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Download Abstract That the emperor Hadrian was a Philhellene
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Abstract ThattheemperorHadrianwasaPhilhellenehasbeenwidelyacknowledgedfornearlytwo millennia.Butisitpossibletoascertainfromthesurvivingevidencehowmuchofthisisthe resultofagenuinepersonalinterest,andhowmuchmayhavebeenpolicy,enactedfor politicalexpediencyandconsolidationofhisempire? TheemperorHadrianwasacomplexcharacter,whofocusedonconsolidationratherthan conquest.Hadrianhasthereputationasthemostwidely-travelledofallemperors,and spentlargeperiodsofhisreignintheGreekEast.Thispaperexplorestherelationship betweenHadrianandtheGreekworld,focusingonthreeareasinparticular–his relationshipwithAthens,participationintheEleusinianmysteries,andfoundingofthe PanhellenionofGreekstates.Throughtheanalysisofphysicalevidencesuchasinscriptions, coinsandbuildings,thisworkexaminesHadrian’smotivationtoascertainifitispossibleto differentiatethepersonalfromthepolitical.Analysisoftheliterarysourceswasalso undertakeninanefforttoseparatefactfromcommentary.Itisindisputablethatthe emperorHadrianleftanindeliblephysicallegacyinallareasoftheRomanEmpire,andthe politicalandarchitecturalimpactofhisreign,particularlyatAthensandEleusisisanalysed inthelightofthesephilhellenictendencies.Itisconcludedthatadefinitephilhellenic empathyexistedwhichprovidedthebasisofasuccessfulstrategyofgovernance. 1 HadrianandPhilhellenism–enamouredEmperororcannypoliticaloperator? HadrianbecameemperoroftheRomanEmpireinAD117.AknownPhilhellene,hehadthe nickname‘Graeculus’asachild(HA,Hadr.1.5,Epit.DeCaes.14.2)andcontrarytothe normsofseveralhundredyears,woreawell-tendedbeardassociatedwiththeGreeks. Hadrianruledfortwentyyears,butspentmorethanhalfofhisreigntravellingaroundthe empire,spendingextendedperiodsintheGreekEast.1Hadriandemonstratedagenuine loveoftravelandinterestinothercultures,whichservedhimwellinhistimeasEmperor. HisreignwasatimeofconsolidationoftheRomanEmpire,andinthemainwaspeaceful, apartfromtheJewishrevoltsthatoccurredinhislaterreign.Thispaperwillexaminesome keyaspectsthatnotonlyenhancedHadrian’sreign,butalsohelptogiveusaninsightasto hisinterestsandthetypeofmanhewas.Thesethreestrandsare:hisrelationshipwithand munificencetowardsthecityofAthens,hisinvolvementwiththemysteriesatEleusis,and thefoundationofthePanhellenion. InordertoassesstheextentofHadrian’sinteractionwiththeGreekEast,weneedto considertheevidenceavailableandwhatcanbedrawnfromit.Althoughtherearea numberofsourcesrelatingtohisreign,weneedtoevaluatethenatureofthese,andtheir reliability.AlthoughHadriancompletedanautobiographyinlateryears,thishasbeenlost, ashavetwolaterbiographieswritteninthethirdcenturyAD.2Theonlysurvivingwritten sourceistheHistoriaAugusta-abiographyoflateremperors,fromthefourthcenturyAD. Thisworkdrawsfromtheearlierwritings,butthelengthoftimethathadpassedsince Hadrian’sreign,andhowthesevariousworksmayhavebeenamalgamatedneedstobe borneinmindwhenusingitasasource.WealsohavethelatertravelwritingsofPausanias, whoprovidesalotofinformationonthemonumentsandbuildingserectedinGreeceduring Hadrian’sreign.ThecontemporaneousevidencethatremainsisintheformofHadrianic inscriptionsandbuildingsfromaroundtheempire.Whenusingtheseasasourcewehaveto