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37
CHAPTER
II
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH
We have seen that English for science is an important
branch of ESP which covers the areas of English for Academic
Purposes
(EAP}
and English for Occupational Purposes
(EOP}.
We have also distinguished ESP from General Purpose English
(GPE} especially in the way their purpose is defined, and the
manner
of
their
implementation.
The
English
particular group of learners could, therefore,
by analysing the linguistic
needed
by
a
be identified
characteristics of English
employed in their specialist area of study.
what we are going to do in this chapter.
This is exactly
However, we are not
only going to specify the formal features of ESP but also see
how sentences are combined in discourse to produce meaning
and how statements are related to each other
in the text.
Also, we will make use of empirical methodology and analyse
students'
biological
texts
in
order
to
identify
the
vocabulary and structures more frequently used in English for
biological science.
This
chapter,
scientific English
texts.
therefore,
used
in
the
attempts
English
to
characterize
biological
science
Vocabulary of biological science, sentence patterns,
types of
sentences and
analysed
on the basis of their frequency of occurrence in
the biological text.
categories
clauses within
the
sentence are
The reasons for using these linguistic
in biological
science are
identified.
We
also
discuss the utility of register analysis in language teaching
38
and underline some of the features of English for biological
science
so
that
ES
teachers
and
biology
concentrate on the most relevant and most
features.
students
can
frequently used
The description of the language used in biological
science contains information on vocabulary and grammar used
in the biological text analysed.
This description can be
applied to the particular needs of biology students.
These
students are taught science in their mother tongue (Arabic),
but they need access to works reported in English used for
biological science.
"Learning a language is not merely a matter of learning
sentence patterns and vocabulary but must also
understanding of how people use these
order to communicate"
(Mountford:
linguistic
1977).
These
involve
forms
forms
in
are
helpful in making different kinds of statements and producing
continuous
pieces
of
discourse.
This
can
be
applied
in
language teaching to activate students discourse competence
and develop an understanding of how this subject matter is
expressed through English,
that is,
to combine language and
subject matter in meaningful communication.
The science students' problems with regard to English
is not so much one of specialist terminology as of the kind
of vocabulary, grammar, syntax and idiomatic devices that are
generally used in scientific English.
"The chief difficulty
becomes obvious when they know the specialist terms but
cannot understand or formulate statements in English in which
those terms occur" (Close: 1966: 3)
39
We
proceed
now
to discuss
the
nature
style which is concerned with clear logical
prefers brevity and exactness.
prose
is
to
concisely,
"convey
and clearly"
scientific
thinking.
It
The function of scientific
logical
(Peter:
of
ordered
1963:
ideas,
36).
special quality in scientific writing.
exactly,
Precision is a
A scientist usually
makes sure of the meaning of every word due to his accuracy
of thought.
"Consciseness requires not that the writer makes
all his sentences short, or that he avoids all details and
treats his subjects only as
outline,
but
that
every word
tells" (Peter: 1968: 41).
Simplicity eradicates most of the grammatical faults.
Simple scientific
language
enforces
scientific style is usually formal.
accurate
thinking.
A
It may .cause difficulty
at first to any one who is not accustomed to it but greatly
assists
effective
engineers;
communication
no ambiguity
is allowed
between
for.
scientists
Moreover,
and
"facts
will not be questionable and are not capable of more than one
interpretation"
(Mehdi: 1987: 119).
In addition, we shall
have three things to distinguish in every physical science:
the series of facts that constitute the science;
the ideas
that call the facts to mind; and the words that express them.
A scientist accepts as facts only impersonal, objective
statements.
This impersonal attitude is reflected in the way
scientists express themselves and particularly in the kinds
of grammatical structures and sentence patterns which they
prefer.
The
use
of
impersonal
statements
is
one
of
the
40
linguistic consequences of the methodology of science which
demands objectivity, systematic investigation,
measurement.
and exact
one of the grammatical features is the use of
the passive construction, e.g.,
The mixture was poured ... instead of
We poured the mixture .. .
The
passive
emphasises
what
happens
to
things.
personally, do is not regarded as important.
description
to
be made
impersonal
without
What
I,
It enables a
an
agent
being
expressed.
In ES, a noun is also used in preference to a verb and
this avoids an expression of personal activity;
e.g. '
On completion of the experiment ... instead of
When
2.1
we had completed
the experiment.
Features of scientific Discourse
All
scientific
discourse
is
introduction,
materials and methods,
discussion, summary, and reference sections.
writing the title at an early stage
author's
aim
content of
and
intentions.
the article.
structured
It generally has a
ensure effective communication.
abstract,
carefully
It
is
is
to
valuable for the reader.
of
results,
clarify the
reflects
the reader's
encounter with the paper and so it should be
The abstract appears at the head
the
title,
The purpose of
accurately
The title
to
the
first
informative.
article.
It
is
It gives an idea about the whole
41
article.
The abstract,
readers time and effort.
being brief and accurate,
saves the
Then, the scientist introduces what
he is going to do, how and why, the materials he is going to
use in his experiments and the methods applied to arrive at
his results.
Finally, he discusses his results and arrives
at his findings and conclusions.
This logical organization
in scientific writing is part of the scientific way of
thinking which
well-organised.
is
concise,
accurate,
factual,
logical
and
This logical way of thinking is reflected in
the use of language.
Scientific discourse also employs non-verbal items like
charts, graphs, tables, signs, diagrams, and symbols to serve
several communicative functions:
a.
These devices support the scientist's conclusions and
clarify his own thinking and communicate information.
