning.
Methods of fish refrigeration. The methods and equipment for commercial freezing are
very varied. Freezing in a cold air medium, for example, may be carried out in natural
conditions, or in a freezing chamber where low air temperature is maintained by artificial
means, or in a special freezer in which cold air is circulated fairly rapidly. If a cold liquid
medium (brine) is used as coolant, the fish may either be placed in direct contact with the brine,
or may be separated from it by heat-conducting surface. Both ice and brine may sometimes be
used for either contact, or indirect freezing. Lastly, new methods of freezing with a boiling
coolant are being developed.
Freezing by natural frost is used in very cold climates, where fish are caught under ice
and immediately laid out alive on the ice in a single layer, so as to expose as much of their
surface as possible to heat transfer with the atmosphere and ice.
Blast freezing. In old-style freezers fish are frozen on tubular racks in a refrigerating
chamber. In these conditions in which part of the fish is in contact with metal, and part with
slowly circulating air, freezing is slow and uneven. In modern freezers the rack method has
been replaced by a blast of cold air. Various apparatus and installations have been developed
not only ensuring high heat transfer coefficient, but also providing mechanical means for
loading and unloading the fish.
Ice-and-salt freezing uses the principle of spontaneous cooling of a mixture of ice and
salt (NaCl). The process taking place simultaneously in the mixture are ice melting and saltmelting, both of which absorb heat. For a complete interaction between the constituents of the
mixture the contact surface between them should be as large as possible. The technology of this
method of freezing is simple: fish are placed in the mixture layer by layer and are either kept in
direct contact with it (contact freezing) or are separated from it by a heat conducting wall
(indirect contact freezing).
Freezing in a boiling refrigerant. The principle of freezing products by immersion in a
non-toxic evaporating refrigerant is probably better and more efficient than any other. It offers
the most favourable heat transfer conditions: fullest use, is made of the latent heat" of
evaporation of the refrigerant, and the product, which is in direct contact with it, is quickly
frozen. The ix frigerant is admitted directly to the freezer through control valve and is
evaporated in it at a very low temperature through the heat transfer from the product. The
functions of the evaporator and of the freezer are here combined in the same assembly."
Words to be Memorized
solvent, favour (v), eutetic point, inhibition, aggregation, lelhal, arrest (v), denature (v),
solubility, drastically, chamber, artificial, coolant, tubular rack, uneven, blast, apparatus,
installation, spontaneous, melt (v), interaction, refrigerant, admit (v), evaporator, freezer,
assembly
EXERCISES
1. Answer the following questions:
1. What is to be done to hold fish in good edible conditions for a long time? 2. Is it
advisable to freeze the stale fish? 3. What do you mean by the term "freezing"? 4. What
changes occur to protein during refrigeration? 5. Is the freezing by the natural frost considered
the industrial method of refrigerating? 6. Do you think freezing on tubular racks to be the
modern method of freezing?
2. Fill in the blanks with the words given below:
1. Freezing in cold ... may be carried out in natural conditions. 2. New methods of
freezing with a ... are being developed. 3. In old-style freezers fish are ... on tubular racks in ...
chambers. 4. Brine is much better conductor of ... ... than air. 5. Fish immersed in brine at a
temperature of 17°C will freeze much faster than in ... at the same ... . 6. The … is
characteristic of perfectly fresh fish. 7. The principal fields of bacterial invasion are ... and
.... 8. If a fish is frozen in brine, some ... may penetrate the tissues, and the blood may be
discoloured by the ... of salt.
(media, boiling coolant, frozen, refrigerating, heat, air, temperature, rigor mortis, gills,
slime, skin, salt, action).
3. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Вторая стадия разложения превращает рыбу в несъедобный продукт. 2. B
современных морозильных аппаратах трубчатые стеллажи заменены потоком холодного
воздуха. 3. Чтобы хорошо знать методы замораживания рыбы, нужно иметь
основательный опыт и хорошее знание теории . 4. Koгда рыбу замораживают медленно,
мускульные волокна замерзают в виде ледяных кристалликов, и рыба теряет свои
вкусовые качества. 5. Рыбу, предназначенную к замораживанию, не следует резать на
куски или обезглавливать.
4 .Topic for discussion: How is fish chilled and frozen.
SALTING
Vocabulary of the text
To the daintiest spiced delicatessen – до самых нежных деликатесов
Marinaded items – маринованные продукты
Allowed to become permeated by it – способствуют проникновению соли (в рыбу)
Is forced out of the tissues – вытесняется из тканей (влага)
The salt has struck – соль пропитала рыбу
Preservative action manifests itself – консервирующее свойство обуславливается
This time is conditioned by two factors – это время зависит от двух факторов
Through being very coarse – из-за того, что была применена слишком крупная соль
Which are levelled out with a rake – которые выравниваются граблями
With split fish – при посоле распластованной рыбы
Salting is both a method of preserving fish and a preliminary operation to smoking,
drying, and marinading.
Many types of salted fish in which a pleasant flavour and aroma are produced by salting,
make tasty snacks and appetizers — herrings, sprats, anchovies, salmon, whitefish, etc. The
products made from them are varied — from salted fish proper to the daintiest spiced
delicatessen and marinaded items — and the range and quality are being constantly extended
and improved. In a narrow sense, salting is a combination of operations by which fish is placed
in contact with salt (whether as crystals or in solution) and allowed to become permeated by it.
These operations include mixing the fish with salt, laying and keeping the fish in the container
in which it is salted, restocking, etc. Salting may also be taken to mean the combination of
physico-chemical processes by which salt penetrates the fish, and moisture is forced out of the
tissues, producing a change in weight. When this is implied, it is better to say that (he salt has
"struck".
Salt solutions are known as brine. Brine that has formed as a result of salt reacting on the
fish (i.e. the aqueous salt solution released by the fish) is called natural brine, and brine
prepared by dissolving salt in water — artificial. The feature of the natural brine is that it
contains certain proportion of dissolved or suspended organic matter. The amount of salt used
is sometimes more than can be dissolved in the water contained in the fish. Some undissolved
salt (known as excess salt) then remains in the vat after the fish arc removed, and there is also a
sediment of skin, coagulated proteins, fragments of fins, etc.
Preservative action of salt. When common salt is introduced into fish in sufficient
quantity it arrests autolysis and spoilage. The common salt not only causes plasmo-lysis in the
bacterial cell but also blocks the protein nuclei which are effected by enzimes. Its preservative
action manifests ifself by altering the state of the proteins and enzymes in such a way that
proteins become impervious to the action of enzymes, and the latter lose their efficacy.
Common salt has a bacteriostatic and bactericidal action, that is, it both delays the
growth of bacteria and kills them. The growth of many putrefactive rod bacteria in artificial
media is arrested by a 10 per cent salt concentration that of putrefactive cocci by a 15 per cent
concentration. But a higher concentration than this is required if fish is to be protected from
spoilage.
Salted fish with a concentration not exceeding 15 per cent can be kept in the cold room at
a temperature of 0°C or lower. Only heavily salted fish with a concentration close to a
saturation will tolerate prolonged storage at a temperature of 10°C.
The salting process. Successful preservation depends a great deal on the time taken for
the salt concentration inside the fish to reach the minimum level to arrest autolysis and the
growth of micro flora. This time is conditioned by two factors:(a) the rate at which salt is
dissolved, forming brine, and (b) the rate at which it penetrates the fish, and water is extracted.
Provided that the fish and salt are thoroughly mixed, and the salt is of the right quality, the
latter dissolves more quickly than the fish become salted. Salting is therefore delayed if the
salt dissolves too slowly through being very coarse. Successive salting consequently depends
basically on the speed of penetration of the salt, i.e. on the time taken for its concentration to
increase in the fish fluid. With equal permeability of tissues the amount of salt penetrating fish
in unit time will depend on the surface area of the fish and on the area to thickness ratio, that is
on the specific area of the fish. Brining may be carried out in several ways which fall basically
in two groups: a) in which the fish are salted in the same brine from start to finish, and b) in
which the brine is replaced by a fresh, stronger solution after it has weakened.
There is also the method of mixed salting which is carried out as follows: a small amount
of strong brine is poured into the bottom of the tank (barrel or vat) and fish put into it until a
fairly thick mixture forms, and the fish are entirely covered by brine. They are then spread with
salt, and more fish are fed in the shallow layers interspersed with layers of salt which are
levelled out with a rake. If herring are salted in barrels, they are first mixed with salt.
Larger fish are placed in raws dry, and brine is admitted to the tank from a reservoir
placed in one corner. With split fish the gills and belly cavity of each fish are stuffed with salt.
Words to be Memorized
pleasant, aroma, tasty, snacks, appetizer, sprats, anchovies, marinade (v), items, narrow,
sense, permeate (v), container, rcstacking, force out (v), vat, sedimenl, coagulate (v), fragment ,
nuclei, efficacy, bactericidal, rod bacteria, cocci, saturation, rnicroflora, condition (v), brining,
weaken (v), tank, barrel, spread (v), intersperse (v), rake, reservoir
EXERCISES
1. State what part of speech the following words are referred to and translate
them into Russian:
reserving, smoking, drying, processing, fishing; combination, operation, concentration,
formation, regulation; salted, varied, marinaded, extracted, extended, improved, delayed;
pleasant, artificial, bacterial, preservative, lower, drier, climatic, thinnest, harmful, waterless
2.
Analyse the following sentences and state where you have the Participle, the
Gerund and the Verbal Noun:
1. Salting is the method of preserving fish. 2. These operations include mixing the fish
with salt, laying and keeping them in containers. 3. The term "dry-salting fish refers to methods
of salting. 4. After the preliminary washing fish are beheaded. 5. Salt preserves fish by
extracting water from them. 6. Most of bacteria grow better in media devoid of this inorganic
substance. 7. Cutting the fish requires skill and deftness. 8. All the decomposing fish have been
thrown outboard. 9. When will you start butchering fish? 10. Pie left the ship without having
been allowed by the captain.
3. Change the following sentences using the Gerund instead of the subordinate
clauses:
1. Master is angry with them because they have not fulfilled the task in time. 2. When I
saw that everything was in order, I allowed to start the engine. 3. I remember that we worked
together at the plant last year. 4. We do not like that the ship has not yet arrived at the port. 5.
That you have missed the lesson does not free you from writing the test paper.
4. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. При условии, что рыба будет доставлена на берег в совершенно свежем виде,
она будет частично заморожена, а частично посолена. 2. По причине того, что соль была
крупная и растворялась медленно, качество посола понизилось. 3. Мокрый посол сухой
рыбы, такой, как лосось, применяется реже, чем сухой посол. 4. Чтобы получить высокое
качество продукта, необходимо соблюдать определённый температурный режим при
засолке. 5. После сортировки по размерам и видам и промывки пресной водой рыбу
засаливают методом крепкого посола. 6. При укладке рыбы в бочки каждый слой
посыпают солью. 7. Bсе виды лосося можно употребить для посола, но чаще всего
засаливают кету и горбушу.
MARINADING OF FISH
All marinades may be divided into two groups: (a) cold or salt, and (b) warm marinades
prepared from pre-fried, pre-cooked, or pre-smoked fish. Cold marinades are extensively used,
because they keep well and are easier to prepare. Warm marinades are in fact made-up cooked
dishes, and they will not be discussed here.
The preservative action of vinegar and vinegar-salt solution. The development of
putrefactive micro-organisms is greatly delayed in an acid medium with a vinegar concentration of 1 to 2 per cent. With a higher proportion of acid, a number of bacteria die. The
various micro-organisms react differently to being kept in an acid medium; some, like yeasts
and mould, for example, will even thrive. Mould develops readily in an acid medium, and we
know from experience that marinades are frequently affected by them. Moulds gradually
decompose the acetic acid and thereby create favourable conditions for development of
putrefactive bacteria.
Marinades are prepared from edible acetic acid (essence or vinegar) at a strength of 80
per cent. The acid is obtained either by dry distillation of wood or synthetically from acetylene.
Its basic requirements are that it must be colourless and transparent, with no resinous odour,
and contain no mineral acids or salts of heavy metals. Acetic acid is completely miscible with
water
Sometimes wine vinegar obtained by fermenting wine or diluted alcohol is used for marinades.
Wine vinegar has a beеter taste and flavour, but as it contains only 3 to 5 percent of acetic
acid, it cannot be used unless it is produced on spot.
Marinading technique. Cold marinades may be prepared from both fresh and salted fish.
It is usually considered that fresh fish gives a pleasanter taste, but the better opportunities
offered today for processing light salted intermediate products have led to the bulk of
marinades being prepared from lightly cured fish.
Fish used for marinading include herrings, whitefish, and sardines, i.e. mainly those
types that mature through salting. Marinades may be prepared from whole fish3 or from
dressed ones.4 The dressing of the fish gives a good quality product and is also economically
profitable. Gutted fish5 keep better, and some methods of dressing give the fish an attractive
appearance. Defects due to mechanical damage are eliminated through dressing. Fish for
marinading are gutted, gibbed, or cut up into trunks, pieces, or fillets.
Processing fresh fish. If fish are marinaded fresh, they are dressed and washed, and then
placed in a vat with a vinegar and salt solution. As a result, they are preserved and acquire a
salty-sour taste. The salt and acid are chosen according to the season and to the type of flavour
required. The marinades preferred in the Soviet Union are more salty than sour; the salt
concentration in the vat therefore varies from 12 per cent to 18 per cent. In Western Europe, on
the other hand, solutions contain 6 per cent to 12 per cent salt and up to 6 per cent vinegar.
Packing fish in containers. The usual container for cold marinading fish is a wooden
cask or a keg. Since marinades are fairly perishable, casks should be scrupulously clean.
Wooden barrels can be a source of mould infection for fish, so they must be made of good
quality wood and be thoroughly washed before use. The best method of treating them is
with
live
steam.
Small-sized fish, or fish cut up into small pieces, are poured into the barrel and merely
spread out in it. The fish may be fixed with condiments either on tables or during filling of the
barrel. Large-sized fish (herrings) are packed in rows, and each row sprinkled with the
condiment mixture.
Notes on the Text
made-up cooked dishes — готовые рыбные блюда
by dry distillation of wood — cyxoй перегонкой дерева
whole fish — неразделанная рыба (нераспластованная)
dressed ones – разделанная рыба ( ones заменяет существительное fish)
gutted fish — выпотрошенная рыба
live steam — острый nap
Words to be Memorized
vinegar, yeasts, mould, thrive (v), create (v), essence, acetylene, transparent, alcohol, gut
(v), gib (v), trunk, acquire (v), cask, keg, scrupulously, treat (v), condiment, sprinkle (y)
EXERCISES
1. Mind the prefixes pre-, post- and translate the following words into Russian:
pre-cooked, pre-fried, pre-smoked, pre-planned, pre-arranged, pre-condition, prehistoric, pre-war
post-glacial, post-date, post-graduate, post-war, post-humous, post-meridiem
2. Answer the following questions:
1. How is the acetic acid obtained? 2. In which medium is the development of
putrefactive micro-organisms greatly delayed? 3. Which fish gives pleasanter taste on being
marinaded (the fresh fish or the salted one)? 4. What kind of marinades are preferred in the
Soviet Union? 5. What kind of containers are used for cold marinading fish?
3. Put questions to the words or groups of words in bold type:
1. Fish usually decrease in weight as a result of salinity. 2. The quality of salt used for
fish salting depends on its origin. 3. Baskunchak salt has constant chemical composition. 4.
Sodium chloride dissolves readily in water. 5. Even a slightly acid salt solution makes fish
flesh firmer and reduces swelling. 6. In warm weather the vat holding the solution of salt
should be kept cold. 7. The readiness of the fish for further processing is determined by
chemical analysis.
DRYING
Drying after salting is one of the oldest ways of preserving fish. It is simple, does not
require complicated equipment, and gives a product a long storage life. Both mechanical and
natural drying are utilized.
Dried products include dehydrated fish which needs to be soaked and cooked before
use.
Fish that is dried naturally becomes desiccated and undergoes complicated biochemical
protein changes as a result of which it loses its raw flavour, loses moisture from the flesh, and
becomes permeated with fat. It can then he eaten as it is, without cooking. Naturally-dried
salted Caspian roach has a wide market in Russia; and naturally-dried salted sturgeon and
salmon fillets ("balyk") are unsurpassed for flavour.
The curing of smelt and other small fish by hot drying is a widespread and commercially
important method of processing. In recent years vacuum drying has been used more and more,
and this form of dehydration has become a method of preservation and treatment of great
economic importance.
Drying under natural conditions. Fish dried under natural conditions at a temperature not
exceeding 35°C, give a tasty and valuable product.
The fish are usually hung on rack in the open air in warm and dry weather, or are dried
in special chambers with artificially ventilated warm air. Thermal conditions
of this kind do not expose the flesh to heat denaturation, and the proteins suffer little
change. The enzymes in the cells and tissues do not break down and so are able to catalyse
changes in the proteins and fat, and conditions are right for the fish to mature.
The drying process consists, in effect, of a gradual loss of weight moisture evaporation.
At the same time, complex biochemical processes take place that considerably alter the taste
and external appearance of the fish, and make it readily consumable as it is, in uncooked form.
Drying Caspian roach. Caspian roach are usually dried in the spring (middle of March to
middle of May), hung on racks in the open air. During this period the weather in the area is
dry, cool, and sunny, with easterly winds — all fa vouring drying. The roach are either
delivered to the drying sheds alive in well-boats or in fresh, chilled, or lightly salted for). Live
fish are kept from six to twelve hours afloat on special grids to let all the slime accumulate on
their surface; with fresh fish the slime is easily washed off.
To insure uniform salting and drying the roach are first graded for size, only fish of one
size being fed into the salting vat if fish are salted before drying. Natural 20 per cent brine is
poured into the bottom of the vat to a depth of 20 centimetres before the fish are added. Each
row of fish is sprinkled with salt. Salt requirements are 12 to 14 per cent of the weight of fish,
plus 1 per cent for sprinkling. The top layer of fish is covered with a layer from 1.0 to 1.5
centimetres thick.
Salting time depends on the size and temperature of the fish. After being removed
from the vat the salted roach are threaded on strings (four to six fish to a string with large
specimens, eight to ten with medium-sized ones, and fifteen with small ones) and washed in
three tanks (being scrubbed with a fibre brush in the first tank, and rinsed in the
other two). The washed fish are hung on racks, with their backs to the bars and
their bellies exposed (eight strings of fish per metre of bar on average).
The fish are removed from the racks as they are ready, i.e. when they have
lost sufficient moisture and their flesh has acquired the peculiar flavour of
matured fish. There should be no taste of raw fish. The gonads should be pinkyyellow and firm, and the flesh should be firm and elastic. Pacific salmon cured
fillets are processed only from the highest quality fresh fish — large chum salmon, chinook
salmon, and large or medium-sized red (sokeye) salmon. The fish are dressed by cutting
the belly away from the back. The cut is made from the shoulder bone, 1.5 cm. below
and parallel to the lateral line as far as the anal fin; the belly together with the anal fin
are severed by a turn of the knife. The head and dorsal fin are then cut off and the
viscera removed. The back is freed from the kidneys and blood by means of special
scraper. The fish is then washed, and slime and other impurities1 scrubbed away
with a brush.
After gutting and washing, the pieces are graded according to the size, and then
they are salted in cold premises, the backs being rubbed with salt from tail to head and
put in the vats with the cut sides uppermost. At a fish temperature between 7°C and
15°C each row of fillets is sprinkled first with 18 per cent of salt, then with 15 per cent of ice,
then again with 6 per cent of salt. Total requirements in relation to fish weight are 24 per cent
salt and 15 per cent ice.
After five or six days, when the fish have a salt content of 8 per cent, they are immersed
for four or six hours in a tank with fresh water in order to prevent a salt crust forming on the
product during open-air drying. After soaking and washing in clean water the fish are hung on
racks in an open shed, protected from the sun and rain. In dry weather they take about a month
to dry. The finished, dried product has a salt content of 6 to 14 per cent and 45 to 55 per cent
of moisture.
Words to be Memorized
roach, widespread, catalyse (v), deliver (v), shed, well-boat, afloat, grid, insure (v),
thread (v), string, scrub (v), fibre brush, pinky-yellow, shoulder, turn, scraper, impurities,
premises, rub (v), crust
EXERCISES
1. Give opposites to the following words:
natural, dry, strong, oldest, simpler, given, longest, life, include, dehydrate, become,
lose, wide, unsurpassed, inconvenient, before, top, to stay, to work, to unload, to go out, to
appear
Fig. S. Methods of Threading and Binding Fish: I—binding; 2—scwi/ig; 3—threading;
4—hooking
2. Open the brackets and put the verbs in appropriate tense:
1. Roach may (to hang) on racks for a fortnight or more. 2. When curing (to carry out)
in vats, the top layers of fish are not (to cover) by brine. 3. On being rinsed in a vat the fish (to
remove) and hung on racks. 4. Longitudinal incisions along the neck between the ventral fins
and near the anal fin (to make) on the side of the belly cavity. 5. For better storage wooden
containers should (to provide) with air vents. 6. If dried products (to keep) too long, the fat
will (to oxidize) and the quality will (to impair).
FISH SMOKING
Smoked fish is a nourishing and delicious product ready for consumption as it is, that is
to say uncooked, and naturally, therefore has a large demand.
Two methods of smoking are to be distinguished: cold and hot. The flesh of hot-smoked
fish is delicate, succulent, and tasty, but the product does not travel or store well; consequently
it is mainly processed at fish factories in large cities where a good market is assured.
Cold-smoked fish is more stable and is noted for its pleasant odour.
Hot smoking. Fish may be hot-smoked either in batch kilns or in continuous ones. The
former are of two types: chamber kilns in which the fish are loaded and unloaded at one end,
and tunnel kilns in which the fish are loaded and unloaded at opposite ends.
Chamber kilns (small).The smaller types of chamber kiln
are cabinets with an area of 1.8 ni.Xl.3 m., and height of 2.2 m. Fish are loaded on racks
in four to six tiers.
Chamber kilns (large). The traditional kiln has an area of 2.5 m.X4 m. and a height of
2.3 m. The fish are charged rnanualh/ on poles; and the fires are lit on the floor of the kiln.
In a kiln of recent design the fish are put into the smokehouse in cages along a monorail.
The fuel is burnt on trolleys which move through the smokehouse on rails. As the rails are laid
in two tiers it is possible to heat the fish even-I all round. The smokehouse has an exhaust pipe
with a damper to regulate the draught, the damper being controlled by a lever outside the door
of the smokehouse. The hearths are accommodated in a cellar beneath the smokehouse. The
ground floor consists of a chamber holding three fish cages, each 1.7 ra.Xl m.Xl-6 ni. Steam
radiators7 are fitted along the walls of the kiln. Productivity is increased by the use of the
steam and artificial ventilation.
The smoking process. Fish selected for hot smoking must be first- or top-grade, chilled
or frozen while still fresh. The sequence of operations is as follows: defrosting+washing +
dressing + washing + salting -|- rinsing -|- binding + drying + cooking + smoking + cooling +
grading +packing.
Cold smoking. Fish intended for cold-smoking are first salted, after preliminary grading
for size and quality, which makes it possible to market a uniform product with a definite
moisture and salt content.
Smoking chambers for cold-srnoking are of several kinds. The Astrakhan type is made
of wood, with an area of 30 to 60 square metres and height of 2.5 to 3.0 metres, is lined with
bricks to a height of 0. 8 metre, and has a beaten clay floor. Each chamber has a door, two to
four ventilation windows 25x40 cm. near the top, and four exhaust pipes. Fish are hung in one,
two, or three tiers. Four to twenty chambers may be fitted in the same sheds in a single or
double row.
Smoking. During smoking fish dry and absorb the aromatic substances of the smoke.
Once the relative humidity of the smoke is above 75 to 80 per cent drying is drastically
slowed. The higher the temperature of the smoke, the more moisture it can absorb, and the
more water it is capable to extract from the fish. To keep relative humidity in the smoke from
rising too high the smoking chamber should be fitted with flues ensuring a good draught, and
should be ventilated quickly and at the right moment. When fish are charged in the chamber,
attention is paid to ensuring that they do not touch. The fish are usually charged in three to
eight tiers 25 to 30 centimetres apart. The tails of the fish in the bottom tier should be 1.5
metres above the floor of the chamber.
At fish factories of the Caspian basin the only fuel burned for smoking is sawdust,
which is strewn on the floor of the chamber in oblong or round heaps — one for each 2.5
square metres of the chamber area. An improved and accelerated method of smoking fish has
been proposed by the staff of the Leningrad Fish-packing Plant. Wood is burned as a
mixture of shavings and sawdust in a 2:1 ratio; every 1.5 — 2.0 hours a fresh measured
quantity is added, and the combustion process is regulated continually.
No fuel may be used for smoking if the substances generated during its combustion are
likely to give fresh and unpleasant odour or taste. The only fuel suitable is wood (logs,
shavings, or sawdust). Pine and fir give smoke, containing a great deal of tar, which imparts
flavour to the smoked fish; if coniferous wood shavings,therefore, are used, they are first
seasoned and their aromatic substances allowed to evaporate for several months. The best
woods for smoking are alder, beech, oak, poplar, and birch (stripped of bark).
Words to be Memorized
distinguish (v), succulent, assure (v), kiln, manually, recent, design, smokehouse, cage,
monorail, evenly, exhaust pipe, damper, draught, lever, hearth, accommodate (v), cellar, fit (v), select (v), binding, packing, intend (v), market (li), line (v), bricks, clay,
humidity, flues, charge (v), touch, basin, sawdust, strew (v), heap, staff, shavings, combustion,
generate (v), logs, pine, fir, tar, coniferous, season (v), strip (v), bark
EXERCISES
1. Give synonyms to the following words:
decrease (v), utilize (v), heat (v), generate (v), accommodate (li), select (v), intend (v),
exhaust (v), fit (v), process (v), load (f), move (v), control (v), impart (v), season (li), continue
(v)
2.
Answer the following questions:
1. What method of smoking do you know? 2. Is the method of hot-smoking widely
used in our country? 3. What is the difference between batch kiln and that of the continuous
kiln? 4. What purpose is the exhaust pipe installed in a smokehouse for? 5. What kind of
wood is fit for generating smoke in a smokehouse? 6. In what containers are the fish put in a
kiln of recent design? 7. Why are the pine and fir unfit for smoking fish? 8. What woods are
best for smoking? 9. What kind of fuel is used at fish factories of the Caspian basin?
3.
Translate the following sentences:
1. The higher the temperature of the smoke, the more moisture. 2. The quicker the fish is
salted the better. 3. The faster the ship's speed the sooner we arrive at the fishing ground. 4.
The stronger the winds the harder the conditions of fishing. 5. The nearer the earth the denser
the atmosphere.
4.
Analyse the following sentences and state the forms and functions of the
Gerund:
1.There will be no harm in smoking this batch in the tunnel kiln. 2. I say, fishing is
prohibited here. 3. There are different ways of smoking fish, meat and vegetables. 4. We
discussed different methods of binding fish before their being put in a smokehouse. 5. Here is
the lorry for transporting the finished product to the railway station. 6. Comrade Smirnov has
succeeded in designing a new chamber kiln. 7. After reading the directions on maintaining the
smokehouse he understood his mistake.
Part III. HISTORY OF QUISINE
History of Italian cuisine
Lesson 1
1. Read the words:
ritual
the Etruscans
Magna Grecia
popularized
pleasures
favored
the Republican Era
2. Master the active vocabulary:
almond - миндаль
fig - фига; винная ягода, инжир
lentil - чечевица
lupin - люпин
chickpeas - нут, турецкий горох
3. Pronounce correctly:
[q]
[dз]
[u]
[ə:]
banquet
region
soup
word
particularly range
include
purpose
frequent
vegetable fruit
occur
4. Read and translate the text:
Magna Grecia and the Etruscans
The history of Italian cooking begins with Magna Grecia, where the culture of the Greek
colonies popularized the art of cooking. The daily meal was simple and sober: pork, salted
fish, chickpeas, lentils, lupins, olive pickles, and dried figs. At banquets the food was more
varied and plentiful: soups, game in vinegar and honey sauces, sweets with almonds and
walnuts; it also took on ritual and symbolic meanings. The Etruscans too had a simple diet
based on the cereals favored by the fertile region of present-day Tuscany. The richest
Etruscans were particularly fond of food excellence and the pleasures of dining.
5. Complete these sentences, using the correct variant.
Magna Grecia is
The history of Italy.
the beginning of
the history of Italian
cooking.
the art of cooking.
At banquets the
beautiful.
food was
ritual.
more varied.
The Etruscans too
olive pickles.
had
a simple diet.
the daily meal.
The
richest
the pleasures of
Etruscans were fond of
dining.
salted fish.
the art of cooking.
The daily meal was
more varied and
plentiful.
simple and sober.
symbolic.
6. Answer the following questions:
1. Who popularized the art of cooking?
2. What food was at banquets?
3. Was the daily meal simple and sober or festival?
4. Were the richest or the poorest Etruscans fond of food excellence?
5. Whose culture popularized the art of cooking?
7. Define the main idea of the text.
a) The richest Etruscans
b) The Greek colonies
c)The beginning of the history of Italian cooking
8. Pair work. Think of the meals the Etruscans had.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words:
cereal
the Republican Era
dietary
gradually
prandium
2. Master the active vocabulary:
frugal - бережливый, экономный
festive - праздничный
sober - рассудительный; благоразумный
legumes - бобовые
game - дичь, зверь, добытый на охоте
3. Read and translate the text:
Roman Cuisine in the Republican Era
Romans of the Republican Era were a sober people of frugal dietary habits: they usually
had two meals a day, prandium and supper. The custom of a breakfast of cereal, honey, dried
fruit, and cheese was gradually introduced. For a long time, the most widely consumed foods
were boiled cereals (a kind of mush), legumes such as broad beans, lentils, chickpeas, lupins,
vegetables of various types, bread, and cake. The diet also included fish, game from the hunt
(which was eaten only on festive days), milk, cheese, and fruit. Romans of that time did not
raise livestock.
4. Answer the following questions:
What two meals had Romans of the Republican Era?
When did not Romans raise livestock?
What custom was gradually introduced?
Did the diet also include fish, game from the hunt, milk, cheese?
Were the most widely consumed foods boiled cereals or legumes?
5. Translate into Russian using чем … тем …:
The more you learn, the more you know.
The more one studies nature, the better one knows its laws.
The better products, the better meal.
The sweeter water, the drier mouth.
The older the cow, the more time one need to cook it.
Lesson 3
1. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
soaked ____________________________________________________
affair _____________________________________________________
sweets ____________________________________________________
aromatic ___________________________________________________
stuffed _____________________________________________________
d'oeuvres ___________________________________________________
Barbarian ___________________________________________________
Digestible __________________________________________________
2. Master the active vocabulary:
pickle - рассол; уксус для маринада
famished - голодный, изголодавшийся; умирающий от голода
refuge - убежище; прибежище
poverty - бедность, нищета, нужда, скудость
seafood - морепродукты
almonds - миндаль
3. Read and translate the text:
Roman Cuisine in the Imperial Age
The Romans in the Imperial Age had two main daily meals, but they often added a
breakfast of bread soaked in wine, grapes, olives, milk, and eggs. The midday meal was a light
affair of cold dishes. Dinner was the main meal: a feast of hoer d'oeuvres (mixed seafood)
followed by game, pork, veal, goat, fowl, fish, and sweets with a honey base, fresh and dried
fruit. Meals were accompanied by sweets and aromatic wines.
Cuisine in the Middle Ages
The cuisine of the Barbarians who invaded Italy from the 5th century AD was
considerably different from that of the Romans; it was based on roast meats, stuffed pastries,
and oven-baked pies. For the Italian population reduced to poverty and servitude, food was
rather poor and consisted of cereals, milk, cheese, and vegetables. Gradually, culinary art
began a revival, especially after 1000 AD, in the agricultural centers around the monasteries
where the famished and terrorized population had taken refuge. The general tendency was to
make food healthier, more appetizing and digestible, eliminating elaborate preparation and
introducing more fresh fruit and vegetables.
4. Answer the following questions:
1. Did the Romans in the Imperial Age add a breakfast of bread soaked in wine or a
breakfast of bread and butter?
2. When was the general tendency to make food healthier?
3. Did culinary art begin a revival after 1000 AD?
4. Were meals accompanied by sweets or aromatic wines?
5. What was the main meal?
5. Change the words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: translation, to translate – переводить
Preparation, to __________________ - ____________________________
Introduction, to _________________ - ____________________________
Elimination, to _________________ - ____________________________
Population, to __________________ - ____________________________
6. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
General, healthier, gradually, monasteries, Italian, considerably, began, food, to make,
popular.
Lesson 4
1. Read the text and define the meaning of new words. Translate the text.
Gastronomical Revival in the Feudal Courts
Around 1200 AD, life in the courts became less difficult, commerce and social life
resumed, and the feudal lords organized frequent celebrations, feasts, and tournaments.
However, important meals had no variety or cohesion. Endless dishes of roast meats were
seasoned with a sauce made of garlic, herbs, sweetmeats, and almonds. The dinner ended with
cheese and fruit. There was little change from the Roman cuisine; however, spices made their
appearance from the East in greater quantity. Their exotic aroma was used to scent the food - a
prelude to future cuisine refinements.
2. Read the micro text and define the main idea of the text.
Although there had been a spice trade during the Early Middle Ages, it really intensified
after the Crusades with the direct contact of Europeans in the Arab world. Spices were very
much in demand for cooking and medicine. They had other more practical and important
qualities: the preservation of meat and fish, and the flavoring of otherwise bland foods.
The Crusades
The Spice Trade
The bland foods
3. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Italian cooking, daily meal, game in vinegar, the fertile region, food excellence and the
pleasures of dining, sober people of frugal dietary habits, boiled cereals, cold dishes, sweets
with a honey base, stuffed pastries, the general tendency, the monasteries, oven-baked pies.
4. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
здоровье, аппетит, блюдо, жаркое, население, свежие фрукты и овощи, турецкий
горох, мед, обильный, уксус, ритуальный, зерновые, телятина, мясо домашней птицы,
бедный, фаршированный, диета, кулинария.
5. Open the brackets using the correct tense form.
1. The daily meal (to be) simple and sober: pork, salted fish, chickpeas, lentils, lupins,
olive pickles, and dried figs.
2. The Etruscans too (to have) a simple diet based on the cereals favored by the fertile
region of present-day Tuscany.
3. the most widely consumed foods were boiled cereals, chickpeas.
4. Culinary art (to begin) a revival, especially after 1000 AD.
5. Barbarians (to invade) Italy from the 5th century AD.
6. They often (to add) a breakfast of bread soaked in wine, grapes, olives, milk, and
eggs.
7. Cheese (to be) gradually introduced.
Lesson 5
1. Read the words:
merchants
initially
Turkish
maize
2. Master the active vocabulary. Cover the left column and translate the Russian
words back into English.
famines
голод
venetian
венецианский
the Orient
Восток
medicine
медицина
3. Word formation.
Analyze the meaning of the prepositions: un-, pre-, in-.
Find words formed with these prepositions in the text and translate them.
Give your own examples.
The Culinary Discoveries of Great Explorers
Among the many goods brought to Europe and Italy by the explorers there were some
foods whose importance was understood only in later times. Maize was widespread in North
Italy. At the time of the great famines of the 17th century, became the base for the most
common dish. Other imported foods were potatoes, tomatoes, and beans. Rice, imported from
Asia, was an instant success and joined the pasta as the nation's first course. Venetian
merchants imported sugar from the Orient, which initially was used in medicine; only later it
was added to cooking. Coffee, of Turkish origin, was also initially used as a medicine.
4. Put down the nouns. Translate the words.
Model: to sing – singer; петь – певец
To import - _____________; ______________ - _____________________
To use - _______________; ______________ - _____________________
To cook - _____________; _______________ - _____________________
5. Combine the given adjectives (A) with the proper nouns (B).
A
B
great
potato
fresh
dish
sweet
coffee
tasty
level
high
meal
6. Put down the English for:
Восточная кухня ______________________________________________
Большой прием _______________________________________________
Национальное блюдо __________________________________________
Lesson 6
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
grandiose
buckwheat
banquet
mutton
грандиозный, огромный
гречиха
банкет
баранина
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Renaissance ___________________________________________________
Almond-based _________________________________________________
Common _____________________________________________________
Porridge ______________________________________________________
3. Put down the verbs. Translate the words.
Model: cook, to cook
– готовить
Use, to _______________ - ______________________________
Grill, to ______________ - ______________________________
Place, to _____________ - _______________________________
4. Master the following words.
influence
cutlery
marry
recipe
влияние
ремесло ножовщика
жениться, выйти замуж
рецепт
5. Put down the Russian for:
pine-nuts
abroad
notable
supreme
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
Monsignor Della Casa __________________________________________
King Henry II _________________________________________________
Catherine de' Medici ____________________________________________
Middle Ages __________________________________________________
Renaissance ___________________________________________________
Europe _______________________________________________________
7. Translate the following questions.
What were Renaissance court banquets famous for?
Was honey popular in the Renaissance?
Who popularized Italian recipes?
Was it also in this period that the first menus and table manners were established?
8. Read the text. Find the answers to the questions given above.
Cuisine in the Renaissance
The 15th and 16th centuries were a particularly fortunate time for Italian cuisine. A
greater variety became available in the preparation of foods: soups, grilled, roasted, and boiled
meats; meat pastries, fish, vegetables, olive oil, refined salads, almond-based sweets, pinenuts, and candied fruits; cane sugar began to replace honey. Renaissance court banquets were
famous for their grandiose variety and refinement. The food of the common people remained
rather simple: beans, lentils, chickpeas, buckwheat (used to prepare soups and porridges),
eggs, cheese, and mutton.
Culinary Art and Etiquette in the Renaissance
Italian cuisine reigned supreme from the end of the Middle Ages to the 17th century and
had a notable influence abroad. In particular, Catherine de' Medici popularized Italian recipes
(especially sweets and ice cream) in France when she married King Henry II. It was also in
this period that the first menus and table manners were established. Italians were the educators
of Europe, and the famous 'Galateo' by Monsignor Della Casa was quickly translated and
distributed throughout Europe. The principal innovation was the use of individual cutlery.
Lesson 7
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
sumptuous роскошный
flour
мука
polenta
полента (каша из ячменя или из кукурузной муки, каштанов)
pasta
паста, блюда из макарон
purees
суп-пюре;
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
numerous ___________________________________________________
still ________________________________________________________
abundant ____________________________________________________
utmost ______________________________________________________
3. Put down the adverbs. Translate the words. Continue the list.
Model: easy – easily, легкий - легко
warm - ___________, ______________ - ___________________
abundant - ________, ______________ - ___________________
careful - __________, ______________ - ___________________
4. Master the following words.
feast
-празднование,
торжество, деликатес
intricate
- запутанный, сложный,
замысловатый;
béchamel.
- соус бешамель
consommés
-консоме
( разновидность супов )
gravy
- подливка ( из
сока жаркого ), соус, сок
5. Put down the English for:
мясные блюда
рыбные блюда
овощной суп
пудинг
кофе
чай
майонез
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
sumptuous feasts ______________________________________________
jellies _______________________________________________________
mayonnaise __________________________________________________
béchamel ____________________________________________________
consommés __________________________________________________
7. Read and translate the text.
Cuisine in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries
In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, the upper classes enjoyed a refined cuisine. Every
official event became a pretext for sumptuous feasts. Meals were abundant, hors d'oeuvres and
delicate French-style soups were followed by numerous meat and fish dishes, vegetable
purees, intricate sweets and fruit - all presented with the utmost care, particularly in the
restaurants. Still, the food of the common people remained frugal and monotonous, based on
bread and vegetable soups, beans, cabbages, and potatoes. Cheese and eggs were very much
used, as were polenta and pasta, which were made of flour and eggs.
Foreign influence and the spread of new foods
From the 17th to the 19th century many new dishes arrived from France: consommés‚
crepes, purees, jellies, gravies, and delicate, tasty sauces such as mayonnaise and béchamel.
The presentation of food was very important, and its execution was of great refinement. Even
English cooking became accepted with such typical dishes as roast beef, pudding and, above
all, tea, although it was less popular than coffee and chocolate. In fact, coffee became as
popular as to give rise to the coffeehouses, or cafés.
8. Pair work. Put the questions given below to your group-mate and ask him/her to
answer them.
What became a pretext for sumptuous feasts?
What was the food of common people?
What was made of flour and eggs?
What was more popular coffee or tea?
Lesson 8
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
rapid
быстрый
tradition
традиция
trends
курс, направление
huge
огромный
scattered
редкий, расположенный на расстоянии друг от друга,
разбросанный ( о домах, предметах )
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
subsequent ___________________________________________________
quality _______________________________________________________
communities __________________________________________________
specialties ____________________________________________________
subsequent ___________________________________________________
3. Put down the corresponding verbs. Cover the left column. Translate the words.
a) Model: damageable – to damage,
considerable – to ________________, _______________________
workable – to __________________, _________________________
eatable – to ____________________, _________________________
рlace, to ______________________, ___________________________
b) Model: leader – to lead,
teacher - __________________, ___________________________
producer - _________________, ___________________________
director - __________________, ___________________________
4. Master the following words.
globe
decade
cuisine
worldwide
5. Fill in the English equivalents in place of the Russian ones.
(Итальянская кухня) ______________ has changed (в результате) _____________ of
modern life.
Food (промышленность) ____________ is well (развита) ____________.