considertheircontext–buildingswereerectedasasignofmunificenceandthepowerofan emperorsowillreflectthisintheirlocation,designandconstruction.Likewiseinscriptions werecomposedtohonouranindividualandwouldhavehadadistinctformula.Thesefor themostpartwouldhaveaccompaniedstatuarydedicatedtotheemperorthatmaynot 1 2 Boatwright,2000,11 Opper,2008,26 2 remainintact–thereforecanwedecipherthetruemeaningoftheseinscriptionsin isolation?Thesesourcesandevidenceprovidedifferentchallengesinunravellingthe motivesandmind-setoftheemperorHadrian.Despitetheselimitationshowever,wecan stillconductahypothesisofwhyHadrianbuiltwhathedidinAthens,hispersonal motivationinbeingindoctrinatedintothecultatEleusis,thefoundationofthePanhellenion andwhatimpactthesedifferentfacetshadonhisreputationandlegacy. TowhatextentHadrian’sbenevolencetocertaincitiesintheempire,andparticularly AthensispurelydowntohissenseofaffiliationtotheGreekworld,andhowmuchwasdue toshrewdpoliticaljudgementinstrengtheningthebondsofempire,ishardtodistinguish.It wouldseemtohavebeenamutuallybeneficialarrangementthatHadrian’sloveofallthings Greek,whichmanifesteditselfinhisgenerositytothecitiesoftheEasternempire,also servedtoenhancethestabilityofhisrulethere.ThecreationofthePanhellenioncouldbe consideredHadrian’sgreatestachievement–theunificationoftheGreekworldunderthe umbrellaofaRomanconstructofGreekidentity.Itdidnotappeartostrikeprospective membersasironic,thatitwasundertheaegisofaRomanemperorofSpanishextraction whoadjudicatedastowhethertheirGreekcitywassufficiently‘Greek’toaccess membership. Hadrian’stimeasruleroftheRomanEmpirecannotbelookedatinisolation.Onemust considertheprecedentssetbyhisforerunnersandhowthiswouldhaveinfluencedhisstyle ofruleandthedecisionshemade.Hadrian’simmediatepredecessorTrajanhailedfromthe sameancestralSpanishtownofItalica,andHadrianmarriedhisgreatniece,VibiaSabina. WhenonethinksofTrajan,whatfirstcomestomindishiscolumn,erectedtocelebratehis victoryovertheDacians.ThismonumentalstructureindicateshowTrajanwishedtobe commemoratedandremembered–asagreatwarriorEmperor,vanquishingfoesand expandingthemightoftheRomanEmpire.Healsoundertookgreatbuildingprojectsin Rome,developingabathcomplex,forumandmarkets.3Onhisdeath,thesuccessionwasfar fromclear,andanepisodedamagedHadrian’sreputationinRome.Diorecordedthatitwas Plotina,Trajan’swife,whowrotetotheSenateannouncingHadrianassuccessoronher husband’sdeathinSelinus(Dio,LXVIII,69.1).HadrianwasgovernorofSyriaatthetime,but beforehereachedRome,fourex-consulsweretriedin-absentia,convictedofconspiracy 3 Opper,2008,100 3 andkilledwherevertheywerecaught.Hadriandeniedanyinvolvementandblamedhis praetorianprefect,buttheincidentcontinuedtoblighthisreputationinRomethroughout hisreign.4 ItwouldbewronghowevertoconsiderHadrianasanemperorwhoattemptedtocontrol andappeasetheempiresolelybymeansofarchitectureandreligion.Hadrianwasan experiencedmilitarycommanderandservedoncampaigninGermaniaandwithTrajanin thesecondDacianwar(CILIII550).5Hevisitedanumberofoutpostsoftheempirebefore hisaccession–aswellasGermaniaandDacia(modernRomania),hewasgovernorofLower PannoniafromAD106-8,andtravelledtoAthensin111-12,beforebecomingSyrian governorintheyearTrajandied(DioLXIX,2.1).ThusHadrianwouldhavehadaninsightinto therealitiesofempire-buildingandconsolidationfromboththemilitaryperspectiveand