Download Human Population Ecology

Population Ecology
Definition of Population:
• Group of individuals of a single species living in a
specific geographic region at the same time
Study of populations in relation to
environment
– Environmental influences on:
• population density
• age structure
• population distribution (dispersion)
• Density is the result of a dynamic interaction of
processes that add individuals to a population and those
that remove individuals from it
Births and immigration add individuals to
a population.
Births
Immigration
How do these factors
Contribute to Population Size??
PopuIation
size
•
•
•
•
Emigration
Deaths
Deaths and emigration remove
individuals from a population.
Births
Deaths
Immigration
Emigration
Clumped Dispersion
– Individuals aggregate in patches
– May be influenced by resource availability and
behavior
Uniform Dispersion
–
–
Individuals are evenly distributed
May be influenced by social interactions such
as territoriality
Random Dispersion
• Position of each individual is independent of other
individuals
(c) Random. Dandelions grow from windblown seeds that
land at random and later germinate.
How do wildlife biologists quantify populations?
Defined Populations
-complete counts
-incomplete counts
-indirect counts
Undefined Populations
Mark and Recapture
Life history traits are products of
natural selection
• Life history traits are evolutionary outcomes
– Reflected in the development, physiology, and
behavior of an organism
• Three things needed quantify life history
i. When reproduction begins
ii. How often organism reproduces
iii. How many offspring produced
Semelparity: Big Bang
– Reproduce a single time and die
– putting all available resources into maximizing
reproduction at the expense of future life
Iteroparity – Repeated Reproduction
–
–
produce offspring repeatedly over time
increased parental care along with enhanced
energetic investment per offspring
“Trade-offs” and Life Histories
• Organisms have finite resources
–
Which may lead
to trade-offs
between survival
and reproduction
Kestrels:
•
Produce a few eggs?
–
•
Can invest more into
each, ensuring
greater survival
Produce many eggs?
–
Costly but if all
survive, fitness is
better
100
Male
Female
RESULTS
80
Parents surviving the following winter (%)
–
60
40
20
0
CONCLUSION
Reduced brood
size
Normal brood size
Enlarged brood
size
The lower survival rates of kestrels with larger broods indicate that caring for more
offspring negatively affects survival of the parents.
More is Better?
• Some plants produce a large number of small seeds
– Ensuring that at least some of them will grow
and eventually reproduce
Fewer is Better?
• Other types of plants produce a moderate number
of large seeds
–
That provide a large store of energy that will
help seedlings become established
Demography
• Study of the vital statistics of a population
– And how they change over time
• Death rates and birth rates
• Zero population growth
– Occurs when the birth rate equals the death
rate
Exponential Population Growth
Population increase under idealized conditions
No limits on growth
• Under these conditions
– The rate of reproduction is at its maximum, called
the intrinsic rate of increase
Example-understanding growth
Question: I offer you a job for 1 cent/day and your pay will
double every day. You will be hired for 30 days. Will you
take my job offer?
Answer: If you said YES, you will have made $~21 million
dollars for 30 days of work.
How is this possible?????
1ST DAY OF WORK: 1 cent pay/day
30TH DAY OF WORK: ~10.2 million/day
Amount of
Pay/Day
How is this possible?????
# of Days
Exponential Growth Model
*Idealized population in an unlimited
environment
*Very rapid doubling time; steep J curve
*r=N=(b-d)N
t
r=instrinsic rate of growth
dN 
dt rmaxN
Exponential Growth in the Real World
• Characteristic of some populations that are rebounding
8,000
Elephant
population
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1900
1920
1940
Year
1960
1980
–Cannot be sustained for long in any population
Logistic Population Growth
• More realistic model of population growth
• Carrying capacity (K)
– Is the maximum population size the
environment can support
• In the logistic population growth model
– The per capita rate of increase declines as
carrying capacity is reached
Logistic Population Growth
–
Produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve
2,000
dN
dt
Population size (N)
1,500
 1.0N
Exponential
growth
K  1,500
Logistic growth
1,000
dN
dt
 1.0N
1,500  N
1,500
500
(K  N)
dN
 rmax N
dt
K
0
0
5
10
Number of generations
Figure 52.12
15
The Logistic Model and Real Populations
– Fits an S-shaped
curve
1,000
800
Number of Paramecium/ml
• The growth of
laboratory
populations of
Paramecium
600
400
200
0
0
5
10
15
Time (days)
(a) A Paramecium population in the lab. The growth of
Paramecium aurelia in small cultures (black dots) closely
approximates logistic growth (red curve) if the experimenter
maintains a constant environment.