Italy is a (страна) ______________ of noble (кулинарные традиции) _____________.
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
to pin down ___________________________________________________
national cuisine ________________________________________________
Italian cooking ____ ____________________________________________
standards _____________________________________________________
profound changes ______________________________________________
7. Read and translate the text.
20th Century Cuisine
In the last few decades, Italian cuisine has changed as a result of rapid and profound
changes in lifestyle. The involvements of industry in the food sector, and subsequent
improvements in preparation, conservation, and distribution of foods, have increased the
production of foods worldwide. However, Italian cooking has preserved its quality, and Italy is
still a country of noble culinary tradition.
Italian cooking is very difficult to pin down -- almost every city and town has its
specialties, and there are regional trends too; the end result is a huge number of local cuisines
rather than a single national cuisine. However, there are some dishes that you will find almost
everywhere, and that are now standards among the many Italian communities scattered across
the globe.
Lesson 9
1. Read the words:
RoDante da Fano
Ancient Egypt
Imperial Rome
Alexandre Dumas
Neapolitans
2. Master the active vocabulary:
claim - заявлять, утверждать
dough – тесто
peninsula – полуостров, the Peninsula — Пиренейский полуостров
pizzaiolo – (it.) пиццайоло мастер по выпечке пиццы
water buffalo — азиатский буйвол, водяной буйвол
3. Pronounce correctly:
[Ɵ] – throughout, thing, think
[ð] - with, than, the, other
[f] – for, breakfast, flat, fresh
[v] – variety, ever, having, invented
4. Put down the adverbs. Translate the words. Continue the list.
Model: rapid – rapidly, быстрый - быстро
simple - __________, _______________ - __________________
light - ____________, _______________ - _________________
perfect - ____________, ______________ - _________________
quick - _____________, ______________ - _________________
5. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
Chroniclers, salty, were, amazingly, regions, Italian, general, ate, origins, take, flat, few,
breakfast, could, independently, invention, continues, common, sauce, popular.
6. Read and translate the text:
Pizza and pizza-like creations are common throughout Italy, and a number of regions
claim the honor of having invented it in the first place. Not that the invention could ever be
proven -- the idea of slipping a flattened disk of dough graced with a topping into a hot oven
and baking it quickly is amazingly simple, and many people must have come up with it
independently. Indeed, in a post to It.Hobby.Cucina, the Italian general cooking newsgroup,
RoDante da Fano traces its origins from Ancient Egypt to Imperial Rome, where there were a
number of different kinds of flat baked breads with a variety of sweet or salty toppings, and
goes on to say that the descendents of these proto-pizzas were common throughout the
peninsula in the 1700s. In 1835, he continues, Alexandre Dumas noted in his diary that "in
Naples pizzas are flavored with oil, lard, tallow, cheese, tomato, or anchovies…" Other
chroniclers listed other common toppings, also noting that pizza was a cheap food that
Neapolitans ate for breakfast or lunch; in the 1870s things stabilized to a degree, when a
Neapolitan pizzaiolo created the Margherita, which he named after Italy's beautiful queen, by
sprinkling a few fresh basil leaves over a pizza topped with mozzarella and tomato -- red,
white and green, the national colors.
The Margherita is still the most popular pizza today, perhaps because it's simple, light
and tasty. It's also, in some ways, a better foil for the pizzaiolo's skill than some of the pizzas
with more elaborate toppings, because what little there is has to be perfect: Well-risen wellturned dough; mozzarella di bufala, made from the milk of the water buffaloes that are raised
around Naples; good light tomato sauce; good extra virgin olive oil; and fresh basil. Ideally it
should be baked in a wood-fired oven, whose hot floor will rapidly crisp the dough.
At home, a pizza stone can take the place of the terracotta floor of the wood-fired oven,
and one can substitute the mozzarella di bufala with mozzarella fiordilatte made from cow's
milk (as do most Italian pizzerias). The important thing is that you use good quality
ingredients, and make your pizza with care.
7. Answer the following questions:
1. Must many people have come up with it independently?
2. There were a number of different kinds of flat baked breads with a variety of sweet or
salty toppings, weren't there?
3. What is the important thing when one bakes a pizza?
4. Is it possible to make a pizza at home?
5. Who created the Margherita?
8. Complete these sentences, using the correct variant.
A pizza stone
the terracotta
can take the place
roof
of
of the woodfired oven .
the terracotta floor
of the wood-fired oven.
the terracotta oven.
Flat baked breads
the national colors.
with a variety of
the mozzarella di
bufala.
sweet
or
salty
toppings.
A
Neapolitan
after Italy's beautiful
pizzaiolo created the
queen.
Margherita, which he
after his wife.
named
after the famous
actress.
One can substitute
from cow's milk.
the mozzarella di bufala
from camel’s milk.
with
mozzarella
from horse’s milk.
fiordilatte made
Pizza and pizza-like
throughout Italy.
creations are common
throughout Europe.
throughout Egipt.
9. Define the main idea of the text.
The best pizza.
The Egypt origin of a pizza.
The beginning of the Italian pizza.
10. Pair work. Think of the pizza you can get in a shop.
Lesson 10
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
dissolve
растворять (ся), таять
knead dough
месить тесто
rack
стойка, штатив, рама, подставка
canned
консервированный
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
sauce-free rim _______________________________________________
flat baking tins _______________________________________________
a flat cookie sheet _____________________________________________
plastic wrap __________________________________________________
3. Change the words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: Pollution, to pollute – загрязнять
satisfaction, to __________________ - ____________________________
combination, to _________________ - ____________________________
confirmation, to _________________ - ____________________________
utilization, to __________________ - ____________________________
4. Master the following words.
yeast - дрожжи, закваска
thick crust - пицца, у которой сыром залит только центральный круг, а по краям
оставлен хлебный "ободок"
thin crust - пицца, у которой вся поверхность покрыта сыром и другими добавками
grease - топленое сало; жир
5. Put down the English for:
мука
томатный соус
сыр
начинка
оливковое масло
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
a healthy pinch ________________________________________________
a baker's peel _________________________________________________
2 tablespoons _________________________________________________
a wood-fired pizza oven _________________________________________
a stone with a deft yank _________________________________________
7. Read and translate the text.
At home, a pizza stone can take the place of the terracotta floor of the wood-fired oven.
The important thing is that you use good quality ingredients, and make your pizza with care.
To begin, the dough, for 2 12-inch crusts, you'll need:
1 package (2 1/4 teaspoons) active dry yeast
1 1/3 cups warm (105-115 F, or 42-45 C) water
3 1/2 -3 3/4 cups all purpose flour
2 tablespoons olive oil
A healthy pinch of salt
Begin by dissolving the yeast in the water, in a large mixing bowl; let it stand for 5
minutes. Add the remaining ingredients and mix, either by hand or with a mixer set to low
speed, until the ingredients are blended. Now hand-knead the dough or mix it with a dough
hook setting the speed to low for about 10 minutes, or until the dough is smooth and elastic.
Coat the insides of another bowl with olive oil and turn the dough in it to coat it too, then
cover with plastic wrap and set it in a warm place to rise for an hour, or until it doubles in
volume. For the baking, if you have a wood-fired pizza oven, fire it up. If you are instead
using your kitchen oven, preheat it to 475 F (250 C) -- if you are using a baking stone it should
heat for at least 45 minutes. Otherwise grease and dust two flat baking tins with corn meal.
Divide the dough in half, shape each half into a ball and let them sit for 15 minutes. Then
shape them into disks, stretching them out from the center on a floured surface. Do not roll
them, because rolling toughens the dough.
Ladle and spread a half cup or so of tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes over
them, leaving an inch of sauce-free rim, add the toppings (see next page), and bake.
If you're using a baking stone and have a baker's peel (a thin metal disk with a handle),
lightly flour it, slide the pizza onto it, and transfer it to the stone with a deft yank -- the flour
will keep the dough from sticking. If you don't have a peel, use a flat cookie sheet instead,
lightly flouring it, to transfer the pizza from the work surface to the stone.
If you're using a metal baking pan you should bake the pizza towards the bottom of the
oven. In a recent post to Rec.Foods.Cooking Karen suggested baking on the bottom rack for
about 4 minutes or until the pizza is firm enough to slide off the pan, and then slide it from the
pan straight onto the rack to finish cooking.
The pizza will in any case be done when the crust is browned and the toppings are
cooked; this takes 3 minutes in a wood-fired oven and about 15 at home. If you discover that
the mozzarella begins to brown before the other ingredients are cooked to your satisfaction, the
next time, add it after the pizza (with the other toppings) has baked for abоut 5 minutes.
Having said all this, once you have your dough, what to do with it? The standard
topping combinations one encounters in Italy differ somewhat from those I have encountered
elsewhere. The quantities given on the next page will be sufficient for one pizza each, so if you
make the dough given above you will need to double the amounts, or select two.
8.Pair work. Put the questions given below to your group-mate and ask him/her to
answer them.
Lesson 11
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
basil
базилик
drizzle
брызгать, опрыскивать
capers
каперсы (съедобныe растения)
eggplant
баклажаны
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Champignon _________________________________________________
a dusting of oregano ___________________________________________
shredded mozzarella ___________________________________________
chopped canned tomatoes ______________________________________
skinned and shredded __________________________________________
salamino piccante _____________________________________________
3. Think of eight questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.
4. To be translated in written.
Pizza Margherita:
To honor the Queen You'll want 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes,
about a quarter pound of shredded mozzarella, and 3-4 fresh basil leaves. Spread the tomato
sauce on the dough, sprinkle with the mozzarella, drizzle with a few drops olive oil, add the
basil and bake.
Pizza Marinara:
The garlic-lover's delight You'll want two cloves (or more or less to taste) finely sliced
garlic, and 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes. Spread the sauce over the pizza,
sprinkle the garlic, drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza al Prosciutto: A standby You'll want 2-3 ounces finely sliced cooked ham,
shredded, 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, and 1/4 pound shredded
mozzarella. Spread the tomato sauce, sprinkle with the mozzarella and ham, drizzle with a few
drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza Prosciutto e Funghi:
Another standby you’ll want about a cup finely sliced Champignon mushrooms, 1/2 cup
tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 2-3 ounces finely sliced ham, and 1/4 pound
shredded mozzarella. Spread the tomato sauce, sprinkle the other toppings over it, drizzle with
a few drops olive oil and bake.
La Napoletana:
Yet another standby 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 1/4 pound
shredded mozzarella, 3-4 anchovy filets or more to taste, 1 tablespoon or so rinsed salted or
pickled capers, a dusting of oregano. Spread the tomato sauce over the pizza, dot it with the
remaining ingredients, drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
L'Atomica:
A fiery wonder though the one constant is a healthy jolt of crumbled red pepper; the
other
ingredients
vary
considerably
from
pizzaiolo
to
pizzaiolo.
Variation 1: 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, a tablespoon or to taste salted
or pickled capers (rinsed), 3-4 anchovy fillets, boned, a dusting of oregano, and crumbled red
pepper, to taste. 1/4 pound shredded mozzarella is optional. Assemble the pizza, drizzle with a
few
drops
olive
oil
and
bake.
Variation 2: 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 3/4 cup finely sliced
mushrooms, a dusting of oregano, crumbled red pepper to taste, and 1/4 pound shredded
mozzarella (optional). Assemble the pizza, drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza Quattro Stagioni:
The four seasons 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 3-4 canned
artichoke hearts, quartered, 5-6 black olives packed in brine (you'll want the sweet variety), 1/2
cup finely sliced mushrooms, 2 ounces finely sliced ham, shredded, and 1/4 pound shredded
mozzarella. Spread the tomato and the mozzarella, arrange the other four toppings each in its
quarter of the pizza; drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza Capricciosa:
Everything in the house Not really, but it seems like that. It's usually the richest pizza
offered, and every pizzaiolo makes it differently. This is based on the Pizzaria Giancarlo,
outside Florence's Porta San Frediano. 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 1/4
pound shredded mozzarella, 1 finely sliced hot dog, 1 link sweet Italian sausage (about 2
inches long), skinned and shredded, 8 thin slices salamino piccante (pepperoni in the AngloSaxon world) 2 ounces thinly sliced ham, shredded, 2 canned artichoke hearts, quartered.
Spread the tomato sauce over the pizza, sprinkle the remaining ingredients over the sauce,
drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza ai Quattro Formaggi:
Cheese Galore! 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 1/4 pound shredded
mozzarella, 1/3 cup (each) shredded pecorino, gorgonzola, groviera (Swiss Cheese), and
fontina or asiago, one black olive. Spread the tomato, and sprinkle it with the cheeses; the
pizza will look almost white. Dot it with the olive and bake.
Pizza alla Bismark:
For reasons unknown to me a pizza with an egg cracked over it so it emerges from the
oven sunny-side-up is called a Bismark. Excactly what else goes onto the pizza is up to the
pizzaiolo, but ham goes quite well. So: 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes, 2-3
ounces thinly sliced ham, shredded, and an egg. Spread the tomato sauce over the pizza,
sprinkle the remaining ingredients over the sauce, crack the egg over the middle of the pizza,
drizzle with a few drops olive oil and bake.
Pizza Vegetariana:
Again lots of variability, though the vegetables used are almost always cooked: stewed
peppers, stewed eggplant, artichoke hearts, spinach, and what have you Begin with the
standard 1/2 cup tomato sauce or chopped canned tomatoes and 1/4 pound shredded
mozzarella, and go from there, adding the cooked vegetables you prefer. Drizzle with a few
drops olive oil and bake.
5.Pair work. Find your own recipe of an Italian pizza. Make a project. Share
your recipe with your group-mates.
Part IV. COOKING. NATIONAL QUISINE
Cooking equipment and methods
Vocabulary of the text
Clay oven – глиняная печь
Cook tops – кухонные крышки
Vessel –
сосуд
Frying pan - сковорода
Sauté pan –чайник для соте
Sauce pot -соусник
Pressure cooker –кастрюля-скороварка
Steaming – выпаривание
Simmering – кипячение на медленном огне
Poaching- варка а)яиц без скорлупы в кипятке, б) рыбы и т.д. в небольшом
количестве воды
Pan frying – обжаривание в миске ( кастрюле, сковороде)
Metal grid – металлическая решетка
Liquid propane - жидкий пропан
Pit – яма, впадина
There are many types of cooking equipment used for cooking. Ovens are one type of
cooking equipment which can be used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking
method. Different cuisines will use different types of ovens, for example Indian culture uses a
Tandoor oven is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature, while
western kitchens will use variable temperature convection ovens, conventional ovens, toaster
ovens in addition to non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven. Ovens may be woodfired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types
as the ovens mentioned above. cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat
source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot, frying pan, pressure cooker, etc. These pieces of
equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as
steaming, simmering, boiling, and poaching for moist methods; while the dry methods include
sautéing, pan frying, or deep-frying.
In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grilloperates with a radiant heat
source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open bit
barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill
fueled by wood, liquid propane or charcoal along with soaked wood chips for smoking. A
Mexican style of barbecue is called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats and whole
sheep over open fire. In Argentina, asado is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire
made upon the ground, on which a whole animal is grilled or in other cases smaller cuts of the
animal.
EXERCISES
1.Answer the questions:
What is a Tandoor oven?
What types of ovens do you know?
What is Mexican style of barbecue?
What do you know about cooking methods?
2. Give the Russian equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Simmering, types of cooking equipment used for cooking, ovens for baking or
roasting, dry- heat cooking methods, charcoal, different cuisines, cylindrical clay oven,
steaming,variable temperature convection ovens, non- radiant heat ovens, oil- fired, covered
with a metal grid and sometimes a cover, vessel,soaked wood chips.
3. Find in the text English equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Сосуды, горячий источник, кастрюля, горшочек, влажный или сухой методы
приготовления, кипячение, открытый кусок барбекю, микроволновая печь, глиняная
печь, выпаривание, сковорода, разные температуры, металлическая решетка, древесный
уголь, кипячение на медленном огне, вышеупомянутый
4.Translate into English, paying attention to the Participles:
Жареное мясо, кипяченая вода, вышеупомянутые печи, разрезанный на куски,
приготовленное на медленном огне блюдо, выпаривая мясо, стоящая на печи кастрюля,
покрытый металлической решеткой, человек, стоящий у огня.
5. The words in Box A describe how we can cook things. Match them to as many
types of food as possible in Box B. Then say which way of cooking you think is the
healthiest and why.
A. baked, roast, barbecued, boiled, grilled, stewed, microwaved, steamed.
B. fish, meat, sausages, vegetables, snacks, steak, beef, potatoes.
Raw food
Vocabulary of the text
To highlight – придавать большое значение, выдвигать на первый план
Salmon – лосось, семга
Diced or ground raw beef or salmon– нарезанная в форме кубиков или
растолоченная сырая говядина или семга
Respectively – соответственно, в указанном порядке
Drizzled with a vinaigrette – приправа из уксуса и оливкового масла
Sprout – отросток; пускать побег
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Sushi in Japan
is one such cuisine that features raw sliced fish, either in sashimi, nigiri, or maki styles. Steak
tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon
respectively, mixed with various ingredients and served with baguette, brioche or frites.] In
Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thin sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with
olive oil. A popular health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan
diet of raw fruits, vegetables and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food
dehydration, not passing the 118 degree mark, and sprouting.
EXERCISES
1.
Give Russian equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Cuisine, very thin sliced raw beef, respectively, drizzled with a vinaigrette, made from
diced or ground raw beef or salmon, vegan diet, grains. raw sliced fish, sprouting, food
dehydration, highlight
2.
Give English equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Пища растительного и животного происхождения, обезвоживание, пускать
ростки, соответственно, популярная здоровая пища; сырая рыба, нарезанная
ломтиками; крупы, приготовленные разными способами, нарезанная в форме кубиков
или растолоченная сырая говядина или семга.
3. Translate into English:
1.Почему в некоторых странах придают большое значение сырой пище? 2. Он не
выдвинул на первый план блюда из итальянской кухни. 3. Какую кухню вы
предпочитаете: японскую или итальянскую? 4. Вы на диете? 5. Многие культуры
выдвигают на первый план пищу в сыром виде. 6. Что такое суши? – Это сырая рыба,
нарезанная ломтиками.7. Что для вас является здоровой пищей? 8. Какие блюда,
приготовленные из сырой пищи, вы знаете? 9. Какие ингредиенты здесь применены? 10.
Было бы лучше, если бы это блюдо было приготовлено на древесном угле.
4. Here is an extract from a cookery book describing how chocolate used to be
processed. Read it and put thew sentences 1-10 below in the correct order to make a
summary of the process.
Chocolate comes from cocoa beans, which are the seeds of the cacao tree. The cacao
tree was originally cultivated by the Mayas and Aztecs over 3000 years ago. It was brought to
Europe by Cortez, who had been introduced to the drink in Mexico, at the court of the Aztec
ruler Montezuma.
The word “chocolate” comes from the south American word “xocoatl” which means
“bitter water”. It was prepared similarly to the way in which we process cocoa beans today.
After being harvested, the cocoa pods were left to ferment and split open. Next, the beans were
removed and left to dry in the sun. The dried, shelled beans were roasted in clay pots and then
ground to a paste with a stone called a metate over a small fire. The paste was mixed with
spices, then shaped into small cakes or loaves before being dried in the sun. the dried cakes
were broken up, melted with hot water and maize, then beaten with a small wooden beater or
molinet until frothy. The chocolate was then ready to drink.
1. The paste was made into small cakes.
2. The pods were left until they burst open.
3. The chocolate was drunk.
4. The cakes were mixed with water.
5. Flavourings were added to the paste.
6. The beans were left to dry in the sun.
7. The cakes were left to dry in the sun.
8. The roasted beans were ground to a paste.
9. The pods were collected.
10.The dissolved chocolate was beaten.
Japanese Cuisine
Clear broth with three cubes of tofu, shitake mushrooms and two rings of scallion green;
a few slices of raw fish beautifully garnished and standing alone on a plate; a small dish of
pickled cabbage, spare and clean to the palate; this is the uncluttered art of Japanese cooking.
Zen Buddhism, Japan’s predominant religion, frames Japanese cuisine through Kaisek, the Zen
way of cooking, which embraces nature, harmony and restraint. Flavors are celebrated in their
simplicity, unencumbered by heavy sauces or complex mixtures. Sashimi, thinly sliced raw
fish, epitomizes this. As fish meets tongue, its cool texture and light flavors create a sensuous
culinary experience. In order to produce dishes that harmonize with their environment, a
meal’s primary ingredients are always seasonal and local. Many foods are left raw or only
slightly cooked to maintain and highlight their freshness. The spare and elegant presentation of
food in many different types of dishware, and the ambiance of a classic Japanese restaurant, all
conspire
to
create
an
oasis
of
calm.
As in Korean cooking, rice, fish and pickles provide the base of most meals. The Japanese diet
gets the bulk of its protein from soybeans and seafood, and so is perhaps one of the healthiest
of national cuisines. Though red meat is a relative newcomer to the cuisine and outrageously
expensive, beef, and the more reasonably priced pork, has been integrated creatively into
Japanese cuisine. Compared with the West and other parts of Asia, are light and cooked with
very little oil. The Japanese eat with chopsticks and drink soup directly from the bowl. A main
course, say a grilled fish and a salad is filled out with rice, soup, pickles and tea. The Japanese
are very particular about their rice, eating only native born medium- grained rice. However,
this standard is becoming harder and harder to maintain as the population increases. Noodles
are extremely popular as well, with entire restaurants specializing in them.
Full-course Japanese cuisine has three traditional types, “honzen ryori”, an assortment of
dishes served on legged trays at formal banquets, “chakaiseki ryori”, served before the tea
ceremony and “kaiseki ryori”, party dishes, often served at “ryotei (high-class Japanese
restaurants)”. Also “osechi ryori”, served on important feast days like New Year and “shojin
ryori”, Buddhist vegetarian dishes. The main ingredients in Japanese cooking are seafood,
vegetables and rice. Raw seafood cut with a very sharp knife has long been a distinguishing
feature of native cuisine. Principalsonizgsre fermented soybean and rice products, such as
“shoyu (soy sauce)”, “miso (soybean paste)”, “sake”, vinegar and “mirin (sweet sake)”. To
preserve the natural flavors of ingredients, strong spices are avoided in favor of milder herbs
and spices, such as “kinome (aromatic sprigs of the tree known as sansho)”, “yuzu (citron)”,
“wasabi (Japanese horseradish)”, “myoga (ginger)”, and dried and ground “sansho” seeds.
Food is arranged on plates or in bowls in a manner that harmonizes colors and textures that
accord with the season of the year, for example, glass and bamboo are considered appropriate
for summer.Contrasting shapes, sizes and patterns are used to achieve an aesthetic balance
between food and receptacles in order to please the eye and stimulate the appetite. Japanese
cooking characteristically tends to assimilate foreign recipes. Selection and rejection of
ingredients has resulted in Japanese style Western and Chinese cooking. “Dashi (a soup
stock)”, made with “kombu (seaweed known as sea tangle)” and “katsuobushi (dried bonitofillet)” shavings, is the basis of all Japanese cooking. First, about 30 grams (1 oz) of “kombu”
in a liter of water is brought to the boil over a medium flame. The “komubu” is removed just
before it boils and a small amount of water and about 30 grams (1 oz) of bonito shavings are
added. When it boils the pot is removed from the flame and the surface is skimmed off. After
the bonito shavings have sunk to the bottom, the contents are strained
through cheesecloth. Stocks made from fish or chicken bones, “niboshi (dried sardines)”, or
“kombu” and dried mushrooms are also used. Powdered instant stock is also widely utilized.
Once known in the west either in the form of “sukiyald” or the more exotic “sushi,” Japanese
cuisine has in recent years become much more familiar and appreciated around the world.
Many visitors to Japan will have already sampled the pleasures of raw fish or batter-fried
shrimp. But few first-time visitors to Japan are prepared for the variety and sumptuousness of
Japanese food, as it is traditionally prepared. Eating in Japan is an experience to be enjoyed
and remembered fondly for the rest of your life.
Sukiyaki is prepared right at the table by cooking thinly sliced beef together with
various vegetables, tofu and vermicelli.
Tempura is food deep-fried in vegetable oil, after being coated with a mixture of egg,
water and wheat flour. Among the ingredients used are prawns, fish in season and vegetables.
Sushi is a small piece of raw seafood placed on a ball of vinegared rice. The most
common ingredients are tuna, squid and prawn. Cucumber, pickled radish and sweet egg
omelet are also served.
Sashimi is sliced raw fish eaten with soy sauce.
Kaiseki Ryori is regarded as the most exquisite culinary refinement in Japan. The dishes
are mainly composed of vegetables and fish with seaweed and mushrooms as the seasoning
base and are characterized by their refined savor.
Yakitori is made up of small pieces of chicken meat, liver and vegetables skewered on a
bamboo stick and grilled over hot coals.
Tonkatsu is a deep-fried pork cutlet rolled in breadcrumbs.
Soba and Udon are two kinds of Japanese noodle. Soba is made from buckwheat flour
and Udon from wheat flour. They are served either in a broth or dipped in a sauce, and are
available in hundreds of delicious variations.
Ukrainian cuisine
Ukrainian dishes show a sophisticated simplicity based on pleasing combinations of
fresh, pickled, and smoked ingredients. While cooking techniques are not complicated, dishes
may contain a great number of ingredients and unusual combinations, such as shuba salad
which combines pickled herring and beets. Food is neither highly spiced nor bland, but
skillfully seasoned to perfection. Bread, is of course the mainstay of the Ukrainian diet. The
country’s reputation as the “breadbasket of Europe” is well deserved. The French writer
Honore de Balzac, who lived in Ukraine for four years, counted 77 different ways of preparing
bread. It is such a central part of the diet here that there is a custom to give honored guests and
departing or arriving travelers the gift of a loaf of bread and salt. This tradition is still used in
welcoming ceremonies for dignitaries and other important persons. Another staple of
Ukrainian diet is kasha or what would be called “mush” in America and “porridge” in Britain.
Borshch is certainly the national dish of Ukraine, even making its appearance on the menus of
Chinese and Italian restaurants in Kyiv. This uniquely Ukrainian soup has been adopted by
other countries in the region, but as recently as 45 years ago it could not even be found in
restaurants in other Soviet republics. The many versions of borshch served throughout the
country reflect the individuality of Ukrainians as well as their ingenuity. The beet-based soup
can contain as many as 20 different ingredients, depending on the season, region, and of
course, personal preference of the cook. It can be meatless or prepared from a rich meat stock
and contain either beef or smoked pork. The availability of ingredients for traditional cooking
are often dependent on the season, so most varieties of vegetables sometimes make their
appearance in certain dishes in their pickled form. You also might find that certain dishes
listed on a menu might not be available at certain times of year. Salads are very common, but
rather than being lettuce-based, combinations of fresh, cooked, and preserved vegetables may
be mixed with meat, cheese, or fish. With so many different recipes, the only constant of
Ukrainian salads are the presence of vinegar or mayonnaise. Varenyky are dumplings made
from boiled or fried dough, resembling ravioli without red sauce. They can be filled with meat,
potatoes, cabbage, and sometimes mushrooms for as an entrée, or sour cherries or sweetened
cottage cheese and raisins as a dessert. Any kind can be accompanied by butter or sour crčme.
The word holubtsi can be translated into “little pigeons,” but really has nothing to do with fowl
of any kind. They are cabbage rolls stuffed with meat and rice or buckwheat and often covered
with a thin tomato sauce. There are many different kinds of pastries and cakes, usually less
sweet than they are made outside of continental Europe. A tort Kyivskiy is a local specialty,
made of layers of crumbly raised wafers, hazelnuts, and it even comes in its own special green
box. For a uniquely Ukrainian drink, try kvas, a slightly sweet non-alcoholic beverage with a
wheat-like taste sold from giant tanks on wheels in the summer throughout the city.
CUCUMBERS IN SOUR CREAM
3 cups sliced cucumbers
Salt
1/4 cup chopped fresh dill or 2 tablespoons dill weed
1 cup dairy sour cream or yogurt
1. Sprinkle cucumbers with salt. Let stand 30 minutes. Pat dry
with paper towels.
2. Stir dill into sour cream. Add cucumbers; mix well.
RADISHES WITH SOUR CREAM: Follow directions for cucumbers in sour cream;
substitute radishes for cucumbers and omit step 1.
SAUERKRAUT
1 puond sauerkraut, drained
5 slices bacon, diced
1 1/2 cups water
1 tablespoon flour
1/2 cup dairy sour cream
1. Rinse sauerkraut if mild favor is desired. Drain well.
2. Fry bacon in a skillet until golden. Drain off 1 tablespoon fat; set aside.
3. Add sauerkraut to skillet. Fry 3 minutes, stirring often.
4. Add water. Cover and cook 45 minutes over medium heat.
5. Blend flour into reserved bacon fat. Stire into sauerkraut. Cook and stir over
high heat 2 minutes. Stir in sout cream, if desirered. Remove from heat.
STUFFED TOMATOES
4 medium tomatoes.
1/3 cup chopped onion
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
1/2 pound ground beef or pork (optional)
1 cup cooked rice
1 tablespoon chopped fresh dill or 1 teaspoon dill weed
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
1/3 cup dairy sour cream
Fine dry bread crumbs
1. Remove cores and seeds from tomatoes.
2. Saute onion in butter. Add meat ; cook until browned. Add rice, dill, salt,
pepper, and sour cream; mix well.
3. Stuff tomatoes with rice mixture. Sprinkle bread crumbs on top.
Plase in a shallow casserole or baking dish. Cover.
4. Bake at 375F 20 minutes. Remove cover. Continue baking until tender.
Note; Green peppers may be substituted for tomatoes, if desired.
SAUERKRAUT SALADE WITH CARROTS AND APPLES
1/4 cup salad or olive oil
1 1/2 teaspoon sugar
1 teaspoon caraway seed
1/2 teaspoon salt
1 teas[poon vinegar
1 pound sauerkraut, drained
2 medium tart apples, peeled, cored, and diced
3/4 cup grated carrot
1. Combine oil, sugar, caraway seed, salt, and vinegar.
2. Rinse and drain sauerkraut well; chop. Stir into oil mixture.
3. Add apples and carrot; toss to mix.
SOUR CREAM SAUCE
2 hard-cooked eggs
1 cup dairy sour cream
1 teaspoon prepared mustard or dill
1/4 teaspoon sugar
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/8 teaspoon pepper
1. Press eggs through a sieve. Add sour cream and beat with a mixer
at medium speed 3 minutes. Add mustard, sugar, salt, and pepper.
Beat 1 minute at high speed.
2. Serve with ham or veal.
MUSHROOM SAUCE
1 pound mushrooms, sliced
1 large onion, chopped
1 cup chicken or meat broth or bouillon
3 tablespoons flour
2tablespoons melted butter
1/2 cup dairy sour cream
1 teaspoon lemon juice
Salt and pepper
1. Simmer mushrooms with onion in bouillon 15 minutes.
2. Blend flour into butter. Stir into mushrooms. Bring to boiling, stirring.
3. Remove from heat. Stir in sour cream, lemon juice, and salt and
pepper to taste.
GREEN ONION SAUCE
1 cup dairy sour cream
3 tablespoons sliced green onion
1 egg yolk, beaten
2 tablespoons prepared mustard
1 teaspoon lemon juice
1/4 teaspoon sugar
1/4 teaspoon salt
1. Combine sour cream, green onion, egg yolk, prepared mustard, lemon
juice, sugar, and salt.
2. Serve hot or cold.
COLD HORSERADISH SAUCE
6 ounces prepared cream-style horseradish
1 large apple, pared and shredded
1 1/2 cups dairy sour cream
1/2 teaspoon sugar
1/4 teaspoon salt
1. Mix horsseradish with apple. Add sour cream; stir in sugar and salt.
2. Serve with cold meat, hard-cooked eggs, and fish.
The United Kingdom
Cooking
Most meals would have been some form of stew, soup or pottage cooked in a cauldron
over the central hearth of the house. Bread, baked in a clay oven or on a griddle, would also be
a daily foodstuff. Flour could be ground at a water mill although more usually it would be
done in the home using a hand quern. Wealthier people would have been able to afford an
imported rotary quern from the Rhineland. When the flour is freshly querned from recently cut
grain, little yeast is necessary to be added to the dough as there is a reasonable yeast content in
fresh grain.
Most of the time, especially amongst the poor, meat would only be used in small
quantities to give extra flavour. This did not mean that Saxons were vegetarians, in fact they
would eat as much meat as they could afford to. The wealthier a person was, the more often
meat would figure in their diets.
The vegetables used in cooking would have been those that were in season at the time,
although some may have been preserved by drying or pickling. Similarly, meat would have
been used more in summer and autumn when domestic animals were killed and game was
more readily available, although pigs, sheep and cattle were killed during the winter to provide
fresh meat and save too much depletion of winter fodder. When the animals, especially pigs,
were killed the blood was probably collected to make a form of black pudding. This is made
by stirring the blood until it is cool to stop it congealing and then adding flour and herbs. The
animal fat was used both for cooking and to make tallow for lamps and dubbin. Meat was
preserved by salting and smoking and some may have been dried. No doubt herbs and spices
were used to disguise the unpleasant taste that these may have had. Fish as was said earlier
could be preserved by salting, smoking, pickling or simply drying.
Milk would have been used to make butter and cheese, especially sheep's and goat's
milk. Eggs from chickens, ducks and geese would also have been eaten although the fowl of
the period would not have laid as often as their modern counterparts.
One of the most important foodstuffs was honey as this was the only sweetener
available. A good hive could produce about 100lbs of honey in a year. (A family of 6 would
require about 1/2lb honey per day.) Sweet foods like honey and almond cakes were popular,
but usually not an everyday foodstuff. There is some suggestion that gingerbread and
cheeseckes may have been fare on the Anglo-Saxon table, but the only references that still
exist imply that these are introductions that occur later in our history. Sugar, whilst used in
North Africa, was not much used in Europe. If it ever found it's way to Britain, it makes one
wonder what it may have looked like by the time it reached our damp shores.......
Other methods of cooking used included; frying in a frying pan or griddle (similar to a
chestnut roaster), baking in a clay or turf oven, grilling on a spiral griddle, hanging griddle or
on a 'barbecue' (similar to that shown on the Bayeux Tapestry). Spit roasting was done on a
large rotary spit or using small skewers like a kebab skewer or food could even be baked in the
embers of a fire usually wrapped in leaves and clay. By and large though, food was almost
always boiled in a cauldron or baked in the embers of a fire usually wrapped in leaves and
clay, as it was a more economic way of providing well cooked nutritious meals.
Specific evidence for banquets and feasts comes from the court of Charlemagne where
he is described as being served 'in four courses only, exclusive of the roast, which hunters
brought in on spits' (Eginhard 'Early Lives of Charlemagne' Ed A J Grant).
As to whether Charlemagne was being deliberately restrained is unknown. Some experts
believe that later in the period, banquets and religious feasts held by the nobility (and
sometimes the lower ranks too), would have as many as ten or twelve courses/dishes, although
each course was fairly small. Fish and meat would make up several of the courses, although
some courses would be purely vegetable. Much alcoholic drink was also served at banquets.
There is some suggestion that the finds of large cauldrons from a variety of sites were almost
always used for brewing beer, and not for cooking porridge etc; indicating the status of such
beverages in their society. An honoured guest would be served drink by the banquet giver's
wife and/or daughter or the banquet host if they happened to be a woman.
Food was eaten from wooden or clay bowls using only a knife and spoon (forks do not
seem to have been used for eating until much later in the medieval period). There are however
Scandinavian finds of pointed 'food sticks' made of wood or bone which may have been used
for picking up pieces of meat and larger vegetables. Wooden plates were used for some food
although pottery ones are very rare. Drinking vessels were made from a variety of materials in
a number of styles. The commonest would have been wooden or pottery cups and mugs. Horns
(often highly decorated) were also used and conical glass vessels were used in the early period,
but were rare, giving way to glass vessels shaped more like beakers that we have today. Small
wooden cups were used for very strong drinks. Leather was also used for drinking vessels
although there is little evidence of this other than a passage in Ælfrics Colloquy. There is no
evidence for drinking vessels with handles ever being used. Drinks were served from pottery
jugs and pitchers or from bottles made of wood, clay or leather. Wooden tubs and ladles were
probably used for serving drinks, some of which were served hot.
English Food
English food seems to have two distinct faces in the American culinary imagination. The
first is the decidedly grey image of boiled meat. Indeed, boiled meat may be the paradigmatic
emblem of loathed English blandness. The other face of British food, is perhaps best described
as the great British flair for the pageant of the meal. High tea served in an oak-paneled room,
where rich fabric, antique porcelain, and mountains of cakes and clotted cream sparkle in
reflection from the mirror-polished side of a sterling silver tea pot; the picnic by the bank of
the Thames; the white cravatted public school boys on their way to an evening meal in some
Gothic-vaulted dining hall. Still, the stuff of the meal itself, the food of England, is not nearly
as awful as some make it out to be. With its double creams, rich puddings and straightforward
flavors, it can be quite marvelous.
One point must be made clear: for centuries the English aristocracy ate French food, and
their menus are peppered with accents graves and circumflexes. To compare boeuf à la
bourguignonne to the Scottish haggis is to compare apples and oranges, haute cuisine to the
invention of necessity. This is not to say that there aren't distinctly British tastes that cross
class lines. There are. One is a love for the first meal of the day, another is a taste for meat.
The British butcher wears a white smock and a straw boater. Perhaps his most important job
has been to prepare the great roast beefs that anchor the traditional Sunday lunch feast. Roast
beef is the national culinary pride. It is called a "joint," and is served at midday on Sunday
with roasted potatoes, Yorkshire pudding, two vegetables, a good strong horseradish, gravy,
and mustard. The leftover joint could feed the family until Friday (traditionally fish day),
recooked in a curry, pie, stew, or fried with cabbage, onions, and potatoes into the
onomatopoeic "bubble and squeak." Beef is big industry in England, and the Aberdeen Angus
is one of her famous beef-producing breeds. Dairy cattle are also farmed extensively -England is famous for its creams and butters and for its sturdy and delicious cheeses: Stilton,
Cheshire and its rare cousin blue Cheshire, double Gloucester, red Leicester, sage Derby, and
of course cheddar. Lamb and mutton are the second most-widely consumed meats followed by
pork, farmed mostly in Ireland, at a distant third. Game has always had a central role in the
British diet. This reflects both the abundant richness of the forests and streams and an old
aristocratic prejudice against butchered meats. Formal feasts were built around venison, rabbit,
and game birds. This preference can still be seen today on the menus of good English
restaurants.
Being an island makes fishing easy for the Brits. Fish are central to the English diet.
Many species swim in those cold waters: sole, haddock, hake, plaice, cod (the most popular
choice for fish and chips), turbot, halibut, mullet, John Dory. Oily fishes also abound
(mackerel, pilchards, and herring) as do crustaceans like lobster and oysters. Eel, also
common, is cooked into a wonderful pie with lemon, parsley, and shallots, all topped with puff
pastry.
The English are justifiably famous for their gardens, and the kitchen garden has long
been a source for herbs and vegetables. But much of the flavoring in British cooking comes
from further horizons than the garden out the back door. The Brits have long incorporated
exotic spices. When the Frankish Normans invaded, they brought with them the spices of the
east: cinnamon, saffron, mace, nutmeg, pepper, ginger. Sugar came to England at that time,
and was considered a spice -- rare and expensive. Before the arrival of cane sugars, honey and
fruit juices were the only sweeteners. The few Medieval cookery books that remain record
dishes that use every spice in the larder, and chefs across Europe saw their task to be the
almost alchemical transformation of raw ingredients into something entirely new. Throughout
northern Europe, elaborate concoctions of mixed meats and offal (almond flour thickeners),
spices, raisins, and other dried fruits were the result...and to the credit of the successful chef,
there was often no chance that any of the discrete, original flavors could be recognized. Spices
were of course a handy way to mask slightly off meat. There is, in fact, a rule of Victorian
etiquette that deems it less than polite to sniff at meat when it is on the fork. The affair with the
spices of the East has continued, even to this day, and can be seen preserved in the tastes of the
early American colonists, and in the caraway-, ginger-, and mace-laced cakes that grace the tea
table. In this vein, the Brits have proven exceptionally good at condiments: strong mustards,
horseradish, chutneys, vinegars, marmalades and jams, curries, even Worcestershire sauce.
Now, the cynical may still say it's a good thing the English have worked so hard at that
which covers food. But, for a moment, imagine the perfect cup of tea accompanied by scones,
with clotted cream and strawberry jam, a juicy slice of beef with a dollop of strong
horseradish, or the perfect piece of Scottish smoked salmon, and you just may find your mouth
watering at the thought of what the British have brought to the table.
Fruit and Vegetables
When we visit the shops in England today, we are presented with a wealth of fruit and
vegetables from all corners of the planet from which to choose. For people in this country in
the tenth and eleventh century this could not happen. They had only such foods as could be
cultivated seasonally or found wild. Exotic foods such as potatoes, tomatoes, bananas,
pineapples - fruits and vegetables of the New World, were unknown here. Mediterranean
fruits, such as lemons and oranges were, as far as we know, not imported, although we have
documentary proof for the importation of such things as figs and grapes (Viking Age England,
Julian Richards, p94).
We know that they grew wheat, rye, oats and barley. Wheat for bread, barley for
brewing and oats for animal fodder and porridge. Along with these crops grew various weeds
of cultivation - some of them poisonous. The harvesting methods made it difficult to separate
the cereal from the weed, and many illnesses must have been caused in this way.