thatofadministrator/governor. Unfortunatelythelackofcontemporaryliteraryrecordshindersusingainingsignificant insightintoHadrian’smotivesinmovingawayfromconquestandtowardsamore contractedempireunitedthroughcommonarchitecture,cultureandreligion.Oneofhis greatestachievementswasinharmonisingthedisparateregionsoftheempire.Thiswas achievednotsomuchthroughan“ironfistinavelvetglove”butbyminimisingtheuseof the“ironfist”(thearmy)andbyreimaginingthe“velvetglove”.ThoughultimatelyaRoman instrument,this“glove”incorporatedhistoricalelementsparticularlyfromtheGreekEast, soallwhowereheldinitspalmrestedtherelightlybutsecurelysharingacommonsenseof identityexpertlywovenbytheastuteemperor.Veryearlyinhisreign,Hadrianmadethe decisiontomaintainhisempireonfoundationsofconcreteandmarbleratherthansword andshield,althoughinAD118hedidundertakeacampaigntosuppresstroubleinMoesia.6 ThetimingofthisunrestmayhaveworkedinHadrian’sfavour–itgavehimanearly opportunitytodemonstratehiscapacityforwarfareifnecessary.However,aroundthe sametimehewithdrewhisarmiesfromthenewprovincesTrajanhadtriedtoestablish beyondtheEuphrates,decidingtosupportclientkingsratherthanruledirectly.7 4 Birley,1975,135 Sherk,1988,165 6 Goodman,1997,78 7 Birley,1975,134 5 4 Despitehisunwillingnesstoengageinfurtherexpansionistconflict,Hadrianrecognisedthat thestabilityoftheempirewasfoundedonthemightofthearmy.Theancientsourceslaud himforhisrelationshipwithhistroops,whichinvolvedhimvisitinggarrisonsinthevarious cornersoftheempire,andcritically,livingamongstthemasafellowsoldier(DioLXIX,9.3). Diofurtherclaimsthatitwasthisdisciplinethathelpedmaintainpeace,asthispreparation forwarposedadeterrenttoanypossibleforeignattack,reinforcedbydonationstoforeign nationsandHadrian’slackofprovocation(DioLXIX,9,5).Thedeliveryofformalspeeches– adlocutio,wasakeypartoftheemperor’sinteractionwithhistroops.InAD128Hadrian makeaspeechtotheIIIAugustaatLambaesisinAfrica,partofwhichsurvivesthroughan inscription.8Thisspeech’sevidentpowerandresonanceisreinforcedbythefactthatitwas deemedworthyofrecordinginthisway,praisingandinspiringthetroopsinequalmeasure. Hadrianmaintainedtheloyaltyofthetroopsunderhiscommandbyskilfullydemonstrating thatinpracticalterms,heasafellow-soldier,understoodtheirrole. HadrianwasnottheonlyRomanaristocrattobeconsidereda‘philhellene’–demonstrated bytheirabilitytospeakandwriteGreek,anadmirationofGreekcultureandawishto emulateit.9Philhellenismwasalong-standingphenomenon,ScipioAfricanuswassaidto haveembracedallthingsGreekwhilstatSyracusein205BC,andFlamininuswassaidtobe fluentinGreek.10WhilstservingasquaestorinAD101,theHistoriaAugustarecountsthat HadrianconcentratedonimprovinghisLatinrhetorichavingpreviouslybeen“laughedatfor hissomewhatuncultivatedaccent”whilstdeliveringanaddressforTrajanintheSenate.11 ThismayhavebeenwhatledtothedisparagingassertionthatHadrianspokeGreekbetter thanLatin(notnecessarilyacomplimentinRome).FlorusdocumentedthatHellenicarthad madeitswaytoRomeasthespoilsofwarfromthe270sBC,andthataristocratsemployed Greektutorsfortheirsons.12Onealsoneedstoconsiderthestabilityoftheempireunder thepaxAugustaenablingRomantravellerstojourneytoAthensandexperienceitsculture. HoweverthereremainedsomeprejudicetowardsGreeceinRome,whichmayhave