Download 45_lecture_ppt part 1 - Tracy Jubenville Nearing

Chapter 45: pp. 839 - 864
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10th Edition
Sylvia S. Mader
Community &
Ecosystem Ecology
BIOLOGY
© B. Runk/S. Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor
Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
1
Outline

The Concept of the Community
 The Structure of Communities







Composition and Diversity
Habitat and Ecological Niche
Competition Between Populations
Predator-Prey Interactions
Symbiotic Relationships
Island Biogeography
Community Development

Ecological succession
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Outline

The Nature of Ecosystems




Energy Flow


Abiotic Components
Autotrophs
Heterotrophs
Ecological Pyramids
Biogeochemical Cycles




Hydrologic Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
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Community Concept

A community is an assemblage of
populations interacting with one another
within the same environment.
The species composition (also called species
richness) of a community is a listing of various
species in the community.
 Diversity includes both species richness and
the abundance of different species.

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Community Structure
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squirrel
moose
snowshoe hare
bear
red fox
wolf
a.
kinkajou
monkey
anteater
jaguar
tapir
bat
sloth
b.
a(Forest): © Charlie Ott/Photo Researchers, Inc.; a(Squirrel): © Stephen Dalton/Photo Researchers, Inc.; a(Wolf): © Renee Lynn/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
b(Rain forest): © Michael Graybill and Jan Hodder/Biological Photo Service; b(Kinkajou): © Alan & Sandy Carey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b(Sloth): © Studio
Carlo Dani/Animals Animals Earth Scenes
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Habitat and Ecological Niche

Habitat


The area where an organism lives and reproduces
Ecological niche

The role a species plays in its community

Includes its habitat, and

Its interactions with other organisms

Fundamental niche - All conditions under which
the organism can survive

Realized niche - Set of conditions under which it
exists in nature
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Feeding Niches for Wading Birds
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Flamingos feed on small molluscs,
crustaceans, and vegetable matter
strained from mud pumped
through their bills by their powerful tongues.
Dabbling ducks feed
by tipping, tail up, to
reach aquatic plants,
seeds, snails, and
insects.
Avocets feed on insects, small
marine invertebrates, and seeds
by sweeping their bills from side
to side in shallow water.
Oystercatchers pry open
bivalve shells with their
knifelike bills and probe
sand for worms and crabs.
Plovers dart around
on beaches and
grasslands hunting
for insects and small
invertebrates.
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Community Structure

Competition
When two species compete, the abundance of
both species is negatively impacted
 Predation (or parasitism)

Expected to increase the abundance of the predator
(or parasite)
 And reduce the abundance of the prey (or host)

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Competition Between Populations

Competition occurs when

Members of different species require the same
resource, and

The supply of the resource is limited
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Competition Between
Two Laboratory Populations of Paramecium
Population Density
Population Density
Population Density
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P. aurelia grown
separately
P. caudatum grown
separately
Both species
grown together
Time
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Competition Between Populations


Competitive Exclusion Principle

No two species can indefinitely occupy the same niche at
the same time

Resource Partitioning decreases competition between
species

Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less
niche overlap between species
Character Displacement

Characteristics tend to become more divergent when
populations belong to the same community than when they
are isolated

Competition and resource partitioning may lead to character
displacement
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Character Displacement in Finches
on the Galápagos Islands
Percent of Sample
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50
Species coexist on Abingdon,
Bindloe, James, and Jervis Islands
30
10
Percent of Sample
Percent of Sample
small
medium
Beak Depth
large
G. fortis exists alone
on Daphne Island
50
30
10
small
50
medium
Beak Depth
large
G. fuliginosa exists alone
on Crossman Island
30
10
small
G. fuliginosa
medium
Beak Depth
G. fortis
large
G. magnirostris
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Niche Specialization Among
Five Species of Coexisting Warblers
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Cape May
warbler
Black-throated
green warbler
Bay-breasted
warbler
Blackburnian
warbler
Yellow-rumped
warbler
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Competition Between
Two Species of Barnacles
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high tide
Chthamalus
area of
competition
Balanus
low tide
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Predator-Prey Interactions

