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Maps, Illustrations, & Timelines Ancient Italy Map (p 116) Roman-Etruscan Urn (p 117) - Statue - Roman Patrician with Ancestors (p 119) Relief from the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, depicting Census and Sacrifice. (p 120-121) The Roman Tribunes, by Plutarch (p 122) Why does not the tribune wear a garment with the purple border, although the other magistrates wear it? Is it because he is not a magistrate at all? For tribunes have no lictors, nor do they transact business seated on the curule chair, nor do they enter their office at the beginning of the year as all the other magistrates do, nor do they cease from their functions when a dictator is chosen; but although he transfers every other office to himself, the tribunes alone remain, as not being officials but as holding some other position. Even as some advocates will not have it that a demurrer is a suit, but hold that its effect is the opposite of that of a suit; for a suit brings a case into court and obtains a judgment, while a demurrer takes it out of court and quashes it; in the same way they believe that the tribuneship is a check on officialdom and a position to offer opposition to magistracy rather than a magistracy. For its authority and power consist in blocking the power of a magistrate and in the abrogation of excessive authority. (continued) Or one might expound these matters and others like them, if one were to indulge in the faculty of invention; but since the tribunate derives its origin from the people, the popular element in it is strong; and of much importance is the fact that the tribune does not pride himself above the rest of the people, but conforms in appearance, dress, and manner of life to ordinary citizens. Pomp and circumstance become the consul and the praetor; but the tribune, as Gaius Curio used to say, must allow himself to be trodden upon; he must not be proud of mien, nor difficult of access nor harsh to the multitude, but indefatigable on behalf of others and easy for the multitude to deal with. Wherefore it is the custom that not even the door of his house shall be closed, but it remains open both night and day as a haven of refuge for such as need it. The more humble he is in outward appearance, the more is he increased in power. They think it meet that he shall be available for the common need and be accessible to all, even as an altar; and by the honor paid to him they make his person holy, sacred, and inviolable. Wherefore if anything happen to him when he walks abroad in public, it is even customary for him to cleanse and purify his body as if it had been polluted. The Rise of the Plebeians to Equality in Rome (P123) 509 BCE 450 – 449 BCE 445 BCE 367 BCE 300BCE 287 BCE Kings expelled; republic founded Laws of the Twelve Tables published Plebeians gain right of marriage with patricians Licinian – Sextian Laws open consulship to plebeians Plebeians attain chief priesthoods Laws passed by Plebeian Assembly made binding on all Romans Via Latina (p124) Pyrrhus, King of Epirus (p 125) Roman Expansion in Italy (p125) 392 BCE 387 BCE 338 BCE 295 BCE 275BCE 265 BCE Fall of Veii; Etruscans defeated Gauls burn Rome Latin League defeated Battle of Sentium; Samnites and allies defeated Pyrrhus driven from Italy Rome rules Italy south of the Po River A “Pyrrhic Victory” Over the Romans - by Appian (p 126) Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, having gained a victory over the Romans and desiring to recuperate after the severe engagement, and expecting that the Romans would then be particularly desirous of coming to terms, sent to the city Cineas, a Thessalian, who was so renowned for eloquence that he had been compared to Demosthenes. When he was admitted to the senate chamber, Cineas extolled the king for a variety of reasons, laying stress on his moderation after the victory, in that he had neither marched directly against the city nor attacked the camp of the vanquished. He offered them peace, friendship, and an alliance with Pyrrhus, provided they included the Tarentines in the same treaty, left the other Greeks dwelling in Italy free under their own laws, and restored to the Lucanians, Samnites, Daunians, and Bruttians whatever they had taken from them in war. If they would do this, he said that Pyrrhus would restore all his prisoners without ransom. The Romans hesitated a long time, being much intimidated by the prestige of Pyrrhus and by the calamity that had befallen them. (p 126 continued) Finally Appius Claudius, surnamed the Blind (because he had lost his eyesight from old age), commanded his sons to lead him into the senate chamber, where he said: “I was grieved at the loss of my sight; now I regret that I did not lose my hearing also, for never did I expect to see or hear deliberations of this kind from you. Has a single misfortune made