contributedtoHadrian’sunpopularityinsomequarters,giventheamountoftimehespent 8 Campbell,1984,77 Gruen,1984,250 10 Ibid,255-256 11 Birley,1976,59 12 Gruen,1984,252 9 5 intheEasternEmpire.Theemperorwouldhavebeeninvolvedinlocalmatterssuchas: modificationsofacity’sterritory,impositionoftaxes,revenuesandgrainsuppliesand promotionorratificationofacity’sfestivals.13Thiskindofin-depthinvolvementinhowa citywasrunhadthepossibilityofgeneratingresentmentandopposition,howeverHadrian wasfortunateinthesetofcircumstancesheinheritedthatmoreeasilyenabledhisproHellenicpolicies.PoliticalcontactbetweenGreeceandRomebeganinthethirdcenturyBC, sobyHadrian’stime,theGreekEastwasaccustomedtoRomanhegemony.14Rometended toruleitsprovinceswithalackofbureaucracy–usuallyasinglegovernor,andasfarasthe Easternprovinceswereconcerned,relativelyfewlegionswererequired-apartfromtimes ofunrestwithParthia–duringTrajan’sreignandtheJewishrevoltunderVespasian.15 Greekidentitywasfirstlinkedtotheircityratherthana‘state’andthishelpedminimisea senseofaPan-HellenicpoliticalconsciousnessthatmayhaveprovedathreattotheRoman Empire.16 HadrianfirstvisitedAthensinAD111/112priortohisaccessionasemperor.Whiletherehe wasinvitedtobecomeanAtheniancitizen,andwasenrolledintheBesademe.17Itislikely thatthishonourwasbestowedpartlybecauseofHadrian’srelationshipwithhigh-ranking GreeknobleswhoheldRomancitizenship.Hadrian’sacceptanceofAtheniancitizenshipis anindicatorofthecloselinksthatGreeceandRomeenjoyed–itwasnotseenasa distillationofRomancitizenshiptoacceptAtheniancitizenship.HowevertheAthenians wentfurtherthanthis,electingHadrianasarchoneponymous–thehonourgivingsome indicationofthereciprocalesteemtheAtheniansandHadrianheldforeachother. Hadrian’sfreedmanPhlegonofTralleswrotea‘BookofMarvels’,recountingamazingand unbelievablephenomena;withinthis,inrelatingwhatmaybethebirthofSiamesetwins,he datestheoccurrencetothetimeofHadrian’sarchonshipatAthens.18Furtherconfirmation comesfromastatuewithaLatininscriptionerectedbytheAtheniansintheTheatreof DionysusontheAcropolislistinghispreviousmilitaryandofficialofficesheld(CILIII550).19 AfterhisaccessionHadrianspentmoretimeinAthensthaninanyothercityexceptRome, 13 Boatwright,2000,16 Goodman,1997,229 15 Gleason,2010,240 16 Smith,2010,427 17 Birley,1997,64 18 Hansen,1996,47 19 Sherk,1988,165 14 6 visitingagaininAD124/125,128/129and131/132.20Onhisfirstvisitasemperorthe Athenianscreatedanewtribeinhishonournamedthe‘Hadrianis’(Pausanias,BkI,5.5). ExcavationsintheagoraatAthensshowtheremodellingofthepedestalofthemonument totheEponymousHeroes,patronsofthetribesofAthens,aroundAD125,whenthe emperor’stribewascreated.21 HadrianundertookasignificantbuildingprogrammeinAthens,literallyempire-building,ina citythathadseenlittleimperialbenefactionsincethetimeofAugustus.22Hestrengthened thelinkbetweenAncientGreeceandtheRomanEmpirebycompletingthecolossalTemple ofOlympianZeus.HefurtherfusedthetwocivilisationsbyrededicatingtheOlympieionin AD131/132whenhevisitedtoformallyestablishthePanhellenion(DioLXIX16.1). PausaniasalsoattributestheconstructionofaPantheonbuildingtheretoHadrian,stating thatitcontainedinscriptionsrecordingalltheconstructionendowmentsbytheemperorto thecitiesofGreece(Pausanias,1.5.5).Theexactlocationofthistempleisunknown, howevertheremainsofathree-aisledbasilicawithlargecellaandporchattheeastend