A table
or
a
figure
is
a
unit
completely informative by itself.
of
communication
It carries messages
clearly and shows data meaningfully.
It also reveals
comparisons or changes.
b.
Tables and figures describe an experiment and
its
purpose in a highly abbreviated way.
c.
Figures reveal trends arid relationships.
present
precise
values.
purpose and results at a
title.
It
is
Tables
glance.
and
Graphs
figures
can
reveal
Each table has
a
The title announces the purpose of the table.
indicative of the experimental design.
Using
42
non-verbal
items,
the
scientist
can
economize
on
space
by
eliminating repetition of words.
These
i terns
are dictated
by the
need
for
extreme
brevity, condensation and universality of the scientific way
of thinking which is reflected through the
lines,
curves, histograms,
use
figures and symbols.
of tables,
Therefore,
it must be part of the language teacher's job to explain the
function
of
symbols
and
formulate
in
the
text
or
give
practice in-transferring from the written to the spoken form
or vice versa.
A student can also
without much trouble.
learn abbreviations
He has to translate them and should be
given opportunities to practice this skill during note-taking
exercises.
Linguistic Features of Discourse in Biological Sciences
We have carried out an analysis of vocabulary and
sentence patterns, types of sentences and clauses within the
sentence in English for biological science, with the help of
a corpus of 1659 words forming 19 paragraphs,
one paragraph
from each section in the textbook, selected from one of the
biology texts written in English and studied
in Arabic by
first- year biology students 1 namely "Biology Today" 1 by David
Kirk.
The paragraphs were carefully selected on the basis of
content.
They were taken mostly from the methodology section
of each chapter.
We have not taken any paragraph from the
introductions because their content is not the characteristic
style of ES which we are analysing.
43
Selected
paragraphs
from
the
translated
also analysed later to identify some of
version
are
issues
and
the
problems in the translation of scientific texts into Arabic
(see Chapter Three).
The main motive behind text analysis is
to make the ES
course more
relevant
to
biology
students'
learning needs.
The aim is to produce a syllabus which gives
high priority to the language forms biology students at a
given level meet in their science studies and, thereby, give
low priority to forms they do not come across.
version of
students
the
in
biological text
Arabic
will
be
(BT)
The English
studied by biology
analysed
in
an
establish the characteristics of English used
attempt
to
in this text
and to see how it matches with the character is tics of ES.
The
frequencies
analysed
tabular
lexical
forms.
of
occurrences
and
percentages
and syntactic categories
This
analysis
can
help us
are
of
the
given
in
understand why
certain lexical and syntactic categories are most frequently
used in English for biological science.
2.2
Lexical Analysis
2.2.1 Content versus Function Words 1
The number of content words in the BT corpus 2 is 1127
and function words 532
1.
Content words include adjectives, nouns, verbs and
adverbs.
Function words
include prepositions,
articles,
pronouns,
conjunctions,
and
negative
particles.
2.
The
text
{1980).
analysed
is
(32%).
The high frequency of
{68%)
Biology
Today
by
O.L.
Kirk
44
content
words
in
BT
is
due
to
the
fact
that
biologists
usually deal with concrete objects and substances.
2.2.2 Technical Terms:
The vocabulary of scientific English may include
which
are
never
question.
used
outside
the
subject
or
words
field
in
In science, new terms are invented to define new
phenomena and to explain
new things
and
processes.
Each
scientific subject has its store of terms with precise,
narrow meanings.
biology
are,
species,
Examples of terms related to the field of
photosynthesis,
fertility,
algae,
phylum,
chlorophyta,
vegetation,
gametes,
agents,
zygote,
vesicle, host, cyanobacteria. chlamedomonas.
The number of nouns in our BT is 600 (36%) of the total
number of words
in the corpus.
Only 143
specific to the subject matter of biology,
learning of the biology discipline itself.
studying
let's
say
the
circulation
confronted with items such as atrium,
and venule.
The
students
of
( 24%)
are part of the
A biology student
of
blood
ventricle,
biology
of nouns,
already
knowledge of these terms in their native language
will
be
arteriole,
have
the
(Arabic).
Therefore it is helpful if the ES teacher gives their meaning
in Arabic.
The ES teacher has to cooperate with subject
teachers and to be prepared to familiarize himself with the
rudiments of the subject concerned.
2.2.3 Sub-Technical Terms
Sub-technical terms consist of those words which are
45
/
not
specific
to
a
subject
regularly
in
reflection,
tendency,
about
457
scientific
of
(76%)
analysed.
These
programme.
speciality
and
technical
isolation,
the
total
will
have
but
which
texts,
and density.
number
of
priority
occur
They form
nouns
in
e.g.,
in
the
the
BT
language
They are commonly met in general English but they
take a specialized meaning within a scientific and technical
context, e.g., cycle (its use in blood cycle).
2.2.4 Compounding
A biologist also uses compound nouns.
This is related
to the way of scientific thinking because a scientist usually
tends
to
express
condensed way.
his
ideas
accurately
and
in
a
brief
So, instead of saying: transmission of virus
by seed; he will say virus seed transmission.
Similarly, a
disease which is caused by a fungus is a fungus disease and a
tube used for performing tests is a test-tube.
In the biological text analysed, noun compounds formed
by combination with other parts of speech are 106
the total number of nouns in the corpus.
(18%)
of
The following types
of noun modification are found in the BT corpus:
i)
=
Adj + N
Protective
61
(57%),
shell,
e.g.
productive
system,
organizational ladder, green algae,
cellular
level.
endocytic vesicle,
contractible cells, parastic fungi.