Predation

One living organism, the predator, feeds on
another, the prey
Predator is larger
 Predator has lower reproductive rate
 Prey usually entirely consumed


Presence of predators can decrease prey
densities, and vice-versa
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Predator-prey Interaction
Between a Lynx and a Snowshoe Hare
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140
Number (thousands)
120
hare
lynx
100
a.
80
60
40
20
1845
b.
1855
1865
1875
1885
1895
1905
1915
1925
1935
© Alan Carey/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Prey Defenses

Prey defenses

Mechanisms that thwart the possibility of being
eaten by a predator
Heightened senses
 Speed
 Protective armor
 Protective spines or thorns
 Tails or appendages that break off
 Poisonous Chemicals
 Camouflage
 Warning Coloration
 Flocking Behavior

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Anti-predator Defenses
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eye
false head
a. Camouflage
b. Warning colorization
c. Fright
a: © Gustav Verderber/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Zig Leszczynski/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; c: © National
Audubon Society/A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Mimicry

Mimicry

One species resembles another species that
possesses an overt antipredator defense
Batesian Mimicry - Mimic lacks defense of
the organism it resembles
 Müllerian Mimicry - Mimic shares a
protective defense with other species

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Mimicry Among Insects
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a. Flower fly
b. Longhorn beetle
c. Bumblebee
d. Yellow jacket
a: © Edward S. Ross; b: © Edward S. Ross; c: © James H. Robinson/Photo Researchers, Inc.; d: © Edward S. Ross
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Symbiotic Relationships

Symbiosis

An association between species in which at
least one of the species is dependent on the
other
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Symbiotic Relationships
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Symbiotic Relationships

Parasitism

Parasite derives nourishment from a host, and
may use host as habitat and mode of
transmission
Endoparasites
 Ectoparasites

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Heartworm
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Courtesy the University of Tennessee Parasitology Laboratory
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Symbiotic Relationships

Commensalism

A symbiotic relationship in which one species
benefits and the other is neither benefited nor
harmed


Shark and remora fish
Many supposed examples may turn out to be
mutualism or parasitism
25
Clownfish Among
Sea Anemone’s Tentacles
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© Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals Unlimited
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Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism

A symbiotic relationship in which both
members of the association benefit

Need not be equally beneficial to both species


Cleaning Symbiosis
Often help each other obtain food or avoid
predation

Bacteria in human intestinal tract
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Cleaning Symbiosis
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© Bill Wood/Bruce Coleman, Inc.
28
Island Biogeography Pertains to
Biodiversity

MacArthur and Wilson
Developed a general model of island
biogeography
 Explains and predicts how the community
diversity of an island is affected by

Distance from the mainland, and
 Size of the island


The model of island biogeography suggests
that the larger the conserved area, the
better the chance of preserving more
species.
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Community Development

Ecological Succession

A change involving a series of species
replacements following a disturbance
Primary Succession occurs in areas where there is
no soil formation
 Secondary Succession begins in areas where soil is
present


The first species to begin secondary succeession are
called pioneer species
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Secondary Succession
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a. First year
b. Second year
c. Fifth year
d. Tenth year
e. Twentieth year
© Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals/Earth Scene
31
Secondary Succession in a Forest
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grass
low shrub
high shrub
shrub-tree
low tree
high tree
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Succession Models

Facilitation Model
Each stage facilitates invasion and
replacement by organisms of the next stage
 Succession in a particular area will always lead
to the same type of community, a climax
community

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Succession Models

Inhibition Model


Colonists remain and inhibit growth of other
plants until the colonists are damaged or die
Tolerance Model
Different types of plants can colonize an area
at the same time
 Chance determines which seeds arrive first

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