you all at once so forget yourselves as to take the man who brought it upon you, and those who called him hither, for friends instead of enemies, and to give the heritage of your fathers to the Lucanians and Bruttians? What is this but making the Romans servants of the Macedonians? And some of you dare to call this peace instead of servitude!” Many other things in the like sense did Appius urge to arouse their spirit. If Pyrrhus wanted the friendship and alliance of the Romans, let him withdraw from Italy and then send his embassy. As long as he remained, let him be considered neither friend nor ally, neither judge nor arbiter of the Romans. The senate made answer to Cineas in the very words of Appius. They decreed the levying of two new legions for Laevinus and made proclamation that whoever would volunteer in place of those who had been lost should put his name on the army roll. Cineas, who was still present and saw the multitude jostling each other in their eagerness to be enrolled, is reported to have said to Pyrrhus on his return: “We are waging war against a hydra. Western Mediterranean During the Rise of Rome (p 127) Hannibal's Troops advancing with war elephants (p 129) The Punic Wars (p131) 264 – 241 BCE 238 BCE 221 BCE 218 – 202 BCE 216 BCE 209 BCE 202 BCE 149 – 146 BCE 146 BCE First Punic War Rome seizes Sardinia and Corsica Hannibal takes command of Punic Army in Spain Second Punic War Battle of Cannae Scipio takes New Carthage Battle of Zama Third Punic War Destruction of Carthage Plutarch Describes a Roman Triumph (p 132) The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call their buildings for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city where they could best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white garments; all the temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; the ways were cleared and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back all who crowded into or ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted three days. On the first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest armor of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly polished and glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged purposely with the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly and by chance… On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to fight. Next followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, who led to the sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys that carried basins for libation, of silver and gold… (continued) After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all in black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the spectators see, by their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, that it was his fortune they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own… After these were carried four hundred crowns, all made of gold, sent from the cities by their respective deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy to be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe of purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right hand. All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, divided into their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's deeds; who, indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied by every one that was good; except so far as it seems the province of some god to lessen that happiness which is too great and inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that no one should be entirely free and exempt from calamities; but, as we read in Homer, that those should think themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has given an equal share of good and evil. Roman Engagement Overseas (p133) 215 – 205 BCE 200 – 197 BCE 196 BCE 189 BCE 172 – 168 BCE 168 BCE 154 – 133 BCE 134 BCE First Macedonian War Second Macedonian War Proclamation of Greek freedom by Flamininus at Corinth Battle of Magnesia; Antiochus defeated in Asia Minor Third Macedonian War Battle of Pydna Roman Wars in Spain Numantia taken Temple of Fortuna Virilis In Rome (p 134) Cato Educates His Son By Plutarch (p 136) After the birth of his son, no business could be so urgent, unless it had a public character, as to prevent him from being present when his wife bathed and swaddled the babe. For the mother nursed it herself, and often gave suck also to the infants of her slaves, that so they might come to cherish a brotherly affection for her son. As soon as the boy showed signs of understanding, his father took him under his own charge and taught him to read, although he had an accomplished slave, Chilo by name, who was a school-teacher, and taught many boys. Still, Cato thought it not right, as he tells us himself, that his son should be scolded by a slave, or have his ears tweaked when he was slow to learn, still