10%
of
these
addition of ing form
cells,
living
cells,
staining prooerties.
are
adjectivals
(verbal Noun)
living
formed
+ N,
things,
e.g.,
dividing
by
the
resting
lines.
46
N + ING + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
ii)
life-saving antibiotics, disease-causing bacteria.
iii)
N
+
N =
30
(28%), e.g.,
life-cycle,
cell wall,
cell
carbon cycle,
iron
host species,
mantle cavity,
level,
sodium-ions,
pipes,
shape,
salt
body
plan,
kingdom plantae,
host
organism,
Hydrogen atoms,
crystal,
plasma
energy-
memberance,
electron-pair.
iv)
Adj. + N + N
=
2 (2%), e.g.,
fresh-water environment, exposed sodium ions.
v)
Adj. +Adj. + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
microscopic unicellular forms, characteristic molliscan
features.
vi)
Adj. +Adj.
(- ed form) + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
negatively charged ends, highly organized organelles.
vii)
N + N + N = 4 (4%), e.g.,
sodium Chlorine ions, energy-level needs,
life support
system, electron-configuration model.
2.2.5 Adjectives:
Adjectives constitute 237
biological text
scientist,
analysed.
(14%)
of vocabulary in
A biologist,
like
any
the
other
usually uses adjectives for describing things to
indicate their shapes, measurements, properties, qualities or
conditions, e.g., round, sguare, long, short,
heavy,
light,
47
rough,
smooth, dry and wet.
In science adjectives are not
used for decoration and ornament because a
scientist is
This
usually objective and not subjective in his thinking.
is reflected through the use of his words which are largely
influenced by his main concern to give a clear, accurate and
a precise description of his subject matter.
words as tools for exact and
logical
He uses his
communication.
A
scientist is not influenced by literary sophistication,
figurative
moment.
language,
He
prefers
wavelengths and
impersonal,
or
his
feelings
to
describe
intensities.
a
and
colour
emotions
by
He accepts
at
the
stating
its
as
facts
only
objective statements about things which can be
seen by any observer, e.g.,
green vain, yellow spots, red algae, flexible
particles,
heal thy
plants,
obvious
effect,
cylindrical and curved shapes.
The past participle of
the verb may
function
as
an
adjectival to qualify a noun and add more information to it
in a descriptive manner, e.g.,
mottled seeds, inflected plants, exposed cloride
ions, charged ends.
Adjectives usually contribute to the clarity of subject
matter.
They modify and add information to the noun that
follows,
e.g.,
parastic
nitro-organism,
organic
material.
This condensed way of modification is used for the purpose of
brevity,
accuracy
biological
and
science,
consciseness.
usually
deal
with
Sciences,
including
names
different
of
48
elements
and
matter,
objects
They are usually concerned with
substances.
and
names
intensity and processes
of
scientific
concepts
like
like germination and transmission.
Proper nouns are also used in scientific texts to refer to
previous
(Smith,
works
1972),
done
and
by
researchers
(Ross,
1980}.
and
scientists,
Some
of
the
e.g.,
nouns
in
scientific English are derived from Greek, Latin or Arabic,
e.g. '
Oxygen, Hydrogen (Greek)
Carbon, Molecule (Latin)
Alkali (Arabic)
and since science is in a continual process of development,
new expressions are constantly being
invented
from
the
available words for the purpose of communication, e.g., testtube from test and tube.
2.2.6 Verbs
The
total number of
analysed is 211
the corpus.
verbs
in
the
biological
text
( 13%) of the total number of vocabulary in
In the biological text analysed,
the present
tense forms 78% (165) of the verb tenses in the corpus.
71%
(85) of the main verbs and 88% (80) of the auxiliary verbs in
the biological text are in the present tense.
This shows
that most of the verbs used in biological discourse are in
the present tense because biologists,
like other scientists,
usually deal with universal statements which are believed to
be true at all times and in all places, e.g.,
Root hairs absorb water and minerals
from the soil.
49
The verbs react, spoil, corrode,
produce,
occur,
form,
takes
place are used in the ES and biological science in particular
statements
of
function,
process,
and
express facts and habitual actions.
(74)
81%
found
of
in
the
biological
The present form of the verb to be
in
sentences
that
state
"stress is proportional
the
laws
to strain".
verbs in BT are modal auxiliaries.
action
to
The verb to be forms are
of the auxiliary verbs
analysed.
course
of
Only
(is,
are)
science,
19%
text
is
e.g.,
of the
(17)
The total number of verbs
in the past tense is 11% (22) of the tenses in the BT corpus.
9% (11) of the main verbs and 12% (11) of the auxiliary verbs
are
in the past.
They are used when
the
BT text reviews
previous works experimented in the past, or to report events
and processes.
activity
in
form
the
of
6%
( 13)
of the
progress which
verb.
The
is
verbs
in . BT may
expressed
following
in
table
the
emphasize
continuous
summarizes
frequencies of verb tenses in the BT analysed.
Table 1 : Verb Tenses in the Text Analysed (BT)
Verb Tenses
Ma1n Verbs
No.
%
Present
85
71
80
88
165
78
Past
11
9
11
12
22
11
Continuous
13
11
13
6
Perfect
5
4
5
2
Future
4
3
4
2
Imperative
(instruction)
2
2
2
1
100
100
21
100
Aux. Verbs
No.
%
91
100
Total
No.