Logistic Growth and The Real World
• Some populations
overshoot K
Before settling
down to a
relatively stable
density
150
Number of Daphnia/50 ml
–
180
120
90
60
30
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time (days)
What type of
feedback loop is
this?
(b) A Daphnia population in the lab. The growth of a population of
Daphnia in a small laboratory culture (black dots) does not correspond
well to the logistic model (red curve). This population overshoots the
carrying capacity of its artificial environment and then settles down to an
approximately stable population size.
Logistic Growth and the Real World
80
• Some
populations
Number of females
– Fluctuate
greatly
around K
60
40
20
0
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Time (years)
(c) A song sparrow population in its natural habitat. The population of
female song sparrows nesting on Mandarte Island, British Columbia, is
periodically reduced by severe winter weather, and population growth is not
well described by the logistic model.
Natural selection (diverse reproductive strategies)
a) Relatively few, large offspring (K selected species)
b) Many, small offspring (r selected species)
(K selected species)
(r selected species)
Populations Regulated Biotic and
Abiotic Factors
Two general questions we can ask about regulation of
population growth
1. What environmental factors stop a population
from growing?
2. Why do some populations show radical
fluctuations in size over time, while others remain
stable?
Competition for Resources
• In crowded populations, increasing population density
– Intensifies intraspecific competition for resources
4.0
3.8
Average clutch size
Average number of seeds
per reproducing individual
(log scale)
10,000
1,000
100
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
0
0
10
100
Seeds planted per m2
(a) Plantain. The number of seeds
produced by plantain (Plantago major)
decreases as density increases.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Density of females
(b) Song sparrow. Clutch size in the song sparrow
on Mandarte Island, British Columbia, decreases
as density increases and food is in short supply.
80
• Many vertebrates and some invertebrates are territorial
– Territoriality may limit density
Territoriality: Ocean birds
–
Exhibit territoriality in nesting behavior
Health
Population densityCan influence the
health and
survival of
organisms
In dense populations,
pathogens can spread
more rapidly
Fluctuations in Population Size
• Extreme fluctuations in population size
– Are typically more common in invertebrates
than in large mammals
Commercial catch (kg) of
male crabs (log scale)
730,000
100,000
10,000
1950
Figure 52.19
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
Population Cycles
160
Snowshoe hare
120
Lynx
9
80
6
40
3
0
1850
0
1875
1900
Year
• Influenced by complex interactions between biotic and
abiotic factors
1925
Lynx population size
(thousands)
Hare population size
(thousands)
• Many populations undergo regular boom-and-bust cycles
Human Populations
• No population can grow indefinitely and humans are no
exception
6
4
3
2
The Plague
1
0
Figure 52.22
8000
B.C.
4000
B.C.
3000
B.C.
2000
B.C.
1000
B.C.
0
1000
A.D.
2000
A.D.
Human population (billions)
5
Global Carrying Capacity
• Just how many humans can the biosphere support?
• Carrying capacity of earth is unknown….