It is known that they had carrots, but these were not the large, orange coloured
vegetables that we are used to today. They were much closer to their wild ancestors - purplish
red and small. 'Welsh carrots'; or parsnips were also availablae (S Pollington - 'Leechdom').
Cabbages were also of a wild variety, with smaller tougher leaves. They cultivated legumes
such as peas and beans. Various 'wild'; roots were probably collected, such as burdock and
rape. Onions and leeks were cultivated as flavourings and wild garlic may have been used.
One way in which the people made up for the poor quality of these vegetables would
have been to flavour them with native and imported herbs and spices. In Aelfric's Colloquy,
the merchant speaks of importing spices, and in the Leechbooks, some imported spices are
mentioned. Among them may have been ginger, cinnamon, cloves mace and pepper. We have
no way of knowing how these spices were used , as the earliest recipe book only dates from
the 14th century. Home grown herbs would have included coriander, dill, thyme, opium poppy
and summer savoury. (Eighth-Eleventh Century Economy and Environment in York in J
Rackham Environment and Economy in A/S England. CBA Res Rep 89.)
Many fruits were eaten and seeds from excavations tell us that they also had small
apples (crab apples) plums, cherries and sloes. A large deposit of apple pips, from a pit in
Gloucester probably points to the making of cider. These would have been sweetened with
honey. Sugar was virtually unknown in the West of Europe, and at this period was used only
as a medicine, as a laxative and for bladder disorders, for the kidneys and for eye disorders.
(Dangerous Tastes, the Story of Spices. Andrew Dalby). It does not. however, appear in any
Anglo-Saxon Leechbooks.
Honey was used to make a sweet alcoholic drink called mead, which was usually
flavoured with some form of herb such as meadowsweet (O.E. meduwyrt - meaning mead
plant). However, even today it is still not clear whether the mead they knew was no more than
honey beer that we may encounter occasionally today. The confusion here lies with the fact
that they refer to 'frothing horns of mead', and mead as we make it does not have a head to it.
Barley was used to make beer which may have been flavoured with wild hops. Whether these
were wild or cultivated is not known, but the Graveney boat, a 10th Century clinker built
inshore trading boat may have been carrying a cargo which included hops up the Thames
Estuary. (The GraveneyBoat: a tenth century find from Kent. V Fenwick ed Brit Archaeol Re
Brit Ser 53 Oxford 1978).
Wine was drunk, but this was generally imported although fruit wines may have been
home-produced. There are also written references to 'apple-wine', probably a form of cider.
Many fruit juices including apple, pear and plum were drunk as were herbal 'teas' and
infusions. Whilst acorns are plentiful most years, they can only be eaten with sufficient
preparation. There is no mention in the Anglo-Saxon record of them ever being used as a food
stuff - with the closest instances of Oak 'products' being the leaves as a remedy in the Ormont
fragment and the bark as an astringent in Bald's Leechbook. There may have been many
instances where a needs must approach may have occurred which was not normal practice
when food was in short supply. Evidence of such practices has been observed at sites where
grain was used for bread production, but the bulk inclusion of random grass seeds suggests that
the flour was being padded out - either to make it stretch further because there was actually
little wheat, or simply because someone was being ripped off.
Spirits and fortified wines were not known although the apple wine may have had quite
a high alcohol content.
Christmas Cake Recipe
225 grams / 8 oz of butter
280 grams / 10 oz of soft brown sugar
6 eggs
350 grams / 12 oz of flour
2 teaspoons of baking powder
1 tablespoon of mixed spice
2 teaspoons of cinnamon
1 teaspoon of nutmeg
225 grams / 8 oz of raisins
225 grams / 8 oz of currants
450 grams / 1 lb of sultanas
115 grams / 4 oz of mixed peel
115 grams / 4 oz of whole almonds
115 grams / 4 oz of glacé cherries (red and green)
grated rind (zest) of 1 lemon or orange
4 teaspoons of sherry or brandy
Preheat the oven to 120°C, 250°F or gas mark ½. Line a large cake tin with a layer of
tinfoil followed by a layer of cooking paper. Weigh and measure all the dried fruit into a large
bowl and mix thoroughly. In another large bowl cream the butterand sugar, add the eggs
beating through one at a time. Sift the dry ingredients into the creamed mixture. Add the dried
fruit and zest (rind) and lastly add the sherry or brandy. Pour into the lined cake tin and bake
for 3½ to 4 hours. To test if the cake is cooked, poke a cake tester or skewer into the middle of
the cake. If it comes out clean the cake is cooked. Leave one hour before removing from the
tin.
The alcoholic content of the sherry or brandy will evaporate during baking, but you may
prefer to use fruit juice instead. Once the cake has cooled, ice with Almond Icing or Marzipan
and Royal Icing. The cake is best made a month or more in advance to let the flavours develop
and should be stored in an airtight container.
Sponge Cake Recipe
4 eggs
¾ cup of castor sugar
2/3 cup of plain flour
1/3 cup of cornflour
1 teaspoon of baking powder
Preheat oven to 170°C, 340°F or gas mark 3½. Break the eggs into a mixing bowl and
beat with an electric beater until thick and creamy (around 5 to 8 minutes). When you run a
spoon through the mixture, the mark shouldn't disappear. Gradually beat in the sugar until
fully dissolved. Sift the dry ingredients repeatedly into a separate bowl to ensure that they are
thoroughly mixed. Lightly and quickly fold the dry ingredients in with the eggs and sugar
using a metal spoon ensuring that the airy sponge mixture is not broken down, but also that the
flour is properly mixed in. Pour evenly into two well-greased and lined 20 cm / 8 inch round
cake tins. Bake for 20 to 25 minutes. The cake is cooked when it shrinks slightly away from
the side of the tins. Turn out of each tin onto a cake rack immediately.
Fill with cream, or buttercream icing, and top with your favourite fruits, and/or grated
chocolate.
Variations:
Chocolate - take out 2 tablespoons of flour and add 2 tablespoons of cocoa.
Coffee - add 3 teaspoons of instant coffee dissolved in a little hot water.
Russian cuisine and Russian cooking recipes
Lesson 1
1. Read the words:
delicious
special
tradition
national
agricultural
2. Master the active vocabulary. Cover the left column and translate the Russian
words back into English.
equipment
оборудование; оснащение
tool
инструмент; орудие труда
rye
рожь
millet
просо
land-tiller
земледелец, землепашец
par
нормальное состояние, норма
groats
крупа ( преим. овсяная )
3. Word formation.
Analyze the tense forms of the verbs.
Write out all irregular verbs from the text and translate them.
Give your own examples.
Russian cuisine is one of the most popular and widely spread in the world. French
cuisine is festive and elegant, Chinese cuisine is exotic, Russian cuisine is healthy and
delicious. Russian dishes are easy to cook and they do not demand much skill and special
ingredients, they do not need exotic equipment and tool and everybody who knows how to
hold a cooking knife and how to peel potatoes can cook delicious Russian dishes. A few words
about Russian cooking traditions. In old Russ, grain - that is rye, barley, oats, millet and wheat
- was always the main food product. Since days of old the Russians have been known as landtiller. That is why bread remains their major national food. Pies have always been a par of the
holiday fare. The pies are customarily filled with different kinds of meat, fish, and berries. As
for the groats, millet was most often used since it was the main agricultural product. They also
made various kinds of kashas (cereals), round loaves, baked puddings, and krupenik.
4. Put down the nouns. Translate the words.
Model: to cry – crier; плакать, кричать – крикун
To till - _____________; _______________ - _____________________
To buy - _____________; ______________ - _____________________
To hold - ____________; _______________ - _____________________
To ____ - ____________; _______________ - _____________________
To ____ - ____________; _______________ - _____________________
To ____ - ____________; _______________ - _____________________
5. Combine the given adjectives (A) with the proper nouns (B).
A
B
special
potatoes
cooking
ingredients
delicious
product
agricultural
cuisine
red
equipment
exotic
traditions
6. Put down the English for:
Русская кухня ________________________________________________
Китайская кухня ______________________________________________
Французская кухня ____________________________________________
Итальянская кухня ____________________________________________
7. Complete the questions. Read the questions and the answers. Cover the right
column. Answer the questions.
1. What kind of…?
a) They do not need
exotic equipment and
2.
Since
what tool.
time…?
b) Since days of old
the Russians have been
3. How can you …? known as land-tiller.
c) Russian cuisine
4. What …with?
is healthy and delicious.
d) The pies are
customarily filled with
different kinds of meat,
fish, and berries.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words:
Orthodox
Christians
cinnamon
cardamom
spidery
2. Pronounce correctly:
[a:] – part, cardamom,
[o:] – more, important, for, order, board
[o] – of, followed
3. Master the active vocabulary:
radish редиска
turnip репа, турнепс
parsley
петрушка
celery сельдерей
4. Put down the English for:
огурец ________________________________________________
капуста _______________________________________________
картофель _____________________________________________
молоко ________________________________________________
яйцо __________________________________________________
лук ___________________________________________________
5. Read the examples. Cover the left column and translate the examples back into
English.
spice
специя, пряность
cloves
гвоздика
cinnamon
корица
cardamom
кардамон
6. Read the microtext and define the main idea of the text.
Russians have always eaten vegetables. In old times it was the turnip, cabbage, radish,
and cucumbers. Since the 18th century the potato began to play an ever more important part as
one of the most loved ingredients of the Russian board. The abundance of berries, mushroom,
and honey in Russian cuisine is accounted for by the country's vast expanses, especially in the
north.
One more important thing should be mentioned for better understanding of Russian
cooking traditions. Russia is an Orthodox country and all the feasts were always strictly
followed. Totally there are more than 200 days in a year in which the Orthodox Christians
should avoid eating meat, milk and milk products (including butter), eggs. That is why Russian
cuisine widely uses vegetables, fish, berries, and mushrooms. In order to cook tasty dishes
using just vegetables it is necessary to use different spice, Russians used dill, parsley, celery,
later they used spidery which were delivered from other countries - pepper, cinnamon,
cardamom, cloves. Nearly all dishes include onion.
7. Arrange the words in the order of appearance in the text.
abundance
feasts
two hundred
dill
berries
century
8. Complete the sentences.
In old times….
The abundance of….
Russia…
In order to cook….
They used….
Nearly all….
9.Pair work. Tell your group-mates about Russian cuisine. Let him/her put the
questions to you and answer them.
Lesson 3
1. Read the words.
accordance
impression
practical
classical
roughly
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
demand
требовать, потребовать
pork
свинина
general
общий
accordance
согласованность
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
time range ___________________________________________________
the real impression ____________________________________________
common products _____________________________________________
so-called ____________________________________________________
4. Change the words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: expansion, to expand – растягивать
generalization, to ________________ - ____________________________
classification, to _________________ - ____________________________
reflection, to ____________________ - ____________________________
relation, to _____________________ - ____________________________
impression, to __________________ - _____________________________
5. Put down the English for:
рецепт
популярный
блюдо
продукты
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
"Pork with Russian sauce" _______________________________________
"Russian cutlets" ______________________________________________
"The book about tasty and healthy cuisine"__________________________
every-day Russian cuisine _______________________________________
in the end ____________________________________________________
7. Read and translate the text.
Below you can see a list of most popular Russian recipes that can be cooked at home
without many efforts. Author tested all these recipes and some of them are often used in
everyday cooking. In general each cuisine roughly can be divided into two groups of dishes official dishes and every-day dishes. The same is with Russian cuisine. Official dishes demand
much time for cooking, often they include many different products. So in the end these recipes
are Russian only by name, something like "Pork with Russian sauce", "Russian cutlets" etc. In
opposite the every-day dishes that are cooked of common products and in limited time range
reflect the real Russian cuisine and they give the real impression about Russian cuisine. Here
are recipes of so-called every-day Russian cuisine. Recipes are written in accordance with
classical Russian cooking book which was called "The book about tasty and healthy cuisine"
but with some practical comments.
8.Pair work. Tell your group-mates about "The book about tasty and healthy
cuisine" you have at home.
Lesson 4
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
appetizers
закуска (кушанье, подаваемое перед горячими блюдами)
piquant
пикантный
horse-radish
хрен
pungency
едкость, острота
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
kvass _______________________________________________________
Russian vinaigrette salad _______________________________________
Mixed meat jelly (holodets) _____________________________________
Fish jelly ____________________________________________________
Salted herrings, home style ______________________________________
3. Think of four questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.
4. To be translated in written.
Appetizers
Most often Russian appetizers are rather spicy and look good enough to wet the appetite.
They are served with various seasonings and condiments, such as horse-radish, kvass, garlic
and piquant tomato sauces lending the dishes special pungency.
Russian vinaigrette salad
Mixed meat jelly (holodets)
Fish jelly
Salted herrings, home style
5. Read the words. Mind the pronunciation of the sound [z].
as
naturalized
course
cereals
olives
6. Master the active vocabulary.
sauerkraut
кислая капуста
beet
свекла
bit
кусочек; частица
pickled
соленый; маринованный
7. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
"khlebovo" ___________________________________________________
"pokhlyobka" _________________________________________________
schi _________________________________________________________
borsch _______________________________________________________
rassolnik _____________________________________________________
okroshka _____________________________________________________
solyanka _____________________________________________________
8. Read and translate the text.
Soups
In Russia soups are served as the first course at dinner. In the Russian language the
world "soup" was naturalized quite late. Originally, Russian soups were called "khlebovo" or
"pokhlyobka" - soup with cereals. The typical Russian soups are schi (soup with cabbage or
sauerkraut), borsch (beet and cabbage soup), rassolnik (soup with pickled cucumbers),
okroshka (cold kvass soup), solyanka (soup with vegetables, pickled cucumbers, olives and
bits of meat) and pohlyobka.
Ukranian borsch
Solyanka
Rassolnik
Meat schi with sauerkraut
Green soup
Okroshka
Mushroom soup
9. Answer the questions.
1. Are you fond of Russian cuisine?
2. How were originally Russian soups called?
3. What is the difference between schi and borsch?
4. What kinds of soup do you know?
5. Do you like soup?
6. What is your favorite soup?
Lesson 5
1. Read the words. Mind the reading of the letter “s” and “c”.
pastry
especially
importance
lesser
spice-cakes
cookies
2. Master the active vocabulary.
patty
пирожок
sourdough закваска
Easter
пасха
pancakes блинчики
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
blini _______________________________________________________
kulebyakas __________________________________________________
Kulich ______________________________________________________
rasstegais ____________________________________________________
spice-cakes ___________________________________________________
4. Read and translate the text.
Pastry
In Russian cooking bread and pastry have always been especially important. Guests
were met with bread and salt. Of no lesser importance were pies - a symbol of wealth and
well-being.
Russian women were famous for their skills in making different sorts of cookies: blini
(pancakes), kulebyakas, rasstegais, cheese cakes, spice-cakes, etc. Howere, especially popular
were patties made from sourdough.
Pancakes (classical)
Buckwheat pancakest
Apple pancakes
Fast thick pancakes
Kulebiaka
Kulich (Easter bread)
Rasstegai (small open pie with filling)
5. Read the words.
permit
poultry
noodle
Naval
6. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Beef goulash
Beef Stroganoff
Meat "Hedgehogs"
Macaroni Naval Style
Pork chops
"Ushnoye" (Russian Stew)
Pozharskiye chops
Goose with apples
Golubtsy
Pelmeni
7. Read the text. Find the corresponding translation of the sentences.
Meat dishes
1) Как правило,
Russian cuisine has мясные блюда подаются
always been rich in meat с овощами, лапшой и
dishes. They deal with крупой.
dishes of beef, pork,
2) Русская кухня
mutton, poultry, game, была всегда богата
and wild animals. As a мясными блюдами.
rule, meat dishes are
3) Они связаны с
served with vegetables, блюдами из говядины,
noodles and cereal.
свинины, баранины, и
мяса диких животных.
4) Блюда из мяса.
8. Pronounce correctly. Mind reading of the letter “A”.
apart
ancestors
ate
also
allowed
are
bake
9. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
cod
треска
navaga
навага
salmon
лосось; семга
fast
пост
Lent
великий пост
10. Think of four questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.Read
and translate the text.
Hot fish dishes
In Russian cuisine fish dishes are some of the most favorite ones. The rivers, lakes and
seas by which Russian people settled always gave them this tasty and accessible food.
Apart from fresh-water fish our ancestors also ate sea fish like cod, navaga. However,
especially valued were sturgeon, salmon and other fishes of this kind. Most often fish dished
are served with potatoes and boiled buckwheat.
There is one explanation why in past Russians used to cook fish dishes. It was not
allowed to eat any kind of meat and any kind of milk food in duration of long fasts but fish
dishes were permitted (except time of the Lent).
11. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Baked pike-perch _____________________________________________
Fish, monastery style __________________________________________
Sturgeon fried in portions ______________________________________
GEORGIAN CUISINE
Cuisine
Culinary tradition
Dishes
Fertile
Peculiarity
Utilization
Wine
Spice herbal
Ingredient
Parcel
Meal
Maize flour
Wheat flour
Abkhazia
Millet
Cook gruel
Mutton
Beef
Fat
Simplicity
Intersection
Pork
Sour
Broth
Walnut
Thick soup
To provide
Pig leg
Garlic
Hangover
Egg yolk
Spit
Vocabulary of the text
кухня
кулинарная традиция
блюда
плодородная
особенность
использование
вино
зелень
ингредиент
пакет, свёрток
еда
кукурузная мука
пшеничная мука
Абхазия
пшено
жидкая овсяная каша
баранина
говядина
жир, сало
простота
пересечение
свинина
кислый
суп, похлёбка, мясной отвар, бульон
грецкий орех
густой суп
обеспечивать
свиная ножка
чеснок
похмелье
яичный желток
вертел
Length-wise
Charcoal
Turning
Plumage
To remove
Frying
Pressure
To contribute
Stewed fish
Eggplant
Cabbage
Beetroot
Cauliflower
Water-skin
To specialize
To consume
Pastry
Mashing
Filbert
Almond
Hazel nut
Seasoning
Confectionеry
Courses
Parsley
Dill
Damson
Savory
Phosphorus
Inflorescence
Volatile oil
Longevity
Essential
To regard
Pomegranate
Inseparably
To cultivate
Vineyard
Opportunity
Genuine
Guest
To propose
Horn-shaped vessel
To empty
Cone-shaped jug
Champagne
в длину, вдоль
древесный уголь
вращение
оперение, перья
удалять
жарение
давление
делать вклад
тушеная рыба
яйцевидный, в форме яйца, овальный
капуста
свекла
цветная капуста
кожаный мешок или мех для воды
специализировать
потреблять
кондитерские изделия
раздавливание, разминание
лещина, фундук, американский лесной орех
миндаль
орешек
приправа
кондитерская, кондитерские изделия
блюда
петрушка
укроп
чернослив, мелкая чёрная слива
1) вкусный, аппетитный, 2) острый, солёный, пряный
фосфор
1) цветорасположение,2) соцветие, цветение
быстро испаряющееся масло
долголетие
существенный
касаться
гранат, гранатовое дерево
неотъемлемо
возделывать
виноградник
возможность
подлинный, настоящий
гость
предлагать
сосуд в форме рога
опустошить
конусообразный кувшин
шампанское
Georgia is a country of highly developed culture. Geographically it is situated at the
intersection of the European and Asian civilizations. Despite frequent invasions by enemies,
Georgian people have managed to preserve their distinctive culture. From the earliest times
Georgia was divided into various provinces that today are called economic regions: they are
the Central-Eastern, Eastern, Southern, and Central-Western regions.
Georgians themselves divide their country into Eastern Georgia and Western Georgia.
Homes, way of life, customs, and culinary traditions of cooking some national dishes are quite
different in these two regions of the country. However a most fertile and original Georgian
cuisine has kept its national peculiarity, but with some distinct differences in the art of cooking
between Eastern and Western Georgia. Their common feature is the utilization of wine and
spices. These two ingredients are part and parcel of any meal. As for the rest of the ingredients
they differ considerably. For example in Western Georgia, bread and various round flat cakes
made from maize flour (“mchadi”) are widespread. In Eastern Georgia they prefer bread made
of wheat flour. In some parts of Western Georgia such as Megrellin and Abkhazia, they use a
sort of millet (“chumiza”) as bread. They put millet into a pan and cook gruel (“gomi”), after
which they eat it with soups, meat, and vegetable dishes. In the eastern region of Georgia,
along with traditional beef, people eat mouton and lots of fat. At the same time in the west of
Georgia they eat less meat and prefer poultry. Nevertheless all these differences are not
sufficient to mark the border between Eastern and Western Georgian cuisines.
It is important to mention that Georgian cuisine can be distinguished by its simplicity of
cooking technology. Further, there are not any religious or cultural restrictions imposed on
choosing a type of meat because for long time the Georgian nation developed at the
intersection of many cultures and traditions. In general Georgian cuisine does not favor one
kind of meat over another. Georgian meat courses can be cooked from pork (“muzhuzhi”),
mouton (“chanakhi”), beef (“kharcho”), and poultry (“chakhokhbili”). Yet this tolerance of all
types of meat yields to beef and poultry. For example “kharcho” soup is made only from beef,
rice, and walnuts as the basis of its special sour broth (“tklapi”) prepared from plum, and it
looks like a thick cream soup. A combination of soft beef broth, neutral rice with a natural sour
“tkapi” taste, herbal spices, and the peculiar aroma of nuts provides for the specific flavor and
smell of “kharcho” soup. As for “khash”, it is made from pig legs. They drink this broth with
garlic and black pepper in the morning before daybreak. As Georgians say “khash” is an
especially good “medicine against a hangover”. In general Georgian soups are very thick
because of added egg yolks and they are cooked without vegetables. Various sorts of meat are
also widely used for cooking main courses. In Georgia they often grill meat on a spit
(“mtsvadi” is the equivalent of Russian shashlyk or barbeque). They take a washed piece of
meat, put it length-wise on a spit, then grill it over charcoal and keep it turning. Only 10
minutes before it is ready they sprinkle it with salt, pepper and spices.
Poultry is usually cooked in its plumage. They take a cleaned bird, salt it inside and coat
it with soft clay. In that way the bird is cooked in its own juices. After 40 minutes they break
down the clay and remove it together with the plumage.
Very broad metal pans (“tapa”) are typical of the Georgian way of cooking, which are
used for the preparation of meat dishes especially for frying poultry under pressure. This
method was borrowed from the Armenian cuisine, and its usage became even more wide
spread in Georgian cuisine. This technology as many other methods contribute to the national
culinary art of Georgian cuisine.
In Georgia, fish takes a considerably inferior place in comparison with meat. The
majority of fish courses are cooked from the barbell, carp, and trout species inhabiting only
some parts of the country. Mainly Georgian’s consume boiled or stewed fish.
Vegetable dishes have a significant place in Georgian cuisine. The majority of these
dishes are made from haricot beans, eggplants, cabbage, beetroot, and tomatoes. In addition,
they eat nettle, mallow, and young leafy tops of root vegetables such as cauliflower.
Vegetables can be eaten raw, boiled, roasted, fried, stewed, salted, and marinated.
One more peculiarity of the Georgian table is its various, and plentiful consumption of
cheeses. Cheese is part and parcel of Georgian cuisine. The content of cheeses is very specific
here. In general it is salt cheese prepared in a jug or in a water-skin. We must mention the
differences of tastes in Western and Eastern Georgia. The West specializes in producing plain,
tasteless cheeses with a sour milk flavor (“suluguni” and “imeretinskiy”). Suliguni is a layered
sort of cheese in the shape of a round cake, “imeretinskiy” cheese is similar to the latter but
without layers. Eastern Georgia specializes in producing salty and spicy cheeses such as
“kobiyskiy”, “tushinskiy”, “georgian”, “guda”, “chanakh”, and “osetinskiy”. In Georgia the
way cheese is consumed is also very peculiar. It is not used as an ingredient which is typical of
European cuisine. It is generally used as the main ingredient for hot, main courses. In Georgian
they prepare cheese by boiling, boiling in milk, charcoaling on a spit, frying, baking in pastry,
soaking, mashing, and by flavoring with oil and spices. This tradition of cheese preparation is
connected with the fact that Caucasian cheeses do not go through a complete process and very
often represent only a half-finished product. The number of Georgian dishes which contain
cheese as an ingredient exceeds several hundreds. But, perhaps, one of the most favorite and
universally recognized dishes for all Georgians is “khachapuri”, which is a type of a pie
prepared with various kinds of cheese.
Quite often this national cuisine uses such nuts as filbert, almonds, hazel nuts,
beechnuts, and most frequently walnuts. A walnut is an invariable component in different
seasonings and sauces. Nuts are perfectly suited for meat dishes as well as for vegetable and
fish dishes. Nuts are added to soups, confectionary, salads, and main courses. On the whole it
is impossible to imagine a Georgian table without nuts.
Spicy herbs play a significant role in Georgia. They use spices all year round. They
serve them for breakfast, lunch and dinner. Depending on the season it can be parsley, dill,
damsons, mint, basilica, savory, or many other greens growing in Georgia. Foetus, leaves,
stems, bark, roots, and inflorescence can be used as spices. All spices can be either freshly
made or dried. Further, the aroma spices contain great amounts of wholesome substances, for
example, minerals, salts, iron, phosphorus, volatile oils, aminoacids, fructose, and many
others. Who knows, maybe herbs in particular, hold the secret of health and longevity for
Georgians.
One of the most essential and distinguished culinary traditions in Georgian cuisine is the
appliance of sauces in order to enrich and diversify the main course. One and the same dish
served under different sauces is distinguished from the alike in regards to its appearance,
flavor and aroma. Bright-colored sauces decorate and complete the dish. Georgian sauces
fundamentally differ from the sauces used in other national cuisines regarding both their
composition and cooking technology. In Georgia sour berry and fruit juices are used as a
foundation for making sauces. The base is usually made of pomegranate, blackberry, and
tomatoes. Sauces made with a foundation of ground nuts are also very popular. Then the base
is flavored with a range of spices and herbs.
The tradition and culture of wine manufacturing is inseparably linked to the history of
Georgia. Viticulture is one of the oldest and most respected branches of agriculture of Georgia.
From generation to generation Georgians cultivate vineyards keeping family recipes. That is
why Georgia has kept its great diversity of wines. Nowadays Georgian vineyards breed over
500 grape species. The culture of wine making, which entered family lives of Georgians many
years ago, imprinted the culture of consuming strong drinks. Every lunch is accompanied with
wine. During the working days Georgians usually drink 2 or 3 glasses, which is quite
moderate. In Georgia nobody, including poor people, can resist the opportunity to have a glass
of wine before dinner. Genuine Georgian wine contains a lot of wholesome elements, which is
why it is allowed for children.
During holidays they drink more wine of better quality, during all big family gatherings
around the table, or when guests pay their visits. However it is important to mention not only
the quantity of wine consumed, but the quality and the culture of drinking. Strict order reins at
the Georgian table. They choose a master of ceremonies (a toastmaster). Nobody has a right to
propose a toast without the permission of the toastmaster. Normally the master of ceremonies
proposes 25 toasts (250 grams each) to every guest during the ceremony that lasts for 5 hours.
The record is 45 glasses and a 3-liter horn-shaped vessel consumed during one ceremony. The
last glass of wine should be emptied because you “must not leave tears” to the owner of the
house.
There is a special holiday in Georgia devoted to vintage, which is called “Rtveli” and is
celebrated in September. Everyone, even children gather grapes in special wicker baskets.
Walls of houses are decorated with grape bunches. They make sweet foamy “madzhari” out of
the first grade grapes. This wine is not aged but drunk as soon as it is ready. Must, which is left
after making “madzhari”, and maize flour is used for cooking “pilamushi”. They also make
“churchkhela” of grape juice and nuts. In the basement of every country house there is an area
for wine storage (“marami”) containing several huge cone-shaped jugs (“kveri”) that are dug
in the earth up to the neck.
On the basis of manufactured wines Georgia can be divided into two zones: East and
West. Kakhetia and Kartli belong to the Eastern zone. In Kakhetia they mostly cultivate white
grapes such as rkatsiteli, and hikhvi. As for red grapes they produce saperavi and cabernet.
Kartli specializes in such sorts of grapes as chinuri, aligaute, tavkveri, and gorouli. On the
basis of this wine material they produce the mild wine “Tsinandali”; a rough, thick, strong
wine “Saperavi”; a wine unsurpassed in regards to flavor and aroma called “Kindzmarauli”; an
original wine, “Tesmani”; and a peculiar wine “Gurdgaani”.
Imeretia, Megrelia, Guria, Adgaria, Racha-Pekhchumi, and Abkhazia belong to the
western zone. In these districts they cultivate such grapes as tsitska, tsalikouri, krakhuna,
alexanderum and others. Along with specific table wines they produce the material for
champagne manufacturing, and wines such as “Khvanchkara” and “Tvischi”, which have
gained a success similar to the table Kakhetian wines.
In general they produce over 50 brands of table wine in Georgia. There are three
methods of making white table wine: they are Kakhetian-Eastern (fermentation of must
together with the pulp of grape skins and pits), Imeretinian-Western (fermentation of must
partially adding the pulp), and European (fermentation of pure grape juice must without pulp).
In Georgia, in compliance with the European method of fermentation they produce
“Tsinandali”#1, “Gudgaani” #3, “Tsamkodri” #7, “Mikhranuli” #9, and “Napereuli” #27 as
well as ordinary table wines such as #6.23. These wines have a soft, light, fresh taste with fruit
flavor, 10-12.5% alcohol content, and are aged 2-3 years.
On the basis of Kakhetian fermentation they produce wine “Kakhetinskoye” #8 and
“Tibaani” #12. Their taste is full, soft, and harmonic. It is aged for 1 year and is 11.5-13%
alcohol.
On the basis of the Imeritian fermentation process they produce the “Sviri” wine. It has
a harmonic and subtle flavor. When it is 2 years old, it is bottled. The ready- made wine is 1112.5% in alcohol content.
Wines are divided into the sorted and blended catagories. Sorted wines are made from
one kind of grape. Blended wines are made from different sorts of grapes. It is necessary to
mention that Georgian wines are numbered and named after the territory from where they are
produced, or numbered and named after the grape sort from which they are made. In addition
to this in Georgia they produce table wines, semi-sweet wines, sweet wines, dessert wines,
sparkling wines, vintage wines, and ordinary cognacs. It is remarkable of Georgia that people
consume only limited amounts of strong drinks such as sweet liqueur or “chacha”. Liqueur is
made of fermenting jam or different fruit, which are usually a little spoiled and are not good
for eating. “Chacha” is a fruit home-brew, which is sometimes called vine vodka. Chacha is
made of cake (grape residual left after making wine), fig, tangerine, orange, and mulberry. The
method for producing chacha is the same as that for making Russian home-brew. Traditionally
they drink chacha in small cups (25-30 grams). In Western Georgia chacha is accompanied
with a sweet snack, in Eastern Georgia chacha is followed with a salted snack.
Cognac manufacturing appeared in Georgia not long ago, in the second half of the 19th
century. Despite its short history, Georgian cognacs have gained wide popularity. Georgian
cognac is produced on the basis of cognac spirits (65-70% alcohol), in oak barrels where
cognac gets its golden color, soft flavor, and aroma. Depending on its age and the grade of
maturity they produce cognacs of 6 to 10 year old spirits and ordinary cognacs of 3 to 5 year
old spirits.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What are the main economic regions of Georgia?
2) What differences in cuisine among these regions do you know?
3) What is “harcho”?
4) What do you know about Caucasian cheese and what is its peculiarity?
5) What field of agriculture is inseparably connected with the history of Georgia and
what do you know about it?
6) Why do Georgians use spice and nuts?
7) What substances contain spicy herbs?
8) Do you like Georgian cuisine? Why?
2. Give the Russian equivalents for these words and combinations:
Dishes, art of cooking, parcel, maize flour, cook gruel, mouton, simplicity of cooking
technology, intersection, mutton, walnuts, beef broth, herbal spices, egg yolks, medicine
against a hangover, length-wise, plumage, metal pans, contribute to the national culinary art,
barbell, boiled or stewed fish, cauliflower, roasted and marinated vegetable, water-skin,
charcoaling on a spit, turning, leaty tops of root, filbert, beechnuts, seasoning, confectionary,
foetus, volatile oil, appliance, pomegranate, vineyard, imprinted the culture, gatherings around
the table, cone-shaped jugs, permission, parsley, savory.
3. Find in the text English equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Грузинская кухня, национальная особенность, пшеничная мука, большое
количество жира, домашняя птица, религиозные ограничения, свинина, густой суп,
обеспечивает специфический вкус, готовый, жарка под давлением, значительно хуже,
свекла, бобы, сырые и жареные овощи, кислый молочный вкус, пропитывать,
наполовину готовый продукт, миндаль, содержат различные вещества, касается
появления, неотъемлемо связана, предлагать тост, возделывать, хранить вино.
4. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian using The
Present Participle Active (1,2):
Приготовленный, злоупотребляющий мясом, предпочитая домашнюю птицу,
обеспечивая специфический вкус, добавляя, очищенная птица, жареная рыба,
заимствованный из армянской кухни, обитающие, вареная, тушеная, соленая,
маринованные, признанный, подходящий к мясным блюдам, содержащий секрет
долголетия, возделывая виноградники, предоставляющий тост, посвященный,
выдержанное вино, засушенный.
5.Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian using The
Present Participle Passive: being differed, being used, being distinguished, being kept, being
contented, being consumed, being contained, being regarded to appearance, being resisted,
being allowed, being gathered, being gained.
6. Fill in the comparative table:
Western Georgia
Eastern Georgia
1. Art of cooking
2. Manufacturing of cheese
3. Manufacturing of wines
Indian cuisine
Lesson 1
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
cereal crop
зерновая культура
caryopsis
зерновка
substantial
основной, главный
goddess
богиня
consumption
потребление; затрата, издержки
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
carbohydrate __________________________________________________
botanically ____________________________________________________
in greater quantities _____________________________________________
agriculture ____________________________________________________
3. Put down the verbs. Translate the words.
Model: use, to use
– использовать
call, to _______________ - ______________________________
paint, to ______________ - ______________________________
enter, to _____________ - _______________________________
4. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
the United Kingdom ___________________________________________
Ireland ______________________________________________________
the United States ______________________________________________
Canada ______________________________________________________
New Zealand __________________________________________________
Australia _____________________________________________________
5. Translate the following questions.
1. Are cereal crops grasses?
2. What are crops rich in?
3. What part of a diet does grain constitute?
4. How was the word 'cereal' derived?
5. What is the difference between grains, corn and maize?
6. Read the text. Find the answers to the questions given above.
Cereal crops or grains are mostly grasses cultivated for their edible grains or fruit seeds
(i.e., botanically a type of fruit called a caryopsis). Cereal grains are grown in greater
quantities and provide more energy worldwide than any other type of crop; they are therefore
staple crops. They are also a rich source of carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain
constitutes practically the entire diet of poor people. In developed nations, cereal consumption
is more moderate but still substantial.
The word 'cereal' derives from 'Ceres', the name of the pre-Roman goddess of harvest
and agriculture. Grains are traditionally called corn in the United Kingdom and Ireland, though
that word became specified for maize in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and
Australia.
7. Define the main idea of the text.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words.
Ethiopia
quinoa
pseudo
injera
Einkorn
Aztec Empire
Fertile Crescent
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
fiber
волокно, корень
protein
белок, протеин
staple
главный продукт
nutty
имеющий вкус ореха
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
time range ___________________________________________________
the real impression ____________________________________________
common products _____________________________________________
so-called ____________________________________________________
4. Change the words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: expansion, to expand – растягивать
generalization, to ________________ - ____________________________
classification, to _________________ - ____________________________
reflection, to ____________________ - ____________________________
relation, to _____________________ - ____________________________
impression, to __________________ - _____________________________
5. Put down the Russian for:
injera
Kaсiwa
wild rice
buckwheat
Durum
semolina
6. Master the words.
teff - тэфф, полевичка абиссинская
farina - крахмал, картофельная мука
amaranth - амарант, щирица
quinoa - лебеда кино, квиноа
spelt wheat - пшеница культурная однозернянка
Emmer - эммер, пшеница двузернянка
Einkorn - пшеница однозернянка
durum wheat - пшеница твёрдая
7. Read and translate the text.
Production
All but buckwheat and quinoa are true grasses (these two are pseudo cereals). Maize,
wheat and rice, between them, accounted for 87% of all grain production, worldwide, and 43%
of all food calories in 2003. Other grains that are important in some places, but that have little
production globally, include:
Teff, popular in Ethiopia but scarcely known elsewhere. This ancient grain is a staple in
Ethiopia. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is often used to make injera. It can also be
eaten as a warm breakfast cereal similar to farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor. Its flour and
whole grain products can usually be found in natural foods stores.
Wild rice, grown in small amounts in North America
Amaranth, ancient pseudo cereal, formerly a staple crop of the Aztec Empire (besides
maize)
Kaсiwa, close relative of quinoa
Several other species of wheat have also been domesticated, some very early in the
history of agriculture:
Spelt, a close relative of common wheat
Einkorn, a wheat species with a single grain
Emmer, one of the first crops domesticated in the Fertile Crescent
Durum, the only tetraploid species of wheat currently cultivated, used to make semolina
8. Pair work. Tell your group-mates about cereals.
Lesson 3
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
starch
крахмал
amino acid
аминокислота
nutrients
питательные вещества, нутриенты
obesity
тучность; ожирение
feed
корм, фураж
pulse
вибрация
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
grain amaranth
food value
food energy
dietary fiber
essential fatty acids
3. Change the words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: Pollution, to pollute – загрязнять
satisfaction, to __________________ - ____________________________
combination, to _________________ - ____________________________
confirmation, to _________________ - ____________________________
utilization, to __________________ - ____________________________
4. Analyze the following words. Define where the ending –ly is the suffix of an
adverb.
typically
supply
especially
particularly
exceptionally
simply
5. Master the following words.
wheat germ — пшеничный зародыш
dumplings – a) клецка б) яблоко, запеченное в тесте
bran – отруби
oatmeal - 1) овсяная мука, толокно 2) овсянка, овсяная каша
tryptophan - триптофан
6. Put down the English for:
орех
цельные зерна
питательный
перемолотые зерна
предтеча
предшественник ниацина
7. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
degradation _____________________________________________________
significant source _________________________________________________
rancidity-prone fats _______________________________________________
health-conscious people ___________________________________________
vitamins A, D, C __________________________________________________
8. Read and translate the text.
Food value
Cereal grains supply most of their food energy as starch. They are also a significant
source of protein, though the amino acid balance, with exceptions as noted below, is not
optimal. Whole grains (see below) are good sources of dietary fiber, essential fatty acids, and
other important nutrients.
Rice is eaten as cooked entire grains, although rice flour is also produced. Oats are
rolled, ground, or cut into bits (steel-cut oats) and cooked into porridge. Most other cereals are
ground into flour or meal, which is milled. The outer layers of bran and germ are removed.
This lessens the nutritional value but makes the grain more resistant to degradation and makes
the grain more appealing to many palates. Health-conscious people tend to prefer whole
grains, which are not milled. Over consumption of milled cereals is sometimes blamed for
obesity. Milled grains do keep better because the outer layers of the grains are rich in
rancidity-prone fats. The waste from milling is sometimes mixed into a prepared animal feed.
Once (optionally) milled and ground, the resulting flour is made into bread, pasta,
desserts, dumplings, and many other products. Besides cereals, flour is sometimes made from
potatoes, chestnuts and pulses (especially chickpea, which is known as bean).
Cereals are the main source of energy providing about 350 kcal per 100 grams. Cereal
proteins are typically poor in nutritive quality, being deficient in essential amino acid lysine.
The proteins of maize are particularly poor, being deficient in lysine and tryptophan (a
precursor of niacin). Rice proteins are richer in lysine than other common cereal proteins and
for this reason, rice protein is considered to be of better quality. Rice is a good source of B
group vitamins, especially thiamine. It is devoid of vitamins A, D, C and is a poor source of
calcium and iron.
Certain grains, including quinoa, buckwheat, and grain amaranth (Pseudo cereal, nongrasses), are exceptionally nutrious. Quinoa was classified as a "supercrop" by the United
Nations because of its high protein content (12-18%). Quinoa contains a balanced set of
essential amino acids for humans, making it an unusually complete source of protein in plants.
In English, cold breakfast cereals, as opposed to cooked porridges such as oatmeal, are
simply called cereal.
9. Pair work. Have a talk on the problems of food value and cereal value.
Lesson 4
1. Read the words.
civilization
quinoa
wealth
package
original
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
artificial
искусственный, поддельный, притворный
airtight
воздухонепроницаемый; герметичный
millet
просо
enhance
увеличивать, усиливать, улучшать
staple
главный продукт
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
wheat grains _________________________________________________
breakfast cereals ______________________________________________
cereal products _______________________________________________
keep in airtight containers ______________________________________
loaded with fat _______________________________________________
might be forgiven _____________________________________________
4. Think of eight questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.
5. To be translated in written.
Cereals
Introduction. All too often, cereal products are thought of as nothing more than starchy
fillers, and indeed, when you consider how some commercial products like cakes and biscuits
and breakfast cereals are made from over-refined grains with nearly all the nutrients except the
starch extracted, and then loaded with fat, sugar, artificial flavourings etc., you might be
forgiven for thinking that's true. But go back to the original, unrefined grains and you have a
wealth of nutrients in a small package. Grains have been the staple foods of many civilizations
for thousands of years. Wheat, barley, oats and rye in Europe, maize in America, quinoa in
South America, rice in the East, and millet in Africa.