havebeenlocatedeastoftheLibraryofHadrian.Theseremainscanbedatedtothelatter partofHadrian’sreignbyconstructionmethodsandhasbeenpositedbyTravlosasthis Pantheon,withindicationsthatitexceededeventheParthenoninsize.23However SpawforthandWalkersuggestthatthisbasilicaisinfacttheheadquartersofthe Panhellenion,andthatitcouldhavecomfortablyheldupto700delegates.24Whethera religiousorpoliticalbuilding,itreinforcedthesupremepowerofRome,byexceedingin scaleandsizethegreatesttempleofantiquityonthesacredAcropolis. Hadrianalsocontributedcivicamenitiessuchasanewaqueduct,startedinAD125,a gymnasium,andalsotheLibraryofHadrian,inAD132.25Itisinterestingtonotethe similaritiesinthedesignofthisbuilding-whichincorporatedapublicsquarewithgardens, withtheTemplumPacisinRome.26Thisimperialforalacksapodiumtemplewhichis presentinmanyRomanImperialfora.Instead,thelibraryprovidesthefocalpointwith 20 Boatwright,2000,144 Travlos,1971,210 22 Shear,1981,372 23 Travlos,1971,439 24 Spawforth&Walker,1985,97 25 Travlos,1971,242,244 26 Birley,1997,184 21 7 ShearsurmisingthatHadrian’sarchitectssoughttoemphasiseAthens’positionasthe culturalcapitaloftheGreekworld,byplacingaTemplumCultusratherthanTemplumPacis onthesite.27HadrianendowedAthenswiththetwomostcommontypesofRomanpublic buildings–forumandbasilica,symbolicallyrooting“thephysicalpresenceofRomanrule”in thispartoftheEmpire,givenbothwereassociatedwiththefunctionsofgovernment.28 94altarstoHadrianwereerectedinAthens,withmanyGreekcitiesdedicatingthemto ‘HadrianOlympios,SaviourandFounder’[ofthePanhellenion],intheOlympieion.29This suggestsaconnectionbetweentheOlympieionandthePanhellenion,anddemonstratesthe emperor’spopularity.Theemperor’stitulatureononeofthesestatuebases(IGII3289) helpsdatethesestatuestoAD132andthededicationoftheOlympieion,andnotablythe inscriptionisinLatin.30OneofHadrian’smoststrikinggestures,illustratingtheimportance ofAthensinhismind,washisendowmentofanannualgrainsupply-aprivilegeonly previouslybestowedonRome(Dio,LXIX,16.2).Thiswasnotonlyavitalallowancefora rapidlygrowingcity,butcouldbeseentohavesymbolicovertonesaswell,connectingthe emperortothecultatEleusisanditsrelationshipwithAthens.TheEleusinianmysteries incorporatedthemythofDemeterintroducinggrain;byhissimilaractionsHadrianwas creatingafurtherlinkbetweenhimselfandtheancientcult. DiowritesthatHadrian“…wasalwaysverycuriousandemployeddivinationsand incantationsofallkind”(Dio,LXIX,11.2-3).Thiskeeninterestinreligionwasoneofthe cornerstonesofHadrian’sinteractionswiththeGreekEast.IncontrasttoTrajan,Hadrian’s imperiallargesseinthewiderempirelargelyfocusedonreligiousratherthanutilitarian buildings.31UnderRomanrule,religionwasfundamentaltohowtheGreeksmaintained theiridentity,withreligiousfestivalsformingpartofcivicidentity.Incontrasttotoday, religionwasseenasaunifyingratherthandivisiveforce,whichHadrianusedtoitsfull extent.Involvementinlocalreligiouscustomsandendowmentofreligiousbuildings enabledHadriantoplacehimself,asabountifulemperor,rightattheheartofGreeklife. Hispersonalinvolvementwithanumberoffestivalsandacceptanceofpriesthoodsin 27 Shear,1981,376 Shear,1981,377 29 Benjamin,1963,60 30 Ibid,58 31 Boatwright,2000,12 28 8 variouscultsdemonstrateagenuineinterestinreligion,butconsideredintandemwiththe