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_9SutNmfFk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUOEcNomakw&feature=rec
-LGOUT-exp_fresh+div-1r-8-HM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4B2xOvKFFz4&feature=relat
ed
• Age structure is commonly represented in pyramids
Rapid growth
Afghanistan
Male
Female
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
Percent of population
Figure 52.25
Age
85
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
Slow growth
United States
Female
Male
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
Percent of population
Age
85
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
Decrease
Italy
Female
Male
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
Percent of population
Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy
• Infant mortality and life expectancy at birth
50
Life expectancy (years)
Infant mortality (deaths per 1,000 births)
– Vary widely among developed and developing
countries but do not capture the wide range of the
60
80
human condition
40
30
20
40
20
10
0
0
Developed
countries
Figure 52.26
60
Developing
countries
Developed
countries
Developing
countries
Search for the Missing Sea Otters
Case Study in Population & Community
Ecology
Sea Otters
Enhydra lutris
Otter Behavior
http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=dQ2Lrnr0gLc
http://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=YQXKy
TWMvpM
Population Distribution
GROUP QUESTION: 1) What is happening to sea otter populations at
several locations in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska? 2) What factors could
be contributing to such a rapid change in the size of sea otter
populations? Create a list of possible factors.
Could the otters simply have migrated from one part of the region to
another? To find out, the researchers analyzed populations over a 500mile-long stretch of the Aleutians from Kiska to Seguam …. By 1993 otter
numbers in that whole stretch had been cut by half. Here the
geographical scope of the research effort became critical; a smaller
region would not have been large enough to reveal the decline. In 1997,
they … found that the population decline had worsened, to about 90
percent ….
“That told us for sure it was a very large-scale decline, but we were
still trying to understand the cause,” Dr. Estes said …. The researchers
… ruled out reproductive failure. Their studies enabled them to keep
track of how often otters gave birth and how many young survived, and
this revealed that reproduction was continuing to re-supply the
population.
With other possible causes eliminated, … mortality had to be the
explanation. In the past, they had seen temporary declines in otter
populations because of starvation, pollution or infectious disease. “In
all those cases,” Dr. Estes said, “we find lots of bodies. They get weak
and tired and come ashore to die.” This time not a single dead otter was
found—a clue, he said, that “something really weird was going on.”
(Excerpted from Stevens, William K. “Search for missing sea otters turns up a few
surprises.” New York Times, January 5, 1999.)
Group Question: Read above and eliminate some of the reasons for
changes in the relative abundance of sea otters at several locations in the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska? What does it have to be?
Orca or Killer Whale
Orcinus orca
Male vs. Female
Orca prey
Orca predation behavior
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=ypNg19etJg0
http://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=Ks40worW_gQ
(hunting sea lions)
Orcas & learned hunting behavior? (great white
sharks??) :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SS6NjdGLVZs
&feature=related
Group Questions
1.Make a list of the types of information about killer
whales you believe the scientists might need to test their
hypothesis that increased predation by the whales was
the cause of the sea otter decline.
2.Describe two experiments that would allow you to test
the hypothesis that increased predation by killer whales
was the cause of the sea otter decline. Keep in mind the
following key components of any good experiment: a
control (something to which to compare the treatment),
replication (do it more than once), and consideration of
confounding factors (what might cause differences other
than what you manipulate in your experiment?).
Group question: Interpret the two
figures. What do they show? How
does this provide evidence that
orcas were responsible for the
decline in sea otters in Kuluk Bay?
Group question: Why do you think Orcas started eating
Sea Otters? Generate a list of possible ideas.
Why did Orcas start eating Sea
Otters?
• Fish community of the Bering Sea:
– Past:
– Ocean perch & herring
– High abundance
– Very high oil content
Why did Orcas start eating Sea
Otters?
• Fish community of the Bering Sea:
• Present:
– Pollock
– High abundance
– Low oil content
Why this change in species
composition?
• Where did the herring & perch go???
What were Orcas eating before?
Harbor Seals
Stellar Sea Lions on
Amak Island
Population decline
Why care about Sea Otters??
• Habitat:
Giant Kelp Forest
Biodiversity
Sea urchins
(Echinoderms)