%
the
50
We find greater precision in ES because the proper use
of a verb forces the writer to specify the subject and the
object unequivocally.
and dynamic.
A
Verbs can be classified into stative
stative verb is a verb showing state of being
rather than an action,
while a
dynamic
verb
is
denoting doing or action rather than state or being.
a
verb
Dynamic
verbs are more frequently used in biological texts because a
biologist, as a scientist, is usually concerned with actions
and processes in his work.
Verbs also can be either transitive or
intransitive.
Intransitive verbs are used more frequently than transitive
verbs in the text (BT} analysed.
transitive
verbs
are more
usually deals with actions.
It is often expected that
frequent
in
ES
because
science
Yet, the level of writing in BT
comes to influence the occurrence of these verbs.
This is
also due to the high frequency of linking verbs in BT which
do not need the use of objects but complements.
Linking
verbs usually indicate a change from one quality to another,
and show the biologist's concern with existence.
shows
the
frequency
of
transitive/intransitive verbs in BT.
stativejdynamic
Table-2
and
51
Table - 2: Stative/Dynamic and Transitive/
Intransitive Verbs in BT
Verbs
Transitive
Intransitive
No.
~
0
72
34
139
66
------------------------------------------------------------120
57
Dynamic
Stative
91
43
-------------------------------------------------------------
2.2.7 Adverbs:
Adverbs of Times form 32% (25) of the total number of
adverbs in the BT corpus.
They are first in rank among other
adverbs in a BT because biologists,
like other scientists,
usually do their work within the
limitation of time.
time
e.g.
is
very
provided
germinate".
are:
important
with
for
water,
them,
warmth,
and
"After the
air,
it
Frequently used adverbs of time
always, whenever,
sometimes,
shortly and spontaneously.
later,
So,
seed
starts
is
to
in BT corpus
as soon as, while,
This is unlike social sciences
which are more concerned with events, actions, days, months,
years
and
However,
centuries.
variation
in
frequency
of
adverbs among scientific disciplines is expected and it may
be
due
to
the
type
of
language
used
a
product
of
the
content.
Adverbs of Manner are second in rank among adverbs in
the BT analysed.
of adverbs.
They form 27% (21) of the total percentage
A biologist
uses
manner adverbs because he is
usually concerned with how things happen and
in what
form
52
they exist.
Moreover, in scientific enquiry one must be able
to observe and describe accurately.
entails:
activities,
(a}
sensory
events;
(c)
perception;
characteristics,
(d) processes" (Cooper: 1974}.
"Oeser iption here
experiments,
( b}
habits,
behaviour,
Examples are:
Agents enter the vascular system directly.
These variations would clearly seem to form
genuine causes.
Most
frequently used manner adverbs
effectively,
normally,
efficiently,
in the
BT corpus
negatively,
are:
positively,
quickly and carefully.
Adverbs of Degree form 15% (12} of the total percentage
of adverbs in BT.
Their use
in scientific English
is
to
provide accurate measurements of matter and its properties in
quantitative terms
according
density and temperature.
to
length,
This requires the
width,
volume,
use of degree
adverbs, e.g.,
These processes generally operate extremely slowly.
The cavity may be greatly enhanced by agents.
Almost all the drug is excreted in the urine.
The following table summarizes the
the given BT.
(Table-3}.
frequency of adverbs
in
53
Table 3: Frequency of Adverbs in the BT
Adverbs
No.
%
Manner
21
27
Degree
12
15
Place
9
11
Restrictive
8
10
Certainty
3
4
Attitude
1
1
79
100
------------------------------------------------------------32
25
Time
Total
-------------------------------------------------------------
2.2.8 Pronouns:
The total number of pronouns is 6%
number of words in the BT corpus.
(95)
of the total
The most frequently used
among them are the personal pronouns (30%).
The pronoun
X is
not used because in scientific writing the personality of the
writer is not shown.
that
the
writing.
scientist
In ES,
The use of the pronoun we also shows
is
objective
the pronoun
purpose of emphasis.
and
impersonal
in
his
it can be repeated for the
It may, however, be also used to avoid
repetition, e.g.,
The plant begins to grow to its full size.
When
it
is
rna ture
enough,
it
flowers.
Personal pronouns most frequently used in the BT corpus
are:
they
( 6) ,
he
( 1) ,
we
( 12) ,
them
( 2) ,
and
it
( 6) .
Demonstrative Pronouns form 18% (17) of the pronouns used in
54
the BT analysed to refer to something already mentioned and
so serve to relate one statement to another, e.g.,
Sometimes seeds are dried at a temperature which is too
high.
This has two effects:
The word this is a discourse marker which refers to "too high
temperature".
It is used to avoid repetition.
number of possessive pronouns is 14%
used possessive pronouns are:
(3).
his
(13).
( 4) ,
The total
Most frequently
their
( 6) ,
and our
Relative pronouns form 38% (36) of the total number of
pronouns.
The frequencies and percentages of pronouns used
in the BT corpus are as follows:
Personal
Possessie Demonstrative
(29)
30%
14%
Relatives
38% (36)
18% (17)
(13)
2.2.9 Linking Items
The total number of linking devices in the BT corpus is
6% (91).
Relatives (36) were counted with pronouns.
If they
are counted with the connectives the percentage of linking
words will be 7%.
materials
processes.
technical
to
Connectives are used in biological science
express
the
logical
sequence
of
actions
and
"They are useful in more complex scientific and
writing,
organization of
and
play
an
important
scientific discussions
125).
They can
(Swales:
1971:
according
to the notions
or
in written
be grouped
functions
role
they
in
the
English"
into classes
convey
in
ES.
