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Maps, Illustrations, & Timelines
Ancient Italy
Map (p 116)
Roman-Etruscan
Urn (p 117)
- Statue -
Roman Patrician
with
Ancestors
(p 119)
Relief from the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus,
depicting Census and Sacrifice.
(p 120-121)
The Roman Tribunes, by Plutarch (p 122)
Why does not the tribune wear a garment with the purple
border, although the other magistrates wear it?
Is it because he is not a magistrate at all? For tribunes have no
lictors, nor do they transact business seated on the curule chair, nor
do they enter their office at the beginning of the year as all the other
magistrates do, nor do they cease from their functions when a
dictator is chosen; but although he transfers every other office to
himself, the tribunes alone remain, as not being officials but as
holding some other position. Even as some advocates will not have it
that a demurrer is a suit, but hold that its effect is the opposite of
that of a suit; for a suit brings a case into court and obtains a
judgment, while a demurrer takes it out of court and quashes it; in
the same way they believe that the tribuneship is a check on
officialdom and a position to offer opposition to magistracy rather
than a magistracy. For its authority and power consist in blocking
the power of a magistrate and in the abrogation of excessive
authority.
(continued) Or one might expound these matters and others like
them, if one were to indulge in the faculty of invention; but since the
tribunate derives its origin from the people, the popular element in it
is strong; and of much importance is the fact that the tribune does
not pride himself above the rest of the people, but conforms in
appearance, dress, and manner of life to ordinary citizens. Pomp and
circumstance become the consul and the praetor; but the tribune, as
Gaius Curio used to say, must allow himself to be trodden upon; he
must not be proud of mien, nor difficult of access nor harsh to the
multitude, but indefatigable on behalf of others and easy for the
multitude to deal with. Wherefore it is the custom that not even the
door of his house shall be closed, but it remains open both night and
day as a haven of refuge for such as need it. The more humble he is
in outward appearance, the more is he increased in power. They
think it meet that he shall be available for the common need and be
accessible to all, even as an altar; and by the honor paid to him they
make his person holy, sacred, and inviolable. Wherefore if anything
happen to him when he walks abroad in public, it is even customary
for him to cleanse and purify his body as if it had been polluted.
The Rise of the Plebeians to Equality in Rome (P123)
509 BCE
450 – 449 BCE
445 BCE
367 BCE
300BCE
287 BCE
Kings expelled; republic founded
Laws of the Twelve Tables published
Plebeians gain right of marriage with
patricians
Licinian – Sextian Laws open consulship to
plebeians
Plebeians attain chief priesthoods
Laws passed by Plebeian Assembly made
binding on all Romans
Via Latina
(p124)
Pyrrhus, King
of Epirus
(p 125)
Roman Expansion in Italy
(p125)
392 BCE
387 BCE
338 BCE
295 BCE
275BCE
265 BCE
Fall of Veii; Etruscans defeated
Gauls burn Rome
Latin League defeated
Battle of Sentium; Samnites and
allies defeated
Pyrrhus driven from Italy
Rome rules Italy south of the Po
River
A “Pyrrhic Victory” Over the Romans - by Appian (p 126)
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, having gained a victory over the Romans and
desiring to recuperate after the severe engagement, and expecting that the
Romans would then be particularly desirous of coming to terms, sent to the
city Cineas, a Thessalian, who was so renowned for eloquence that he had
been compared to Demosthenes. When he was admitted to the senate
chamber, Cineas extolled the king for a variety of reasons, laying stress on
his moderation after the victory, in that he had neither marched directly
against the city nor attacked the camp of the vanquished. He offered them
peace, friendship, and an alliance with Pyrrhus, provided they included the
Tarentines in the same treaty, left the other Greeks dwelling in Italy free
under their own laws, and restored to the Lucanians, Samnites, Daunians,
and Bruttians whatever they had taken from them in war. If they would do
this, he said that Pyrrhus would restore all his prisoners without ransom.
The Romans hesitated a long time, being much intimidated by the prestige
of Pyrrhus and by the calamity that had befallen them.