Storage. Keep in airtight containers in a cool, dark, dry place. Whole grains can be
stored for up to 2 years; flaked, cracked grains and flours should be used within 2-3 months of
purchase.
Sprouting. Whole grains can be sprouted, which greatly enhances their nutritional value,
e.g. wheat grains, raw buckwheat and barley.
6. Word formation. Form words adding prefixes over-, un-.
Model: refine - over-refined, unrefined
7. Answer the questions.
1. How should cereals be kept?
2. Can whole grains be sprouted?
3. You have a wealth of nutrients in a small package, haven’t you?
4. What cereal products are grown in different countries?
5. How long can grains be stored?
Lesson 5
1. Read the text and define the meaning of new words. Translate the text.
Cooking
Cereals can be used in other ways, besides being ground into flour for bread,
cakes etc. Whole grains can be added to stews and casseroles, or cooked until soft. Cracked or
kibbled grains are cut or broken pieces of whole grains e.g. kibbled wheat and bulgur wheat.
Meal, a coarse kind of flour, can be used to make porridge, thicken soups or mixed with wheat
flour to add interesting flavours and textures to ordinary breads, biscuits, muffins etc. Whole
grains should be washed thoroughly. Boil the required amount of water, add the washed grain,
stir once, put a tight-fitting lid on the pan and simmer for the required cooking time or until the
liquid is absorbed. Turn off the heat and leave to stand for 5 minutes before removing the lid.
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
coarse
грубый, крупный
gluten
клейковина
fibre
волокно
celiac
брюшной
casserole
запеканка
kibble
дробить, разбивать, разделять
3. Read the micro text and define the main idea of the text.
Cereals are seeds of plants, usually members of the grass family but there are a few
exceptions. They are annuals that are they have to be planted every year and at the end of the
summer, when they have produced ripe seeds, they die down. Like all seeds, cereals are very
nutritious because they contain all the nutrients the embryo plant needs to start growing.
Unrefined cereals are valuable sources of proteins, carbohydrates, B vitamins and also contain
some fat, iron, vitamin E and trace minerals and are a very good source of fibre in the diet.
Some cereals (wheat, barley, rye and oats) contain the protein gluten, which is essential for
leavened bread-making. Without sufficient gluten, bread will not rise. People suffering from
gluten intolerance or coeliac disease must avoid any cereal containing gluten. In some parts of
the world unleavened (unrisen) bread is eaten or the staple cereal is made into noodles or
pasta. They are usually cheap to buy and are a valuable source of variety in the vegetarian diet.
4. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Whole grains, ripe seeds, gluten intolerance, nutritious, carbohydrates, trace minerals,
valuable source, a coarse kind of flour, wheat and bulgur wheat, a tight-fitting lid, cracked or
kibbled grains.
5. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
дешевый, макароны, тесто, зажигать, выключить, пищевая ценность, витамины,
выращивать, зерно, мясное блюдо, мука, хлеб, запеканка, железо, жир, волокно, вкус,
болезнь.
6. Answer the questions.
1. In what ways can cereal be used?
2. How are cracked or kibbled grains made?
3. What dishes are cooked with coarse kind of flour?
4. How are whole grains cooked?
5. Are cereals very nutritious?
Lesson 6
1. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
whole or pot barley _______________________________________________
triangular shape __________________________________________________
human food _____________________________________________________
malt extract _____________________________________________________
sorrels and docks _________________________________________________
distinctive flavour _________________________________________________
tiny seeds ________________________________________________________
savory dishes _____________________________________________________
2. Master the active vocabulary:
muffins
маффин, кекс
barley flakes
ячменные хлопья
fluffy
пушистый, мягкий как пух; пуховый; взбитый
simmer
медленное кипение; выкипание
3. Read and translate the text:
Barley
Barley grows in a wider variety of climatic conditions than any other cereal. It used to be a
very important source of direct human food, but its use has diminished over the last 250 years,
replaced by wheat, and it is now used almost exclusively as animal feed or for making beer
and whisky. It contains gluten, so barley flour can be made into bread. More usually found in
the shops as whole or pot barley, or polished pearl barley, it is also possible to buy barley
flakes or kernels. The whole barley is more nutritious with 100g providing 10.5g protein, 2.1g
fat, 69.3g carbohydrate, 4g fibre, 50mg folic acid, 6mg iron and 50mg calcium. It can be
cooked on its own (1:3 parts water for 45-60 minutes) as a pleasant alternative to rice, pasta or
potatoes, or added to stews. Malt extract is made from sprouted barley grains.
Buckwheat (gluten free)
Buckwheat is not a true cereal as it is not a member of the grass family, instead being
related to sorrels and docks. If you look at docks closely, you can see that the seeds, though
smaller, have the same distinctive triangular shape. Buckwheat, a native of central Asia, is now
grown in Europe, N America and the former USSR countries, but it is still not widely used in
Britain. 100g of buckwheat provides 11.7g protein, 3.9mg iron and it is very high in calcium
with 114mg per 100g. Available raw the seeds are greenish-pink, or roasted (known as kasha)
the seeds are darker reddish-brown. It can be cooked (1:2 parts water for 6 minutes, leave to
stand for 6 minutes) and served like rice or you can add it to stews and casseroles. Buckwheat
flour can be added to cakes, muffins, pancakes etc. where it imparts a distinctive flavour. Look
out too for buckwheat spaghetti, soba.
Corn or Maize (gluten free)
Maize is the principal food plant of America and was unknown in other parts of the
world until Columbus reached America in 1492. It was grown by the Maya, Inca and Aztec
civilizations, and by various North American Indian tribes and now has spread to Canada,
USSR, Italy, Spain, Egypt, India and South Africa. It is used for human food, animal feed and
as a source of raw materials for industry. 100g maize gives 9g protein. Fresh maize is often
available (sweet corn, corn on the cob) but remember that nutritional values will be lower
because less concentrated. We most often see maize as cornflakes or popcorn, but cornmeal or
polenta is available and can be added to soup, pancakes, muffins etc. Tortillas are made from
maize meal, as are quite a lot of snack foods. Do not confuse cornmeal with highly refined
corn starch/flour, used for thickening.
Millet (gluten free)
Millet is the name applied to a variety of grasses first cultivated in Asia or Africa. It is a
staple crop in Africa because it is drought resistant and keeps well. 100g millet provides 9.9g
protein, and 6.8mg iron (higher than other cereals). Millet makes a delicious alternative to rice
but the tiny seeds need to be cracked before they will absorb water easily, so they should be
first sautéed with a little vegetable oil for 2-3 minutes until some are seen to crack, then add
water with care (1:3 parts), bring to the boil and simmer for 15-20 minutes until fluffy. Millet
flakes can be made into porridge or added to muesli and millet flour is available, sometimes
also made into pasta.
Oats
Oats are thought to have originated in Western Europe and may originally have
appeared as a weed in barley and so got spread with the barley. They're now grown in many
parts of the world including N W Europe, the former USSR countries, North America, Canada,
Australia and China. Used mostly as animal feed, they are very nutritious. In fact, as they are
usually inexpensive to buy, they can be a real boon to people trying to get a good diet on a low
budget. 100g oats gives 13g protein, 55mg calcium (more than any other cereal except
buckwheat), and 4.6mg iron. Available as groats (whole grains with the husks removed) but
more usually as various grades of oatmeal, rolled oats or jumbo oat flakes. Oat groats need
cooking for 45 minutes in 1:3 parts water. All forms can be used to make porridge, combined
with ground nuts to make a roast or added to stews. Oatmeal is low in gluten so can't be used
to make a loaf, but can be mixed with wheat flour to add flavour and texture to bread, muffins,
pancakes etc.
Quinoa (gluten free)
Quinoa is an ancient crop which fed the Central American Aztec Indians for thousands
of years, and which has recently been cultivated in Britain. Unlike most grains, it does not
belong to the grass family, but is a relative of the garden weed called Fat Hen. It is very
nutritious, containing between 13-14% protein with a good amino acid composition but has no
gluten so it cannot be used for bread making. Instead, it is cooked for 15 minutes in 1:3 parts
water and served as a side dish or may be used in risotto, pilaf, vegetable stuffing etc.
Rice (gluten-free)
Rice is one of the world's most important crops. It originated in Asia but is now grown
throughout the humid, sub-tropical regions. It differs from most other cereals in requiring land
that is submerged in water to grow, though some varieties do grow in upland areas. Rice is a
good source of carbohydrate but doesn't have quite as much protein as some other cereals
(6.5g per 100g). Unpolished rice (i.e. wholegrain/brown rice) is a good source of B vitamins
too. There are three basic kinds in culinary terms: long, medium and short grain. Long used
traditionally in savory dishes, short in dessert cooking, although this varies across the globe
and it is really a matter of personal preference. Long wholegrain rice needs to cook in 1:2 parts
water for 35-40 minutes. Rice flour is available but because of the lack of gluten, it cannot be
used to make a yeasted loaf but can be used for cakes, biscuits and pancakes. Rice flakes
(brown and white) can be added to muesli or made into a milk pudding or porridge.
Wild Rice
Wild rice is not rice at all but an American grass used as an important food by the
Indians and early settlers. Difficulty in harvesting makes it expensive, but the colour, a
purplish black and its subtly nutty flavour make it a good base for a special dish and it can be
economically mixed with other rices, but may need pre-cooking as it takes 45-50 minutes to
cook in 1:3 parts of water.
4. Answer the following questions:
1. Quinoa is an ancient crop, isn’t it?
2. Why is wild rice expensive?
3. How long should wild rice be cooked?
4. Is whole or pot barley more nutritious?
5. What cereal is used mostly as animal feed?
6. What is a delicious alternative to rice? Why?
7. Do you confuse cornmeal with highly refined corn starch?
5. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
Long, humid, differ, difficulty, crop, gluten, muesli, popcorn, make, found, short, milk,
varies, true, cereal, member, relate, sorrels, docks, early, more, usually, shops, whole,
always.
6. Make sentences of the following words.
1. Making, be, bread, quinoa, for, cannot, used.
2. For, oat, forty, cooking, groats, minutes, need, five.
3. Rice, a, is, carbohydrate, of, source, good.
4. Can, a, real, trying, boon, budget, to, diet, what, people, on, be, to, get, a, good, a,
low?
5. Wild, not, all, rice, is, rice, at.
7. Pair work. Make a dialogue. Discuss crops from the text.
Lesson 7
1. Read the words:
Middle East
Eastern Europe
Southern Russia
South West Australia
2. Pronounce correctly:
[g] – languages, granary, gluten
[k] – cultivation, can, successful
[h] – high, whole
3. Master the active vocabulary:
at high altitudes — высоко
tolerant - приемлющий, терпимый, относящийся терпимо
dense - плотный; сжатый; густой, частый
chewy - требующий продолжительного жевания
spelt - пшеница спельта, полба настоящая
4. Put down the English for:
рожь _________________________________________________
ячмень _______________________________________________
пшеница ______________________________________________
зерно _________________________________________________
хлеб __________________________________________________
каша __________________________________________________
5. Read the examples. Cover the left column and translate the examples back into
English.
Flapjack
а) блин, лепешка, оладья б) плоский или полукруглый яблочный
пирог
couscous
кускус ( африканское блюдо из крупы, баранины и овощей )
puff pastry
изделия из слоёного теста
rye bread
ржаной хлеб
fertility
плодородие; изобилие
6. Put down the Russian for:
granary-type loaves
yeasted loaf
wheat and barley
soil fertility
grain allergies
wheat seem
7. Read the micro text and define the main idea of the text.
Rye is the least important cereal crop and is usually only grown where conditions are
relatively unfavorable and other cereals don't do well. It probably originated in S W Asia, but
the name occurs in Northern European languages, which suggest early cultivation in that area.
It is very hardy and so grows in temperate and cool regions and at high altitudes, and is very
tolerant of poor soil fertility. It is the only cereal apart from wheat and barley that has enough
gluten to make a yeasted loaf, but it has less gluten than wheat, so rye bread is denser. It is
more usual to mix rye flour with wheat flour. Rye grains should be cooked in 1:3 parts water
for 45-60 minutes. Kibbled rye is often added to granary-type loaves. You can also add rye to
stews and rye flakes are available, which can be used in muesli. 100g of rye gives 9.4g protein.
8. Read and translate the text.
Spelt
Spelt is closely related to common wheat, originating in the Middle East, and has been
popular for decades in Eastern Europe. Higher in protein than wheat, it appears to have a
different molecular structure, appearing to cause fewer problems than wheat for some sufferers
of grain allergies. It has an intense nutty, wheaty flavor. The flour is excellent for bread
making and spelt pasta is becoming more widely available.
Wheat
This is the most familiar cereal used in Britain today; it is used for bread, cakes, biscuits,
pastry, breakfast cereals and pasta. All the present varieties of wheat seem to be derived from
hybrid wild wheat that grew in the Middle East 10,000 years ago. Over 30,000 varieties are
said to be in cultivation. Wheat can be grown in a very wide range of climatic conditions but is
most successful in temperate zones including the UK, North America, Southern Russia and
South West Australia. Nutritionally, 100g whole wheat provides 14g protein, 2.2g fat, 69.1g
carbohydrate, 2.3g fibre, 3.1mg iron, 36mg calcium. Wheat grains, also called wheat berries,
can be eaten whole, cooked in 1:3 parts of water for 40-60 minutes; they have a satisfying,
chewy texture. Cracked or kibbled wheat is the dried whole grains cut by steel blades. Bulgur
wheat, made from the whole grains steamed before cracking, only needs rehydrating by
soaking in boiling water or stock. Couscous is the steamed, dried and cracked grains of durum
wheat and is more refined than bulgur. Soak in 2 parts of water/stock to rehydrate, traditionally
it is steamed after soaking. Strong wheat flour (high gluten content) is required for yeasted
breadmaking and puff pastry. Plain flour is used for general cooking including cakes and short
crust pastry. Wheat flakes are used for porridge, muesli and flapjacks. Wheat germ is an
excellent source of nutrients, especially vitamin E.
9. Arrange the words in the order of appearance in the text.
North America
vitamin E
molecular
sufferers
durum
cause
texture
10. Pair work. Tell your group-mates about bread making. Let him/her put
questions to you and answer them.
Part V. FOOD PRODUCTS. KINDS OF FOOD.
FRUIT PRODUCTS
Vocabulary of the text
Spoilage
Non-heat-resistant
Canning
Sterilization
Sealed container
Freezing
Syrup
Oxidation
Dehydration
Sun-drying
Solution
Moisture contents
To mold
Inedible
Pickling
Evaporation
Pectin
To clarify
To pasteurize
Clarification
порча (гниение)
нетеплоустойчивые
консервирование
стерилизация
герметичный корпус
замораживание
сироп
окисление
обезвоживание (дегидратация)
воздушно-солнечная сушка
раствор
содержание влаги
плесневеть
несъедобный
маринование
испарение
пектин
очищать
пастеризовать
осветление
The term fruit generally refers to fruits and berries. Being acid, fruits lend themselves
to conventional methods of preservation and manufacture.
Canning. Because the main spoilage agents in fruits are non-heat-resistant
microorganisms, canning preservation is functional. Exposure of prepared fruit products to
temperatures near 93.3 degrees is generally adequate for their sterilization. The process
involves the heating of manufactured fruit products in sealed containers of glass, tin, or plastic,
in boiling water, or steam at atmospheric pressure.
Freezing. The generally delicate nature of fruits requires rapid freezing techniques for
best results, followed by storage of frozen products at -17 degrees or below. Sugar is usually a
part of the packing medium, either mixed in dry or added as a syrup. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
may be added to avoid color changes due to oxidation in ruptured tissues exposed to air.
Dehydration. Sun drying is a very widely used method of preserving fruits. Dehydration,
or artificial drying of fruits, yields greatly improved products but is more expensive.
Successful dehydration involves washing, sorting, trimming, slicing, exposure to burning
sulfur fumes, or dipping into sulfite solutions, followed by the removal of the water in the
tissues with dry hot air. The sulfur treatment is useful in protecting the delicate nature of fruit
flavors and preventing discoloration due to oxidation. Dried fruits with moisture contents of
less than 20% will usually keep for several years if protected from the elements and insects.
Dried fruits with more than 26% moisture will mold and become inedible if not highly
sulfured. Drying may be accomplished by exposing the prepared, sulfured fruit to the sun or to
drying in tunnels, in vacuum dryers, or in freeze dryers.
Pickling. Fruits may be pickled by boiling in water until tender and placing in a spiced
sugar syrup. The fruits are packaged into glass or tinned containers, filled with hot syrup, and
sealed. If fruit and syrup are above 82.2 degrees when packaged, no further processing is
required. Filled containers should be inverted to sterilize the lids.
Jams, jellies and preserves. The manufacture of fruit into jellies and preserves is one of
the oldest and most important means of using large amounts of sound fruits which may not be
well shaped or which for other reasons are unsuited for fresh market outlets.
Jellies are prepared by boiling the fruit, extracting the juice, filtering the juice, adding
sugar, concentrating, packaging and sterilizing.
The requirements of a fruit jelly are that the proper combination of acid, pectin and
sugar in water be reached so that a gel will form. Too high a sugar content results in a sticky
gel. Acid, pectin and sugar concentrations are independent; each must be in balance with the
other variables to have acceptable gel formation.
Jams, jellies, preserves, marmelades and fruit butters are products prepared from fruit
juices or fruit with added sugar. After concentration by evaporation to a point where microbial
spoilage cannot occur, the prepared products can be safely stored. Commercially, the prepared
fruit products are filled into containers, usually glass, allowing the mass to set in the container.
Fruits vary in jelly-making ability. Crab apples, sour apple varietes which are not overly
mature, sour berries, citrus fruits, grapes, sour cherries, and cranberries contain sufficient
pectin and acid to yield good jelly naturally. Sweet cherries and melons are rich in pectin but
low in acid. Strawberries and apricots contain sufficient acid but are low in pectin.
Commercially available pectin and edible acids permit a manufacturer to correct these
deficiences in fruits.
Juices. Juices are made from fruit usually lacking good market quality, but of sound
character otherwise. Fruits are washed, sorted, pulped and extracted. Some fruit juices are
improved in appearance if clarified. This does not apply to juices of citrus, apricot, pineapple
and others which are more popular when cloudy. Apple, cranberry, cherry and grape juices are
examples of clarified juices which have good acceptance. These fruits may be preserved by
canning, freezing, dehydration or chemical additives.
Grape fruit is made from mature grapes which are washed, crushed and pressed. The
juice is pasteurized by heating to above 79.4, then stored to permit separation of suspended
solids at temperatures below 0. The settled juice is separated from the sediment, then filtered,
bottled and sterilized.
Apple juice is made from washed apples which are crushed and pressed. The juice is
filtered and bottled, with or without clarification.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What is dehydration ?
2) What fruits are used in the production of jams and juices?
3) What do citrus fruits, grapes, sour cherries, and cranberries contain?
4) What is grape fruit made from?
5) Why do fruits preserved by canning, freezing lose amount of vitamins?
2. Give the Russian equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Berries, preservation, non-heat-resistant, boiling water, delicate nature,
oxidation,
dehydration, trimming, removal of the water, sulfur treatment, moisture contents, inedible,
preserves, sound fruits, pectin, sticky gel, evaporation, mature,
clarify, settled juice, to crush, freezing.
cranberries, yield good, to
3. Find in the text the English equivalents for these words and word combinations.
Производство, порча, герметичный корпус, стерилизация, разрушение ткани,
воздушно-солнечная сушка, макание в сульфированные растворы, предотвращение
обесцвечивания, сухофрукты, плесневеть, стерилизовать крышки, надежно хранится,
кислые, кислота, мякоть, отстоявшийся слой, осветление, консервирование.
4.Translate into English paying attention to Participles:
Spoiled agents, rupturing tissues, molding fruits, boiling water, burning sulfur fumes,
contenting of moisture, extracting the juice, adding sugar, packaging and sterilizing, freezing
techniques, canned fruits, frozen fruits, allowing the mass, improved fruit juices, placing in
sugar syrup, filled with hot syrup, sterilized the lids, clarified juices, pasteurized and clarified
juice, the prepared products
5. Translate into English using The Present Participle Passive.
Подвергающиеся приготовлению, широко используемый метод, употребляемые
фрукты, будучи упакованы, надежно хранящиеся продукты, отстоявшийся слой,
обрабатываемые кипятком.
BEVERAGES
Beverages
To appreciate
Nutritive value
Potassium
Sodium
Therapeutic
Vehicle
Brewery
Riboflavin
To acquire
Toxic manifestation
Potable
Distilled spirits
Subsequently
Molasses
Essential oil
Cognac
Distinct
Stone
To pronounce
Rye whisky
Juniper berry
Vocabulary of the text
напитки
оценивать
питательная ценность
калий
натрий
лечебный
растворитель, связующее звено
пивоваренный завод
рибофлавин, витамин Б2
приобретать
токсичное проявление
питьевой
очищенные (дистиллированные) спирты
впоследствии
меласса ( черная патока)
эфирное масло
коньяк
особенный
косточка
резко выражать
хлебная водка
можжевельник
Although most adults drink one or two litres of water a day, much of this is in the form
of coffee, tea, fruit juices, soft drinks, beer, wines or spirits, or other liquids. In general, these
are appreciated more for their taste and the substances they contain, or, for their effects, than
for their nutritive value. Fruit juices are, of course, useful for vitamin C content and being rich
in potassium and low in sodium are valuable in therapeutic diets. Coffee and tea by themselves
are of no nutritive value, but may be a vehicle for large intakes of sugar, milk or lemon. The
alcohol in beer, wines and spirits can serve as a source of energy. Beer contains two to six
percent alcohol, natural wines 10 percent, and most spirits just over 30 percent. Since ethyl
alcohol has an energy value of seven kilocalories per gram, very significant amounts of energy
can be obtained from alcoholic drinks. With one or two exceptions, they contain no nutrients
and are only a source of empty calories. One exception, so-called country beer may be an
important source of the B vitamin group. The only vitamin present in significant amounts in
beer from a brewery is riboflavin. Wines are devoid of vitamins, but sometimes contain large
amounts of iron, probably acquired from iron vessels used in preparation, especially of cheap
wine. It is possibly for excess iron to be absorbed and stored in the liver where it may
contribute to toxic manifestations.
Potable alcoholic beverages are obtained by distilling an alcohol-containing liquid and
further treating the distillates to obtain beverages of specific character.
The various distilled spirits are classified according to the raw material which has been
fermented and subsequently distilled, such as grain, molasses and fruit, and the further
treatment given the distillate to add specific flavors and aroma. These are referred to as
compounded or flavored spirits. Examples of beverages made from grain are whiskies, vodka
and gin. Some types of vodka and gin are made from potatoes. The so-called compounded or
flavored spirits are made from distilled spirits by the addition of sugar, essential oils, herbs or
other ingredients.
Brandies. Brandy is a spirit obtained from the distillation of wine or a fermented fruit
juice, usually after aging of the wine in wooden casks. Cognac is a brandy distilled from wines
made of grapes grown within the legal limits of Charente Department, the Cognac region of
France. American brandies are primarily products of California and have a flavor different
from the European brandies. Apple brandy is distilled from completely fermented apple juice
and aged in oak barrels for 5-10 years, it has a distinct apple flavor. Other fruits from which
brandy is made include black, wild cherries, plums, blackberries and apricots. When stone
fruits are used, some of the stones are broken or crushed and a small amount of the oil distilled
over with the spirit, giving the brandy a more or less pronounced and distinctive bitter almond
flavor.
Whiskies are spirits made by distilling fermented grain mashes and aging the distillate in
wood, usually oak. Examples are Scotch whisky, Irish whisky, Canadian whisky and rye
whisky. In all types of whiskies the type and quality of water used in the plant is an important
factor in tha quality of the finished product.
Gins consist essentially of a pure grade of alcohol which has been flavored with an
extract of the juniper berry as the chief flavoring agent. There are two principal types of gin:
English, or London dry gin, and Dutch gin.
Rum. The alcoholic distillate from fermented sugar cane juice or molasses is known as
rum.
Vodka is a product originally produced in Russia but now popular in many countries. It
is usually made from wheat. It is highly rectified during distillation and thus is a very pure
neutral spirit without a pronounced taste. It is not aged.
EXERCISES
1. Answer the questions:
1) What kinds of beverages does a person consume during the day?
2) Why are fruit juices useful?
3) What are alcoholic beverages for people?
4) What vitamins may wine and beer contain?
5) What processes occur during the production of alcoholic beverages?
6) What is brandy?
7) What is the difference between whiskey and rum?
8) Why is Russian vodka considered to be special?
9) What is the consequence of drinking too much alcoholic beverages?
2. Give the Russian equivalents for these words and combinations:
Liquids, nutritive value, potassium, vehicle, energy value, devoid of vitamins,
acquired from iron vessels, potable, alcohol- containing, fermented, essential oil, aging of
wine, oak barrels, bitter almond flavor, distillation, rectified, juniper berry.
3. Find in the text theEnglish equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Вещества, натрий, лечебные диеты, потребление, пивоваренный, железо,
токсичные проявления, очистка, получение, пряные травы, деревянные бочки, косточки,
хлебные виски, резко выраженные,
4. Translate into English paying attention to Participles:
Жидкости, содержащие витамин C; натрий и калий; полученная простым
способом; вещества, лишенные витаминов; поглощенное, способствующее токсичным
проявлениям; очищенные спирты, классифицированные рабочие; спирты, полученные
очищением; выдержанные напитки; резко выраженный запах; произведенное в другой
стране оборудование
5. Translate into Russian paying attention to Participles:
Serving as a source of energy, acquired from iron, alcohol-contained, distilled,
fermented, flavored spirits, compounded, aged in oak barrels, used, giving, broken, crushed,
finished product.
6. Grammar.
Notice that you sometimes omit the verb to be in the second part of the sentence.
The beans were roasted in clay pots and then (were) ground to a paste.
To avoid repetition, before and after may be used.
The paste was shaped into small loaves before being dried in the sun.
After being harvested, the cocoa pods were left to ferment…
Here are some extractions about how to make beer from a can. Rewrite them to
describe the process of beer-making, beginning with the words provided.
Example: First, pour the contents of the can into a large saucepan, and mix with water
and sugar.
The contents of the can are poured into a large pan and mixed with water and sugar.
1) Heat the mixture, and leave it to cool.
After being…
2) Then mix the yeast with some warm water and add it to the beer.
Then the yeast…
3) Pour the beer into a container and leave it to ferment.
After being…
4) Test the beer and put into sterilized bottles.
Before being…
5) Add some sugar to the bottles.
Some sugar…
6) Put the beer in a cool place and leave for several weeks before drinking.
The beer…
Frozen foods
Frozen foods are products of the food preservation process of freezing. This process has
been employed by people in the Arctic from prehistoric times. Eskimos throw fresh-caught
fish on the ice to freeze, and naturally frozen fish have been a trade staple of the Great Lakes
region of North America since the mid-19th cent. Brine and cold-room convection methods
were in use in Europe and the United States from about 1860 for freezing meat, fish, poultry,
and eggs. In the early part of the 20th cent. small fruits were frozen for manufacturers of
preserves, bakery products, and ice cream. Freezing prevents food spoilage by inhibiting
microorganic and enzyme action. Deterioration is rapid after thawing, since reactivated
organisms attack cells injured by ice crystals. Earlier methods involved inserting the food into
chilled brine or an ice and salt mixture. In flash freezing, commercially begun in Germany in
the early 20th cent., rapid chilling gives less time for the diffusion of salts and water for
microorganic action. Methods of quick freezing include direct contact with refrigeration,
indirect cooling by contact of the product with refrigerated shelves, cold blasts, or a
combination of these methods. The frozen food industry has expanded rapidly because of the
labor-saving and space-saving advantages of frozen foods and because the freezing process
generally involves less loss of taste, flavor, and appearance than do other methods; it has been
paralleled by the development of suitable containers and of specialized methods of
transportation, storage, and retailing.
Organic food
Organic food is food raised without chemicals and processed without additives. Under
standards synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and antibiotics may not be used in raising organic
foods, and the use of irradiation, biotechnology, and sewer-sludge fertilizer is also banned.
Food whose ingredients are at least 95% organic by weight may carry the “USDA ORGANIC”
label; products containing only organic ingredients are labeled 100% organic.
Proponents of organic food claim that it is more nutritious, safer to eat, and usually
tastes better because it contains no synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,
hormones, medicated feed, or antibiotics or chemicals used in food processing; these claims
are disputed by conventional-food growers and processors. Organic foods have become
steadily more popular as the public has become more concerned about health risks associated
with chemicals in food products. Organic produce is now available in many food outlets,
including major supermarket chains. Organic food is generally more expensive because
organic farming requires more manual labor and attention.
Nuts and Seeds
Lesson 1
1. Read the words:
conveniently
vegetarian
flavouring
rancidity
phosphorous
2. Master the active vocabulary. Cover the left column and translate the Russian
words back into English.
Nut
орех
seeds
семечко, семя
shell
оболочка, корка
potassium
калий
excess
чрезмерность, неумеренность
3. Word formation.
Analyze the meaning of the suffixes: -ly, -less, -able.
Find words formed with these suffixes in the text and translate them.
Give your own examples.
Nuts are seeds that are covered with a hard shell. Most are the seeds of trees, but the
seeds of a few other plants that are not strictly nuts will also be considered here as they can be
conveniently classified with nuts for culinary purposes. Nuts can be used in many ways.
Whole, flaked and ground nuts and nut butters are widely available. A classic vegetarian
savoury is nut roast and many vegetarian cook books give a recipe for one, which can be
endlessly varied with different herbs and flavourings and different combinations of nuts and
cereals. Nuts can be added to sweet dishes, cakes and biscuits, and nut butters can be added to
soups and stews to thicken them.
Nuts in general are very nutritious, providing protein and many essential vitamins, such
as A and E, minerals, such as phosphorous and potassium, and fibre. Nuts are also high in
carbohydrate and oils, so shouldn't be eaten in excess.
Whereas pulses all belong to the legume group of plants, nuts come from a variety of
different plant groups, so the nutritional content is more varied too. A brief description of
individual varieties is given below, together with the main nutrients they contain.
Nuts should be stored in cool, dry conditions in airtight containers away from the light.
Because of their high fat content, many of them benefit from storage in the fridge or freezer to
deter rancidity.
4. Put down the nouns. Translate the words. Find a word different from others.
Model: to drink– drinker; пить – пьющий
To store - _____________; ______________ - _____________________
To freeze - ____________; ______________ - _____________________
To use - ______________; _______________ - _____________________
To contain - ___________; _______________ - _____________________
5. Combine the given adjectives (A) with the proper nouns (B).
A
B
sweet
dishes
essential
vitamins
individual
varieties
dry
conditions
main
nutrients
6. Put down the English for:
бобовые растения __________________________________________
травы ____________________________________________________
орехи и семена ____________________________________________
7. Pair work. Speak about nuts and seeds.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words.
Near East
Southern Europe
Western Asia
California
South Australia
South Africa.
2. Master the active vocabulary:
nutritious
питательный
iron
железо
world-wide распространенный по всему миру; всемирный, мировой
particularly очень, чрезвычайно; в высокой степени
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Almond oil ________________________________________________
Sweet almond _______________________________________________
Bitter Almond _______________________________________________
Almond flour ________________________________________________
4. Read and translate the text:
Almonds
Probably originated in the Near East but now grows in Southern Europe, Western Asia,
California, South Australia and South Africa. Almond oil is used for flavouring and for skin
care preparations and is extracted from the kernel of the Bitter Almond. The Sweet Almond is
grown for nuts for eating and have the largest share of the nut trade world-wide. Almond flour
is available and it is possible to make nutritious nut milk from almonds. Almonds are
particularly nutritious; 100g contain 16.9g protein, 4.2mg iron, 250mg calcium, 20mg vitamin
E, 3.1mg zinc and 0.92mg vitamin B2.
5. Answer the following questions:
1. Where did almonds originate?
2. What sorts of almond do you know?
3. How is almond used?
4. Are almonds nutritious?
6. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
eat
nuts
share
grow
have
largest
trade
world
lately
7. Read and translate the text in written.
Brazils are native of South America. The nuts grow inside a hard, woody fruit rather like
a coconut shell which has to be broken open to expose the 12-24 nuts inside. Brazils are high
in fat, which causes them to go rancid very quickly, and protein. 100g of brazils contain 12g
protein, 61g fat, 2.8mg iron, 180mg calcium, 4.2mg zinc.
8. Define the main idea of the text.
Cashews are native to America but now grown extensively in India and East Africa. It
will withstand rather drier conditions than most other nuts. The nut grows in a curious way on
the tree, hanging below a fleshy, apple-like fruit. It is related to the mango, pistachio and
poison ivy. High in protein and carbohydrate, 100g cashews contain 17.2g protein, 60
micrograms vitamin A, 3.8mg iron.
9. Read the text. Write out the description of chestnuts.
Chestnuts
The sweet chestnut is a native of South Europe but is planted elsewhere extensively for
both nuts and timber. The nuts can be used in soups, fritters, porridges, stuffings and stews, as
well as being roasted or boiled whole. Available fresh (in autumn), dried, canned - whole or
pureed, or ground into flour. Dried chestnuts need soaking for at least 1-2 hours and boiling for
45-60 minutes, fresh need boiling for 40 minutes before being peeled. Preserved in syrup they
become the famous delicacy, Marron-glace. High in starch, but low in protein and fat, 100g
chestnuts contain 36.6g carbohydrate, only 2g protein (the lowest of all nuts) and 2.7g fat.
Lesson 3
1. Read the words.
fibrous
matting
margarines
residue
hydrogenate
saturate
2. Master the words.
fibrous
волокнистый, жилистый, фиброзный
trunk
ствол
saturated fat
насыщенный жир
detergent
очищающее, моющее средство
desiccated
высушенный; сушёный
coir
кокосовые волокна, хлопья
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
the coconut palm __________________________________________
the leaves for thatch ________________________________________
the fibrous husk ___________________________________________
Unripe nuts _______________________________________________
4. Add suffix –ness. Translate the words.
tight
weight
power
big
5. Read the text and define the meaning of new words. Translate the text.
Coconuts
The coconut palm is common in tropical regions all over the world. The nut is covered
in a fibrous outer coating on the tree and all parts of the tree are useful, the trunks for timber,
the leaves for thatch, the fibrous husk produces coir - the starting material for ropes and
coconut matting - and the nuts are used for food. Unripe nuts contain coconut milk. The
nutmeat can be eaten fresh or dried (desiccated or flaked coconut) and is also available in
blocks of creamed coconut. Valuable oil is also extracted from the nut meat and used for
cooking (although it is very high in saturated fat), margarines, soaps and detergents. 100g fresh
coconut contains 3.2g protein and 36g fat, desiccated contains 5.6g protein and 62g fat.
6. Read the micro text and define the main idea of the text.
Peanuts are also known as groundnuts or monkey nuts, peanuts are actually legumes. Of
South American origin, it's now an important crop all over the tropics and southern USA. It
gets its name groundnut because as the pods ripen, they are actually forced underground.
Peanuts are high in protein and contain 40-50% oil. The oil is used in cooking, as salad oil, in
margarines and the residue is fed to animals. Whole peanuts can be eaten raw or roasted or
made into peanut butter (look out for brands which do not contain hydrogenated oils, which
are highly saturated). As they are usually inexpensive, they can be mixed with other kinds of
nuts to bring down the cost, while still maintaining flavour and good nutrition. 100g peanuts
contain 24.3g protein, 2mg iron and 3mg zinc.
7. Complete the sentences.
1. Unripe nuts contain ….
2. They can be mixed ….
3. The nut is covered ….
4. Valuable oil is ….
5. It gets its name groundnut ….
8. Choose the proper prepositions and fill them in:
1. Can the nutmeat be eaten fresh or dried?
2. The coconut palm is common … tropical regions all over the world, isn’t it?
3. What is the coconut covered …?
4. Whole peanuts can be made … peanut butter, can’t they?
5. What … is peanut butter mixed with other kinds of nuts?
9. Pair work. Put the questions given above to your group-mate and let him/her
answer them.
Lesson 4
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
filbert
фундук; культурная форма лещины, лесного ореха
confectionery
кондитерская, кондитерский магазин
pecan
орех пекан
savoury
вкусный, приятный на вкус, аппетитный
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Cod ___________________________________________________
savoury dishes ___________________________________________
hazel nuts _______________________________________________
high fat content ___________________________________________
the cultivated varieties ______________________________________
3. Put down the English for:
лесной орех ______________________________________________
плод кокосовой пальмы ____________________________________
орех пекан _______________________________________________
арахис ___________________________________________________
миндаль __________________________________________________
4. Read the text. Compare hazels and pecans.
Hazels
Hazel, also called Cob, is a common wild tree in Europe and Asia and its nuts have been
eaten by humans since earliest times. The cultivated varieties are bigger and the filbert is a
similar but bigger species from SE Europe. Used in sweet and savoury dishes, they are
available whole, ground and flaked, or made into oil and nut butter. 100g hazel nuts contain
7.6g protein, and they are lower in fat than most other nuts.
Pecans
Pecans are native of N America where it is used extensively in ice cream, cakes, nut
bread and confectionery. The flavour is rather like a mild, sweet walnut. 100g pecans contain
9.2g protein, a very high fat content of 71.2g, 130 micrograms vitamin A (also very high),
2.4mg iron and 73mg calcium.
5. Write out words from the text. Arrange them into three columns according to
the part of speech.
noun
adjective
adverb
1. ________________ ___________________ _________________
2. ________________ ___________________ _________________
3. ________________ ___________________ _________________
4. ________________ ___________________ _________________
5. ________________ ___________________ _________________
6. Make questions of the following words.
1. Cob, is, nut, what, called?
2. of, hazel, what, available, nuts, kind, are?
3. content, the, in, hazel, lowest, is, nut, fat, nut?
4. hazel, pecan, is, or, nut, nutritious, more?
7. Pair work. Put the questions given above to your group-mate and let him/her
answer them.
Lesson 5
1. Read the words.
Macadamia
notoriously
delicious
Hawaii
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
macadamia
макадамия, орех австралийский
rancid
прогорклый, протухший
pinon
сосна съедобная
pistachio
а) фисташковое дерево б) фисташка, фисташковый орех
pine
сосна
pine nut
кедровый орех
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Mediterranean region _____________________________________
the Stone Pine ___________________________________________
the Korean Pine __________________________________________
pesto sauce ______________________________________________
the North American pinon tree _______________________________
4. Put down the English for:
фисташка ________________________________________________
орех австралийский _______________________________________
грецкий орех _____________________________________________
арахис ___________________________________________________
кедровый орех _____________________________________________
5. Read texts about different kinds of nut. Compare them.
Macadamia Nuts
Macadamia Nuts are native of NE Australia now also grown commercially in Hawaii.
Notoriously difficult to extract from their shells, they are expensive but have a delicious
creamy flavour and crunchy texture. Low in carbohydrate, but quite high in fat, 100g
Macadamia nuts contain 7g protein and 40mg calcium.
Pine Nuts
These are the seeds of the Stone Pine, a native of the Mediterranean region, but the
seeds of various other pines are eaten in various parts of the world including the seeds of the
Korean Pine or North American pinon tree. They are very difficult to harvest, hence their cost.
They are vital for pesto sauce, and are delicious lightly toasted. They become rancid very
easily and should be stored in the fridge or freezer. 100g pine nuts contain 14g protein.
Pistachios
Native to the Near East and Central Asia but has long been cultivated in the
Mediterranean region and more recently in the Southern US. The kernels are green and are
prized as much for their ornamental colour as for their flavour. Also sold roasted and salted in
their shells. They are more expensive than most other nuts. 100g pistachios contain 19.3g
protein, 14mg iron, 140mg calcium.
6. Answer the questions.
1. What nut has a delicious creamy flavour and crunchy texture?
2. What kernels are green?
3. Why are pine nuts very expensive?
4. Where should pine nuts be stored?
5. What nut is the most expensive?
7. Read the text. Define what the following numbers mean:
2.4, 17th, 10.6, 100.
Walnuts
The walnut is native to SE Europe and West & Central Asia but is now grown in the
UK, California and China as well. It is grown for timber as well as its nuts. Walnut oil has
been used for centuries in the preparation of artists paints. The black walnut is a native of
North America, introduced into Britain in the 17th century. The butternut is also from North
America. These two have much thicker shells than European walnuts. High in fat, they go
rancid very quickly and should be stored in the fridge or freezer. 100g walnuts contain 10.6g
protein and 2.4mg iron.
8. Make a project “Nuts and their history”.
Lesson 6
1. Read the words:
soya
phosphorous
sesame
oriental
tahini
North America
Mexico
North American Indians
potassium
2. Master the active vocabulary. Cover the left column and translate the Russian
words back into English.
sesame
кунжут, сезам
sunflower
подсолнечник
pumpkin
тыква ( обыкновенная )
raw
сырой
potassium
калий
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
tahini ______________________________________________________
soya sauce __________________________________________________
varnishes ___________________________________________________
hummus ____________________________________________________
margarine ___________________________________________________
4. Put down the English for:
железо _____________________________________________________
цинк _______________________________________________________
белок _______________________________________________________
фосфор _____________________________________________________
кальций ____________________________________________________
калий ______________________________________________________
5. Read texts about different kinds of seed. Compare them.
Seeds
Pumpkin
Can be eaten raw or cooked in both sweet or savoury dishes. Delicious toasted and
sprinkled, while hot, with soya sauce and served on salads. They are rich in protein, iron, zinc
and phosphorous. 100g pumpkin seeds contain 29g protein, 11.2mg iron and 1144mg
phosphorous.