55
Such classes
are ·explicit
function of sentences.
markers.
indicators
Besides,
of
the
communicative
"conjunctions act as style
Some individual conjuncts seem to be restricted to
particular varieties of
these varieties"
lanuage or occur more commonly in
(Greenbaum:
1970:
80}.
Conjuncts
are
required to connect ideas, processes and actions in a logical
way
in
every
organization
good
piece
of writing
of
is
writing.
very
In
carefuly
science
guided.
the
The
previous statement is logically related to the following one.
The relations between statements in scientific discourse can
be that of summation,
contrast,
result,
cause,
similarity,
exemplification and addition, e.g.,
Most plants are antotrophic but the fungi are
heterotrophic.
(contrast)
However,
Most species of Euglena are photosynthetic.
all species in the genus need to take in at least an
organic substance (contrast).
After describing the complex nutritional possibilities in the
genus Euglena, we can summarize the fact by saying:
Thus,
Euglena
shows
both
plant
and
animal
nutritional characteristics.
The
floor of the mouth
volume
of
the
is
lowered and therefore the
bucca-pharyngeal
cavity
increases
(result).
Plants
can
chlorophyll.
photosynthesize
because
(cause, explanation)
they
possess
56
Like
many
insects,
mosquitos
are
feeders.
liquid
(similarity)
If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil,
they will not germinate until it rains.
Table 4:
for example,
(exemplification).
Frequency of Linking Devices
Concepts
No.
Result
%
5
5.50
15
16.48
Cause
8
8.80
Comparison
7
7.69
Addition
5
5.50
Exemplification
5
5.50
condition
3
3.29
Similarity
3
3.29
Coordination (and)
40
43.95
Total
91
100.00
Contrast
2.2.10 Prepositions:
Prepositions
.
corpus.
form
10%
( 162)
However,
words
in
the
BT
in ES they are used to express clearly
defined
relationships
another,
or direction of movement
(5),
through
the
They do not acquire specific meaning in biological
English.
from
of
between
in
(4), at
( 1) , outside
space
(3},
( 1) , for
(14), with (4), of (66}.
between
object
in space or time,
in (36},
( 5) ,
one
into
towards
(12},
( 2) ,
by
and
e.g. ,
on
( 9) ,
(2},
to
57
v
2.3.11
Definite Vs. Indefinite Article:
The definite article is more frequently used in BT than
the
indefinite.
This
may
be
due
to
the
fact
that
a
biologist, as a scientist, usually tends to define his terms
for the sake of clarity and certainty.
definite article is 70%
indefinite article.
(122)
The occurrence of the
compared to
30%
(51)
of the
25% (43) are indefinite articles 'a' and
only 5% (8) are 'an' occurrences.
Table 5 summarizes the frequency of vocabulary in the
BT analysed with their percentages and rank order.
Table 5:
Frequency of Vocabulary in BT
Types of Vocabulary
No.
%
Nouns
600
36
1
Adjectives
237
14
2
Verbs
211
13
3
Articles
173
10
4
Prepositions
162
10
5
Pronouns
95
6
6
Conjuncts
91
5
7
Adverbs
79
5
8
Negative Particles
11
1
9
1659
100
Total
Rank
58
Word Formation:
2.3
Affixation:
Suffixes are more frequently used in BT than prefixes.
Suffixes form 92% (406) while prefixes form a merely 8% (37).
Some technical terms in the BT are formed by adding a
prefix to a word root, e.g.,
form - deform, organic -
inorganic, plastic -
thermoplastic
The
prefixes
are
useful
in
making
new
technical
vocabulary and in the extension of existing ones.
In
ES,
they are mostly added to words of Greek and Latin origin,
e.g. '
The
mono-single
monolayer, monochrome
poly-many
2Qlyvalent, QQlycycle
dermat-skin
dermatitis (inflamation of the
skin)
following prefixes are most
text with their occurrences.
frequently used
in
the BT
They are used to form nouns:
endo (2}, photo (7), macro (1}, re (1}, non (4), chloro
(1),
micro (2}, pino (1), eco (1), cyano (1}, para (1},
di (3), Total 26.
Some prefixes are used to form adjectives:
non ( 1) ,
auto
endo (1}.
( 1)
1
in
Total 9.
Others are used to form verbs:
re ( 1}
(1),
un
(3}
1
rilis
(1)
1
di
(1),
59
Suffixes are used in the BT to form nouns, adjectives,
and verbs: The total number of noun forming - suffixes is 44%
( 180) .
The following
are the
most
frequently
used
nouns
forming suffixes with their frequencies:
-s (pl.)
(110), -ia 1 a (9)
-ness (1)
1
-sion (3)
-ship (1)
1
-ary (1)
-ance (4).
-urn (2)
1
1
-tion (19);
-ity (8), -ist (1},
1
-th (1), -ient (1),
1
Total 180.
Adjectives Forming Suffixes form 29%
number of suffixes.
(119}
of the total
Most frequently used suffixes to form
adjectives in BT analysed are:
-ous (6}
1
-ing (13}
-ible (2}
-ant (7)
1
-ent (1), -ar (8)
1
1
-ed (22},
1
-al (22),
-less (1); -ic (12}
1
-cal (2), -er (6),
-ful (2)
1
-able (5}
1
-ian (2}, -ive (5),
-ior (i)
1
-ry (2}.
Total 119.
Adverb Forming suffixes are:
-ly (33}, -wards (2).
Total 35.