(p 126 continued) Finally Appius Claudius, surnamed the Blind (because he
had lost his eyesight from old age), commanded his sons to lead him into the
senate chamber, where he said: “I was grieved at the loss of my sight; now I
regret that I did not lose my hearing also, for never did I expect to see or
hear deliberations of this kind from you. Has a single misfortune made you
all at once so forget yourselves as to take the man who brought it upon you,
and those who called him hither, for friends instead of enemies, and to give
the heritage of your fathers to the Lucanians and Bruttians? What is this
but making the Romans servants of the Macedonians? And some of you dare
to call this peace instead of servitude!” Many other things in the like sense
did Appius urge to arouse their spirit. If Pyrrhus wanted the friendship and
alliance of the Romans, let him withdraw from Italy and then send his
embassy. As long as he remained, let him be considered neither friend nor
ally, neither judge nor arbiter of the Romans.
The senate made answer to Cineas in the very words of Appius. They
decreed the levying of two new legions for Laevinus and made proclamation
that whoever would volunteer in place of those who had been lost should
put his name on the army roll. Cineas, who was still present and saw the
multitude jostling each other in their eagerness to be enrolled, is reported to
have said to Pyrrhus on his return: “We are waging war against a hydra.
Western Mediterranean During the Rise of Rome (p 127)
Hannibal's Troops advancing with war elephants (p 129)
The Punic Wars (p131)
264 – 241 BCE
238 BCE
221 BCE
218 – 202 BCE
216 BCE
209 BCE
202 BCE
149 – 146 BCE
146 BCE
First Punic War
Rome seizes Sardinia and Corsica
Hannibal takes command of Punic
Army in Spain
Second Punic War
Battle of Cannae
Scipio takes New Carthage
Battle of Zama
Third Punic War
Destruction of Carthage
Plutarch Describes a Roman Triumph (p 132)
The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call
their buildings for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city where they could
best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white garments; all the
temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; the ways were cleared
and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back all who crowded into or
ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted three days. On the first, which
was scarcely long enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures,
and colossal images, which were taken from the enemy, drawn upon two
hundred and fifty chariots. On the second, was carried in a great many wagons
the finest and richest armor of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all
newly polished and glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged
purposely with the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly
and by chance…
On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who
did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a
charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to fight. Next
followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, who led to the
sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and their
heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys that
carried basins for libation, of silver and gold…
(continued) After his children and their attendants came Perseus
himself, clad all in black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like
one altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his
misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, whose
countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the spectators see, by
their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, that it was his fortune they
so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own…
After these were carried four hundred crowns, all made of gold, sent
from the cities by their respective deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his
victory. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a
man well worthy to be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed
in a robe of purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right
hand. All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, divided
into their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some
singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others,
songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's deeds; who, indeed, was admired
and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied by every one that was good;
except so far as it seems the province of some god to lessen that happiness
which is too great and inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that
no one should be entirely free and exempt from calamities; but, as we read in
Homer, that those should think themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has
given an equal share of good and evil.
Roman Engagement Overseas
(p133)
215 – 205 BCE
200 – 197 BCE
196 BCE
189 BCE
172 – 168 BCE
168 BCE
154 – 133 BCE
134 BCE
First Macedonian War
Second Macedonian War
Proclamation of Greek freedom by
Flamininus at Corinth
Battle of Magnesia; Antiochus
defeated in Asia Minor
Third Macedonian War
Battle of Pydna
Roman Wars in Spain
Numantia taken
Temple of
Fortuna Virilis
In Rome
(p 134)
Cato Educates His Son
By Plutarch (p 136)
After the birth of his son, no business could be so urgent, unless it had a
public character, as to prevent him from being present when his wife bathed
and swaddled the babe. For the mother nursed it herself, and often gave
suck also to the infants of her slaves, that so they might come to cherish a
brotherly affection for her son. As soon as the boy showed signs of
understanding, his father took him under his own charge and taught him to
read, although he had an accomplished slave, Chilo by name, who was a
school-teacher, and taught many boys. Still, Cato thought it not right, as he
tells us himself, that his son should be scolded by a slave, or have his ears
tweaked when he was slow to learn, still less that he should be indebted to
his slave for such a priceless thing as education. He was therefore himself
not only the boys' reading-teacher, but his tutor in law, and his athletic
trainer, and he taught his son not merely to hurl the javelin and fight in
armor and ride the horse, but also to box, to endure heat and cold, and to
swim lustily through the eddies and billows of the Tiber. His History of
Rome, as he tells us himself, he wrote out with his own hand and in large
characters, that his son might have in his own home an aid to acquaintance
with his country's ancient traditions.