less that he should be indebted to his slave for such a priceless thing as education. He was therefore himself not only the boys' reading-teacher, but his tutor in law, and his athletic trainer, and he taught his son not merely to hurl the javelin and fight in armor and ride the horse, but also to box, to endure heat and cold, and to swim lustily through the eddies and billows of the Tiber. His History of Rome, as he tells us himself, he wrote out with his own hand and in large characters, that his son might have in his own home an aid to acquaintance with his country's ancient traditions. Roman Women 1st Century BCE (p 137) (p 138) Sallust Describes the New Model Army of Marius (p141) Marius, who, as I said before, had been made consul with great eagerness on the part of the populace, began, though he had always been hostile to the patricians, to inveigh against them, after the people gave him the province of Numidia, with great frequency and violence… he also enlisted all the bravest men from Latium, most of whom were known to him by actual service, some few only by report, and induced, by earnest solicitation, even discharged veterans to accompany him. Nor did the senate, though adverse to him, dare to refuse him any thing; the additions to the legions they had voted even with eagerness, because military service was thought to be unpopular with the multitude, and Marius seemed likely to lose either the means of warfare, or the favor of the people. But such expectations were entertained in vain, so ardent was the desire of going with Marius that had seized on almost all. Every one cherished the fancy that he should return home laden with spoil, crowned with victory, or attended with some similar good fortune. Marius himself, too, had excited them in no small degree by a speech… He himself, in the mean time, proceeded to enlist soldiers, not after the ancient method, or from the classes, but taking all that were willing to join him, and the greater part from the lowest ranks. Marius and Sulla (p143) Plutarch Describes How Crassus Became a Millionaire (p 144) “Now the Romans say that the many virtues of Crassus were obscured by his sole vice of avarice, and it seems that one vice which became stronger than all the others in him dimmed the rest. The chief proofs of his avarice were the way in which he acquired his property and the size of it. For at first he was not worth more than 300 talents; then, during his consulship, he dedicated the tenth part of his property to Hercules, feasted the people, and gave to every citizen enough to live on for three months; still, when he made an inventory of his property before his Parthian expedition, he found it to have a value of 7,100 talents. Most of this, if one must tell the scandalous truth, he gathered by fire and war, making the public calamities his greatest source of revenue. For when Sulla seized Rome and sold the property of those put to death by him, regarding and calling it booty, and wishing to make as many influential men as he could partners in crime, Crassus refused neither to accept nor to buy such property. Moreover, observing how natural and familiar at Rome were the burning and collapse of buildings, because of their massiveness and their closeness to one another, he bought slaves who were builders and architects. Then, when he had more than 500 of these, he would buy houses that were on fire and those adjoining the ones on fire. (p 144 continued) The owners would let them go for small sums, because of their fear and uncertainty, so that the greatest part of Rome came into his hands. But though he had so many artisans, he never built any house but the one he lived in, and used to say that those that were addicted to building would undo themselves without the help of other enemies. And though he had many silver mines, and very valuable land with laborers on it, yet one might consider all this as nothing compared with the value of his slaves, such a great number and variety did he possess – readers, amanuenses, silversmiths, stewards, and table-servants. He himself directed their training, and took part in teaching them himself, accounting it, in a word, the chief duty of a master to care for his slaves as the living tools of household management.” Pompey the Great 106 – 48 BCE (p145) Caesar Tells What Persuaded Him to Cross the Rubicon (p147) These things being made known to Caesar, he harangued his soldiers; he reminded them "of the wrongs done to him at all times by his enemies, and complained that Pompey had been alienated from him and led astray by them through envy and a malicious opposition to his glory, though he had always favored and promoted Pompey's honor and dignity. He complained that an innovation had been introduced into the republic, that the intercession of the tribunes, which had been restored a few years before by Sulla, was branded as a