Verbs Forming Suffixes form 72
suffixes,
(18%) of the total number of
e.g.,
-ed (past passive) 39; -ing 13, -s 17,
-ize 3.
Total 72.
It can be useful,
therefore,
for a biology student to
guess the meaning of a word by using his knowledge of the
meaning of a
prefix or a suffix.
problem of overgeneralization.
before,
examples.
There
is,
however,
the
Having learnt that pre-means
the student may apply the rule to inappropriate
60
2.4
syntax
2.4.1 Sentence Patterns:
Grammar may
texts.
used
in
specific
ways
in
scientific
We must look beyond the grammatical level to see the
function
of
structure
performing
an
act
generalization,
how
to
in
the
of
drawing
hypothesising.
taught
be
text.
A Sentence
definition,
results
and
The biology student,
produce
particular function,
the
be
classification,
conclusions,.
therefore,
appropriate
could
form
to
and
has to
be
express
a
and how different functions are linked
together in a text to form larger units (see linking devices,
p.54).
It is also important to analyse the sentence patterns
most frequently used in the BT analysed (see Table 6 below).
Table 6:
Dominant Sentence Patterns in BT
Sentence Patterns
No.
%
5
2
s v c
134
64
s v 0
48
23
s v 0 c
24
11
211
100
s v
Total
2.4.2 Sentences Classified by Clauses:
Sentences can be classified into simple,
complex and complex compound.
in the BT corpus, e.g.,
compound,
Simple sentences form 40% (42)
61
A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown
algae have been moderately successful
in fresh water.
(Para. 5. s. 1)
A few green algae have succeeded in the sea.
(Para 5.S.3)
Compound sentences in the BT corpus are 10% (11).
For
example,
Movement must be ensured by contractile cells, and some
sort of mechanism must exist
for
coordinating the
activities of the tentacles, mouth,
and column.
(Para
10.S.2).
Complex sentences in the BT corpus are 40% (42)
However,
total number of sentences.
if
we
follow
of the
Leech's
(1983) classification of the sentences into simple, compound
and complex; and consider the
compound-com~lex
sentences as
complex sentences only, the total number of complex sentences
in
our
corpus
is
49.52%
(52).
In
this
case,
complex
sentences are the most frequently used, e.g.,
It
is easiest to visualize the common organizational
plan of the diverse mollusc group if we start with a
hypothetical mollusc.
(Para 11.S.1).
Compound-complex· sentences are
9. 52%
( 10) .
consider
for example,
Solar energy flows into the cycle continuously to keep
it running,
and part of the trapped
solar energy
is
released at each stage of the cycle in a form that can
62
be used to do cellular work.
(Para 17.8.3).
2.4.3 Loose, Periodic and Balanced Sentences:
In a loose sentence the main clause comes first and is
followed by its dependent clauses.
Loose sentences in the BT
corpus are 54% (28} of the total number of complex sentences,
e.g. '
Each
hydrogen
atom
acts
needs were satisfied.
Periodic
sentences,
that
as
though
its
energy-level
(Para 13.8.6).
is,
sentences
in
which
the
main
clause occurs at the end are 46% (24), e.g.,
If a diverse condition persists, the zygote becomes an
inactive,
resting
cell
that waits
for
better times.
(Para 6. S. 5) .
A balanced sentence is one which consists
similar
construction
balancing each other.
sentences.
and
meaning
placed
of
sentences of
side
by
side,
Our corpus does not have any balanced
63
Table 7:
Frequency of Sentence Types
Sentences
No.
~
0
Simple
42
40
Compound
11
10.48
Complex
42
40
Compound-Complex
1.0
Loose
28
54
Periodic
24
46
9.52
Balanced
Kinds of Sentences:
2.4.4.
Sentences
declarative
may
be
divided
sentences),
into
questions
(or
statements
(or
interrogative
Table 8: Frequency of Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative
and Exclamatory Sentences in the Corpus
Sentences
1.
2•
No.
%
92
87
9
9
1
1
3
3
Declarative
a.
Affirmative
b.
Negative
Interrogative
a.
Yes, No
b.
WH
3.
Imperative
4.
Exclamatory
Total
105
100
64
sentences),
commands
(or
imperative),
sentences) .
The above table shows the
or
(exclamatory
frequency
of
these
sentences in the corpus.
The
high
frequency
attributed to the
positively
the
scientific
facts
fact
truth
of
affirmative
that
of
a
his
clearly
sentences
can
be
biologist tends
to declare
statements
makes
and
However,
known.
sometimes needs to negate his statements,
a
the
scientist
and sometimes to
give instructions using the imperative construction.
Though,
this construction is not used for command or request but for
drawing the readers attention to consider,
note,
and think
about particular scientific processes and phenomenon, e.g.,
Consider what happens when you drop a crystal of table
salt into water.
Note
that
actually
(Para 15.5.1)
particulars
pass
absorbed
by
endocytosis
through the memberance at
all.
never
(Para 16.5.2
2.4.5 Subordinate/Dependent Clauses
Subordinate
clauses
can
be
adjectival, and adverbial clauses.
that adverbial
classified
nominal,
The following table shows
clauses are the most
other types of clauses:
into
frequently
used among
65
Table 9:
Frequency of Subordinate Clauses in the BT Corpus
Clauses
No.
~
0
1.
Nominal
14
21
2.
Adjectival
16
24
3.