Roman Women 1st Century BCE (p 137)
(p 138)
Sallust Describes the New Model Army of Marius
(p141)
Marius, who, as I said before, had been made consul with great eagerness
on the part of the populace, began, though he had always been hostile to the
patricians, to inveigh against them, after the people gave him the province
of Numidia, with great frequency and violence… he also enlisted all the bravest
men from Latium, most of whom were known to him by actual service, some few only
by report, and induced, by earnest solicitation, even discharged veterans to
accompany him. Nor did the senate, though adverse to him, dare to refuse him any
thing; the additions to the legions they had voted even with eagerness, because
military service was thought to be unpopular with the multitude, and Marius seemed
likely to lose either the means of warfare, or the favor of the people. But such
expectations were entertained in vain, so ardent was the desire of going with Marius
that had seized on almost all. Every one cherished the fancy that he should return
home laden with spoil, crowned with victory, or attended with some similar good
fortune. Marius himself, too, had excited them in no small degree by a speech…
He himself, in the mean time, proceeded to enlist soldiers, not after the
ancient method, or from the classes, but taking all that were willing to join
him, and the greater part from the lowest ranks.
Marius and Sulla
(p143)
Plutarch Describes How Crassus Became a Millionaire (p 144)
“Now the Romans say that the many virtues of Crassus were
obscured by his sole vice of avarice, and it seems that one vice which became
stronger than all the others in him dimmed the rest. The chief proofs of his
avarice were the way in which he acquired his property and the size of it.
For at first he was not worth more than 300 talents; then, during his
consulship, he dedicated the tenth part of his property to Hercules, feasted
the people, and gave to every citizen enough to live on for three months;
still, when he made an inventory of his property before his Parthian
expedition, he found it to have a value of 7,100 talents.
Most of this, if one must tell the scandalous truth, he gathered by
fire and war, making the public calamities his greatest source of revenue.
For when Sulla seized Rome and sold the property of those put to death by
him, regarding and calling it booty, and wishing to make as many
influential men as he could partners in crime, Crassus refused neither to
accept nor to buy such property. Moreover, observing how natural and
familiar at Rome were the burning and collapse of buildings, because of
their massiveness and their closeness to one another, he bought slaves who
were builders and architects. Then, when he had more than 500 of these, he
would buy houses that were on fire and those adjoining the ones on fire.
(p 144 continued) The owners would let them go for small sums,
because of their fear and uncertainty, so that the greatest part of Rome
came into his hands. But though he had so many artisans, he never built
any house but the one he lived in, and used to say that those that were
addicted to building would undo themselves without the help of other
enemies. And though he had many silver mines, and very valuable land
with laborers on it, yet one might consider all this as nothing compared with
the value of his slaves, such a great number and variety did he possess –
readers, amanuenses, silversmiths, stewards, and table-servants. He
himself directed their training, and took part in teaching them himself,
accounting it, in a word, the chief duty of a master to care for his slaves as
the living tools of household management.”
Pompey the Great
106 – 48 BCE
(p145)
Caesar Tells What Persuaded Him to Cross the Rubicon (p147)
These things being made known to Caesar, he harangued his
soldiers; he reminded them "of the wrongs done to him at all times
by his enemies, and complained that Pompey had been alienated
from him and led astray by them through envy and a malicious
opposition to his glory, though he had always favored and promoted
Pompey's honor and dignity. He complained that an innovation had
been introduced into the republic, that the intercession of the
tribunes, which had been restored a few years before by Sulla, was
branded as a crime, and suppressed by force of arms; that Sulla, who
had stripped the tribunes of every other power, had, nevertheless,
left the privilege of intercession unrestrained; that Pompey, who
pretended to restore what they had lost, had taken away the
privileges which they formerly had; that whenever the senate
decreed, 'that the magistrates should take care that the republic
sustained no injury' (by which words and decree the Roman people
were obliged to repair to arms), it was only when pernicious laws
were proposed;
(p 147 continued) when the tribunes attempted violent
measures; when the people seceded, and possessed themselves of the
temples and eminences of the city; (and these instances of former
times, he showed them were expiated by the fate of Saturninus and
the Gracchi): that nothing of this kind was attempted now, nor even
thought of: that no law was promulgated, no intrigue with the people
going forward, no secession made; he exhorted them to defend from
the malice of his enemies the reputation and honor of that general
under whose command they had for nine years most successfully
supported the state; fought many successful battles, and subdued all
Gaul and Germany." The soldiers of the thirteenth legion, which was
present (for in the beginning of the disturbances he had called it out,
his other legions not having yet arrived), all cry out that they are
ready to defend their general, and the tribunes of the commons, from
all injuries.