Sesame
Of African origin but now common in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. An oil is extracted
from the seed and used for cooking, salad oil and margarines. It is also available as toasted
sesame oil for oriental cooking. The whole seeds can also be eaten and are most often seen as a
decoration on cakes, confectionery etc. Sesame seed paste, tahini, is used in many dishes e.g.
hummus. Halva, a sweet made from sesame seeds is often found in health food shops. A good
source of protein and calcium, 100g sesame seeds contain 26.4g protein, 12.6mg vitamin B3,
7.8mg iron, 131mg calcium and 10.3mg zinc.
Sunflower
An annual plant belonging to the daisy family, it probably originated in North America
or Mexico. North American Indians cultivated sunflowers as long as 2,000 years ago. The oil
extracted from its seeds is used in margarine, varnishes and soaps but the seeds can be eaten
whole, raw or cooked. They can be added to breads and cakes or sprinkled over salad or
breakfast cereals. A good source of potassium and phosphorous, 100g sunflower seeds also
contain 24g protein and 7.1mg iron and 120mg calcium.
6. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
Raw, breads, oil, long, probably, sprinkle, good, breakfast, protein, American, also, eat.
7. Choose the proper prepositions and fill them in:
1. Delicious toasted and sprinkled, while hot, … soya sauce and served on salads.
2. They are rich … protein, iron, zinc and phosphorous.
3. The oil extracted … its seeds is used … margarine, varnishes and soaps.
4. An annual plant belonging … the daisy family, originated … North America or
Mexico.
5. It is also available as toasted sesame oil … oriental cooking.
8. Pair work. Speak about seeds.
Soya & Mycoprotein
Lesson 1
1. Read the words.
Chinese
tofu
tempeh
inhibitors
symptoms
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
colon
ободочная кишка, толстая кишка
tofu
тофу ( японский и китайский соевый творог )
breast
грудь; молочная железа
serum
сыворотка
protease
протеаза
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
mince ________________________________________________________
chunks _______________________________________________________
saturated fats __________________________________________________
high consumption ______________________________________________
4. Put down the English for:
соевая диета _________________________________________________
соевый творог ________________________________________________
соевое масло _________________________________________________
холестерин __________________________________________________
рак груди и толстой кишки _____________________________________
5. Combine the given adjectives (A) with the proper nouns (B).
A
B
Staple
part
excellent
source
beneficial
effects
high
consumption
nutritional
benefits
6. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
leguminous soya bean plant _____________________________________
tempeh ______________________________________________________
isoflavonoids _________________________________________________
protein ______________________________________________________
anti-carcinogenic ______________________________________________
phytic acid ___________________________________________________
7. Translate the following questions.
1. What was a staple part of the Chinese diet?
2. What is the soya bean?
3. Why is soya useful?
4. Soya diets have also been shown to reduce levels of serum cholesterol, haven’t they?
5. What soya products do you know?
8. Read the text. Find the answers to the questions given above.
Soya
The soya bean is the seed of the leguminous soya bean plant. Soya foods have been a
staple part of the Chinese diet for over 4000 years but have only been widely consumed in
Western countries since the 1960's. Soya foods include tofu, tempeh, textured vegetable
protein (chunks, mince etc), miso, soya sauces, soya oil and margarine, and soya dairy
alternatives.
Soya is an excellent source of high quality protein, is low in saturated fats and is
cholesterol free. Recent research has indicated soya has several beneficial effects on health in
addition to its nutritional benefits. Soya beans contain high concentrations of several
compounds which have demonstrated anti-carcinogenic activity. These include isoflavonoids,
protease inhibitors and phytic acid. The low incidence of breast and colon cancer in China and
Japan has been partially attributed to the high consumption of soya products. The low
incidence of menopausal symptoms in Japanese women has also been attributed to high
consumption of soya. Soya diets have also been shown to reduce levels of serum cholesterol.
9. Define the main idea of the text.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words.
Extrusion
vitamin-B12
calcium sulphate
Rhizopus oligosporous
fungus Aspergillus oryzae
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
dehull
лущить
nozzle
насадок; сопло; форсунка, выпускное отверстие; наконечник; патрубок
burger
гамбургер
fortify
укреплять;
fungus
гриб; плесень; древесная губка
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
sponge-like texture ____________________________________________
Textured vegetable protein ______________________________________
stir-fried _____________________________________________________
Silken tofu ___________________________________________________
deep-fried ____________________________________________________
sauteed ______________________________________________________
diced ________________________________________________________
4. Make a list of words according to the model. Translate the words.
Model: expansion, to expand – растягивать
Fermentation, to ________________ - ________________________
… , to ________________________ - ________________________
… , to ________________________ - _________________________
… , to ________________________ - _________________________
… , to ________________________ - _________________________
5. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
Cut, small, chunks, ground, granules, texture, vegetable, protein, may, be, purchase,
flavoured, resemble, meat, simply.
6. Read and translate the text.
Textured Vegetable Protein
Textured vegetable protein is basically defatted soya flour which has been processed and
dried to give a substance with a sponge-like texture which may be flavoured to resemble meat.
Soya beans are dehulled and their oil extracted before being ground into flour. This flour is
then mixed with water to remove soluble carbohydrate and the residue is textured by either
spinning or extrusion. Extrusion involves passing heated soya residue from a high pressure
area to a reduced pressure area through a nozzle resulting in the soya protein expanding. The
soya protein is then dehydrated and may be either cut into small chunks or ground into
granules. Textured vegetable protein may be purchased either unflavoured or flavoured to
resemble meat. It is prepared simply by mixing with water or stock and leaving to stand for a
few minutes, after which it may be incorporated into recipes as a meat substitute. Soya protein
is also available incorporated into various vegetarian burgers, sausages, canned foods etc. As
well as being a good source of fibre and high quality protein. Textured vegetable protein is
fortified with vitamin-B12.
Tofu
Tofu is soya bean curd made from coagulated soya milk. Soya beans are soaked,
crushed and heated to produce soya milk to which a coagulating agent such as calcium
sulphate or calcium chloride is added. The resulting soya curd is then pressed to give tofu.
Tofu is sometimes known as soya cheese, and is sold as blocks packaged in water. It can be
bought as silken tofu, which is soft and creamy in texture, or as a denser, firmer version. The
firmer kind may also be purchased smoked or marinated. Tofu tends be fairly bland tasting and
is best used in recipes where flavour is imparted by other ingredients. Firm tofu may be
marinated, fried, stir-fried, deep-fried, sauteed, diced and added to salads or casseroles. Silken
tofu can be used for dips, spreads, sauces and sweet dishes. As well as having high protein
content, tofu also contains calcium, iron, and vitamins B1, B2 and B3.
7. Make sentences of the following words.
1. Stir-fried, tofu, be, deep- fried, marinated, firm, may, fried.
2. Be tofu it silken as bought can.
3. Beans dehulled are soya?
4. Soya, also, vegetarian, burgers, incorporated, various, is, available, protein, into.
8. Pair work. Put the questions given below to your group-mate and ask him/her to
answer them.
1. What is soya cheese?
2. May textured vegetable protein be purchased either unflavoured or flavoured to
resemble meat?
3. Soya beans are soaked, crushed and heated to produce soya milk, aren’t they?
4. How can silken tofu be used?
5. What may also be purchased smoked or marinated?
Lesson 3
1. Read the words.
casseroles
mycelium
hydrolysis
shoyu
2. Master the words.
vat
1) бак, цистерна, чан 2) кадка, ушат, бочка
gluten-free diet безглютеновая диета
corn syrup
кукурузный сироп ( род глюкозы )
hydrolysis
гидролиз
strands
полоса, жила
3. Give 4 forms of the following verbs.
to give, to heat, to be, to produce, to form, to make, to texture, to mix, to use, to eat, to
cook, to take, to go.
4. Put down the Russian for:
inoculating
black specks
koji
tamari
Miso
5. Think of eight questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.
Tempeh
Tempeh is a fermented soya bean paste made by inoculating cooked soya beans with the
mould Rhizopus oligosporous. This mould forms a mycelium holding the soya beans together
and is responsible for the black specks in tempeh. Tempeh has a chewy texture and distinctive
flavour and can be used as a meat substitute in recipes. It may be deep-fried, shallow-fried,
baked or steamed.
Miso
Miso is a fermented condiment made from soya beans, grain (rice or barley), salt and
water. Miso production involves steaming polished rice which is then inoculated with the
fungus Aspergillus oryzae and left to ferment to give an end product called koji. Koji is then
mixed with soya beans which have been heated and extruded to form strands, together with
salt and water. This is then left to ferment in large vats. Miso varies widely in flavour, colour,
texture and aroma. It is used to give flavour to soups, stews, casseroles, and sauces.
6. Fill in the proper prepositions.
Soya Sauces
True soya sauce, called shoyu, is made … fermenting soya beans … cracked roasted
wheat, salt and water. Tamari is similar but slightly stronger and made without wheat (and so
is gluten-free). Fermentation for shoyu and tamari takes about one year. Much … the soya
sauce available … supermarkets is not true soya sauce but is made by chemical hydrolysis
from defatted soya flour, caramel colouring, and corn syrup without any fermentation process.
7. Pair work. Tell your group-mates about soya.
Lesson 4
1. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
isolate
изолировать
negligible
незначительный
allergy
аллергия
infant
младенец, ребенок ( до 7 лет )
carbohydrate
углевод
2. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
aluminium content ________________________________________
lactose intolerance ________________________________________
calcium _________________________________________________
vitamin-D2 ______________________________________________
vitamin-B12 _____________________________________________
vitamin-B2 ______________________________________________
3. Master the following words.
Provamel
Granose
Plamil
World Health Organisation
4. Put down the English for:
содержание жира
магазин натуральных продуктов
насыщенный жир
годность
неподслащённый
5. Translate the following words and word combinations in writing.
soya protein _______________________________________________
soya flour _________________________________________________
soya milk __________________________________________________
soya beans _________________________________________________
soya desert _________________________________________________
soya yoghurt _______________________________________________
6. Read and translate the text.
Soya Dairy Alternatives
Soya milk is an alternative to dairy milk and is widely available in supermarkets and
health food stores. It is most commonly made by soaking soya beans in water which are then
strained to remove the fibre. It can also be made from soya protein isolate or soya flour.
Compared to full fat cow's milk, soya milk has a lower fat content, a lower proportion of
saturated fat, and no cholesterol. It is low in carbohydrate and provides a good source of
protein. Some brands may be fortified with calcium, vitamin-D2, vitamin-B12 and vitamin-B2.
Soya milk provides an alternative to cow's milk for people with cow's milk protein and lactose
intolerance. Cow's milk allergy is most common in infants, and specially formulated soya
milks are available for babies. Other soya milks are not suitable as sole foods for young
infants.
Previously, the media has linked soya milk with having a high aluminium content.
However, the aluminium content of soya milks is generally lower than cow's milk, and falls
well within acceptable limits dictated by the World Health Organisation. Aluminium in soya
milks can be regarded as negligible. Certain infant formulas (both cow's milk and soya milk
based) produced from concentrates have been reported as having high levels of aluminium and
their suitability for infants has been questioned.
A number of different brands of soya milk may be purchased. These may be sweetened
or unsweetened and vary in flavour. Market leaders are Provamel, Granose and Plamil. Some
supermarkets also sell own-brand soya milk. In addition to soya milk, a range of flavoured
soya desert and soya yoghurt products are available.
7. Finish the following sentences.
1. Soya milk is ….
2. It can also be made ….
3. Some brands may be fortified with ….
4. Cow's milk allergy is ….
5. The aluminium content of soya milks ….
6. Certain infant formulas ….
7. Market leaders are ….
8. A range of ….
8. Pair work. Have a talk on the problems of soya value.
Lesson 5
1. Read the words. Work with the dictionary, translate the words.
polyunsaturated
soya sprouts
soya nuts
natto
yuba
soya flakes
soya flour
2. Read the text. To be translated in written.
Other Soya Products
Soya oil and margarine are widely used and are high in polyunsaturated fats and low in
saturated fats. Other less easily available soya foods include soya sprouts, soya nuts (roasted
and seasoned soya beans), natto (fermented soya beans made with a bacteria, Bacillus subtilis),
yuba (the skin formed on heated soya milk), soya flakes, soya flour, and high protein soya
isolates and concentrates.
3. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
albumen
1) ( яичный ) белок 2) альбумин, белок; белковое вещество
binder
связующее вещество
curry
карри/кэрр
biotin
биотин, витамин H
4. Read the micro text and define the main idea of the text.
Wheat protein is derived from wheat gluten. It is sometimes called Seitan. Gluten is
extracted from wheat and then processed to resemble meat. Wheat protein is marketed under
the name of Wheatpro by Lucas Ingredients of Bristol. It has a greater similarity to meat than
textured vegetable protein or mycoprotein and is used as a meat substitute in a range of foods.
It is available in some health food stores.
5. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Mycoprotein, fermentation, fungus, World Health Organisation, egg albumen, sheet of
fungal mycelia, oxygen, nitrogen, glucose, minerals,
6. Read the text and define the meaning of new words. Translate the text.
Mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a food made by continuous fermentation of the fungus, Fusarium
gramineurum. The fungus is grown in a large fermentation tower to which oxygen, nitrogen,
glucose, minerals, and vitamins are continually added. After harvesting, the fungus is heat
treated to reduce its RNA content to World Health Organisation recommended levels before
being filtered and drained. The resulting sheet of fungal mycelia is mixed with free range egg
albumen which acts a binder. Flavouring and colouring may also be added. The mycoprotein is
then textured to resemble meat, before being sliced, diced or shredded. Mycoprotein is a
source of protein, fibre, biotin, iron and zinc, and is low in saturated fat.
Mycoprotein was developed by Rank Hovis McDougall, and is marketed under the name of
Quorn by Marlow Foods Ltd (now owned by Premier Foods). A wide range of Quorn ready
meals are available including curries, pies, and casseroles, and it may also be purchased as
chunks, mince, sausages, burgers, fillets etc. Since January 2005 the entire Quorn range have
been approved by the Vegetarian Society (previously the manufacturers had not been able to
source enough free range eggs to use accross whole product range).
7. Choose the proper prepositions and fill them in:
1. What is mycoprotein?
2. Whom was mycoprotein developed …?
3. Mycoprotein is a source … protein, fibre, biotin, iron and zinc, isn’t it?
4. Is the fungus heat treated … reduce its RNA content to World Health Organisation
recommended levels … being filtered and drained?
8. Pair work. Put the questions given above to your group-mate and let him/her
answer them.
Lesson 6
1. Read the words.
balsam
indigo
licorice
percentage
Leguminosae
approximately
2. a) Cover the right column and read the English words. Translate them into
Russian and check your translation.
b) Cover the left column and translate the Russian words back into English.
consumer
потребитель
blackeyed pea
коровий горох
indigo
индиго
carob tree
рожковое дерево
gum-arabic
гуммиарабик
liquorice
лакричник ( растение ); лакрица
mung bean
маш, фасоль золотистая
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
dried pulses _________________________________________
temperate regions _____________________________________
important economically _________________________________
plant kingdom ________________________________________
nutritional breakdown of soya ____________________________
haricot beans _________________________________________
4. Think of eight questions covering the text. Put them to your group-mates.
5. To be translated in written.
Pulses
Peas, beans and lentils are known as pulses. They are the seeds of plants belonging to
the family Leguminosae, which gets its name from the characteristic pod or legume that
protects the seeds while they are forming and ripening. With approximately 13,000 species, the
family Leguminosae is the second largest in the plant kingdom and it is very important
economically.
Different kinds of legumes provide us with food, medicines, oils, chemicals, timber,
dyes and ornamental garden plants. Legume products include carob, senna, gum arabic,
balsam, indigo and licorice. Pulses are valuable because they contain a higher percentage of
protein than most other plant foods.
Pulses have been used as food for thousands of years. The lentil was probably one of the
first plants ever to be domesticated by humans. Most pulses prefer warm climates but there are
varieties which grow in temperate regions. They can be eaten fresh or dried and come in a
great number of varieties with a range of colours, flavours, and textures. In spite of its
common name, the peanut or groundnut is also a legume rather than a nut.
All pulses, except for soya beans, are very similar in nutritional content. They are rich in
protein, carbohydrate and fibre, and low in fat which is mostly of the unsaturated kind. They
are also important sources of some B vitamins. Fresh pulses contain vitamin C, but this
declines after harvesting and virtually all is lost from dried pulses. Canned pulses however,
retain about half their vitamin C except for canned, processed peas which have been dried
before canning. Canning doesn't affect the protein content, eliminates the need for soaking and
considerably reduces the cooking time compared with dried pulses. Frozen peas will have also
lost about a quarter of their vitamin C content.
Pulses are usually eaten for their high protein content. A typical nutritional breakdown is
that for haricot beans which are used to make baked beans, contain, per 100g dried beans:
21.4g protein, 1.6g fat, 45.5g carbohydrate, 25.4g fibre, 6.7mg iron and 180mg calcium.
The nutritional quality of the soya bean is superior to that of other pulses. It contains
more protein and is also a good source of iron and calcium. The nutritional breakdown of soya
is per 100g of dried beans: 34.1g protein, 17.7g fat, 28.6g carbohydrate, 8.4mg iron and 226mg
calcium. Dried soya beans are lengthy to prepare because they need at least 12 hours soaking
and 4 hours cooking time, boiling for the first hour, but nowadays a large number of soya
based foods including tofu, tempeh and textured vegetable protein (soya mince or chunks) are
available.
One advantage of dried pulses is that they will store very well for long periods if kept in
a dry, airtight container away from the light. However it is best to eat them as fresh as
possible. Pulses toughen on storage and older ones will take longer to cook. Allow about 55g
dried weight per person, once soaked and cooked they will at least double in weight. Most
dried pulses need soaking for several hours before they can be cooked, exceptions are all
lentils, green and yellow split peas, blackeye and mung beans. Soaking times vary from 4-12
hours, it is usually most convenient to soak pulses overnight. Always discard the soaking
water, rinse and cook in fresh water without any salt, which toughens the skins and makes for
longer cooking. Changing the water will help to reduce the flatulence some people suffer when
eating pulses, also reputed to help is the addition of a pinch of aniseeds, caraway, dill or fennel
seeds.
Consumers should be aware that it is not safe to eat raw or undercooked kidney and soya
beans. There is no need to avoid them as long as they are thoroughly cooked.
6. Write out words from the text. Arrange them into three columns according to
the part of speech.
noun
adjective
adverb
1. ________________ ___________________ _________________
2. ________________ ___________________ _________________
3. ________________ ___________________ _________________
4. ________________ ___________________ _________________
5. ________________ ___________________ _________________
7. Make a project. “Soya products in our shops”.
Cheese & Rennet
Lesson 1
1. Read the words:
paracasein
Penicillium
chymosin
ripening
mould
roquefortii
2. Master the active vocabulary. Cover the left column and translate the Russian
words back into English.
curds
створоженное молоко, творог
rennin
реннин, химозин
abomasum
сычуг (четвёртый отдел желудка жвачного)
heifer
телка
pepsin
пепсин
calf
теленок
3. Word formation.
Analyze the meaning of the suffixes: -ly, -less, -able.
Find words formed with these suffixes in the text and translate them.
Give your own examples.
Cheese is made by coagulating milk to give curds which are then separated from the
liquid, whey, after which they can be processed and matured to produce a wide variety of
cheeses. Milk is coagulated by the addition of rennet. The active ingredient of rennet is the
enzyme, chymosin (also known as rennin). The usual source of rennet is the stomach of
slaughtered newly-born calves. Vegetarian cheeses are manufactured using rennet from either
fungal or bacterial sources. Advances in genetic engineering processes means they may now
also be made using chymosin produced by genetically altered micro-organisms
The exact processes in the making of cheese varies between different varieties.
However, all cheeses are made by essentially the same method. Initially, the milk is usually
pasteurised by heating at 72°C for 15 seconds to destroy potentially harmful bacteria. The milk
is then cooled to around 30°C and a starter culture of lactic acid bacteria is added to help
souring. These convert lactose into lactic acid and help in the coagulation process. In addition,
they also have a beneficial effect on the eventual quality, taste and consistency of the cheese.
Some cheeses are coagulated entirely by lactic acid bacteria and are known as lactic-curd or
acid-curd cheeses. However, some cheeses sold as lactic-curd cheese may have had rennet
added.
The next stage is the addition of rennet, containing the enzyme chymosin. Rennet is
usually sourced from the abomasum (fourth stomach) of newly-born calves. Here, chymosin
aids the digestion and absorption of milk. Adult cows do not have this enzyme. Chymosin is
extracted by washing and drying the stomach lining, which is then cut into small pieces and
macerated in a solution of boric acid or brine at 30°C for 4-5 days. Pepsin may sometimes be
used instead of chymosin. This is usually derived from the abomasum of grown calves or
heifers, or less commonly pigs. Pepsin may be mixed with calf rennin. Rennet coagulates the
milk, separating it into curds and whey. This is called curdling.
Chymosin breaks down the milk protein casein to paracasein which combines with
calcium to form calcium paracaseinate, which separates out. Milk fat and some water also
becomes incorporated into this mass, forming curds. The remaining liquid is the whey. The
strength of different rennets can vary, though usual strength varies between 1:10,000 and
1:15,000 i.e. one part rennin can coagulate 10-15,000 parts milk.
Other substances may also be added during the cheese making process. Calcium
chloride is added to improve the curdling process, and potassium nitrate is added to inhibit
contaminating bacteria. Dyes (e.g. annatto, beta-carotene), Penicillium roquefortii mould
spores to promote blue veining, or propionic acid bacteria to encourage hole formation may be
added.
Following curdling, the curds are cut and drained. The size of the cut and the methods
used vary for different cheese varieties. For soft cheeses, the curds are sparingly cut and
allowed to drain naturally. For hard cheeses, the curds are heated and more whey is drained
off. The curds are then cut into small pieces, placed in vats and pressed.
After pressing, the curds may be treated in a number of ways. They may be moulded
into different shapes, soaked in a saltwater solution, be sprayed with mould forming spores or
bacteria, washed in alcohol, or covered in herbs.
The final stage is ripening, or maturation. This can vary in length from 4 weeks to 2-3
years, depending on the type of cheese. During ripening flavours develop, the cheese becomes
firmer and drier, and special characteristics such as holes, blue veining and crust formation
occurs.
4. Put down the nouns. Translate the words. Find a word different from others.
Model: to drink– drinker; пить – пьющий
To break - _____________; ______________ - _____________________
To make - ____________; ______________ - _____________________
To use - ______________; _______________ - _____________________
To send - ___________; _______________ - _____________________
5. Combine the given adjectives (A) with the proper nouns (B).
A
B
soft
characteristics
different
stage
usual
cheeses
special
shapes
next
strength
6. Put down the English for:
мягкий сыр ______________________________________________
твердый сыр _____________________________________________
рассол __________________________________________________
травы ___________________________________________________
кусочки _________________________________________________
7. Pair work. Speak about cheese.
Lesson 2
1. Read the words.
Mucor miehei
Vegetarian
rennet
bacteria Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus prodigiosum
Kluyveromyces lactis
the bacteria Escherichia coli
technique
2. Master the active vocabulary:
safflower
сафлор красильный
thistle
чертополох
slaughter
убой, забой ( скота )
yeast
дрожжи, закваска
wary
осторожный
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
non-animal origin ________________________________________________
Vegetarian cheeses _______________________________________________
the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis _____________________________________
the fungus Aspergillus niger var awamori _____________________________
a strain of the bacteria Escherichia coli _______________________________
4. Read and translate the text:
Vegetarian cheeses are made with rennets of non-animal origin. In the past, fig leaves,
melon, wild thistle and safflower have all supplied plant rennets for cheese making. However,
most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of
the fungus Mucor miehei. Vegetarian cheese may also be made using rennet from the bacteria
Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus prodigiosum.
5. Which of the following words are nouns? verbs? adjectives? adverbs? Why?
genetic
material
introduce
further
need
calf
cells
alternatively
chymosin
can
bio-synthesized
laboratory
6. Read and translate the text in written.
Vegetarian Cheeses
Advances in genetic engineering techniques mean that some vegetarian cheeses may
now be made using chymosin produced by genetically engineered micro-organisms. The
genetic material (DNA) which encodes for chymosin is introduced into a micro-organism
which can then be cultured to produce commercial quantities of chymosin. This is done by
extracting genetic material from calf stomach cells which acts as a template for producing the
chymosin encoding DNA. This can then be introduced into the micro-organism. Once the
genetic material is introduced there is no further need for calf cells. Alternatively, the
chymosin encoding DNA can be bio-synthesized in the laboratory without the use of calf cells.
The chymosin produced is identical to that produced by calf stomach cells. The
development of genetically engineered chymosin has been encouraged by shortages and
fluctuations in cost of rennet from calves. Its manufacturers claim that genetically engineered
chymosin will end the cheese making industry's reliance on the slaughter of calves.
Chymosin encoding DNA has been introduced into three different micro-organisms.
These are the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, the fungus Aspergillus niger var awamori, and a
strain of the bacteria Escherichia coli. All of these have now been approved and cleared for use
by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food. There is no legal requirement for
manufacturers to state whether genetically engineered rennet has been used in the cheese
making process.
Vegetarian cheeses are widely available in supermarkets and health food stores. A wide
variety of cheeses are now made with non-animal rennet and labeled as suitable for
vegetarians. No particular type of cheese is exclusively vegetarian. Soft cheeses are as likely to
be non-vegetarian as hard cheese.
7. Answer the following questions:
1. How can some vegetarian cheeses be made?
2. What may be made using chymosin produced by genetically engineered microorganisms?
3. What encouraged the development of genetically engineered chymosin?
4. Where can one get Vegetarian cheeses?
5. How do Vegetarian cheeses look like?
8. Define the main idea of the text.
Cheese is a good source of protein, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12. However, full fat
cheese is a major source of saturated fat which can lead to raised serum cholesterol levels.
Also, it contains no carbohydrate or fibre, and is a very poor source of iron. Vegetarians,
particularly new vegetarians, should be wary of too high a consumption of cheese.
9. Read the text. Write out the stages of production of cheese.
Lesson 3
1. Read the words.
Brie
Stilton
Gorgonzola
Cheshire
Gruyere
Ricotta
2. Master the words.
sheep
овца
goat
коза
dried milk
сухое молоко
pasteurized
пастеризованное
3. Read the words and put down their Russian equivalents:
Camembert __________________________________________
Wensleydale _________________________________________
Cheddar _____________________________________________
Parmesan ____________________________________________
4. Read the text and define the main idea of the text.
The type of cheese produced depends on the milk used and the cheese making process.
The milk used may be full fat, semi-skimmed or fully skimmed, this affecting the fat content
of the cheese. It may be pasteurised or unpasteurised. Milk from different animals and
different breeds is important in determining the final flavour. As well as cow's milk, cheese
may be made from sheep or goat's milk.
Soft cheeses may be fresh or ripened. Fresh cheeses include quark, cottage cheese and
cream cheese. Ripened soft cheeses include Brie and Camembert. Semi-soft cheeses include
Stilton, Wensleydale and Gorgonzola. Hard cheeses include Cheddar, Cheshire, and Gruyere.
Parmesan is a strongly pressed, very hard, dry cheese ripened for 2-3 years and then grated.
Whey cheeses such as Ricotta are made as a by-product of other cheeses from the whey
removed during pressing. Processed cheeses are either made with trimmings that are left over
from the manufacture of other cheeses, or from dried milk powder. Flavourings, colourings
and other additives are used.
5. Complete the sentences.
1. The type of cheese produced depends on ….
2. The milk used may be ….
3. Milk from different animals and ….
4. Fresh cheeses include ….
5. Ripened soft cheeses include ….
6. Semi-soft cheeses include ….
7. Hard cheeses include ….
8. Processed cheeses are either ….
6. Choose the proper prepositions and fill them in:
1. What are the main types … cheese?
2. Do you prefer soft or hard cheese?
3. Can you tell the most famous sorts … cheese?
4. What milk is used … cheese production?
7. Pair work. Put the questions given above to your group-mate and let him/her
answer them.
Part VI. SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Restaurants
Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers. These
restaurants often have trained chefs who prepare the food, while trained waitstaff serve the
customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French from the 19th century, as it relates to
the restorative nature of the bullions that were once served in them. However, the concept predates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation
may have existed during the age of the city of Pompeii, as well as urban sales of prepared
foods in China during the Son Dynasty. The coffee shops or cafes of 17th century Europe may
also be considered an early version of the restaurant. In 2005 the United States spent $496
billion annually for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining was as
follows, 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (fast food), 4.7%
in hotels and motels, 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines, 4.0% in
recreational places, and 2.2% in other which includes military bases.
Discuss the following questions:
What does the term restaurant relate to?
Is it profitable to produce food for sale in restaurants nowdays?
What may be considered an early version of the restaurants?
Why is a system of “out-of-home dining” so popular in the USA?
What type of out-of-home dining is the most popular in the USA?
Why does the government of the USA support the system of “out-of-home dining”?
What do you think about fast food?
Do you often visit restaurants? Why?
Food manufacture
Vocabulary of the text
Pickling – соление,маринование
Curing – консервирование, заготовка
Curdling – свертывание, застывание
Milling – измельчение, дробление
Labeling – наклеивание этикетки
Butcher – мясник
Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple
as a butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international food industry. Early food
processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging and
transportation. This mainly involved salting, curing, curdling, drying, pickling, fermentation
and smoking. During the industrialization era in the 19th century, food manufacturing arose.
This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as
milling, preservation, packaging and labeling and transportation. It brought the advantages of
pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ domestic
servants.
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international
food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food brands. There also exists a
wide array of small local or national food processing companies. Advanced technologies have
also come to change food manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated
processing and packaging methods, and logistics and distribution advances, can enhance
product quality, improve food safety, and reduce costs.
EXERCISES
1.
Give Russian equivalents for these words and combinations:
Food manufacture, military bases, pickling, packaged foods, bullions, food industry,
food processing techniques, curing, customers, food preservations trained waitstaff,
transportations, curdling, evidence , advantage of new mass markets and emerging new
technology, milling, urban sales of prepared foods , to employ domestic servants, vending
machines, pre- prepared, recreational places enhance product quality, expenditures by type of
out-of-home, drying, labeling.
2.
Find in the text English equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Широкая цепь хорошо известных пищевых брендов, измельчение, улучшить
пищевую безопасность, снизить цены, клиенты, консервирование, упаковывать,
консервирование, изготавливается вне дома для продажи, полуфабрикаты, хорошо
обученный персонал, расходы на обеды вне дома, места развлечений, городская
распродажа готовых продуктов, данные (очевидность), методы обработки продуктов,
передовые технологии, соление.
3. Translate into English:
1.Что вы знаете о методах обработки продуктов? 2. Чем хороши полуфабрикаты?
3. Что включает в себя компьютерная базовая система контроля? 4. Обслуживающий
персонал ресторана произвел на него сильное впечатление. Он остался доволен
блюдами и обслуживанием. 5. Почему в нашей стране ресторанный бизнес развит
только в крупных городах? 6. Расходы на транспортировку очень высоки в этом месяце.
7. Упаковка должна быть как можно легче. 8. Передовые технологии должны внести
изменения в пищевое производство.
4. Read and determine whether these statements true or false:
1. Emerging new technology helps people to save time.
2. Sun drying is a very widely used method of preserving fruits.
3. Food manufacturing begins to develop during the industrialization era in the 19th
century.
4. Early people only know how to salt, to dry, to smoke, to ferment and to pickle
products.
5. Packaged foods are manufactured at home for purchase.
6. Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers.
7. Development of new mass markets can reduce costs of packaged foods.
5.Define the main idea of the text:
Food manufacturing changed our life.
Food manufacturing improved people’s health.
People will always employ domestic servants.
Food manufacturing has only advantages.
International exports and imports
Vocabulary of the text
Diversity – разнообразие, многообразие
Limitations – недостатки, ограничения
To restrict – ограничивать
Signatory – сторона, подписавшая какой-то документ (особ. договор)
Underpin - поддерживать, подкреплять
Enforcement – давление, принуждение
Settlement of trade disputes – разрешение торговых споров
Bilaterally – двусторонне
World Bank reported that the EU was the top food importer in 2005 followed at a
distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now traded and marketed on a global basis. The
variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or
the limitations of the local growing season. Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400%
increase in worldwide food exports. Some countries are now economically dependent on food
exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.
In 1994 over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in trade liberalization. This included an
agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the WTO enforcement of
agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be
bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health
and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was
founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World
Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.
EXERCISES
1.Give Russian equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Top food importer, settlement of trade disputes, underpinned by the WTO enforcement
, the variety and availability of food , butcher, account , cannot be bilaterally resolved , traded
and marketed on a global basis, signatories, increase in worldwide food exports, an agreement
to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, the WTO refer the dispute to, diversity of locally grown
food or the limitations of the local growing season, trade liberalization, United Nations Food
and Agriculture organization. settlement of trade disputes.
2. Give English equivalents for these words and word combinations:
Прирост в мировом экспорте пищи, экономически зависимые от пищевого
экспорта страны, разрешение торговых споров, пищевая безопасность, давление,
торговые вопросы, торговые преграды, поддержанный давлением ВТО, сторона,
подписавшая договор, соглашение, насчитывать, двусторонне, ограничивать.
Texts for reading
1. Read the text. Translate it using a dictionary.
Red kidney beans: Incidents of food poisoning have been reported associated with the
consumption of raw or undercooked red kidney beans. Symptoms may develop after eating
only four raw beans and include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain followed by diarrhoea.
A naturally occurring haemaglutin is responsible for the illness, but can be destroyed by high
temperature cooking, making the beans completely safe to eat. For this reason, kidney beans
must not be sprouted. Kidney beans should be soaked for at least 8 hours in enough cold water
to keep them covered. After soaking, drain and rinse the beans, discarding the soaking water.
Put them into a pan with cold water to cover and bring to the boil. The beans must now boil for
10 minutes to destroy the toxin. After this the beans should be simmered until cooked
(approximately 45-60 minutes) and they should have an even creamy texture throughout - if
the centre is still hard and white, they require longer cooking.
Soya beans: Contain an anti-trypsin factor (or trypsin inhibitor) which prevents the
assimilation of the amino acid methionine. Soya beans also require careful cooking to ensure
destruction of this factor. They should be soaked for at least 12 hours, drained and rinsed then
covered with fresh water and brought to the boil. Soya beans should be boiled for the first hour
of cooking. They can then be simmered for the remaining 2-3 hours that it takes to cook them.
Soya flour should state heat treated on its packaging. Other soya products (e.g. tofu,
tempeh, soya milk, soya sauces and miso) are quite safe to use. Soya beans can be sprouted,
but the sprouts should be quickly blanched in boiling water to inactivate the trypsin inhibitor.
Pressure cooking: The temperatures achieved in pressure cooking are adequate to
destroy both haemaglutins and the trypsin inhibitor. Pressure cooking also considerably
reduces cooking times - kidney beans 10-20 minutes, soya beans 1 hour.
Canning: The temperature achieved in the canning process also renders pulses quite
safe.
Slow cookers: Pulses must be soaked and boiled for 10 minutes before being added to a
slow cooker, as they do not reach sufficiently high temperatures to destroy the toxins.
As beans and peas are all very similar nutritionally, with the exception of soya, they can
be interchanged in most recipes if you want to experiment or have run out of one kind, as long
as you take into account the different cooking times. If the beans are likely to need a lot longer
to cook than the other ingredients, try pre-cooking them in a separate pan before adding to the
other ingredients or using canned beans.
2. Read the text “Alcohol”. Say what recipes you know.
The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly
widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and
there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative.
The main obstacle when trying to judge the acceptability to vegetarians of any given
product is a clause in the 1984 Food Labelling Regulations (UK) which exclude from the 1984
Food Act all drinks with an alcohol content exceeding 1.2% by volume (ABV), leaving only
very low or non-alcoholic beers, wines and ciders being required to list all ingredients.
The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process,
though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.
It must be pointed out that alcohol is routinely tested on thousands of animals each year
(though this is not usually done directly by any individual company).
Beer
Cask-conditioned ales need fining to clear the material (especially the yeast) held in
suspension in the liquid. This is invariably done by adding isinglass, derived from the swim
bladders of certain tropical fish especially the Chinese sturgeon, which acts as a falling
suspension. If you were to hold a pint of real ale up to the light and see cloudy lumps swirling
around that would suggest that the cask had been recently disturbed and the isinglass shaken
up from the bottom. Bottled naturally conditioned beers will not always have been treated with
isinglass. Keg Beers and Lagers are pasteurised and usually passed through Chill Filters, as are
canned beers and some bottled beers, however a considerable number of breweries still use
isinglass to clear their pasturised beers, though sometimes only to rescue selected batches
which are considered too hazey. Also occasionally the sometimes animal derived additive
Glyceryl Monostearate is used in place of 900 Dimethylpolysiloxane as a foam-control agent
in the production of keg beers.
It is sometimes possible to buy barrels of cask-conditioned beer from a brewery before it
has been fined. The beer would then have to be left for a considerable time to stand before
consumption. To our knowledge, only one pub in England sells unfined real ale on draught:
The Cumberland Arms in Byker, Newcastle on Tyne.
Cider
Most of the main brands of cider will have been fined using gelatine. Scrumpy type
ciders are less likely to have been fined.
Wine
With wine, it is again in the fining process that animal derived ingredients make an
appearance. Finings can be isinglass, gelatin, egg albumen, modified casein (from milk), chitin
(derived from the shells of crabs or lobsters) or ox blood (rarely used today). But alternatives
do exist in the form of bentonite, kieselguhr, kaolin and silica gel or solution. Also newer
methods such as centrefuging and filtering are becoming more popular. The majority of
organic wines do not use animal derived finings - but some do, Thorson's Organic Wine Guide
by Jerry Lockspeiser and Jackie Gear, lists those wines which are suitable. You might like to
note that the Wine Development Board claim that the fining agents are removed at the end of
the process with the possible exception of very minute quantities.
Spirits
Most spirits appear to be acceptable to vegetarians, with the possible exception of Malt
Whisky, some blended whiskies and Spanish Brandies which have been conditioned in casks
which had previously held sherry which may have been treated with animal derived finings.
(Brandy itself is not produced from wine which has undergone any fining processes). Also
some imported Vodkas may have been passed through a bone charcoal filter.
Fortified Wines
All ports except crusted port are fined using gelatin. Sherry should be treated in a similar
way to wine.
Colorants
E120 cochineal produced by extracting the red body material from pregnant scale
insects of the species Dactilopius Coccus is used as a colorant in a small number of red wines,
soft drinks and Campari.
3.
Translate the text.
Eat (more) fruit!
These ideas might stimulate your fruit consumption!
Why should we have five to nine fresh pieces a day, organically grown if possible?
For the largest part fruit consists of water just like the human body does;
Fruit is 100% bad-cholesterol free;
Fruit stimulates the memory;
The idea that fruit is an expensive nutrition;
The miraculous healing effects of fruit;
Fibers;
Fruit makes you feel better;
Ethical reasons to eat fruit;
Fruit is the most natural food;
The human diet;
Fruit juices - squeeze those fruits!
For the largest part fruit consists of water just like the human body does
Like 80% of our body is water so does 80% of fruit consist of water!
If you think about it, it's logical for the human body to consume food that contains as much
water as the body itself. The nutrition that meets that requirement is fruit. There is no other
food than fruit on this planet that contains on average 80% water.
Vegetables also contain a lot of water and are therefore second best.
Fruit is 100% bad-cholesterol free .
No doubt about this argument. Too much bad-cholesterol is not good for our bodies and fruit
doesn't contain bad-cholesterol. Animal products like meat and dairy contain a lot of badcholesterol.
Fruit stimulates the memory.
If you didn’t know yet: fruit is the ultimate brain fuel. Fruit has a positive effect on our brains.
The way this works still has to be found out and many scientists are looking into it as we
speak. What we do know is that if you consume fruit effectively, your brains can recall
information faster and more easily. This is very useful information for people who are
preparing for an exam.
The idea that fruit is an expensive nutrition.
Did you always think that fruit was an expensive product? Take a good look at how much
money you spend on other food. It could be worth something to replace some of those
expenses with fruit. We think that fruit is the healthiest food on earth and therefore it is well
worth spending our money on.
The miraculous healing effects of fruit.
Spectacular stories about people that cured from uncurable diseases by a strict diet of raw
fruits and/or vegetables are well known but do we want to believe them? We still don't know
that much about fruit and its contents.
Fibers
We do know now that a diet with plenty of fibers helps against corpulence, high blood
pressure, and other factors that increase the chance for a heart disease. The consumed amounts
of fibers maybe even a more important factor than the amount of fat that is consumed by
people!
The food that contains these healthy (natural) fibers is.... right: fruit! (Vegetables as well). The
American Heart Association advises to consume 25 to 30 grams of fibers out of fresh fruits
and/or vegetables. In practice this means: have five to nine portions of fresh fruits or
vegetables a day.