Adverbial
37
55
3.1
Manner
6
16
3.2
Comparison
3
8
3.3
Time
10
27
3.4
Reason
7
19
3.5
Condition
5
14
3.6
Contrast
4
11
3.7
Result
2
5
67
100
Total
The above table shows that adverbial clauses of time,
reason,
and
manner
are
most
frequently
used
in
the
text
analysed because the biologist is usually concerned with what
happend to things, why, how, and at what time.
2.4.6 Shifted (Deviant) Order:
The
SPO I CIA 1
order
is
the
unmarked
order,
i.e.
the
natural order that is used when there is no reason to use
some other order.
Whereas the 0/C/ASP order is marked,
the
marked or derived order is often the less frequent one, and
1.
s Subject
A Adverb
P Predicate
0 Object
C Complement
66
one which
Marked
is stylistically more noticeable.
forms
found in the text analysed are:
Ellipsis:
Ellipsis is used to avoid repetition of words and
structure used elsewhere in the context.
omission of
ommission
the
forms
It
relative pronoun which.
13%
(14)
of
the
total
includes the
This
number
kind
of
of
shifted
orders, e.g.,
The wall covering the visceral mass
mantle.
is called the
(Para 11.8.4)
The mantle produces the protective shell found in many
molluscs.
(Para 11.8.5)
and the omission of the verb "are": 2 examples ( 2%)
kind
of this
of omission were found in the text analysed, e.g.,
Some bacteria are spherical (cocci), some cylindrical
(rods), and some curved (spirilla).
(Para 4.S.3).
Parentheses, dashes, brackets, and commas are used in the BT
analysed to show discontinuity of discourse and to set off
independent clauses from the rest of the sentence.
The total
occurrence of sentences used between brackets and commas is
18% (20), 6% (6) of the sentences were used inside brackets,
4%
(4)
were conjuncts between commas,
and
9%
(10)
were
examples of reference to tables, figures and diagrams, e.g.,
But by and
large,
(phylum chlorophyta)
the
7, 000
species
of
have been most successful
green
in,
algae
and are
67
the dominant vegetation of,
fresh-water
environment.
(Para
5.8.4)
The use of sentences between brackets and commas in the
above examples is due to the condensation,
accuracy and
precision of scientific ideas.
Adverbs
used
before
the verb
form
21%
(23)
of
the
total
number of deviant orders, e.g.,
The
parasitic
fungi
effectively
systems of the host organisms
nutrients.
use
to
the
life-support
obtain
water
and
(Para 8.S.1)
Adverbs used before the adjectives form 2%
number of deviant orders
in the
(2)
biological
of the total
text
analysed,
e.g. '
... the mycelia have few adaptations for survival under
truly dry conditions.
(Para 7.S.3).
The use of nouns before the adjectives is 1% (1), e.g.,
Surely that was proof enough.
(Para 1.8.4).
The use of "even" for restriction is 4% (4), e.g.,
A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown
algae have been moderately successful in fresh-water.
(Para 5.8.1)
Besides, 2 examples (2%) of non-restrictive embedded clauses
were used in the text analysed, e.g.,
Development of
ascorcarps
and
basidiocarps,
which
68
represent
the
most
complex
forms
of
structural
organization in fungi, was probably favoured by natural
selection ... (Para 7.P.136)
Phrases at the beginning of the
emphasis.
sentences are used for
Adverbial phrases of time are most frequently used
among other types of phrases
Table 10:
(see Table 10).
Frequency of the Phrases used Initially in the
Text Analysed
Phrases
No.
%
Time
7
33
Place
5
23
Degree
3
14
Means
1
5
Result
2
10
Addition
2
10
Exemplification
1
5
21
100
Total
Negative adjunct is used to open the sentence, e.g.,
Not all combinations of atoms will form ions of ionic
compound.
Clauses are
emphasis.
used
at
the
beginning
of
the
sentence
for
Table 11 shows that adverbial clauses of time are
most frequently used in this position.
69
Table 11:
Frequency of Clauses Used Initially
Clauses
No.
%
Time
7
35
Condition
2
10
Cause
2
10
Manner
4
20
Contrast
4
20
Comparison
1
5
20
100
Total
Table 12 summarizes the frequency of shifted orders in
,
the biological text analysed.
Deviant Order
1.0
Omission
1.1
Omission of the relative
pronoun "which"
1.2
Omission of the verb "are"
2.0
Discontinuity
2.1
The use of parenthesis,
dashes, brackets and
commas
No.
%
14
13
2
2
20
18
23
18
2.2
Adverb before the main
verb
2.3
Adverb before the adjective
2
2
2.4
Noun before the adjective
1
1
2.5
Even for restriction
4
3
70
No.
Deviant Order
2.6
Non-restrictive embedded
clauses
2
3.0
The use of prepositional
phrases at the beginning
of the sentences
21
4.0
Negative adjunct opens the
sentence
5.0
The use of adverbial clauses
initially in the sentence
2.4.7
Passive vs. Active Construction
%
2
19
1
1
20
18
It is often said that the passive is more frequently
used in ES than the active form.
constantly
objectively.
concerned
However,
with
the
This is because science is
impersonal
biology
text,
activity
uses
the
seen
active
(71%) more frequently than the passive.
Only 29% (50) of the
verbs in the BT are in the passive form.
Apparently, the use
of the active vis-a-vis the passive depends on the level of
writing.
In our case the corpus is taken from a
intended for first year biology students.
textbook
Examples of the
passive construction are:
Mottled
The fertility of the soil is improved.
seeds were produced only as a result of virus
infection.
In our BT, sometimes the agent is mentioned {10%).