crime, and suppressed by force of arms; that Sulla, who had stripped the tribunes of every other power, had, nevertheless, left the privilege of intercession unrestrained; that Pompey, who pretended to restore what they had lost, had taken away the privileges which they formerly had; that whenever the senate decreed, 'that the magistrates should take care that the republic sustained no injury' (by which words and decree the Roman people were obliged to repair to arms), it was only when pernicious laws were proposed; (p 147 continued) when the tribunes attempted violent measures; when the people seceded, and possessed themselves of the temples and eminences of the city; (and these instances of former times, he showed them were expiated by the fate of Saturninus and the Gracchi): that nothing of this kind was attempted now, nor even thought of: that no law was promulgated, no intrigue with the people going forward, no secession made; he exhorted them to defend from the malice of his enemies the reputation and honor of that general under whose command they had for nine years most successfully supported the state; fought many successful battles, and subdued all Gaul and Germany." The soldiers of the thirteenth legion, which was present (for in the beginning of the disturbances he had called it out, his other legions not having yet arrived), all cry out that they are ready to defend their general, and the tribunes of the commons, from all injuries. Having made himself acquainted with the disposition of his soldiers, Caesar set off with that legion to Ariminum, and there met the tribunes, who had fled to him for protection. The Death of Cicero (p 149) Cicero, who had held supreme power after Caesar's death, as much as a public speaker could, was proscribed, together with his son, his brother, and his brother's son and all his household, his faction, and his friends. He fled in a small boat, but as he could not endure the sea-sickness, he landed and went to a country place of his own near Caieta, a town of Italy, which I visited to gain knowledge of this lamentable affair, and here he remained quiet. While the searchers were approaching (for of all others Antony sought for him most eagerly and the rest did so for Antony's sake), ravens flew into his chamber and awakened him from sleep by their croaking, and pulled off his bed-covering, until his servants, divining that this was a warning from one of the gods, put him in a litter and again conveyed him toward the sea, going cautiously through a dense thicket. Many soldiers were hurrying around in squads asking if Cicero had been seen anywhere. Some people, moved by good-will and pity, said that he had already put to sea; but a shoemaker, a client of Clodius, who had been a most bitter enemy of Cicero, pointed out the path to Laena, the centurion, who was pursuing with a small force. The latter ran after him, and seeing slaves mustering for the defense in much larger number than the force under his own command, he called out by way of stratagem, "Centurions in the rear, to the front!" (p 149 continued) Thereupon the slaves, thinking that more soldiers were coming, were terror-stricken, and Laena, although he had been once saved by Cicero when under trial, drew his head out of the litter and cut it off, striking it three times, or rather sawing it off by reason of his inexperience. He also cut off the hand with which Cicero had written the speeches against Antony as a tyrant, which he had entitled Philippics in imitation of those of Demosthenes. Then some of the soldiers hastened on horseback and others on shipboard to convey the good news quickly to Antony. The latter was sitting in front of the tribunal in the forum when Laena, a long distance off, shewed him the head and hand by lifting them up and shaking them. Antony was delighted beyond measure. He crowned the centurion and gave him 250,000 Attic drachmas in addition to the stipulated reward for killing the man who had been his greatest and most bitter enemy. Brutus “Ides of March” Coins Silver & Gold Versions (p 150) The Roman Republic ca 44 BCE (p 152) The Roman Empire 14 – 117 CE (p 153) 205 BCE Tribunate of Tiberius 60 BCE Gracchus 123 – 122 BCE Tribunate of Gaius 58 – 50 BCE Gracchus 53 BCE 111 – 105 BCE Jugurthine War 104 – 100 BCE Consecutive 49 BCE consulships of Marius 90 – 88 BCE War against the Italian allies 48 BCE 88 BCE Sulla’s march on Rome 82 BCE Sulla assumes 46 – 44 BCE dictatorship 45 BCE 71 BCE Crassus crushes rebellion of Spartacus 43 BCE 71 BCE Pompey defeats Sertorius in Spain 31 BCE 70 BCE Consulship of Crassus and Pompey Formation of the First Triumvirate Caesar in Gaul Crassus killed in Battle of Carrhae Caesar crosses Rubicon; civil war begins Pompey defeated at Pharsalus; killed in Egypt Caesar’s dictatorship End of civil war Formation of Second Triumvirate Octavian and Agrippa defeat Anthony at Actium