4. To be translated in writing.
Fruit makes you feel better
Several stories have told us about people that were frequently depressed and how they got out
of their depression slowly but surely after consuming substantial amounts of fresh fruit on a
regular basis. Eating much fruit can have a mysterious healing effect on human beings. Even
better is to drink a lot of freshly squeezed fruit drinks on a regular basis. It will take
approximately 30 days until you start to notice the effects. Don't forget to drink these
smoothies 20 minutes before the consumption of other meals. This way the fruit will not
ferment in the stomach and the nutritious elements can be absorbed by the blood effectively.
Ethical reasons to eat fruit
Fruit doesn't have to be killed and slaughtered before you can eat it. The fruits are just hanging
there waiting to be picked by you!
This ethical argument (often used by vegetarians and vegans to not eat meat) claims that fruit
is a non-animal food. Many people see animals, especially mammals, as living creatures just
like humans. There are religions that say that animals have souls like us. The native Americans
first asked the animal's spirit if they could kill it before they did so. Fruit has never been said
to have a soul and thus can be eaten without causing any harm. Ethical or religious arguments
aside, we think it's a shame that we as human beings don't eat much fruit when there is such an
abundant assortment of fruits and vegetables available.
5. Find more proverbs proving the text.
Fruit is the most natural food
When you see a piece of fruit hanging from a tree that tree is telling you something: "Eat my
fruits and help me spread my seeds." That’s how nature works. Humans eat vegetables and
fruits and consequently help the plants to spread. Humans use animals to work the land to
grow the plants and trees that produce these fruits and vegetables. In more and more people's
opinion this is the way it was all meant to be.
6. Say if you follow the rules.
A human diet
A healthy diet should consist for a great deal of freshly squeezed fruit juices, raw fruits and
vegetables. Some tips:
A good start is to eat and drink more fresh fruits;
it’s as simple as that. Before you know it you will feel much better;
Don't forget to eat fruit on an empty stomach, not after other meals and;
inform yourself about the substances that our 'modern' food contains.
Fruit juices, go squeeze!
Fruit juices taste the best.
7. Read the text. Make ten questions to the text.
Fruit and the memory
Fruit has a very positive effect on the brains just like carrots. So if you want to stimulate your
brain functions you have to eat much fresh fruit and carrots (raw).
One of the substances that fruit contains are natural sugars. They stimulate the brain so
we can think faster and recall information more quickly. There are many other substances that
fruit contains which scientists think they stimulate the brain. How this works and which
substance is responsible for which effect is still unknown as of yet and research is done at this
very moment.
We would like to tell you more about how students can improve their results by changing their
eating habits before they have an exam. Fruit is the ultimate brain fuel!
You can actually improve your test results simply by changing your eating habits between
waking up and doing the exam. The big trick is to consume fruit effectively. Have only fruit
but as much as you want before you do your test and avoid the brain blocking foods white
flour, refined white sugar, meat and dairy.
Check it out yourself once and you'll notice that you can think much more clear and faster if
you have only eaten the right and light stuff before the exam. Afterwards you can have
whatever you want!
The effect fruit has on your brain is that it makes you think faster and recall information more
easily. This is only an example. There is much more to learn about nutrition. There is also
nutrition that has a negative effect on your brains.
Here is a list of things that have a negative effect on the functioning of the brains:
White flour, especially in combination with cheese. This forms a sticky substance in the
intestines that costs much energy to digest. Much blood has to be sent to the digestive system
so it cannot be sent to your head;
Refined white sugar;
Turkey; it contains a toxic element that has a strong tiring effect, it makes you sleepy;
The combination of proteins (meat) and starch (potatoes). These two foods are burnt in a
different way. It will cost your body more energy to burn them together than apart from each
other.
8. Read the text. Find answers to the questions.
1. There is plenty of evidence that people who eat a lot of fruits and vegetables stay
healthier, isn’t there?
2. Who recommend an intake of six portions of fruits or vegetables each day?
3. What are the main compounds of fruit?
Fruits and vegetables are good for us - what is the evidence?
It is widely accepted that fruits and vegetables are good for us and many national governments
run promotions aimed at encouraging increased consumption. There is plenty of evidence that
people who eat a lot of fruits and vegetables stay healthier than those who do not.
It is also difficult to link particular compounds to specific protective effects in humans
but this is an area of intense study and relevant papers appear in the scientific literature all the
time. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a major cause of premature death in all western
countries. In 1994 the UK Department of Health published a comprehensive review of the
evidence linking eating habits to the risk of CVD and stroke. 414 references are cited. The
report concludes that there is sufficient evidence about the protective effects of fruits and
vegetables to recommend an intake of six portions of fruits or vegetables each day. This advice
is linked to recommendations to eat two portions of pasta, rice or potatoes plus four slices of
bread each day and to reduce fat intake. Ness and Powles carried out a systematic review of
reports on the protective effects of fruits and vegetables as regards CVD, stroke and general
circulatory diseases. They conclude that the evidence supports claims that eating fruits and
vegetables lowers the risk of these diseases. Fruits and vegetables provide a range of
antioxidants which have been shown to help to reduce the risk of CVD and stroke and they
give us potassium which is needed for healthy heart function.
In a far reaching review of the evidence for the relationship between what we eat and the risk
of developing cancer, a recent UK Department of Health publication looked at all food groups
and a range of cancers. A scoring system was developed to help judge the scientific quality of
information from relevant studies. 937 references are quoted. Hopefully, the conclusions of the
report and the advice given are the most reliable currently available. Overall, the evidence is
consistent that a high level of consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces cancer risk.
Looking more carefully at specific cancers, the report concludes that for cancer of the bladder,
breast, cervix, larynx, oesophagus, pancreas, prostate and stomach(gastric) there is strong
evidence for the combined protective effects of higher consumption or both fruits and
vegetables. With cancer of the colon and rectum, the report states that there is evidence that
higher intake of vegetables lowers the risk of colo-rectal cancer. For cancer of the mouth and
pharynx, the report states that there is some evidence that a higher level of fruit intake protects
against these cancers but that there is no consistent evidence about vegetables.
At the Food & Cancer Prevention III Symposium held in Norwich, UK in September 1999, the
chairman of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation, Dr Michael Hill, made the
following statements. He said there is such strong evidence that adequate consumption of fruits
and vegetables gives protection against the risk of developing cancer that it cannot be ignored.
The observations must be regarded as proven because the data are so strong and unanimous. In
addition, there is no evidence at all that eating fruits and vegetables does any harm - except in
gross excess.
Many of the compounds from fruits and vegetables have more than one role in helping to keep
us healthy and are involved both with immediate good health and with protection against
longer-term illnesses. Synergy has a role to play, many compounds require co-factors and will
only be effective when all the necessary components are present.
Vitamin C is a good example of a compound, present in fruits and vegetables, which is
essential for immediate good health. Its role is well-defined, a lot is known about how it fulfils
that particular role in the human body and there is information on recommended daily intakes.
Scurvy was the scourge of sailors in the days of long ocean voyages. In the early stages of the
disease sufferers experienced swelling and bleeding of the gums and bleeding of the skin.
Complications and death frequently followed. In 1754, a Scottish naval doctor showed that
scurvy can be treated and prevented by the use of orange or lemon juice. It was not until 1932
that vitamin C, chemical name ascorbic acid, was identified as the curative agent for scurvy. It
is possible to show the causal relationship between vitamin C deficiency and scurvy and to
monitor recovery when consumption of the vitamin is increased. Vitamin C is also a good
example of a compound which has more than one function. It is involved in collagen synthesis,
enhances iron absorption and is a potent anti-oxidant which protects our cells from oxidative
damage.
Not so dramatic as the life-threatening deficiency illnesses but very much a health issue is the
more common situation where there is less-than-optimum intake of vitamins and minerals. We
need sufficiently high intake of the important vitamins and minerals which are involved in
metabolic and other body functions to remain fit and well and enjoy a good quality of life.
Ideally, we should get enough of these by eating a mixed, balanced diet rich in fruits and
vegetables. An exception is the B vitamin, folate. Women who intend to become pregnant are
advised to take folate supplements as well as eating lots of green vegetables and fruits.
A balanced diet is important for health and fitness. Make a list of the foods you eat
regularly. Compare your list with other students.
1) Who has the healthiest diet?
2) What advice would you give to the others?
Examples: if I were you, I would cut out…They’re very high in salt, and too much salt
is bad for you. You should really eat more green vegetables. You;re not getting enough
vitamins.
9. Read the text. Define what vitamins correspond to the parts of the text.
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Vitamin B
Vitamin C
Vitamins, carotenoids and minerals from fruits and vegetables.
Vitamins are essential dietary substances which the human body cannot synthesize. They are
needed in small amounts for metabolic processes and they may be either water-soluble or fatsoluble. Vitamin deficiency can have profound ill effects on body metabolism and general
health.
The fat soluble vitamins, A, D (not found in fruits and vegetables) and vitamins E and K are
stored by the body so we do not necessarily have to eat all of them everyday. Fruits and
vegetables are primary sources of provitamin A carotenoids.
Red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables get their bright colours from chemicals known as
carotenoids. The carotenoids, a-carotene, b-carotene and b-cryptoxanthin have provitamin A
activity and are converted into vitamin A in the human body. The non-provitamin A
carotenoids, lycopene, lutein and and zeaxanthin are also important for health.
It is essential for growth and normal function of the retina of the eye and deficiency results in
eye malfunction, night blindness and xerophthalmia (a lesion of the conjunctiva and cornea).
More recently, lutein (found in yellow/green vegetables) has been found to be concentrated in
the eye and may perform an important protective role. Vitamin A has a role in the maintenance
of normal epithelial tissue, the maintenance of bone growth and overall growth and
reproduction.
Irrespective of their provitamin A role, carotenoids have diverse biological functions, not all of
which are present in each carotenoid. It is thought that the most effective overall protection
comes from eating a mix of these compounds in the form of carotenoid-rich fruits and
vegetables. Carrots and pumpkins are sources of a-carotene and carrots, spinach, peaches and
apricots are sources of b-carotene. The most common source of lycopene is tomatoes. Lutein
and zeaxanthin are found in broccoli, spinach and other green vegetables and in peas, red
peppers and celery. Cyptoxanthin occurs in oranges and some other fruits.
Eight tocopherols and tocotrienols with vitamin E activity are known, the tocopherols are the
more potent. a-tocopherol is the most active form with b- and c-tocopherol and b-tocotrienol
being less so. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and free radical scavenger in the lipid
membranes of human cells and tissues. Vitamin E also has a function in the formation of red
blood cells, muscle and other tissue and is needed for general good health. It is found primarily
in vegetable oils, seed oils, cereals and avocado pears.
It occurs as vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and as vitamin K2 (menaquinone). It is necessary for
normal blood clotting and deficiency leads to increased clotting time. Vitamin K1 is found in
fresh green vegetables and in liver. Small amounts occur in cereals and fruit. Vitamin K2 is
also produced by the intestinal bacteria.
The water-soluble vitamins are not stored in the body and must be eaten regularly to maintain
good health.
It comprises vitamin B1(thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin
B12 (not found in fruits and vegetables), folate, vitamin B3 (niacin), panothenic acid and
biotin.
Folate has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. It is important in the formation of cells,
particularly red blood cells and helps to maintain the functions of the intestinal tract and to
prevent some forms of anaemia. Maternal deficiency during the first few weeks of pregnancy
can lead to the birth of infants with neural tube defects, including spina bifida, in which the
spinal cord is not completely formed and anencephaly, in which a major part of the brain never
develops. Large-scale studies have proved that most cases of neural tube defects can be
prevented by increasing folate for at least one month before conception and during pregnancy.
Folate, along with B6 and B12 can lower levels of an amino acid called homocysteine in the
blood. Recent work has linked high levels of homocysteine to increased risk of heart attack
and stroke. High levels of homocysteine can lead to damage in blood vessels similar to high
levels of cholesterol. Folate is found in vegetables, particularly the green, leafy ones and in
some fruits, these items are excellent natural sources and should be eaten regularly.
Of the other vitamins of the B-complex, thiamine is needed for energy metabolism and
nervous system function. Deficiency results in beri-beri, a disease which causes inflammation
of nerves all over the body. Amounts in vegetable material are low. Riboflavin is involved in
energy metabolism and maintenance of eye tissue. It is found in low amounts in leafy green
vegetables. Niacin helps in energy-producing reactions in cells and aids the nervous system. It
is partially synthesised in the body and is found in meat, cereals, diary products and
vegetables. Pantothenic acid is required for protein, fats and carbohydrate metabolism and for
the formation of certain nerve-regulating substances. It occurs in most foods including fruits
and vegetables. Pyridoxine plays a role in protein and fatty acid metabolism and is needed for
red blood cell production. Low-ish amounts are found in vegetables and fruits, the best ones
being legumes and bananas. Biotin is essential for many of the chemical systems in the body
and is involved in the formation of fatty acids and energy production from glucose, it occurs in
small amounts in fruits and vegetables.
It is an important antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative damage and reducing the risk of
cancer and cardiovascular disease. It has a role in the regeneration of the oxidised form of
vitamin E and in enhancing the absorption of iron. Vitamin C is needed for healthy gums, teeth
and bones and it helps to speed up wound healing. Deficiency leads to scurvy. With a few
exceptions, animals can synthesise vitamin C from D-glucose but primates, including humans,
cannot and we must get ours from dietary sources. R.S.D.Read gives a reliable account of the
chemistry, physiological functions and metabolism of vitamin C. Vitamin C may have a role in
the prevention of cataract, probably through its antioxidative mechanism. Recent work
suggests that the amount of vitamin C required to prevent scurvy is not sufficient to protect
against other chronic diseases. This additional vitamin C should come from foods,
supplements are not recommended. Vitamin C occurs in nearly all fruits and vegetables, good
sources are citrus fruits, berries, black currants capsicum and green leafy vegetables. Weight
for weight, potatoes is not rich in vitamin C but they are a useful source of the vitamin as some
EU populations eat them frequently and in fairly large portions.
10. Read the text. Define the main idea of the text.
Antioxidants
Fruits and vegetables are sources of a range of antioxidants, the so-called ACE vitamins,
vitamins A, C and E, carotenoids and phytochemicals such as flavonoids. Antioxidants have
been suggested to help reduce the risk of cancer, heart attack and stroke.
The development of cancer is usually a relatively slow process which requires a substantial
proportion of the lifetime of an individual. The cancers of childhood which often affect
growing tissues such as the brain or bones are important exceptions to this rule and these
diseases are often associated with the presence of mutations (defective genes) inherited from
one or both parents. Inherited mutations are also known to be important in the development of
cancers of later life but, generally speaking, tumour cells are found to contain a large number
of mutations which have been acquired during life. These so-called somatic mutations may
occur because of exposure to environmental chemicals which damage the body's blueprint for
life, DNA. Molecules which damage DNA can be generated by the body itself. For example,
molecules containing oxygen often briefly acquire a special chemical structure enabling them
to interact strongly with DNA. These 'free radicals' are generated during normal respiration.
Antioxidant substances scavenge free radicals and protect cells from excessive DNA damage.
Antioxidants from fruits and vegetables may also help to protect against heart disease.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is relatively common in industrialised societies. Problems occur
when blocked arteries cause restriction of the blood supply to heart muscle. The most common
cause of blockage is the development of complex atheromatous plaques , composed of
inflamed tissues and fatty deposits on the inner surface of the artery. These plaques develop
slowly over time and may cause chronic restriction of blood flow leading to pain on exertion
(angina) or acute blockage. This most often occurs when the irregular, inflamed surface of the
plaque leads to the formation of a blood clot. When this occurs a region of heart muscle is
suddenly deprived of blood and is damaged. This is what is known as a heart attack. If the
damage is relatively limited the heart can recover but major damage can lead to death. Similar
degeneration of arteries in the brain leads to loss of blood supply and stroke or death. Smoking
and high levels of blood cholesterol, associated with high intakes of saturated fat, are both
major risk factors for CVD and stroke. The accumulation of cholesterol as deposits within
atheromateous plaques may be accelerated by oxidative damage to the low density lipoproteins
(LDL). Such damage might be prevented by high intakes of antioxidants.
11. Read and translate the text.
Other factors in fruits and vegetables
Amounts of minerals and other micro-nutrients contained in fruits and vegetables
depends on variety, climate, cultivation and soil type. The standard health advice is to eat a
wide variety of different foods, thus making sure that we get all the components necessary for
good health.
Dietary fibre is the complex carbohydrate component of plant food which is not digested by
enzymes in the digestive tract and which finds its way to the large bowel. There are several
categories of fibre, some of which occur in fruit and vegetables. One example of soluble fibre,
pectin, occurs in fruit, particularly citrus fruit and apples. Pectin slows down sugar absorption,
decreases blood lipids and can bind some toxins. Insoluble fibre, found in many fruits and
vegetables, has a high water retention capacity and acts as a bulking agent in the bowel and
aids transit time. Research shows that eating fibre helps to protect against a number of
disorders of the digestive tract including bowel cancer (6,8). Most of the fibre we eat comes
from cereals.
Fibre associated with low glycaemic index foods is important in the management of diabetes,
sources include beans and lentils.
Very young infants should not be given fibre. Fruits, vegetables and cereals must be
introduced carefully as part of a proper weaning programme.
12. Define the meaning of new words.
Flavonoids and other pigments.
Pigments provide colour to food and make it more attractive. There are thousands of
known plant pigments, including flavonoids, carotenoids and anthocyanins. Flavonoids are
phenolic compounds which occur in all fruits and vegetables. Cherries, red grapes, green
beans, red and yellow onions, apples, broccoli and tea are major sources. Flavonoids have
known antioxidant activities in vitro and their potential role as antioxidants in vivo is being
studied extensively. Anthocyanins are found in berries and cherries, they may help to reduce
the
risk
of
heart
disease
by
inhibiting
cholesterol
formation.
Protective
factors
in
green
vegetables.
Green vegetables contain a mix of antioxidant vitamins, flavonoids and other compounds
which give protection against cancer and heart disease. The phytochemicals, sinigrin and
sulphoraphane are amongst the best studied. Brussels sprouts contain a chemical called
sinigrin which suppresses the development of pre-cancerous cells. The breakdown product of
sinigrin, allyl isothiocyanate, is responsible for the characteristic smell of sprouts and is the
active ingredient. It works by persuading precancerous cells to commit suicide by a natural
process called apoptosis. The effect is very powerful, just an occasional meal with sprouts
could destroy all pre-cancerous cells in the colon. Broccoli contains sulphoraphane which also
has powerful anti-cancer effects but, unlike sinigrin, it works by blocking cancer rather than
suppressing it. Sulphoraphane works by stimulating part of the body's own detoxification
system known as phase II enzymes. Other vegetables of the brassica family, including
cabbage, cauliflower and kale have useful amounts of protective phytochemicals.
13. Make a plan of the text written above.
In conclusion
The action of protective factors in fruits and vegetables is complex. It is thought that the
components reinforce one another and that we get best overall protection by eating a wide
range of fruits and vegetables. In addition to the different composition of various types of
fruits and vegetables we also have to consider other factors. These include, whether the
compounds are in a form which the body can use (bioavailabilty) and the effects of normal
methods of food storage, preparation and cooking. For example, vitamin C is easily destroyed
by heat in cooking whereas the absorption of carotenoids is helped by the softening effects of
cooking.
What we eat does affect our health, we need to eat some foods from each of four main groups
every day. These groups are, starchy foods which include bread, pasta, rice, breakfast cereals
and potatoes, dairy products which include milk, cheese and yogurt, meat and fish and fruits
and vegetables. Eat plenty of fruit and vegetables. Try to eat at least five portions of fruits and
vegetables every day. Fruits and vegetables contain a lot of different compounds which help to
keep us fit and well. Eat a wide range of fruits and vegetables to get maximum benefit.
14. Read the text. Define meaning of new words.
A vegetarian is someone living on a diet of grains, pulses, nuts, seeds, vegetables and
fruits with or without the use of dairy products and eggs.
A vegetarian does not eat any meat, poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, or
slaughter by-products.
Types of Vegetarian
Lacto-ovo-vegetarian. Eats both dairy products and eggs. This is the most common
type of vegetarian diet.
Lacto-vegetarian. Eats dairy products but not eggs.
Vegan. Does not eat dairy products, eggs, or any other animal product.
Stumbling Blocks
Many foods contain ingredients derived from the slaughter of animals. Gelatine is made
from animal ligaments, tendons, bones etc which have been boiled in water. It is often found in
confectionery, low fat spreads and desserts, and other dairy products. The term animal fat
refers to carcass fat and may be present in a wide range of foods, including biscuits, cakes, and
margarines. Suet and lard are types of animal fats. Certain food additives (E numbers) may be
derived from animal sources.
Cheese is often made with rennet extracted from the stomach lining of slaughtered
calves. Vegetarian cheese is made with rennet from a microbial source.
The Vegetarian Society has an information sheet listing ingredients which may be
unsuitable for vegetarians.
Many vegetarians that eat eggs will eat only free-range eggs. This is due to moral
objections to the battery farming of hens. The Vegetarian Society only endorses products
containing eggs if the eggs are certified as free-range.
Practices in catering
Vegetarians dining out will expect work surfaces and chopping boards, utensils and all
other kitchen equipment and facilities to be either kept separate from those used for nonvegetarian food preparation, or cleaned thoroughly before vegetarian food preparation.
Caterers should also ensure that fryers, grills and griddles used for preparing nonvegetarian products are thoroughly cleaned. Fryers must be filled with fresh, uncontaminated
oil before vegetarian food is cooked.
The Society recommend that caterers keep a separate set of utensils for the preparation
and serving of vegetarian meals.
15. Read and make summary.
The Gluten-Free Diet
A gluten-free diet is essential for people who have coeliac disease or dermatitis
herpetiformis (a gluten induced skin sensitivity). Some people may choose to follow a glutenfree diet for other reasons, although these two diseases are the only ones where a gluten-free
diet is considered medically imperative.
Gluten is a mixture of proteins found in some cereals, particularly wheat. It is the gliadin
component of gluten which is responsible for coeliac disease. A gluten-free diet is not the
same as a wheat-free diet, and some gluten-free foods are not wheat free. Despite a good deal
of research, it is unknown how or exactly why gluten harms the gut. It is now considered likely
that coeliac disease involves an abnormal immunologic response, rather than an enzyme
deficiency as was suggested in the past.
The Vegetarian Society believes that a gluten-free diet is compatible with vegetarianism.
Some doctors and The Coeliac Society advise against a vegetarian or vegan diet for coeliacs
because they believe it may make your diet too complicated and this could mean it is difficult
to comply with. There are no known medical or nutritional reasons why you should not be a
vegetarian or vegan coeliac, although the gluten-free aspects of your diet must be the priority
for your own health and well-being.
It is possible to follow a gluten-free vegan diet, although you must be extra careful to
ensure that your diet is nutritionally adequate. It is essential that you seek the advice of a
sympathetic dietitian if you want to follow a vegan gluten-free diet.
Vegetarians may initially find it difficult to establish what foods they can and cannot
have. This Information Sheet is designed to help.
A gluten-free diet involves the complete avoidance of all foods made from or containing
wheat, rye, barley and usually, oats. Some doctors say oats may be permitted, although The
Coeliac Society advise against the inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet.
The Coeliac Society publishes a list of gluten-free manufactured products in a booklet
which is updated every year. You can check with The Vegetarian Society if you are unsure
whether any particular foods on this list are suitable for vegetarians or vegans. Some
manufacturers use the gluten-free symbol on their label.
A wide range of specially manufactured gluten-free foods such as, bread, bread mix,
pasta, biscuits, cakes, crispbread and flour are prescribable under the NHS. Some groups of
people are exempt from prescription charges, children, pregnant women and pensioners in
particular. If you are not exempt, it works out economical to buy a "season ticket" type
prescription. Some gluten-free products, such as chocolate biscuits, are considered luxuries
and are not prescribable, although they can be bought from the chemist.
Coeliac disease leads to severe damage of the gut surface, which can be completely
reversed by following a gluten-free diet. Shortly after the diagnosis of coeliac disease, you
need to be extra careful to ensure you have a nutritionally adequate diet, as you may have been
suffering from malabsorption of nutrients.
16. Read and fill in the table according to the content.
Protein
Some gluten-free flours are low in protein, because they have had the gluten removed,
which is itself a protein. Specially manufactured, prescribed gluten-free flours usually have
milk protein added. Vegetarians can get protein from nuts & seeds, pulses, the non-gluten
containing cereals, soya products, milk, cheese and free range eggs. Make sure some protein is
included in each meal, and practice protein complementation with the vegetable proteins, for
example, combine a nut or pulse dish with a suitable cereal.
Protein is especially important to a growing child, it is essential to seek the advice of
your dietitian if you are bringing up a child on a gluten-free vegetarian or vegan diet.
Anaemia
Following diagnosis, many coeliacs sufferers are anaemic. This is usually due to iron
deficiency, although it could also be due to folic acid or vitamin B12 deficiency. Your doctor
may prescribe an iron supplement for you until your digestive system is back to normal and
can absorb iron again.
To ensure a good intake of iron include pulses, lentils, nuts and green vegetables daily in
your diet. Avoid drinking tea with meals and instead have fruit juice, which helps the
absorption of iron because it contains vitamin C.
Going vegetarian
If you are already a vegetarian or vegan and are advised to follow a gluten-free diet, you
do not need to abandon your vegetarianism. If you are recently diagnosed and would like to
become vegetarian or vegan, do give your digestive system time to recover before making
major changes to your diet, after all, you have a lot to think about in getting used to a glutenfree diet. When you have stabilised, you can gradually change to a vegetarian diet.
Do contact The Vegetarian Society if you have any problems, when making the change
to a vegetarian way of living. Also, do contact us if you have any difficulties with health
professionals, who are sceptical about your following a vegetarian diet.
Once coeliac disease has been diagnosed, it is recommended that you follow a glutenfree diet for life.
17. Read the text. Translate and write out new words.
A vegan is a strict vegetarian who does not eat any dairy products or eggs. Most vegans
do not eat honey. A well balanced vegan diet can provide all the essential nutrients you require
and shares the same health advantages as a vegetarian diet.
Nutritional guidelines for vegans are essentially similar to those for vegetarians.
However, vegetarians gain certain nutrients from dairy products and eggs. Vegans need to
ensure their diets contain plant food sources of these nutrients, the main ones of which are
discussed below.
Protein
Obtaining adequate protein on a vegan diet is not a problem. Nuts & seeds, pulses,
wholegrain and grain products and soya products all supply protein. Previously, it has been
thought that plant proteins are of a lower quality than animal proteins in terms of their essential
amino acid content. However, this is no longer regarded as a problem and eating a balanced
diet of plant foods will provide all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts.
Essential Fatty Acids
There are two essential fatty acids which must be supplied by the diet. These are linoleic
acid and a-linolenic acid. Essential fatty acids are important for cell membrane function,
cholesterol metabolism and the synthesis of various metabolites. Good sources of essential
fatty acids are vegetable oils. It is important to have the correct balance between linoleic acid
and a-linolenic acid. It has been suggested that vegans should use soyabean or rapeseed oils
rather than sunflower or corn oils as these help give a better dietary balance.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Certain studies have found vegans to have a low intake of the vitamin, riboflavin.
Riboflavin is important in converting protein, fats and carbohydrates into energy, and the
synthesis and repair of body tissues. Good sources of riboflavin include whole grains,
mushrooms, almonds, leafy green vegetables and yeast extracts.
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is found primarily in meat, dairy products and eggs and is absent from
plant foods. Considerable research has been carried out into possible plant sources of B12.
Fermented soya products, seaweeds and algae such as spirulina have all been proposed as
containing significant amounts of B12. However, the present consensus is that any B12 present
in plant foods is likely to be in a form unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be
relied upon as safe sources.
Vitamin B12 is important in the formation of red blood cells and the maintenence of a
healthy nervous system. When deficiency does occur it is more likely to be due to a failure to
absorb B12 from the intestine than a dietary deficiency.
Vegans can obtain B12 from a wide range of foods which have been fortified with the
vitamin. These include certain yeast extracts, veggieburger mixes, breakfast cereals, vegetable
margarines and soya milks. You should check the packaging to see which individual products
are fortified with B12.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is present in oily fish, eggs and dairy products in variable amounts. It is not
found in plant foods. However, vegans can obtain vitamin D from vegetable margarines, some
soya milks and certain other foods which are fortified with the vitamin.
Vitamin D is also synthesised by the skin when exposed to sunlight. Synthesis of
vitamin D in this way is usually adequate to supply all the body's requirements. Most vegans
will obtain sufficient vitamin D providing they spend time outdoors on bright days. Fortified
foods further ensure adequate amounts.
Vegans who may be confined indoors may be recommended a vitamin D supplement.
Also, infants who are seldom oudoors or who are dark-skinned may require supplements.
Asian vegans may also be at risk of deficiency, particularly Asian women who may be
required to keep their skin covered for cultural reasons.
Calcium
The major source of calcium in British diets is generally milk and dairy products.
Vegans can obtain adequate calcium from plant foods. Good sources include tofu, leafy green
vegetables, watercress, dried fruit, seeds and nuts. Also, white bread is fortified with calcium,
as are some soya milks. Hard water can also provide significant amounts of calcium.
Iodine
Milk is the primary source of iodine in the British diet and studies have indicated some
vegans may have a low iodine intake. Seaweeds are a good source of iodine, and vegetables
and grains can contain iodine depending on the amounts in the soil.
Infants
It is perfectly possible to bring up a child on a vegan diet. Vegan children should be
given plenty of nutrient rich foods and need good sources of protein, calcium, vitamin B12 and
vitamin D. High fibre foods can fill up a child without filling their nutritional needs as well as
interfering with mineral absorption from the intestine. For these reasons, foods high in fibre
shouldn't be overused.
Vegan Storecupboard
Dairy products can largely be replaced with various soya products. There are several
brands of soya milk. It can be purchased either sweetened or unsweetened, plain or flavoured.
Different brands may be fortified with vitamin B12, vitamin D and calcium.
Soya cheeses, yoghurts and cream are all available from health food stores. Eggs can be
replaced in recipes by commercial egg replacer products, also available from health food
stores.
The Vegan Society's Animal-Free Shopper is a useful guide for vegan shoppers and
includes suitable cosmetics, supplements, clothing and various household goods as well as
food products.
Food industry
The food industry is the complex, global collective of diverse businesses that together
supply much of the food energy consumed by the world population. Only subsistence farmers,
those who survive on what they grow, can be considered outside of the scope of the modern
food industry.
The food industry includes:
Regulation: local, regional, national and international rules and regulations for food
production and sale, including food quality and food safety, and industry lobbying activities
Education: academic, vocational, consultancy
Research and development: food technology
Financial services insurance, credit
Manufacturing: agrichemicals, seed, farm machinery and supplies, agricultural
construction, etc.
Agriculture: raising of crops and livestock, seafood
Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, manufacture of prepared food
products
Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g. milk board), new products, public
opinion, through advertising, packaging, public relations, etc
Wholesale and distribution: warehousing, transportation, logistics
Retail: supermarket chains and independent food stores, direct-to-consumer, restaurant,
food services
Essentially, the food industry involves the commercial movement of food from field to
fork. The modern food industry is the result of technological and cultural changes that have
occurred over the last 150 years. Traditionally, over thousands of years, food production was
centered around two activities:
Labor-intensive agricultural activities, the farming of grain, produce and livestock;
Personal food preparation, where individuals and families acquire raw and minimally
processed ingredients, and prepare them for their own consumption.
A significant percentage of the population was directly involved in farming, and in the
process, many people actually fed themselves, from field to table. By contrast, the modern
food industry relies far more on technology, particularly on mechanization and biochemistry,
than on human and animal labor. In this way, food is raised, manipulated, preserved and
moved around, resulting in a food industry that is to a great degree global in nature, with food
and related resources travelling great distances. For example, farm machinery and parts from
Europe and agrichemicals from the US may routinely travel to farms in South America, where
farm products are raised and shipped to North America for fresh market consumption, or for
use in processed foods which may then travel to further points around the world. The point at
which foods are gathered and prepared has also become fragmented: much of what we eat has
already been assembled for consumption.
This modern food system relies heavily on technology, transportation, management and
logistics for physical fulfillment, and on marketing and government regulation for maintaining
an efficient consumer market. An incredibly wide range of businesses and individuals are
employed by and profit from all aspects of this huge and complex system. A tremendous
amount of governmental regulation and administration is also involved in this continual flow
of materials, food products, and related information.
Food industry is not a formally defined term, however, it is usually used in a broadly
inclusive way to cover all aspects of food production and sale. The Food Standards Agency, a
government body in the UK, describes it thus:
"...the whole food industry – from farming and food production, packaging and
distribution, to retail and catering."
The Economic Research Service of the USDA uses the term food system to describe the
same thing:
"The U.S. food system is a complex network of farmers and the industries that link to
them. Those links include makers of farm equipment and chemicals as well as firms that
provide services to agribusinesses, such as providers of transportation and financial services.
The system also includes the food marketing industries that link farms to consumers, and
which include food and fiber processors, wholesalers, retailers, and foodservice
establishments."
Processed food sales worldwide are approximately US$3.2 trillion (2004).
In the U.S., consumers spend approximately US$1 trillion annually for food, or nearly
10 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Over 16.5 million people are employed in
the food industry.
Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by
the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). The
practice of agriculture is also known as "farming", while scientists, inventors and others
devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in
agriculture. More people in the world are involved in agriculture as their primary economic
activity than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's GDP.
A vast global transportation network is required by the food industry in order to connect
its numerous parts. These include suppliers, manufacturers, warehousing, retailers and the end
consumers.
With populations around the world concentrating in urban areas, food buying is
increasingly removed from all aspects food production. This is a relatively recent
development, taking place mainly over the last 50 years. The supermarket is a defining retail
element of the food industry, where tens of thousands of products are gathered in one location,
in continuous, year-round supply.
Food preparation is another area where change in recent decades has been dramatic.
Today, two food industry sectors are in apparent competition for the retail food dollar. The
grocery industry sell fresh and largely raw products for consumers to use as ingredients in
home cooking. The food service industry offers prepared food, either as finished products, or
as partially prepared components for final "assembly".
Sophisticated technologies define modern food production. They include many areas.
Agricultural machinery, originally led by the tractor, has practically eliminated human labor in
many areas of production. Biotechnology is driving much change, in areas as diverse as
agrichemicals, plant breeding and food processing. Many other areas of technology are also
involved, to the point where it is hard to find an area that does not have a direct impact on the
food industry. Computer technology is also a central force, with computer networks and
specialized software providing the support infrastructure to allow global movement of the
myriad components involved.
As consumers grow increasingly removed from food production, the role of product
creation, advertising, publicity become the primary vehicles for information about food. With
processed food as the dominant category, marketers have almost infinite possibilities in
product creation.
The smooth flow of international trade is critical to the functioning of the modern food
industry. Government regulations have to be synchronized to some greater degree to allow
this.
Until the last 100 years, agriculture was labor intensive. Farming was a common
occupation. Food production flowed from millions of farms. Farmers, largely trained from
generation to generation, carried on the family business. That situation has changed
dramatically. In North America, over 50% of the population were farm families only a few
decades ago; now, that figure is around 1-2%, and some 80% of the population lives in cities.
The food industry as a complex whole requires an incredibly wide range of skills. Several
hundred occupation types exist within the food industry.
Research in agricultural and food processing technologies happens in great part in
university research environments. Projects are often funded by companies from the food
industry. There is therefore a direct relationship between the academic and commercial sectors,
as far as scientific research.
The Food Worldis the biggest directory for food, beverage and agriculture industries,
worldwide.
Monsanto is a leading producer of pesticide, seeds, and other farming products.
Both Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill process grain into animal feed and a diverse
group of products. ADM also provides agricultural storage and transportation services, while
Cargill operates a finance wing.
Bunge is a global soybean exporter and is also involved in food processing, grain
trading, and fertilizer.
Dole Food Company is the world's largest fruit company. Chiquita Brands International,
another US based fruit company, is the leading distributor of bananas in the United States.
Sunkist Growers, Incorporated is a U.S. based grower’s cooperative.
Tyson Foods is the world’s largest processor and marketer of chicken and the largest beef
exporter from the United States. Smithfield is the world's largest pork processor and hog
producer.
Nestlé is the world's largest food and beverage company. The Altria Group owns 88.1%
of Kraft Foods, the largest U.S. based food and beverage company. Unilever is an AngloDutch company that owns many of the world's consumer product brands in foods and
beverages.
Sysco Corporation, mainly catering to North America and Canada, is one of the world's
largest food distributors.
Food Technology (magazine)
Food Technology is a monthly food science and technology magazine published
by the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) in Chicago, Illinois. The magazine
addresses current issues related to food science and technology, including research,
education, food engineering, food packaging, nutraceuticals, laboratory issues, and other items
related to IFT. The magazine is free to IFT members as part of their annual dues. Its current
editor-in-chief is Bob Swientek, a position he has held since 2004.
Before 1946, IFT would publish occasional newsletters and proceedings of papers
presented at the annual IFT Meetings from 1940 to 1945. By 1946, the IFT Council (its
governing body) decided to publish a monthly journal on the proceedings of the 1946 Annual
Meeting. The first issue of Food Technology magazine was published in January 1947 with C.
Olin Ball as its editor-in-chief. This journal published both information regarding the food
industry along with research papers. The journal would become a monthly publication
beginning in 1949, carrying magazine advertisements for the first time. Ball would remain as
editor-in-chief until June 1950.
Zoltan I. Kertesz would succeed Ball as editor-in-chief in 1950 and hold that position
until July 1952. While Kertesz served as editor, IFT would purchase Food Research in 1951
from Garand Press. Martin S. Peterson would succeed Kertesz as editor-in-chief that year and
continue in that position until December 1960. During Peterson's tenure, Food Technology
would undergo two new logo and cover designs, occurring in June 1953 and August 1957,
respectively. During this time, both Kertesz and Peterson would also be Editor-In-Chief of
Food Research.
George F. Stewart succeeded Peterson as editor of Food Technology in January 1961. It
was also the time that Calvert L. Willey took over as Executive Secretary of IFT. During this
time, Stewart and Willey worked together to shift the basic research to the Journal of Food
Science (changed from Food Research in 1961). The formatting of Food Technology was
changed to publish more feature articles, news, and applied research. Stewart would remain as
Executive Editor until July 1966. By this time, Willey had centralized the publications office
in Chicago, establishing a Director of Publications with Karl O. Herz. Stewart would be
succeeded by Walter M. Urbain as Scientific Editor of Food Technology in May 1966. The
magazine would also have a new logo and cover design in June 1969. The final transitions
would occur in 1970 and 1971 when John B. Klis succeeded Herz as Publications Director and
Editor of Food Technology in April 1970, and when Ernest J. Briskey succeeded Urbain as
Scientific Editor in June 1970. Applied research of food science would transfer fully from
Food Technology to the Journal of Food Science in January 1971 where they have remained
ever since. During this time, Stewart, Urbain, and Briskey would also remain as Editor-InChief of the Journal of Food Science as well until 1971.
Klis saw the magazine's greatest change from 1971 until he stepped down in March
1996. During this time, Food Technology would change its logo and cover design twice, first
in January 1977 and then in June 1985. The 1977 change would also show an overview being
introduced that highlighted outstanding symposia in food science and technology from the IFT
Annual Meeting, a trend that would continue until 1997. Klis would serve until 1996 and
would be succeeded by Frances R. Katz in September of that year.
Katz would serve as editor from September 1996 to March 2001 when she was
succeeded by Neil H. Mermelstein, a member of the Food Technology staff since 1971. In
October 2004, Mermelstein took a new position as Executive Editor, and Bob Swientek
became Editor-In-Chief. The magazine has since undergone two changes in its publishing logo
and format, the first in June 1997 and the most recent change occurring in July 2005, winning
awards for the redesign. Today the magazine presents two to three featured articles, including
education, foodservice, product development, and pet food in the most recent issues, and
standard articles on laboratory, ingredients, nutraceuticals, food processing, food packaging,
and items related to IFT.
Such topics covered by Food Technology since 1947 include quality, food safety,
regulation, food law, sensory analysis, food chemistry, food microbiology, food additive, food
allergy, education, food labeling regulations, bioterrorism, and obesity.
DAIRY PRODUCTS IN HUMAN NUTRITION
Milk and dairy products are accepted in many countries as basic foods, some of which
persons of all ages should have every day. The precise role of the milk components- protein,
fat, lactose or carbohydrate, and minerals- in human nutrition is still incompletely understood.
But these essential elements of a balanced diet are combined in the proportions and amounts
needed for the growth of infants and children and for the dietary well-being of an adult. One
pint of summer milk contributes about 90 percent of the calcium, 30 to 40 percent of the
riboflavin, 25 to 30 percent of the protein, 10 to 20 percent of the calories and vitamins A and
D, and up to 10 percent of the iron and vitamine D needed by an adult.
Milk protein is of high nutritional value, since it contains all the essential amino acids,
those that cannot be synthesized in quantity. The nutritional value of milk fat is still unclear. It
is the most complex of natural fats, containing at least 142 fatty acids. The exact nutritional
function of lactose, or milk sugar, is not known. Lactose is hydrolysed in the body to glycose
and galactose. A deficiency of these is thought to lead to diseases of structural and nervous
tissue in latter life. The mineral content of milk includes calcium and phosphorus adequate for
normal skeletal development. The dietary essential minerals that occur in major amounts in
milk are, in grams per quart, chlorine 0.97, phosphorus 0.91, sulfur 0.28, and magnesium 0.11.
Milk contains all of the vitamins known to be required by man.