The most
common agents which occur in scientific English writing are
those which tell about the means, methods, and ways of doing
things; e.g.
71
The fertilizer can be distributed by hand.
reaction is helped by using a catalyst.
The occurrence of the passive construction
is
The
25%
(53)
compared to 75% (158) of the active construcition.
Scholars and researchers have believed that the passive
is
more
frequently
used
than
the
The
active.
intention
behind this usage is to make a description impersonal without
However, the over use of complex
an agent being expressed.
passive
sentences
in
scientific
writing
considerable critic ism in recent years,
marked
tendency
to
avoid
them"
has
attracted
and there is now a
(Crystal:
1987:
380).
Therefore, it seems that the weight of traditional usage of
the passive is easy to reduce.
The abstract,
introduction
and results sections prefer the use of active constructions
while in the
used.
methods section more passive constructions are
This shows that the active is used for clarity and
simplicity as we find in the students textbooks, or as in the
introduction and discussion of results, while the passive is
used in more complex,
condensed and specific scientific
writing.
There is no grammatical or discourse structure that can
be identified specifically with biology.
There are only two
areas in which the subject influences the
viz. ,
technical vocabulary and a
language content
higher proportion of
particular grammatical or structural forms,
such as a high
percentage of nominal compounds.
When the students enter the
department
find
of
biology
they
difficulty
in
the
72
comprehension of the English language text.
Besides,
this
text is not related to their subject of specialization.
Register
analysis,
therefore,
is
important
in
language
teaching because many people do have an occupational purpose
in learning a foreign language.
The older a learner is the
more likely it is that he knows why he is learning and that
the language is needed to help him in his job.
of
English
has
often
been
explicitly
given
The teaching
for
making
scientific information more accessible.
The description of language used by scientists in all
aspects of
their work would contain
information on the
vocabulary and grammar used in popular and learned articles,
in research proposals, abstracts and even in actual conduct
of research.
We can apply this description to the particular
needs of any group of scientific learners.
group,
In case of our
it consists of students being taught science in their
mother-tongue, but needing access to work reported in English
used for scientific writing.
They have to listen to lectures
in English, take notes, and participate in class discussion.
Besides, they need to develop the ability to comprehend the
language of learned articles and abstracts.
is
not
only
restricted
to
the
written
Their knowledge
language.
The
vocabulary content may not always need to be technical since
some lexical items might be identifiable with cognate words
in the mother tongue.
the
"operational"
1975: 138).
They would, however, need to be taught
(non-technical
i terns) vocabulary
(Wilkins:
Their major source of information is textbooks.
They will be required to conduct practical work in English
73
Their ability has to be productive and
and write reports.
receptive, written and to a lesser extent spoken.
vocabulary may
be
acquired
through
the
Technical
learning
of
the
subject itself and vocabulary teaching has to concentrate on
non-technical vocabulary.
In teaching non-technical vocabulary,
devised to try to exploit the
exercises may be
relationships
between words.
Students, therefore, need to build up their vocabulary in the
area of their specialism (biology)
from
their
training.
It
is
to enable them to benefit
dangerous
vocabulary will take care of itself.
to
assume
Moreover,
that
"any analysis
of needs should have as its central point the type of English
which
it will
be necessary
achieve his purpose.
certain
these
vocabulary,
functions
The
to teach
if
the
learner may need
specific
forms
interrelate
to
and
learner
to be
to
taught a
functions,
produce
is
and
coherent
how
texts"
(Kennedy and Bolitho: 1984: 18).
English for Science
(ES)
uses
the
same
structures as
any other kind of English but with a different distributional
pattern.
There
complex
nominal
is,
for
example,
groups.
Also
a
there
tendency
are
no
to
use
more
occurrences
of
question tag-forms. Vocabulary should be developed along with
other skills that biology students need.
be
unable
students.
equals
to
understand
the
Biology students,
words
and
that
the
vocabulary
however,
The ES teacher may
required
believe that
acquisition
of
a
by
his
language
specialist
vocabulary alone will suffice to gain access to the knowledge
they require.
74
In
this
we
chapter
have
underlined
some
of
the
features of ES so that ES teacher and biology students can
ES has certain
concentrate on the most relevant ones.
distinct characteristics
with regard to vocabulary and
syntax; and morphology plays an important part in it.
(see
R.A. Close: 1966: 5). But to characterize ES in this way is
to treat scientific discourse merely as exemplification of
the language system, and does little or nothing to indicate
what kind
of
communication
Johnson: 1981: 125).
such
a
way
as
to
Thus,
reveal
it
is
(C.J.
Brumfit
and
K.
language should be presented in
its
character
as
communication.
However, we should not deny the utility of register analysis
which has been accepted by researchers since long.
The most
frequently used grammatical items in the text analysed are:
Content words vs.
vs.
technical terms,
function words;
sub-technical terms
present simple tense vs.
other tenses,
dynamic vs. stative verbs; intransitive vs. transitive verbs;
adverbs
of
adverbs;
time,
and degree
relative pronouns vs.
demonstrative
devices;
manner
pronouns;
definite vs.
vs.
other
personal,
coordinators
idefinite articles;
simple and complex vs.
complex sentences; affirmative vs.
of
possessive and
vs.
other
nouns,
and verbs vs. other parts of speech; svc vs.
patterns;
types
liking
adjectives
other sentence
compound and compoundimperative,
interrogative
and exclamatory sentences, adverbial clauses vs. nominal and
adjectival clauses.
The use of adverbs before the main verbs
is more frequent among shifted orders.