Having made himself acquainted with the disposition of his
soldiers, Caesar set off with that legion to Ariminum, and there met
the tribunes, who had fled to him for protection.
The Death of Cicero (p 149)
Cicero, who had held supreme power after Caesar's death, as much
as a public speaker could, was proscribed, together with his son, his brother,
and his brother's son and all his household, his faction, and his friends. He
fled in a small boat, but as he could not endure the sea-sickness, he landed
and went to a country place of his own near Caieta, a town of Italy, which
I visited to gain knowledge of this lamentable affair, and here he remained
quiet. While the searchers were approaching (for of all others Antony sought
for him most eagerly and the rest did so for Antony's sake), ravens flew into
his chamber and awakened him from sleep by their croaking, and pulled off
his bed-covering, until his servants, divining that this was a warning from
one of the gods, put him in a litter and again conveyed him toward the sea,
going cautiously through a dense thicket. Many soldiers were hurrying
around in squads asking if Cicero had been seen anywhere. Some people,
moved by good-will and pity, said that he had already put to sea; but a
shoemaker, a client of Clodius, who had been a most bitter enemy of Cicero,
pointed out the path to Laena, the centurion, who was pursuing with a
small force. The latter ran after him, and seeing slaves mustering for the
defense in much larger number than the force under his own command, he
called out by way of stratagem, "Centurions in the rear, to the front!"
(p 149 continued) Thereupon the slaves, thinking that more soldiers
were coming, were terror-stricken, and Laena, although he had been once
saved by Cicero when under trial, drew his head out of the litter and cut it
off, striking it three times, or rather sawing it off by reason of his
inexperience. He also cut off the hand with which Cicero had written the
speeches against Antony as a tyrant, which he had entitled Philippics in
imitation of those of Demosthenes. Then some of the soldiers hastened on
horseback and others on shipboard to convey the good news quickly to
Antony. The latter was sitting in front of the tribunal in the forum when
Laena, a long distance off, shewed him the head and hand by lifting them
up and shaking them. Antony was delighted beyond measure. He crowned
the centurion and gave him 250,000 Attic drachmas in addition to the
stipulated reward for killing the man who had been his greatest and most
bitter enemy.
Brutus
“Ides
of March”
Coins
Silver & Gold
Versions
(p 150)
The Roman Republic ca 44 BCE (p 152)
The Roman Empire 14 – 117 CE
(p 153)
205 BCE
Tribunate of Tiberius 60 BCE
Gracchus
123 – 122 BCE Tribunate of Gaius
58 – 50 BCE
Gracchus
53 BCE
111 – 105 BCE Jugurthine War
104 – 100 BCE Consecutive
49 BCE
consulships of Marius
90 – 88 BCE War against the
Italian allies
48 BCE
88 BCE
Sulla’s march on
Rome
82 BCE
Sulla assumes
46 – 44 BCE
dictatorship
45 BCE
71 BCE
Crassus crushes
rebellion of Spartacus 43 BCE
71 BCE
Pompey defeats
Sertorius in Spain
31 BCE
70 BCE
Consulship of Crassus
and Pompey
Formation of the First
Triumvirate
Caesar in Gaul
Crassus killed in
Battle of Carrhae
Caesar crosses
Rubicon; civil war
begins
Pompey defeated at
Pharsalus; killed in
Egypt
Caesar’s dictatorship
End of civil war
Formation of Second
Triumvirate
Octavian and Agrippa
defeat Anthony at
Actium