Food irradiation
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to
destroy microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the food. Further
applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, improvement
of re-hydration. Irradiation is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials to
radiation to achieve a technical goal. As such it is also used on non-food items, such as
medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, tires, and even gemstones.
Food irradiation is sometimes referred to as cold pasteurization or electronic
pasteurization because ionizing radiation used to sterilize the food does not heat the food to
high temperatures during the process, as in heat-pasteurization (at a typical dose of 10 kGy,
food that is physically equivalent to water would warm by about 2.5 °C). The treatment of
solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids,
such as milk. However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is
controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes,
although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.
Food irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries and volumes are estimated
to exceed 500 000 metric tons annually world wide.
By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the harmful bacteria and other
pathogens present are killed. This prolongs the shelf-life of the food in cases where microbial
spoilage is the limiting factor. Some foods (e.g., herbs and spices) are irradiated at sufficient
doses (five kilograys or more) to reduce the microbial counts by several orders of magnitude;
such ingredients will not carry over spoilage or pathogen microorganisms into the final
product. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening of fruits or the sprouting
of vegetables.
The United States Department of Agriculture has approved the use of low-level
irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables that are considered
hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit flies and seed weevils; US FDA has cleared
among a number of other applications the treatment of hamburger patties to eliminate the
residual risk of a contamination by a virulent E. coli. The United Nations Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) has passed a motion to commit member states to implement
irradiation technology for their national phytosanitary programs; the General assembly of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has urged to make wider use of the irradiation
technology; the World Health Organization (WHO) has complained that food irradiation is not
available to those who need it most because of reluctance and opposition in some developed
countries. And the USDA has made a number of bi-lateral agreements with developing
countries to facilitate the imports of exotic fruits and to simplify the quarantine procedures.
Currently, the European Union has regulated processing of food by ionizing radiation in
specific directives since 1999; the situation is easily explored and the several documents and
reports are accessible. The 'implementing' directive contains a 'positive list' only permitting
irradiation of dried aromatic herbs, spices, and vegetable seasonings. However, any Member
State is permitted to maintain previously granted clearances or to add new clearance as granted
in other Member States, in the case the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) has given a
positive vote for the respective application. Presently, six Member States (Belgium, France,
Italy, Netherlands, Poland, United Kingdom) have adopted such provisions.
Because of the 'Single Market' of the EC, any food--even if irradiated--must be allowed
to be marketed in any other Member State even if a general ban of food irradiation prevails,
under the condition that the food has been irradiated legally in the state of origin. Furthermore,
imports into the EC are possible from third countries if the irradiation facility had been
inspected and licensed by the EC and the treatment is legal within the EC or some Member
state . The Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) of the EC has given a positive vote on eight
categories of food to be irradiated. However, in a compromise between the European
Parliament and the European Commission, only dried aromatic herbs, spices, and vegetable
seasonings can be found in the positive list. The European Commission was due to provide a
final draft for the positive list by the end of 2000; however, this failed because of a veto from
Germany and a few other Member States. In 1992 and in 1998 the SCF voted positive on a
number of irradiation applications which had been allowed in some Member States before the
EC Directives came into force, in order to enable those Member States to maintain the national
authorizations. In 2003 (at the occasion when Codex Alimentarius was about to remove any
upper dose limit for food irradiation) the SCF adopted a 'revised opinion which in fact is just a
re-confirmation and endorsement of the 1986-opinion. The cancellation of the upper dose limit
is denied, and before the actual list of individual items or food classes (as in the opinions
expressed in 1986, 1992 and 1998) is expanded, new individual studies into the toxicology of
each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges is requested. After 2003 the SCF
has been replaced by the new European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which not yet has
voted on processing food by ionizing radiation.
Other countries including New Zealand, Australia, Thailand, India, and Mexico have
permitted the irradiation of fresh fruits for fruit fly quarantine purposes amongst others. Other
countries as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex Alimentarius Standard on Irradiated
Food without any reservation or restriction, ie. any food to any dose.
The dose of radiation is measured in the SI unit known as Gray (Gy). One Gray (Gy)
dose of radiation is equal to 1 joule of energy absorbed per kg of food material. In radiation
processing of foods, the doses are generally measured in kGy (1000 Gy).
The measurement of radiation dose is referred to as dosimetry and it involves exposing
dosimeters jointly with the treated food item. Dosimeters are small components attached to the
irradiated product made of materials that when exposed to ionizing radiation change specific
measureable physical attributes to a degree that can be correllated to the dose received.
Modern dosimeters are made of a range of materials such as alanine pellets, perspex blocks,
radiochromic films, as well as special solutions. These dosimeters are used in combination
with specialized read out devices. Standards that describe calibration and operation for
radiation dosimetry are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards.
On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three main
categories as detailed under:
Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy)
Sprout inhibition in bulbs and tubers 0.03-0.15 kGy
Delay in fruit ripening 0.25-0.75 kGy
Insect disinfestation including, quarantine treatment and elimination of food borne
parasites 0.07-1.00 kGy
Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy)
Reduction of spoilage microbes to improve shelf-life of meat, poultry and seafoods
under refrigeration 1.50-3.00 kGy
Elimination of pathogenic microbes in fresh and frozen meat, poultry and seafoods 3.007.00 kGy
Reducing number of microorganisms in spices to improve hygenic quality 10.00 kGy
High Dose Applications (above 10 kGy)
Sterilisation of packaged meat, poultry and their products which are shelf stable without
refrigeration. 25.00-70.00 kGy
Sterilisation of Hospital diets 25.00-70.00 kGy
Product improvement as increased juice yield or improved re-hydration
It is important to note that these doses are above those currently permitted for these food
items by the FDA and other regulators around the world. The Codex Alimentarius Standard on
Irradiated Food does not specify any upper dose limit. NASA is authorized to sterilize food for
Astronauts at doses of 44 kGy as a notable exception.
Irradiation treatments are also sometimes classified as radappertization,radicidation and
radurization.
Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric field to a velocity close to
the speed of light. Electrons are particulate radiation and have cross section many times larger
than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches depending on
product density. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and
the environment from radiation exposure.
Gamma radiation is radiation of photons in the gamma part of the spectrum. The
radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally Cobalt-60 or, in theory,
Caesium-137. Caesium-137 is recovered during the refinement of spent nuclear fuel. Because
this technology - except for military applications - is not commercially available, insufficient
quantities of it are available on the global isotope markets for use in large scale, commercial
irradiators. Presently, Caesium-137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before
transfusion to prevent Graft-versus-host disease.
Food irradiation using Cobalt-60 is the preferred method by most processors, because
the better penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes,
reducing the need for material handling. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several
minutes depending on dose. Radioactive material must be monitored and carefully stored to
shield workers and the environment from its gamma rays. With most designs the radioisotope
can be lowered into a water-filled source storage pool to allow maintenance personnel to enter
the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs the radiation. Other
uncommonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that reduce
radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber.
One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the Cobalt-60 under water at all times and
lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No further shielding is
required for such designs.
Similar to gamma radiation, X-rays are photon radiation of a wide energy spectrum and
an alternative to isotope based irradiation systems. X-rays are generated by colliding
accelerated electrons with a dense material such as Tantalum in a process known as
bremsstrahlung-conversion. X-ray irradiators are scalable and have good penetration, with the
added benefit of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also
permit very good dose uniformity. However, these systems generally have low energetic
efficiency during the conversion of electron energy to photon radiation requiring much more
electrical energy than other systems and longer exposure times than those required by gamma
rays or electron beams. Like most other types of facilities, X-ray systems rely on concrete
shields to protect the environment and workers from radiation.
Many U.S. supermarkets carry irradiated food products today ranging from fresh
tropical fruit from Hawaii or Florida, dehydrated spices and ground meat products. Certain
supermarkets like Whole Foods Market prefer not carry the product for reasons of consumer
perception.
Some older studies suggest that majority of the public questions the safety of irradiated
foods, and if given a choice, will not buy foods that have been irradiated. More recent
consumer attitude and markets studies worldwide, however, indicate consumers today will
tend to accept irradiated food. Major studies in the United States indicate the number of
consumers concerned about the safety of irradiated food has decreased in the last 10 years and
continues to be less than the number of those concerned about pesticide residues,
microbiological contamination, and other food-related concerns. Where ever irradiated food
has reached the market, it has found a sufficient number of consumers to buy it. A number of
marketing tests has proven, that consumers as soon as they are allowed to try the real irradiated
food item and are informed about the technology and the purpose of the treatment are willing
to buy. The number of people reporting no concerns about irradiated food is among the lowest
for food issues, comparable to that of people with no concern about food additives and
preservatives.
Opponents of food irradiation sometimes state that large-scale irradiation would increase
processing, transportation, and handling times for fruits and vegetables thus contributing to a
negative ecological balance compared to locally grown foods.
Labeling laws differ from country to country. While Codex Alimentarius represents the
global standard in particular under the WTO-agreement, member states are free to convert
those standards into national regulations. With regard to labelling of irradiated food detailed
rules are published at CODEX-STAN - 1 (2005) labelling of prepacked food.
The provisions are that any 'first generation' product must be labelled 'irradiated' as any
product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provisions is that
even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in
cases where the unirradiated ingredient will not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is
optional; several countries use a graphical version which differs from the Codex-version.
In the US as in many other countries irradiated food must be labeled as "Treated with
irradiation" or "Treated by radiation" and require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point
of sale. However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used
can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens affected by
irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of
pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a
restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement.
FDA is currently proposing a rule that in some cases would allow certain irradiated
foods to be marketed without any labeling at all. Under the new rules, only those irradiated
foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the
consequences that may result from the use of the food, would bear the Radura symbol and the
term "irradiated", or a derivative thereof, in conjunction with explicit language describing the
change in the food or its conditions of use. In the same rule FDA is proposing to permit a firm
to use the terms "electronically pasteurized" or "cold pasteurized" in lieu of "irradiated",
provided it notifies the agency that the irradiation process being used meets the criteria
specified for use of the term "pasteurized".
There are analytical methods available to detect the usage of irradiation on food items in
the marketplace. This is understood as a tool for government authorities to enforce existing
labeling standards and to bolster consumer confidence. The European Union is particularly
strict in enforcing irradiation labeling requiring its member countries to perform tests on a
cross section of food items in the market-place and to report to the European Commission; the
results are published annually in the OJ of the European Communities.
Hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food, including multigenerational
studies, have been performed since 1950. Endpoints investigated have included subchronic and
chronic changes in metabolism, histopathology, and function of most systems; reproductive
effects; growth; teratogenicity; and mutagenicity. Because a large number of studies has been
performed, some have demonstrated adverse effects of irradiation, but no consistent pattern
has emerged. Independent reviews of the scientific evidence by a series of expert committees,
involving the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Consultative
Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), as well as the FDA have concluded that irradiation of
foods under specified conditions is safe.
Some consumer advocacy groups like Public Citizen or Food and Water Watch maintain
that the safety of irradiated food is not proven and strongly oppose the use of the technology.
Concerns have sometimes been expressed by public interest groups and public health
experts that irradiation, as a non-preventive measure, might disguise or otherwise divert
attention away from poor working conditions, sanitation, and poor food-handling procedures
that lead to contamination in the first place.
Processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections, and
potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization; including fines, recalls, and criminal
prosecutions. Furthermore, while food irradiation can in some cases maintain the quality of
certain perishable food for a longer period of time, it can not undo spoilage effects that occur
prior to irradiation. Irradiation can therefore not be successfully used to mask quality issues
other than pathogens. Under a HACCP-conzept Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
radiation processing can serve and contribute as an ultimate CCP (Critical Control Point).
Experience over more than 40 years in the field of radiation processing has shown that
such technology is generally safely used. The steady improvement in the design of such
facilities and careful selection and training of operators have contributed to a very good safety
record. Nevertheless, there have been instances, as in Italy in 1975, in Norway in 1982 and in
El Salvador in 1989, when safety systems have been circumvented and serious radiological
accidents involving workers at the facilities have ensued.
The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International
Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory
Commissions. The incidents that have occurred in the past are documented by the agency and
thoroughly analyzed to determine root cause and improvement potential. Such improvements
are then mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design.
National and international regulations on the levels and types of energy used to irradiate
food generally set standards that prevent the possibility of inducing radioactivity in treated
foods. Care must be taken not to expose the operators and the environment to radiation.
Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this risk. Nevertheless there have been
radiation related deaths and injury amongst workers of such facilities, many of them caused by
the operators themselves overriding the interlocks.
An incident in Decatur, Georgia where water soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source
storage pool requiring NRC intervention has led to near elimination of this radioisotope; it has
been replaced by the more costly, non-water soluble cobalt-60.
Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are naturally restricted from sale on the
global market, unless they are irradiated to prolong quality for transportation. Less spoilage at
the receiving end means fewer discards, lowering the unit cost. Irradiation has also been used
to reduce bacteria counts in seafood that is shipped over long distances. Because irradiation
can reduce pest infestations, it has opened the markets for previously prohibited items, such as
mangoes from India that otherwise have a risk of carrying certain insects and pathogens with
them into the importing country. Insect pests can have a devastating effect on crop production.
They can also transmit diseases that destroy crops and kill livestock and people. Heavy
reliance on pesticides raises environmental concerns and problems of pest adaptation and
resistance. As a result, many countries are seeking to minimize insecticide use through
irradiation techniques.
Such benefits are offset by the cost of this rather capital intensive technology. The actual
cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, the food's tolerance of radiation,
handling conditions (i.e., packaging and stacking requirements), construction costs, financing
arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation. Irradiation is a capital-intensive
technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. In
the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a
radiation source (cobalt-60), hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and
other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating
costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance,
cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs.
Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. Low dose applications
such as desinfestation of fruit range between $US 0.01/lbs and $US 0.08/lbs while higher dose
applications can cost as much as $US 0.20 / lbs.
Other methods to reduce different pathogens in food include pasteurization, Ultra-high
temperature processing, UV radiation, Ozone or fumigation with ethylene oxide.
Insect pests can also be eliminated fumigation with methyl bromide or aluminum
phosphine, vapour heat, forced hot air, hot water dipping, or cold treatment. However, the
Mango weevil sitting in the stone of the fruit can only be reached by ionizing radiation.
Other methods to extend shelf life of food items include modified atmosphere
packaging, carbon monixide, dehydration, vacuum packaging, freezing and flash freezing as
well as chemical additives. However, such methods are not effective for products already
deep-frozen where only ionizing radiation can penetrate the product (without re-thawing).
Some people argue that the best alternative to food irradiation to reduce pathogens is in
good agricultural practices. For example, farmers and processing plants should improve
sanitation practices, water used for irrigation and processing should be regularly tested for E.
coli, and production plants should be routinely inspected. concentrated animal feeding
operations near farmland where produce is grown should be regulated. However, such methods
as also practised in organic farming can only reduce the extend of the load with
microorganisms of all kind; a residual flora including pathogen germs will always persist; and
processing by ionizing radiation could be the ultimate measure (as a CCP under a HACCPconcept) to practically eliminate such risks.
The main organization in the United States regarding food science and food technology
is the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), headquarted in Chicago, Illinois, which is the US
member organisation of the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST).
The European national organisations are organised into the European Federation of Food
Science and Technology (EFFoST).
Some popular books on some aspects of food science or kitchen science have been
written by Harold McGee and Howard Hillman.
In the October 2006 issue of Food Technology, IFT President Dennis R. Heldman noted
that the IFT Committee on Higher Education stated that the current definition the "Food
Science is the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to
study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food
processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public."
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized
agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both
developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as
equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and
information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve
agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.
Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates into English as "let there be bread!".
FAO was founded on 16 October 1945 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. In 1951 its
headquarters were moved from Washington, D.C., United States, to Rome, Italy. As of 11
April, 2006, it had 190 members (189 states and the European Community, List of FAO
members).
FAO's mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better
the lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy. Achieving
food security for all is at the heart of FAO's efforts – to make sure people have regular access
to enough high-quality food to lead active lives.
FAO is governed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years
to review the work carried out by the organization and approve a Programme of Work and
Budget for the next biennium. The conference elects a council of 49 Member Nations to act as
an interim governing body. Members serve three-year, rotating terms. The conference also
elects the Director-General to head the agency. FAO is composed of eight departments:
Administration and Finance, Agriculture, Economic and Social, Fisheries, Forestry, General
Affairs and Information, Sustainable Development and Technical Cooperation. Since 1994,
FAO has undergone the most significant restructuring since its founding, to decentralize
operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs. Savings of $50 million a year have been
realized.
FAO's Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set
at the FAO Conference. This budget covers core technical work, cooperation and partnerships
including the Technical Cooperation Programme, information and general policy, direction
and administration.
Member states froze FAO's budget from 1994 through 2001 at $650 million per
biennium. The budget was raised slightly to $651.8 million for 2002-03 and jumped to $749
million for 2004-05, but this nominal increase was seen as a decline in real terms. In
November 2005, the FAO governing Conference voted for a two-year budget appropriation of
$765.7 million for 2006–2007; once again, the increase only partially offset rising costs due to
inflation.
The Special Program for Food Security (SPFS) is FAO's flagship initiative for reaching
the goal of halving the number of hungry in the world by 2015 (presently 852 million people),
as part of its commitment to the Millennium Development Goals. Through projects in over 100
countries worldwide, the SPFS promotes effective, tangible solutions to the elimination of
hunger, undernourishment and poverty. Currently 102 countries are engaged in the SPFS and
of these approximately 30 are operating or developing comprehensive National Food Security
Programmes. To maximize the impact of its work, the SPFS strongly promotes national
ownership and local empowerment in the countries in which it operates.
During the 1990s, FAO took a leading role in the promotion of integrated pest
management for rice production in Asia. Hundreds of thousands of farmers were trained using
an approach known as the Farmer Field School (FFS)]. Like many of the programmes
managed by FAO, the funds for Farmer Field Schools came from bilateral Trust Funds, with
Australia, Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland acting as the leading donors. FAO's efforts in
this area have drawn praise from NGOs that have otherwise criticized much of the work of the
organization.
The FAO Statistical Division produces FAOSTAT, an on-line multilingual database
currently containing over 3 million time-series records from over 210 countries and territories
covering statistics on agriculture, nutrition, fisheries, forestry, food aid, land use and
population. The Statistical Division also produces data on World Agricultural Trade Flows.
Raising awareness about the problem of hunger mobilizes energy to find a solution. In
1997, FAO launched TeleFood, a campaign of concerts, sporting events and other activities to
harness the power of media, celebrities and concerned citizens to help fight hunger. Since its
start, the campaign has generated close to US$14 million in donations. Money raised through
TeleFood pays for small, sustainable projects that help small-scale farmers produce more food
for their families and communities.
FAO's Strategic Framework 2000-2015 stipulates that the organization is expected to
take into full account "progress made in further developing a rights-based approach to food
security" in carrying out its mission "helping to build a food-secure world for present and
future generations." When the Council adopted the Voluntary Guidelines in November 2004, it
also called for adequate follow up to the Guidelines through mainstreaming and the
preparation of information, communication and training material.
In June 2002, during the World Food Summit, world leaders reviewed progress made
towards meeting the 1996 Summit goal of halving the number of the world's hungry by 2015;
their final declaration called for the creation of an International Alliance against Hunger
(IAAH) to join forces in efforts to eradicate hunger. Launched on World Food Day, 16
October 2003, the IAAH works to generate political will and concrete actions through
partnerships between intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations and national
alliances. The IAAH is a voluntary association of international organizations, national
alliances against hunger, civil society organizations, social and religious organizations and the
private sector. The global activities of the IAAH focus on four major themes: advocacy,
accountability, resource mobilization and coordination. The International Alliance is made up
of the Rome-based UN food organizations – FAO, the International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD) and the World Food Programme (WFP) – and representatives of other
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. Individuals cannot directly join the
IAAH, though they can work with national alliances against hunger. In less than two years, 36
countries have established national alliances, some of them already very active like those in
Brazil, Burkina Faso, France, India and the United States.
The FAO Goodwill Ambassadors Programme was initiated in 1999. The main purpose
of the programme is to attract public and media attention to the unacceptable situation that
some 800 million people continue to suffer from chronic hunger and malnutrition in a time of
unprecedented plenty. These people lead a life of misery and are denied the most basic of
human rights: the right to food. Governments alone cannot end hunger and undernourishment.
Mobilization of the public and private sectors, the involvement of civil society and the pooling
of collective and individual resources are all needed if people are to break out of the vicious
circle of chronic hunger and undernourishment. Each of FAO’s Goodwill Ambassadors –
celebrities from the arts, entertainment, sport and academia such as Nobel Prize winner Rita
Levi Montalcini, actress Gong Li, singer Miriam Makeba, and soccer player Roberto Baggio,
to name a few – has made a personal and professional commitment to FAO’s vision: a foodsecure world for present and future generations. Using their talents and influence, the
Goodwill Ambassadors draw the old and the young, the rich and the poor into the campaign
against world hunger. They aim to make Food for All a reality in the 21st century and beyond.
See also FAO Goodwill Ambassadors
There has been public criticism of FAO for at least 30 years. Dissatisfaction with the
organization's performance was among the reasons for the creation of two new organizations
after the World Food Conference in 1974, namely the World Food Council and the
International Fund for Agricultural Development; by the early eighties there was intense
rivalry among these organizations. At the same time, the World Food Programme, which
started as an experimental 3-year programme under FAO, was growing in size and
independence, with the Directors of FAO and WFP struggling for power.
Edoaurd Saouma, the Director General of FAO, was heavily criticised in Graham
Hancock's book 'Lords of Poverty, published in 1989. Mention is made of Saouma's 'fat pay
packet', his 'autocratic' management style, and his 'control over the flow of public information'.
Hancock concluded that "One gets the sense from all of this of an institution that has lost its
way, departed from its purely humanitarian and developmental mandate, become confused
about its place in the world - about exactly what it is doing, and why".
In 1990, the US State Department expressed the view that "The Food and Agriculture
Organization has lagged behind other UN organizations in responding to US desires for
improvements in program and budget processes to enhance value for money spent".
A year later, in 1991, The Ecologist magazine produced a special issue under the
heading "The UN Food and Agriculture Organization: Promoting World Hunger". The
magazine included articles that questioned FAO's policies and practices in forestry, fisheries,
aquaculture, and pest control. The articles were written by experts such as Helena NorbergHodge, Vandana Shiva, Edward Goldsmith, Miguel A. Altieri and Barbara Dinham. Also
included was an article by 'Khalil Sesmou', the pseudonym of a senior FAO official. Sesmou's
article started with the following summary of the criticism FAO was facing at the time:
"FAO, set up to develop world agriculture so as to enable the world to feed itself has
disastrously failed in its task. It has ignored and even derided traditional agricultural methods
and permits no international criticism of its policy of promoting Western-style intensive
farming and the export of cash crops. FAO's performance is judged on the amount of money it
spends, not on the effectiveness of its projects, it ignores the voices of the people it is supposed
to be helping and it has close links with agribusiness internationals, whose products it actively
promotes. The organization's Director-General has been much criticized by FAO staff and
others for his autocratic style, and the political manoeuvring he has engaged in to ensure his
re-election. A massive overhaul of FAO's basic philosophy, structure and function is urgently
needed".
In 1996, FAO organised the World Food Summit, attended by 112 Heads or Deputy
Heads of State and Government. The Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome
Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from
hunger by the year 2015. At the same time, 1,200 Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from 80
countries participated in an NGO Forum. The Forum was critical of the growing
industrialisation of agriculture and called upon Governments - and FAO - to do more to protect
the 'Right to Food' of the poor, rather that protecting the profits of companies involved in
agribusiness.
The next Food Summit organised by FAO in 2002 was considered to be a waste of time
by many of the official participants. Social movements, farmers, fisherfolk, pastoralists,
indigenous peoples, environmentalists, women's organizations, trade unions and NGOs
expressed their collective disappointment in, and rejection of the official Declaration of the
Summit.
In 2004, FAO produced a controversial report called 'Agricultural Biotechnology:
meeting the needs of the poor?'. The report claimed that "agricultural biotechnology has real
potential as a new tool in the war on hunger". In response to the report, more than 650
organisations from around the world signed an open letter in which they said "FAO has broken
its commitment to civil society and peasants' organisations". The letter complained that
organisations representing the interests of farmers had not been consulted, that FAO was
siding with the biotechnology industry and, consequently, that the report "raises serious
questions about the independence and intellectual integrity of an important United Nations
agency". The Director General of FAO responded immediately, stating that decisions on
biotechnology must "be taken at the international level by competent bodies" (in other words,
not by non-government organisations). He acknowledged, however, that "biotechnology
research is essentially driven by the world's top ten transnational corporations" and "the private
sector protects its results with patents in order to earn from its investment and it concentrates
on products that have no relevance to food in developing countries".
In May 2006, a British newspaper published the resignation letter of Louise Fresco, the
Assistant Director General of FAO. In her letter, the widely respected Dr Fresco stated that
"the Organization has been unable to adapt to a new era", that "our contribution and reputation
have declined steadily" and "its leadership has not proposed bold options to overcome this
crisis".
October 2006 saw delegates from 120 countries arrive in Rome for the 32nd Session of
FAO's Committee on World Food Security. The event was widely criticized by Non-
Government Organizations, but largely ignored by the mainstream media. Oxfam called for an
end to the talk-fests while Via Campesina issued a statement that criticized FAO's policy of
Food Security.
Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of
activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate." The marketing of even a single food
product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example,
fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses
include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the
ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans. The food marketing system is the
largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers
took their wares on market day, into the local village market place. Here food was sold to
grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers. With the onset of
industrialization, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food
could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be
counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the
shop-keeper could get it for them.
In the 20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self
service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower
cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th
century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized outof-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of
very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield
great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers.
Nevertheless, less than ten percent of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger
percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations.
Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected
with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a
devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used
to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are
undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes. Food
deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using
famine scales.
Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve
peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point
that food aid is no longer required. Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems
by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production.
Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop. Its provision, or threatened
withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination
country, a strategy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain
types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the
markets of donor countries. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are
often co-ordinated by the World Food Programme.
Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by bacteria, toxins,
viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with
about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors
leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food
from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse
reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper
storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a
very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking,
packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings,
hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for
certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container,
such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates.
The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of
hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for
killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur
contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today.
This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development
of modern food storage and food preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater
understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more
systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP),
which can identify and eliminate many risks.
Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most
people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a
harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food
allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly
susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too
minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in
extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks),
peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating,
vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of
ingesting the allergen.
Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency, such as anaphylactic shock,
hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this
type of reaction is peanut, although latex products can induce similar reactions. Initial
treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an
Epi-pen.
Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what
foods to eat. Although humans are omnivores, many cultures hold some food preferences and
some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For
example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, and halal/haram foods by Islam, in the
diet of believers. In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different
characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's cuisine.
Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans.
Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or
excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body fat. Poor intake of various vitamins and
minerals can lead to diseases which can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30%
of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing, Iodine deficiency. It is
estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin C
deficiency results in scurvy. Calcium, Vitamin D and phosphorus are inter-related; the
consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are
childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.
Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For
instance vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others
choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary
fiber and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher
chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases. More recently, dietary
habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on
health or the environment from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact
of industrial farming on animal welfare, human health and the environment are also having an
effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a
counterculture with a preference for organic and local food.
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there
is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies,
excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to
diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral
problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary
aspects influence health.
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means fat, protein,
and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally food contains
water and dietary fiber.
Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any item that
is to be processed, partially processed or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items
included as foodstuffs include any substance, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be,
ingested by humans. In addition to these foodstuffs drink, chewing gum, water or other items
processed into said food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the
legal definition of food include animal feed, live animals unless being prepared for sale in a
market, plants prior to harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics, tobacco and tobacco
products, narcotic or psychotropic substances, and residues and contaminants.
Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to
another. They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to
complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including
baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread.
Dried fruits make tasty snacks and are very handy for taking on camping or hiking trips.
Dried fruits can also be chopped up and used dry with breakfast cereal, granola, or cookies.
Fruit can be reconstituted for use in recipes by pouring just enough boiling water over it
to cover and simmering it for 15 minutes. Or pour cool water over it to cover, then soak for a
few hours. Soak only until the fruit is plump because soaking too long makes the fruit mushy
and less flavorful. To retain nutrients, cook the fruit in the same water used for soaking.
Most dried fruit needs no extra sugar because some of the starch in the fruit turns to
sugar during the drying process. If you wish to sweeten the fruit, do so after cooking;
otherwise the fruit will become mushy. Reconstituted fruit is especially good in cakes, pies,
and other desserts. If the recipe calls for water, use the water in which the fruit was soaked.
When you reconstitute pieces of vegetables, they should become nearly the same size
they were when fresh. Add 1 to 2 cups of water to 1 cup of dried vegetables. Add more water
later if necessary. Blanched dried vegetables should be soaked about 2 hours before cooking.
Unblanched vegetables will take longer. Dried beans and peas can be soaked overnight or
boiled 2 minutes and then soaked 1 hour before cooking.
Dried vegetables taste best if used in soups, stews, or other dishes cooked with liquid
and seasonings. The seasonings help to enhance the natural flavor of the vegetables.
To become a successful, creative cook, start using some of the fine herbs such as sweet
basil, marjoram, or summer savory. But be miserly in your measure; herbs can easily
overpower the flavor of the food they are used to season.
You can make your own favorite blend of herbs for a variety of uses. A combination of
marjoram, oregano, basil, and thyme used in equal parts is a good basic blend for soups, stews,
sauces, casseroles, and salads. Sage, savory, and rosemary may be added to the blend for use
with poultry, Italian dishes, or other spicy foods. You can adjust the amounts to suit your taste.
You do not need to reconstitute herbs before you use them. To substitute dried herbs for
fresh herbs, use 1/4 teaspoon of dried herbs for 1 teaspoon of fresh
More and more people live in the cities and are far away from the production areas of
food. In many families both husband and wife are working and therefore there is little time for
the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that
fulfill many different needs: From peeled potatoes that only have to be boiled at home to fully
prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes.
Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and
distribution tasks. In addition, it increases seasonal availability of many foods, enables
transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances.
Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for allergists and other people
who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can also add extra
nutrients such as vitamins
Processed foods are often less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods, and are
better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer .Fresh materials,
such as raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella)
capable of causing serious illnesses.
Water may not seem like a nutrient, but it is, and probably our most important one.
Humans can live several weeks without food but only a few days without water. Water makes
up almost two- thirds of the body. It is part of every cell. Water carries all of the other
nutrients to the cells and takes wastes away. It also helps regulate body temperature. Every
food has some water in it.
Scientists knew there was something else in food besides water, carbohydrates, protein,
and fat long before they could isolate the mystery ingredient in the laboratory. The mystery
remained unsolved until 1913 when the unknown ingredient was finally discovered. As it
turned out, it wasn't just one ingredient but several similar chemicals that we now call
vitamins. Although each has a scientific name, we know them best by their letter names
A,B,C,D,E, and K. (There are eight different B vitamins and some other vitamins such as
niacin that don't have letter names.)
Vitamins probably eluded scientists for so long because foods contain such tiny amounts
of them. Nevertheless, without even these tiny amounts, the cells couldn't do their jobs.
Vitamins are responsible for helping to form the material that holds cells together, for helping
bones and teeth to use calcium, for helping the body use energy, and for many other critical
life-support activities.
Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the
body. An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent such diseases as beriberi, anemia, and
scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.
Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while
other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts.
Food coloring is added to change the color of any food substance. It can be used to
simulate the natural color of a product as perceived by the customer, such as red dye like
FD&C Red No.40 to ketchup or to add unnatural colors to a product. Caramel is a natural food
dye; the industrial form, caramel coloring, is the most widely-used food coloring and is found
in foods from soft drinks to soy sauce, bread, and pickles.
Flavor in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer. Some of
these products occur naturally like salt and sugar. Artificial flavors include methyl salicylate
which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste.
Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavors, or improving taste or
appearance. These processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for
emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by "E number" in the European
Union or GRAS ("Generally recognized as safe") by the United States Food and Drug
Administration.
It would be impossible to feed the populations of large cities of the world if there were
no industries capable of taking in bulk food from the farms and of preserving and processing it
for distribution through wholesale and retail outlets. In all the technically developed countries
the food industries employ chemists and nutritionists to see that nutritive value of the raw food
is retained as much as possible. In general, canned and frozen foods purchased in a
supermarket may be of higher nutritive value than corresponding “fresh” foods in an open
small-town market: the latter may have been on sale many days after harvesting. It would also
be impossible to preserve and maintain the flavour of foods for the feeding of large
populations without the addition, during processing, of chemicals which act as preservatives,
emulsifiers, flour improvers, sweeteners, and flavouring agents. People in large cities may
ingest small amounts daily of 100 such food additives, all of which could be potentionally
poisonous.
The addition of vitamins, minerals, or amino acids can increase the nutritive value of
foods. Margarines are enriched with vitamins A and D and, in general have a nutritive value
similar to that of good quality butter. Many infant foods are enriched with vitamin D and other
nutrients. Most nutritionists agree that in certain circumstances enrichment is beneficial, for
example, in the manufacture of margarines. There is, however, considerable disagreement
about the value of widespread enrichment.
FERMENTATION AND PICKLING
Although microorganisms are usually thought of as causing spoilage, they are capable
under certain conditions of producing desirable effects, including oxidative-alcoholic
fermentation. The microorganisms that grow in a food product, and the changes they produce,
are determined by acidity, available carbohydrates, oxygen and temperature. Untreated meat,
for example, molds and putrifies. The addition of brine or salt causes different organisms to
grow.
An important food preservation method combines salting to control microorganisms
selectively and fermentation to stabilize the treated tissues. The process for cucumbers is
called pickling and is also applied to many other food commodities.
Fresh fruits and vegetables soften under 24 hours in a watery solution and begin a slow,
mixed fermentation-put-refaction. The addition of salt suppresses undesirable microbial
activity, creating a favourable environment for the desired fermentation. Most green
vegetables and fruits may be preserved by pickling. Sauerkraut is made by bacterial
fermentation of cabbage controlled by the use of salt. The acid that develops during
fermentation acts as a preservative and develops the flavour.
Fermented foods and pickled products require protection against molds, metabolize the
acid developed and allow the advance of other microorganisms. Fermented and pickled food
products placed in cool storage can be expected to remain stable for several months. Longer
storage periods demand more complete protection, such as canning.
Nutrient retention in fermented and pickled products is about equal to retention for
products preserved by other methods. Carbohydrates usually undergo conversion to acid or to
alcohol, but these are also of nutritive value. In some instances, nutrient levels are increased
because of the presence of yeasts.
A History of Soul Food
Every ethnic group has what it calls "soul food" - soothing, comfort food that brings
back warm memories of family dinners. Today, in America, the term "soul food" simply
means African-American cuisine. To fully understand the concept of "soul food," you must
learn the traditional foods of Africa. Many common American foods are indigenous to Africa.
Grains, legumes, yams, sorghum, watermelon, pumpkin, okra, and leafy greens could be found
as early as 4000 BC on the African continent. Eggplant, cucumber, onion and garlic are
believed to be African in origin, while only a small number of fruits are grown on the
continent: wild lemons, oranges, dates and figs.
Many culinary historians believe that in the beginning of the 14th century, around the time of
early African exploration, European explorers brought their own food supplies and introduced
them into the African diet. Foods such as turnips from Morocco and cabbage from Spain
would play an important part in the history of African American cuisine.
As meat was used sparingly, the average African ate mostly a vegetarian diet, though seafood
showed up often in stews served with a starch. Okra and native peppers were used as
seasoning and salt as a preservative. Research scientist William Bascom found that a large
portion of tribal Africans shared basic cooking techniques. Simplicity was the trademark in
African cooking. Utensils for cooking and eating were made from earthenware or prepared
gourds or other squashes. Africans cooked in boiling water and steamed food using leaves as a
steamer. They often fried foods in palm oil or vegetable butters, toasted and roasted using fire
and baked in ashes. Some ingredients were smoked for flavoring and others thickened with
nuts and seeds. Africans also made rice dishes and created fritters.
A common African meal consisted of rice, chicken and milk while the poorest Africans ate a
type of couscous with leafy vegetables. This made the African diet healthy and satisfying. The
tradition of communal living with shared meals was the perfect environment for conversation
and the reciting of oral history and storytelling.
When slave trading began in the early 1400s, the diet of newly enslaved Africans changed on
the long journeys from their homeland. On these terrible voyages across the Atlantic Ocean,
small portions of rice and beans, with the occasional vegetable or piece of fruit, replaced their
normally healthy diet. A "slabber" sauce, made from old beef and rotten fish and salt, was
poured over the rice and beans in an attempt to fill the slave's stomachs.
It was during this time that surprisingly some of the indigenous crops of Africa began showing
up in the slaves new home in the Americas. Tall tales of seeds from watermelons, okras and
sesame being transported in the slave's ears, hair or clothing could be true. The more likely
idea would be that the European slave traders, urged by the African slave traders themselves,
brought the food over for trade. Whatever the case, these familiar foods would soon become
part of America's southern crops.
African slaves actually had a better diet than their owners did. The owners ate mostly fatty
foods, with little or no vegetables and lots of sweets and alcohol that left them lethargic. The
slaves needed to be strong and energetic to work the fields, so large vegetarian meals were
encouraged and drinking discouraged. Ice tea and lemonade became typical drinks. As the
Africans began to assimilate into the American slave society, they "made do" with the
ingredients at hand. The fresh vegetables found in Africa were replaced by the throwaway
foods from the plantation house. Their vegetables were the tops of turnips and beets and
dandelions. Soon they were cooking with new types of greens: collards, kale, cress, mustard
and pokeweed. With a lot of lard for flavor from the slaughtered hog and cracklin' from it's
skin, they made a filling meal.
Weekly rations were given out from the smokehouse of corn meal, a few pounds of meat and
black molasses. The women would use these ingredients, with onions, garlic, thyme and bay
leaf, to create a variety of dishes. The cornmeal was turned into a bread. The meat (pig's feet,
ham hocks, chitterlings, pig ears, hog jowl, tripe, and crackling) became the main dish with
generous portions of greens, and the molasses and cornmeal would be mixed to become a
dessert.
The slave diet began to evolve when slaves entered the plantation houses as cooks. With an
array of new ingredients at their fingertips and a well-tuned African palate, the cooks would
make delectable foods for their masters. Suddenly southern cooking took on new meaning.
Fried chicken began to appear on the tables, sweet potatoes (which had replaced the African
yam) sat next to the boiled white potato. Regional foods like apples, peaches and berries, nuts
and grains, soon became puddings and pies. Possum was the meat of choice among slaves
since hunting was done during the only free hours a slave had, after all the work for their
master was complete, in the wee hours of the night.
Soon the slave's cuisine became knows as "good times" food. After long hours working in the
fields or up at the house, the evening meal was a time for families to get together. The big pots
became a meal for both body and soul. It was during the meal that the oral history was re-told,
forbidden religious ceremonies held and family and friends visited.
Some slaves tried to escape from captivity and Native Americans took in many. From the
Native Americans they learned to use the ground green sassafras leaves as a new spice. Sadly,
many escaped slaves were re-captured and returned to their plantations. No doubt the ground
sassafras went with them and was called "file'" by Lousiana slaves.
Because each state had its own cultural influences, the African dishes began to take on the
qualities from that region. Rich and saucy dishes with a French accent came from Louisiana,
while the Carolina's Spanish culture introduced dishes like jambalaya and a strange food called
sausage into the cooking pots that sat over open fires in the slave's quarters. It could be
surmised that from a bouillabaisse or a cassoulet found in the French cuisine, the slaves
changed it into a gumbo using the shellfish from the bayou and the okra and file' to make a
dish more to the liking of African taste bud.
Unlike the dishes from other countries with names that usually told what the ingredients were,
black cuisine had names that did not necessarily give you a clue to the ingredients, but did tell
you a little history of how it came about.
It is said that the hushpuppy got its name from the dredging of the catfish that would have been
thrown out. Being thrifty, the cook from the house would send this down to the slave quarters
and the women added a little milk, egg and onion and fried it up. It is said they were tossed at
the dogs to keep them quiet while the food was being transferred from the pot to the table, i.e.,
"hush puppy! hush puppy!."
Hoecakes are a dish said to have been a corn bread batter that was heaped onto the spade or
hoe which was held over the open fire to make a quick bread. Ashcakes are a corn meal
mixture baked in an open fire, and the baked bread is washed after cooking then served. A "gut
strut" is another name for a big pot of chittlin's.
No matter the stories, good, black cuisine was wholesome food that used everything available.
Nothing was ever wasted in the black kitchen. Leftover fish became croquettes (by adding an
egg, cornmeal or flour, seasonings and breaded then deep-fried). Stale bread became bread
pudding, and each part of the pig had its own special dish. Even the liquid from the boiled
vegetables was turned into "pot likker" which was used as a type of gravy or as a drink in and
of itself. While the master would have an apple, peach or cherry baked pie, slaves were
ingenious and produced fried pies that could be tucked into a pocket for a sweet pick-me-up in
the fields.
When the emancipation came in 1863, slaves soon scattered from the confines of the
plantation into other parts of the United States. Black cowboys could be found in Texas,
domestics in Illinois and Michigan, porters worked the railroad stations up and down the
eastern seaboard. As the railroad tracks expanded across the middle of the country, black
cooks could be found working in train kitchens too. Wealthy and middle class whites and
blacks in large cities hired black cooks. This brought southern black cuisine into the homes of
many Americans.
So as not to lose contact with family members scattered far and wide, Sunday dinners became
a common time for families to get together. It was common for a son or daughter to travel
some distance just for a good home cooked meal. Aunts, uncles, cousins (both real and
pretend) would converge, not to the largest home, but to the house with the best cook for a
meal. Occasionally there would be a potluck where everyone brought their "best" dish, but the
normal pattern was for the women to get in the kitchen and cook up a storm. Men seldom took
part, unless there was ‘cueing (barbecue).
In the mid 1960s, when the Civil Rights Movement was just beginning, terms like "soul man"
"soulful" and just "soul" were used in connection with blacks themselves. It caught on with
mainstream America and someone coined the term "soul food" for black cuisine and it stuck.
Today when most people think of soul food, it is a table heavy with trays of watermelon, ribs,
candied sweet potatoes or yams, greens and fried chicken. Each black family, however, has its
own idea of what black cuisine is. Hogshead cheese sliced on saltine crackers with hot sauce
and beer is one such dish. Crab cakes. Carrot and Raisin salad. Fried corn. Hush puppies. Corn
pone. Red beans and rice. Greens. Liver and onions. Lima beans with ham hocks. Stewed okra
and tomatoes. Cornbread dipped in buttermilk. Fried catfish. Smothered chicken. Pickled pig's
feet. Fried cabbage. Neckbones. Tongue. Chittlin's. Tripe. Gumbo. Breaded fried pork chops
with a mess of greens. Black-eyed peas...and, grits. Although grits is truly a southern dish, it is
considered here as a part of black cuisine because black Americans eat grits for breakfast,
lunch or dinner; plain, with butter, with gravy, with cheese or deep-fried.
Black owned restaurants have begun to stray from the traditional foods for health reasons.
They sometimes substitute canola oil for lard, chicken for pork; oven fried chicken for deep
fried and simple fresh fruit for the sweet cobblers and bread puddings they grew up on.
The aroma of "soul food" can fill the house and let the neighbors know that a big pot is
cooking. Today, many are just too busy to spend hours in the kitchen cooking up the
traditional foods of black America. In the search for the best soul food restaurant, there is one
piece of advice: If you walk by and the aroma does not greet you at the door, keep walking.
Cuisine of the South
The cuisine of the south is largely non-greasy, either boiled or steamed and therefore
very light on the stomach. Rice is the staple of the south Indian meal. Traditionally south
Indian food is served on a banana leaf and each dish has its own specific place on the platter
and
has
to
be
served
in
a
particular
order.
The meal consists of several courses of rice, which is eaten with a different dish like sambar,
rasam and curd during each course. There are several accompaniments like curries, made of
either vegetables or meat, vegetable stews, raitha, papad and pickles. Curd is usually a must
for all vegetarian meals. Coconut is used liberally both as garnish and also as part of the
masala.
South Indian snacks are most popular all over the country. The ubiquitous idli, dosa and
vada, are eaten with sambar by the bowlsful and spicy coconut chutney. While idli is steamed
rice cakes, dosa is a pancake and vada are deep fried dal doughnuts.
The influence of the Mughal rulers who ruled India is perhaps most felt in their food. A
major contribution towards this is the tandoor which is an earthen oven, used to make rotis and
kababs, which are pieces of meat marinated in spices and skewered over a coal tandoor. Some
of the famous Mughlai dishes include tandoori chicken, seekh and boti kabab and even
tandoori fish.
Mughlai food is very rich, its sauces consisting of curd, cream and crushed nuts like
cashew. The biryani from the kitchens of the nawabs of Hyderabad, is a flavoured and spiced
rice cooked with ghee and chicken or meat, and is a meal-in-a-dish eaten with raitha and salad.
Aromatic spices and ghee make Mughlai food a very rich form of cuisine.
Gujarat has a wide variety of savoury food, pickles and sweets. Roti itself is prepared in
a number of variations from the petal soft phulkas to the bone dry khakra, which is a spiced,
crunchy preparation usually taken on journeys.
The population which is predominantly Jain doesn't include spices like onion and garlic and
yet, the food is so interesting and delicious, which goes to prove the culinary skills of the
people of Gujarat.
The Gujaratis have a sweet tooth and this shows in their cooking. Every dish is
sweetened, be it a vegetable preparation or the simple dal, even pickles and chutneys are
flavoured with jaggery and sugar. Seasoning of food is given great importance with mustard,
fenugreek, thyme and asafoetida used both for flavour and as digestive aids.
The staple diet of the Bengalis is rice and fish. A true Bengali will consider a meal
incomplete without fish and celebrations are never done without a fish preparation. Mustard
oil is the medium of cooking as it imparts a unique flavour and taste especially to the fish
items. Fish is cooked in a variety of ways -steamed, fried and boiled with various spices for
different
flavours.
Mention Bengal and one is immediately reminded of the delicious sweets of the state — gulab
jamun, rasagulla, sandesh, cham cham and many more. If Gujarat has a profusion of savoury
items, Bengal matches it with its sweets. Made of milk and cottage cheese, these are light and
delectable.
Coming to the food, the staple diet of the people of Bengal and Orissa includes rice and
fish, especially fresh water fish. Even Brahmins of Bengal eat fish and no celebration is
complete without it. The principal medium of cooking is mustard oil. A distinct flavour is
imparted to the fish dishes by frying them in mustard oil before cooking them in gravy. Fish is
also steamed by the Bengalis.
Bengalis have a special seasoning called 'Panchphoran' which includes five spices —
mustard, aniseed, fenugreek seed, cumin seed and black cumin seed. The garam masala is
made up of cloves, cinnamon, cumin and coriander seeds, mace, nutmeg, and big and small
cardamoms.
Punjabi food is wholesome and full of rustic flavour. The custom of cooking in
community ovens or tandoors, prevails in rural pockets till today. Tandoori dishes are popular
all over the country today. Nans and parathas, rotis made of cornflour (makke di roti) are
typical Punjabi breads.
The cuisine is characterised by a profusion of dairy products in the form of malai
(cream), paneer (cottage cheese) and curds. The dals are a speciality of this type of cuisine.
Made of whole pulses like black gram, green gram and Bengal gram, they are cooked on slow
fire, often simmered for hours till they turn creamy and then flavoured with spices and rounded
off with malai for that rich finish.
Rajma (Kidney beans) and rice is a favourite as are makke di roti and sarson ka saag
(cornflour rotis and a creamy preparation made of mustard greens). Eaten with plenty of ghee,
this is a winter favourite with Punjabis. The basic gravy used for vegetables and meat dishes is
onion-tomato-garlic-ginger.
Though chicken is a favourite with non-vegetarians, fish is also a delicacy, especially in
the Amritsar region, which is also known for its kulcha, a baked bread made of refined flour.
Tall glasses of lassi, made of yoghurt, added with either salt or sugar is a popular
cooling drink not only in Punjab but all over the country. Phirni, a sweet dish made of milk,
rice flour and sugar and chilled in earthenware bowls is a typical Punjabi dessert.
Traditional Kashmiri cooking is called Wazhawan and comprises mostly of nonvegetarian dishes. It is rich and aromatic with a wonderful flavour unique to Kashmiri cuisine.
Most Kashmiris including the Brahmins (Kashmiri Pandits) are meat eaters. The cuisine of the
state is characterised by three different styles of cooking — the Kashmiri Pandit, the Muslims
and the Rajput styles. Though they eat meat, surprisingly, many traditional Kashmiri Pandits
don't include garlic and onion to their cooking.
One of the distinct features of Kashmiri cuisine is the generous use of curds in the
gravies, giving the dishes a creamy consistency. The Kashmiris also use asafoetida to flavour
their meat dishes. Saunf (aniseed) and dry ginger are other spices used imaginatively to
enhance the taste. For instance some dishes get their pungency not from chillies, but from dry
ginger. Other dishes have no spice except may be a little saunf added to them for flavour.
Being the home of saffron, the colourful flavouring agent is used in the pulaos and
sweets. Walnuts, almonds and raisins are also added to the curries. Ghee is the medium of
cooking, probably because the fat is required to impart heat to the body, though mustard oil is
also used. Some of the better known dishes are yakhni, tabaq naat, which is an exotic dish
made of fried ribs and decorated with silver varq, dum aloo, rogan josh, gaustaba which is a
light meatball, haleem which is meat pounded with wheat, etc.
The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh is reputedly the spiciest and hottest of all Indian cuisine.
The cuisine includes both the original Andhra cooking and the Hyderabadi cuisine with its
Mughlai influence. It is the former which is red hot.
The pickles and chutneys are very popular and last for several years. Chutney is made
of practically every vegetable including tomatoes, brinjals and an aromatic green called
'gonkura' which is an Andhra speciality. The mango pickle 'Avakkaya' is a perennial favourite
of Andhraites all over the world.
The vegetables and greens are prepared with various different masalas giving the same
vegetable different flavours. Traditional Andhra cuisine also has many non-vegetarian dishes
which are also spicy and unique in taste.
Hyderabadi cuisine is rich and aromatic with a liberal use of exotic spices and ghee, not
to speak of nuts and dry fruits. Lamb is the most widely used meat in the non-vegetarian
dishes. The biryanis (flavoured rice with meat or vegetables) is one of the most distinct
Hyderabadi food.
Cauliflower mixed vegetables
Cauliflower is typically fried or cooked in a fair amount of
oil, but I add the oil at the end, to bring a similar flavor with a
fraction of the fat.
1 small cauliflower (3 cups), divided into small florets (1-
inch)
11/2 cups carrots, peeled and thinly sliced (1/4-inch)
11/2 cups zucchini, thinly sliced (1/4-inch)
4 tsp vegetable oil
a pinch of asafetida
1/2 tsp cumin seeds
1 tsp fresh ginger, chopped
1/4 tsp turmeric
11/2 tsp salt
1/2 tsp cayenne pepper (optional)
1 tbsp coriander powder
1/2 tsp mango powder
3/4 tsp garam masala
1 tbsp fresh coriander, finely chopped (cilantro)
Wash and drain cauliflower, carrots and zucchini. Set aside.
Heat 1 tsp oil in a heavy, nonstick skillet over medium high
heat. Add asafetida and cumin seeds and cook for a few seconds
until seeds are golden brown.
Add vegetables and stir. Add ginger, turmeric, salt and
cayenne pepper. Stir thoroughly.
Heat through, cover with a lid and reduce heat. Simmer for
8–10 minutes. Open 1–2 times to stir the vegetables. Cook until
vegetables are tender but firm.
Sprinkle with coriander powder, mango powder and garam
masala. Stir carefully in a lifting and turning fashion so as not to
mash the vegetables.
Add the remaining 3 teaspoons of oil around the sides of the
pan, allowing the oil to get to the bottom of the pan. All the liquid
from the vegetables should be evaporated; if not, increase heat to
evaporate it. Fry for 3–5 minutes, stirring once or twice in the
same lifting and turning fashion. (This final roasting or frying in
the oil brings out the true flavor of this dish.)
Transfer to a serving platter. Garnish with fresh coriander.
Makes 8
servings
(4 cups)
Serving size: 1/2
cup
Exchanges:
1 vegetable
1/2 fat
Amount
per serving:
4 x
x Carbohy
5
0 xxx x drate
gms
2.
Dietary
1.7
Fat
5 gms
Fiber
gms
Saturate
0
Protein
1
Calories
d Fat
gms
Choleste
rol
gms
0
mg
Sodium
282
mg
Tandoori chicken
Barbecued chicken
An elegant dish from the state of Punjab, tandoori murgh is
one of the most-popular chicken dishes. It can be made in a
tandoor (clay oven), baked in an oven or grilled on a barbecue.
3 lb chicken pieces
1 small onion
1/2 cup tomato sauce
1/2 cup nonfat plain yogurt
1 tsp fresh ginger, chopped
2 garlic cloves
2 tsp coriander powder
1/2 tsp cayenne pepper (optional)
2 whole cloves
1 tsp cumin seeds
4 cardamom pods
1 tsp salt
1 tsp garam masala
1/4 tsp red food coloring
Remove the skin and all visible fat from the chicken pieces.
(I often have the butcher skin the chicken.) Cut 2–3 slits, 1 inch
long and 1/2 inch deep, in each piece of chicken. Place in a
casserole dish and set aside.
Cut onion into 4–6 pieces. In a blender jar put onion, tomato
sauce, yogurt, ginger, garlic cloves, coriander powder, cayenne
pepper, cloves, cumin seeds, cardamom pods, salt, garam masala
and red food coloring. Blend to a smooth paste.
Pour the tandoori paste on the chicken and turn pieces to
thoroughly coat with spices. Cover with a lid or plastic wrap and
marinate in the refrigerator 4–24 hours.
Preheat the oven to 400° F. Remove chicken pieces from
the marinade, saving marinade. Arrange pieces in a broiler pan.
Bake uncovered in the middle of the oven for 30 minutes. Turn
pieces over and brush with remaining marinade. Bake for 10–15
minutes until chicken is tender.
Turn oven to broil. Turn pieces over once again and broil
for 5 minutes to get a nice red color.
Transfer to a serving platter. Serve with lemon wedges or
squeeze lemon juice over the chicken before eating, if desired.
Makes 6
servings
Serving size: 1/6
recipe
Exchanges:
3 lean meat
Amou
nt per
serving:
1 x
x Carboh
4 gms
55 xxx x ydrate
4
Dietary
Fat
0.5gms
gms
Fiber
1
Saturated Fat
Protein 24gms
gm
66
Cholesterol
Sodium 551mg
mg
Calories
Today when most people think of soul food, it is a table heavy with trays of watermelon,
ribs, candied sweet potatoes or yams, greens and fried chicken. Each black family, however,
has its own idea of what black cuisine is. Hogshead cheese sliced on saltine crackers with hot
sauce and beer is one such dish. Crab cakes. Carrot and Raisin salad. Fried corn. Hush
puppies. Corn pone. Red beans and rice. Greens. Liver and onions. Lima beans with ham
hocks. Stewed okra and tomatoes. Cornbread dipped in buttermilk. Fried catfish. Smothered
chicken. Pickled pig's feet. Fried cabbage. Neckbones. Tongue. Chittlin's. Tripe. Gumbo.
Breaded fried pork chops with a mess of greens. Black-eyed peas...and, grits. Although grits is
truly a southern dish, it is considered here as a part of black cuisine because black Americans
eat grits for breakfast, lunch or dinner; plain, with butter, with gravy, with cheese or deepfried.
Black owned restaurants have begun to stray from the traditional foods for health reasons.
They sometimes substitute canola oil for lard, chicken for pork; oven fried chicken for deep
fried and simple fresh fruit for the sweet cobblers and bread puddings they grew up on.
The aroma of "soul food" can fill the house and let the neighbors know that a big pot is
cooking. Today, many are just too busy to spend hours in the kitchen cooking up the
traditional foods of black America. In the search for the best soul food restaurant, there is one
piece of advice: If you walk by and the aroma does not greet you at the door, keep walking.
CHEWING GUM
This is a kind of confection that contains gum base, a masticatory material that does not
dissolve in saliva when the gum is chewed. American gum averages in content 20% gum base,
16% corn syrup, 63% sugar, and less than 1% flavoring, such as mint, fruit and spice.
Progressively more and more domestic ingredients such as resins and waxes are replacing the
imported products. Calcium carbonate, which is a component of most base formulas,
neutralizes traces of acid forming on the teeth from fermented food residues and so tends to
reduce dental caries. Whatever ingredients are used in a gum base, they are blended together
hot. The melted gum base is cleaned and mixed with syrup and flavor; the resulting chewing
gum is shaped by extrusion and rolling. Additional powdered sugar is used on the surface to
prevent adhesion to wrappers. A hard sugar coating can be built up on shaped pieces of gum in
a tumbling pan by alternate wetting with a sugar solution and evaporating the added water in a
dry air blast.
CONFECTIONS
About 70 farm products of varying carbohydrate content furnish more than 90 percent of
all the raw materials for the over 2000 varieties of confections.Common sweeteners used in
confections are refined crystalline cane sugsr, brown sugar, liquid sugar, corn syrup, starch,
molasses, honey and maple sugar. More emphasis is being placed on the addition of vegetable
and animal proteins in confections, such as soya proteins, yeast, gelatin and pulverized dried
beef.
The most important physical and chemical properties are relative sweetness, solubility
and crystallization characteristics, density of liquid sweeteners and moisture content of solid
sweeteners, hydroscopicity, flavor, fermentation and preservative properties, molecular weight
and freezing-point depression.
Proteins and fats also vary considerably with respect to the above properties.
Requirements also vary widely, according to the qualities desired in the particular type of
confection. The large variety of products turned out by the confectionery industry require a
remarcable flexibility from the carbohydrates which serve major constituents of these
products.
Confections are divided into three categories: hard candies or high-boiled sweets, chewy
confections and aerated confections. The second and third categories are further subdivided
into two classes, where the sugar solution is supersaturated(grained) or unsaturated(nongrained). Candies that grain are of crystalline structure. The non-grained candy group consists
of taffies and chewy candies. There are many intermediate types of confections combining the
characteristics of both the grained and non-grained candies.Sugar is the universal graining
agent. The regulators are corn syrup, invert sugar and others that retard or prevent sucrose
crystallization.
Part VII. APENDIX.
Table 1
Recipes of bread.
FARMHOUSE WHITE BREAD WITH CARDAMOM
Makes: 4 9in x 5in loaves
Known for years around the house as Judy Larsen's Mother's White Bread from Sweden,
this was the first bread I mastered over 20 years ago. This country white bread from the
heartland is perfect for beginner baker, and it makes 4 big loaves.
Ingredients
32floz/1 litre boiling water
7oz/215g instant non-fat dried milk
4tbsp/60ml unsalted butter, melted
1tbsp salt
8oz/250g sugar
2tbsp active dry yeast
pinch sugar
4floz/125ml warm water
10 dried cardamom pods
48oz/3kg unbleached all-purpose or bread flour
rich egg glaze
Method
1. In a very large bowl, combine the boiling water, dried milk, butter, salt and sugar with a
whisk. Stir and let stand at room temperature until lukewarm, about 20 minutes.
2. In a small bowl, sprinkle. the yeast and pinch of sugar over the warm water. Stir to dissolve
and let stand until foamy, about 10 minutes. Remove the seeds from the cardamom pods and
crush with a rolling pin on a piece of waxed paper. Set aside.
3. Add 16oz/500g of the flour, cardamom seeds, and yeast mixture to the milk and butter
mixture. Beat hard with a whisk for 2 minutes, or until smooth and creamy. Switch to a
wooden spoon and add the remaining flour 2oz/60g at a time to form a soft, shaggy dough that
clears the sides of the bowl.
4. Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead until the dough is smooth and
resilient to the touch but not dry, 5 to 8 minutes, adding the flour 1tbsp at a time as necessary
to prevent sticking. Place the dough in a greased deep container, turn once to coat the top, and
cover with plastic wrap. Allow to rise at room temperature until doubled in bulk, about 1Ѕ
hours.
5. Turn the dough out onto the work surface and divide into 4 equal portions. Shape into
rectangular loaves and place in four greased 9in x 5in loaf pans. Cover loosely with plastic
wrap and let rise again at room temperature until 1in above the rim of the pans, about 40
minutes. Twenty minutes before baking, preheat the oven to 180°C/350°F/Gas Mark 4.
6. With a serrated knife, score the tops decoratively and brush with egg glaze. Bake in the
centre of the preheated oven until browned and hollow sounding when tapped, about 40 to 45
minutes. Remove from the pans immediately to cool on racks.
PEASANT BREAD WITH FIGS AND PINE NUTS
Makes: 1 large or 2 medium round loaves
White bread has always been a status symbol, but coarse, dark breads of wheat and rye
are more healthy and flavoured. Bread with dried figs and pine nuts dates back well into the
Middle Ages, when bakers transformed daily breads into sweet and succulent celebration
breads for Sundays and feast days.
Ingredients
1Ѕtbsp active dry yeast
pinch brown sugar or honey
20floz/625ml warm water
3tbsp/45ml olive oil
1tbsp salt
ѕoz/23g oat or wheat bran
1oz/30g rye flour
2oz/60g graham flour
16oz/500g to 18oz / 560g unbleached all-purpose or bread flour
3oz/90g pine nuts
4oz/125g dried figs, such as Calimyrna, each cut into 12 thin strips and tossed in 2tbsp flour
cornmeal for sprinkling
Method
1. In a small bowl, sprinkle the yeast and sugar over 4floz/125ml of the warm water. Stir
until dissolved and let stand until foamy, about 10 minutes.
2. In a large bowl, whisk together the remaining l6floz/500ml of water, olive oil, salt, bran, rye
and graham flour. Add the yeast mixture. Beat until smooth, about 3 minutes. Add the
remaining unbleached flour, 2oz / 60g at a time, until a soft dough is formed.
3. Turn out the dough on to a lightly floured work surface and knead to form a soft, springy
dough, adding 1tbsp of flour as necessary to prevent sticking. The dough should retain a
slightly tacky, soft quality, yet hold its own shape. Place in a greased deep container, turning
once to coat the top, and cover with plastic wrap. Let rise at room temperature until doubled,
about 1Ѕ hours. Meanwhile, lightly toast the pine nuts.
4. Turn the dough out onto the work surface. Without punching it down, pat it into a large oval
and sprinkle evenly with half the figs and toasted pine nuts. Roll up the dough. Pat it into an
oval once again and sprinkle evenly with the remaining figs and nuts. Roll it up again. Shape
into a round loaf or loaves, gently pulling the surface taut from the bottom. Place on a greased
or parchment-lined baking sheet sprinkled with cornmeal. Cover loosely with plastic wrap and
let rise until doubled, about 1 hour. Twenty minutes before. baking, preheat the oven to
220°C/425°F/Gas Mark 7.
5. Slash the loaf or loaves quickly with a serrated knife. Place the baking sheet directly on the
oven rack for 15 minutes. Lower the heat to 190°C/375°F/Gas Mark 5 and bake 35 minutes
more. The bread will be brown, crusty, and sound hollow when tapped on the bottom. Let cool
completely on a rack.
CALIFORNIA WALNUT BREAD
Makes: 2 8in x 4in loaves or 3 round loaves
Walnut breads have their roots in the baking traditions of France, where they are
immensely popular. This recipe will also yield about 20 delicious dinner rolls, which are
perfect for entertaining or picnics.
Ingredients
Sponge:
2tbsp active dry yeast
2floz/60ml warm water
8oz/250g unbleached all-purpose or bread flour
3tbsp honey or sugar
16floz/500ml milk at room temperature
Dough:
6oz/185g walnuts
4floz/125ml walnut oil
1tbsp salt
12oz/375g unbleached all-purpose or bread flour
Sponge, see above
Method
1. To prepare the sponge: in a large bowl, whisk together the yeast, water, flour, honey
or sugar and milk. Beat hard until smooth and creamy. Cover loosely with plastic wrap and let
rest at room temperature for about 1 hour, or until bubbly.
2. Meanwhile, preheat the oven to 180°C/135°F/Gas Mark 4. Chop the walnuts and spread
them evenly on a baking sheet. Bake until lightly toasted, about 8 minutes. Allow to cool.
3. Add the oil, salt and 4oz / 125g of the flour to the sponge and stir with a wooden spoon to
combine. Add the walnuts and the remaining flour 2oz / 60g at a time until a soft shaggy
dough is formed that clears the sides of the bowl.
4. Turn the dough out onto a lightly floured work surface and gently knead until smooth and
springy, about 3 minutes, adding 1tbsp of flour as necessary to prevent sticking. Push any
walnuts that fall out back into the dough. This dough should be moist and soft, yet hold its
own shape. Place in a greased deep container and turn once to coat the top. Cover with plastic
wrap and let rise at room temperature until doubled in bulk, about 1Ѕ to 2 hours.
5. Gently turn the dough out onto the work surface and divide into 2 or 3 equal portions. Shape
into round or standard loaves. Place on a greased or parchment lined baking sheet or in greased
loaf pans. Cover loosely with plastic wrap and let stand at room temperature to rise until
double, about 45 minutes. Twenty minutes before baking, preheat the oven to
190°C/375°F/Gas Mark 5.
6. Bake on the centre rack of the preheated oven for about 35 to 40 minutes, or until brown and
hollow sounding when tapped. Cool completely on a rack before slicing.
Tortillas
The basis of many Mexican dishes, these flat pancakes can be rolled, layered or stuffed. Their
name changes according to their filling and shape.
Ingredients for basic tortillas
7floz/200ml water
10oz/25g butter
4oz/100g medium cornmeal
(available from health food stores)
3oz/75g plain flour
Ѕtsp salt
Method
1 Bring water and half the butter to the boil in a saucepan.
2 Gradually add the cornmeal and simmer, covered, for 4-5 minutes.
(This removes the raw taste of the cornmeal.)
3 Remove from the heat and allow to cool slightly.Beat in the remaining butter.
4 Sieve together the flour and the salt and add to the cornmeal and butter mixture.
5 While still hot, knead well and roll out into a cylinder shape approximately 6 inches / 15 cm
long. Cut this into 6 equal sections.
6 Flour a work surface with cornmeal and roll each sixth of the dough out into a circular shape.
With a plate or tortilla press, stamp out the dough circles to form even rounds. Allow to dry
out.
7 Fry each tortilla in a dry frying pan for 2-3 minutes on each side over a moderate heat.
8 When cooked, fold over and place around a rolling pin or place in a tortilla rack to shape.
Fill with the refried bean mixture and serve with the required sauce.
Vegetarian Pesto Rolls
vegan - see ingredients*
Filled with the tastes of surnmer these make excellent burger buns.
Ingredients
15g/1Ѕoz fresh yeast
5ml/1tsp sugar
225ml/8floz lukewarm water
60ml/4tbsp vegetarian pesto (*vegan vegetarian pesto)
10ml/2tsp salt
500g/1lb strong unbleached white flour
15ml/1tbsp olive oil
5ml/1tsp coarse sea salt - for finishing
Method
Pre-heat the oven to 210°C/425°F/Gas Mark 7 1. Cream the yeast and sugar together in
a small bowl. Mix in the water and leave to ferment.
2. Stir in the vegetarian pesto.
3. In a large bowl mix together the flour and salt.
Make a well in the centre and add the oil and yeast mixture.
Mix thoroughly.
4. Turn out the dough Onto a lightly floured surface and knead for about 15 minutes.
Place in a slightly oiled bowl, cover with a damp cloth and leave to rise until doubled in size.
5. Knock the dough back and knead once again for about 5 minutes.
6.Shape into 12 even sized balls and place onto a greased baking tray.
Again leave to rise for about 30 minutes.
7. Sprinkle with sea salt and bake for about 20 minutes or until golden brown
Food
en
ergy
ater
substanc
kJ/
e = 100 g.
Kcal
%
20
Apple
7/49
4
15
Apricot
3/36
7
52
Avocado
3/126
1
Blueberr
20
y
4/48
0
Blackber
17
ry
0/40
5
37
Banana
5/88
6
48
Carrots
/11
2
Cranberr
68
y
/16
9
22
Cherry
1/52
6
12
Date
75/300 0
34
Fig
0/80
0
Grapefru
12
it, Red
8/30
0
27
Grapes
4/64
3
3
Guava
06/72
1
Goosebe
17
rry
0/40
8
w
f
iber at
g
8
.3
8
.1
8
.2
8
.4
8
.7
7
.7
9
.3
8
.2
8
.2
2
.5
8
.0
9
.4
8
.2
8
.3
8
.2
2
2
0
0
8
8
2
3
4
1
7
2
1
2
5
0
3
Table 2
Vitamins Page
f
p
s
v
rotein ugar it.A it.C
u
g
g
g
g
g
0
1
0
2
.4
1.8
5
1
8
4
0
.0
.0
20
1
2
7
2
.0
.0
0
7
1
1
0
0
.0
1.0
0
2
8
3
0
.0
.0
0
50
1
2
0
3
.2
0.4
0
0
2
3
0
.6
.2
12
0
4
0
0
.0
.0
5
0
1
4
0
.0
3.0 0
0
2
7
0
0
.0
3.0
1
1
1
0
.0
9.0 0
0
6
0
0
.9
.6
0
0
1
0
0
.6
5.5
1
1
3
.0
7.0 0
18
1
9
0
0
.0
.0
0
v
it.B1
m
g
1
.02
5
.06
1
.06
1
.02
1
.08
1
.04
2
.03
1
.00
1
.02
0
.05
3
.06
4
.07
3
.03
2
.04
3
.02
v
it.B2
m
g
0
.01
0
.05
0
.12
0
.03
0
.04
0
.03
0
.04
0
.01
0
.02
0
.10
0
.05
0
.02
0
.01
0
.04
0
.01
v
it.B6
m
g
0
.05
0
.06
0
.36
0
.05
0
.07
0
.36
0
.08
0
.07
0
.04
0
.10
0
.11
0
.03
0
.08
0
.14
0
.08
v
E
m
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
vit.
mg
0.5
0.5
3.2
1.9
1.0
0.3
0.2
0
0.1
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.4
Food
energy
substance
100 g.
Kiwi
Fruit
Kumquat
Lemon
Lime
Lychee
water
=
f
iber at
kJ/
Kcal
%
16
8/40
4
28
9/68
2
51
/12
6
1
56/37
1
32
3/76
g
2
Mandari
17
n / Tangerine 7/42
8
25
Mango
5/60
4
Melon,
15
Red Water
3/36
3
Melon,
12
cantaloupe
2/29
9
58
Olive
6/142
5
19
Orange
8/47
7
13
Papaya
6/32
1
Passion
15
Fruit
8/37
8
15
Peach
1/36
9
20
Pear
1/47
6
Red Bell
11
Pepper
9/28
1
Persimm
32
on
5/76
1
Pineappl
21
e
1/50
4
Pomegra
34
nate
3/81
2
17
Plum
7/42
4
Strawber
99
ry
/23
1
8
.1
8
.5
9
.8
9
.3
8
.5
8
.9
8
.0
9
.6
8
.6
7
.4
8
.8
9
.6
8
.3
8
.4
8
.1
9
.2
8
.5
8
.2
8
.4
8
.2
9
.2
2
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
4
4
1
0
3
.4
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
2
fprotein
g
0
.1
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.9
0
.0
0
.0
0
.9
1
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.6
0
.0
0
.3
0
.0
0
.5
0
.4
0
.0
0
.8
0
.7
s
v
ugar it.A it.C
u
g
g
g
g
1
8
5
.8
0
1
1
1
6.0 60
5
0
3
0
.0
0
0
7
0
.0
0
1
1
0
8.0
9
0
9
1
.5
2
0
0
1
2
5.0 10
3
1
8
3
.0
0
0
6
7
.3
2
1
3
5
.0
0
1
1
2
0.6
9
0
8
4
.0
0
6
2
5
1
.8
25
3
1
7
1
.9
5
0
1
0
1.5 .0
1
6
1
.0
72
0
0
1
2
8.6 60
6
0
1
2
2.0 0
5
1
1
1
7.0 0
0
9
1
.6
8
0
5
1
.1
0
0
v
it.B1
m
g
7
.01
5
.14
4
.06
4
.03
3
.05
3
.08
5
.05
6
.04
3
.05
0
.03
4
.07
4
.03
2
.03
7
.01
4
.01
8
.04
1
.02
2
.07
7
.05
5
.02
6
.02
v
it.B2
m
g
0
.02
0
.06
0
.02
0
.02
0
.05
0
.03
0
.06
0
.05
0
.02
0
.08
0
.03
0
.04
0
.12
0
.02
0
.01
0
.14
0
.03
0
.02
0
.02
0
.03
0
.03
v
it.B6
m
g
0
.12
0
v
vit.E
0
.04
0
.08
0
0
0
.084
0
.13
0
.07
0
.10
0
.00
0
.06
0
.04
0
0
0
.02
0
.02
0
.43
0
0
0
.09
0
.31
0
.10
0
.06
0
m
0
-
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
0
0
-
0
0
0
mg
1.9
0.8
0.4
1.0
0.2
2.0
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.1
6.4
0.1
0.7
0.4
Tomato
48
/11
7
Food
en
rgy
ater
9
1
.4
w
f
iber at
substanc
kJ/
e = 100 g.
Kcal
%
g
0
0
.9
.9
f
p
rotein ugar
g
g
1
1
40
5
s
v
it.A it.C
u
g
g
g
1
.05
v
it.B1
m
g
0
.02
v
it.B2
m
g
0
.08
v
it.B6
m
g
0
v
E
m
Table 3
Vegetarian Gluten-Free and Gluten Containing Foods
Food
Gluten Free
Gluten Containing
Cereals,
Arrowroot,
buckwheat,
flours, cakes & corn/maize, potato flour, rice,
biscuits
rice bran, rice flour, sago,
tapioca, soya, soya bran, soya
flour.
Wheat, wholemeal, wholewheat &
wheatmeal flour, wheat bran, barley, rye,
rye flour, pasta, noodles, semolina, All
baked foods made from wheat, rye,
semolina, barley & pearl barley.
Dairy
Eggs, milk, cream, butter,
Some yoghurts (eg muesli yoghurt),
products
& cheese, curd cheese, coffee some cheese spreads
eggs
whiteners, soya products
Puddings
Tapioca,
custard.
Beverage
Tea, coffee, herb tea,
Barley based drinks, barley fruit
fizzy drinks, fruit squash, cocoa, drinks, malted drinks, beer.
marmite, most alcoholic drinks.
s
Fruit&
vegetables
sago,
rice,
Semolina, sponge pudding, pastry,
pies, wafers.
All fruits & vegetables,
unless with certain sauces or
cooked with gluten containing
foods
.
Nuts,
All, except certain brands
seeds & pulses of baked beans and beans with a
gluten containing sauce
.
Preserve
Jam, marmalade, sugar,
Confectionary containing flour, some
s
& honey, treacle, molasses, golden brands of lemon curd.
confectionary syrup, some brands of chocolate
& sweets.
Soups &
Gluten-free if thickened
sauces
with a suitable flour. Many
manufactured sauces, stock
cubes, and soups contain gluten
Miscella
neous
Salt, pepper, vinegar,
Some pepper compounds, shoyu,
herbs & spices, tamari, yeast, ready-mix spices, some seasoning powders,
most food colourings and certain brands of mustard. Certain
essences.
medicines may contain gluten.
0.7
vit.
mg
Fruit consists for the largest
part of water
Just like the human body does.
If you think about it, it's logical to
consume food that contains as much
water as your body does...
Fruit
Stimulates
Our
Memories
If you didn't know yet: fruit is the
ultimate brain fuel. Fruit has a
positive effect on our brains and
makes you recall information easier
and faster...
The
Miraculous
Healing
Effects Of Fruit Spectacular stories
about people that cured from cancer
by a strict diet of raw fruits and/or
vegetables are well known but do we
want tobelieve them? We still don't
know that much about fruit and its
contents...
Fruit is not expensive at all
Did you always think that fruit is an
expensive product? Take a good look
at how much money you spend on
other food. It could be worth
something to replace some of those
expenses with fruit...
Fibers
We do know now that a diet
with plenty of fibers helps against
corpulence, high blood pressure, and
other factors that increase the chance
for a heart disease. The food that
contains these healthy (natural)
fibers is.... right: FRUIT!
Table 4
Fruit Is 100% Bad-Cholesterol Free
No doubt about this reason. Too much
cholesterol is not good for our bodies and fruit
doesn't contain much cholesterol. Animal
products like meat and dairy contain a lot of
cholesterol...
Fruit Makes You Feel Better Several
stories have told us about people that were
frequently depressed and how they got out of
their depression slowly but surely after
consuming substantial amounts of fresh fruit on
a regular basis. Eating a lot of fruit can have a
mysterious healing effect on human beings...
Ethical
Reasons
To
Eat
Fruit
Fruit doesn't have to be killed and slaughtered
before you can eat it. The fruits are just hanging
there waiting to be picked by you...
Fruit Is The Most Natural Food Fruit is
food that has been made by plants to be eaten
by animals and humans in order to spread its
seeds...
The Human Diet Here at The Fruit Pages
we are convinced that a good human diet
should consist of freshly squeezed fruit juices,
bread, vegetables and some water. Since it is
hard for the average homo sapiens to conform
him or herself to such a severe diet, we suggest
that one starts by eating five to nine pieces of
fruit a day...
Table 5
E Numbers
Always non-vegetarian
E120 Cochineal
E104** Quinoline Yellow
E160a(ii)** Alpha-, beta-, gamma carotene (may be held in gelatine matrix)
E161(g) Canthaxanthin
E252 Potassium Nitrate
E270* Lactic Acid
E304(i) Ascorbyl Palmitate
E304(ii) Ascorbyl Stearate
E322* Lecithin (may be made from battery eggs)
E325* Sodium Lactate
E326* Potassium Lactate
E327* Calcium Lactate
E422 Glycerol/Glycerin
E431 Polyoxyethylene (40) stearate
E432 Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate
E433 Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan mono-oleate
E434 Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate
E435 Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monostearate
E436 Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan tristearate
E442 Ammonium Phosphatides
E445 Glyceryl esters of wood rosin
E470(a) Sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids
E470(b) Magnesium salts of fatty acids
E471 Mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(a) Acetic acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(b) Lactic acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(c) Citric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(d) Tartaric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(e) Mono- and di-acetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E472(f) Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
E473 Sucrose esters of fatty acids
E474 Sucroglycerides
E475 Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids
E476 Polyglycerol esters of polycondensed fatty acids of caster oil
E477 Propane-1,2-diol esters of fatty acids
E479(b) Thermally oxidised soya bean oil interacted with mono- and di-glycerides of fatty
acids
E481 Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate
E482 Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate
E483 Stearyl tartrate
E491 Sorbitan monostearate
E492 Sorbitan tristearate
E493 Sorbitan monolaurate
E494 Sorbitan mono-oleate
E495 Sorbitan monopalmitate
E570 Stearic acid
E585 Ferrous Lactate
E631 Sodium 5'-inositate
E635 Sodium 5'-ribonucleotides
E640 Glycine and its sodium salt
E920 L-cysteine and L-cysteine hydrochloride
E966 Lactitol
E1105 Lysozyme (made from eggs)
E1518 Glycerol mono-, di- and tri-acetate
E numbers marked * may theoretically be made in a non vegetarian version, but are
practically always suitable
E numbers marked ** are not themselves non vegetarian but may be carried in a gelatine
carrier especially when used in liquids
CHECK YOURSELF
1.Составьте предложение, соблюдая правильный порядок слов.
in food preparation
is used
Baking soda
2. Выберите из левой колонки английские слова, соответствующие русским
эквивалентам в правой колонке.
L1: technology
L2: transportation
L3: consumer market
L4: management
R1: руководство
R2: потребительский рынок
R3: транспортировка
R4: технология
3. Отметьте правильный вариант.
Food science ### a discipline concerned with all technical aspects of food.
am
is
are
4. Выберите из левой колонки английские слова, соответствующие русским
эквивалентам в правой колонке.
L1: tasty
L2: nutritious
L3: safe
L4: convenient
R1:вкусный
R2:полезный
R3:безопасный
R4:пригодный
5. Выберите из левой колонки английские слова, соответствующие русским
эквивалентам в правой колонке.
L1: harvesting
L2: slaughtering
L3: cooking
L4: consumption
R1:уборка урожая
R2:убой (скота)
R3:приготовление
R4:потребление
6. Выберите правильный вариант:
Three microorganisms that might cause food ### are bacteria, mold and yeast.
to freeze
to dry
to spoil
7.Выберите правильный вариант:
### is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically
for preserving a very wide range of food stuffs including prepared food stuffs which would not
have required freezing in their unprepared state.
Smoking
Freezing
Cooling
Jugging
8. Составьте предложение, соблюдая правильный порядок слов.
prepared foods
the food service
industry
offers
9. Make up a sentence using the following words.
1. during cooking of the product
2. products
3. meat
4. for
5. processes
6.are marinating, salting, dicing, comminuting, mass- and heat transfer
7. relevant
10. Make up a sentence using the following words.
milk and milk products.
of producing,
is business
processing,
and distributing
dairying
11. Make up a sentence using the following words.
Can be stored
Is the method of preparing food
So that it
Food preservation
For future use
12. Выберите правильный вариант ответа.
### includes the application of agricultural engineering and chemical engineering
principles to food materials.
food engineering
genetic engineering
biotechnological process
13.Выберите правильный вариант ответа.
### is a discipline concerned with all technical aspects of food, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption.
Food science
Foot science
Foot since
Foot scins
14. Выберите правильный вариант ответа.
### is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and nonbiological components of foods. .
Biohemistry;
Organic chemistry;
Food chemistry;
Inorganic chemistry.
15. Вставьте подходящий по смыслу термин.
### is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science,
and medicine.
16. Выберите правильный вариант ответа.
### is the complex, global collective of diverse businesses that together supply much
of the food energy consumed by the world population.
The meat industry
The food industry
The automobile industry
The foot industry
17. Вставьте подходящий по смыслу термин.
### is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for
consumption by humans or animals.
18.Вставьте подходящий по смыслу термин.
### is the enclosing of food that requires protection from physical, chemical or
biological influence.
19. Вставьте подходящий по смыслу термин.
### is business of producing, processing, and distributing milk and milk products.
20. Вставьте подходящий по смыслу термин.
### is the process by which the living cell is able to obtain energy through the
breakdown of glucose and other simple sugar molecules without requiring oxygen.
LIterature