templesheendowed,italsoindicatesanunderlyingpoliticalmotivation. HadrianwasnotthefirstRomanorindeedthefirstemperortobecomeaninitiateat Eleusis.TheEleusiniancultdatesbacktothemid-seventhcenturyBCandappearstohave gainedtheattentionofthewiderworldbythemiddleofthefollowingcentury,steadily increasinginpopularitytothemid-fourthcenturyandbeyond.32Although21kilometres fromAthens,theagriculturalcultsiteatEleusiswasafocusofworshipfortheentirepolis. Eachyearatthetimeofthefestival,sacredobjectswereescortedbythecult’spriestsfrom theEleusinionontheAcropolistothesanctuary.Participationwassaidtoleadtoahappier after-life,andthecultwasunusualinGreekreligioninthattheriteswerebasedonthe divinerevelationofDemeter.33InitiallyonlyGreekspeakerswereeligibletoparticipatein theMysteries,withthosedeemed“barbarians”excluded.HoweveronceAthenswas subsumedintotheRomanEmpire,Romanswererecognisedas“Greeks”ratherthan “barbarians”.ThegrowingpopularityofthecultledAthenstoappropriatethefestival somewhatanddeclareit“oneofhergiftstotheGreekworld”,furtherdemonstratingthe keyrolereligionplayedinGreekciviclife.34 FromthelatersecondcenturyBC,CicerorecordsRomanofficialsvisitingAthensingreater numbersontheirwaytoandfromprovincessuchasMacedoniaandAsia.35LiciniusCrassus hadjustmissedtheFestivalatEleusisonhisvisitin109BCandwassaidtobeangrywhen theAtheniansrefusedtorepeatthemforhim.36TheemperorAugustusparticipatedinthe Mysteriestheretwice–initiallyaftertheBattleofActiumin31BC.37TheAthenianserected amonumenttotheEmperorinthesanctuarywhichhasaterminusantequemof27BC,as theinscriptiondoesnotreferencetheemperoras‘Augustus’.38Spawforthsuggeststhatthis gesturewaspromptedbytheAthenianshavingbeencompromisedbytheirsupportforthe defeatedAntonyandthereforefeltthatpoliticallytheyhadtoadoptthemoreEastern 32 Clinton,1997,161 Sourvinou-Inwood2003,28 34 Clinton,1997,163 35 Habicht,1997,10 36 Ibid,10 37 Clinton,1997,163 38 Ibid,163 33 9 traditionoftherulercult.39Augustus’secondvisitin19BCdidnotoccurintheusualmonth thefestivalwascelebrated,soitwascelebratedasecondtimeapparentlyathisbehest.40 Athens’acquiescencetothisrequest,incontrasttotheirrefusalofthatofCrassuseighty yearsearlierhighlightstheincreasedRomandominanceintheregionoverthistimeandthe increasedpoliticisationofsuchreligiousrituals. ThereisnoevidenceofdirectinteractionwiththecultatEleusisbyanotheremperoruntil Hadriannearly100yearslater.HadrianwasinitiatedintothefirststageoftheMysteriesat EleusisinAD124,anditissaidthattheephebeswhocollectedthesacredobjectswere unabletobearmed,astheywouldusuallyhavebeen,duetotheEmperorspresence.41Itis thoughtthatatthistimehealsohadanewbridgebuiltovertheriverCephisusontheroute fromAthenstoEleusis.42OnHadrian’ssecondvisitinAD128Diorecordedthat“oncoming toGreecehewasadmittedtothehighestgradeattheMysteries”(Dio,LXIX,11.1).Are thereanyparallelswecandrawfrombothemperors’involvementwithsuchakeyfestival ofAthenianreligion?OnehypothesisisthatAugustus’firstvisitafterActiumwasa conciliatorygesturetowardstheGreekworldandacknowledgementoftheMysteries’ importanceintheregion.Augustus’wishtorepeattheexperiencehowever,demonstrates hisaffinitywiththeMysteries.InalsovisitingasecondtimeHadriandemonstratedasimilar affinitywiththeMysterycult.Visitingandparticipatinginsuchritualsoncecouldbeviewed asdiplomacy,arepeatexperiencedemonstratesamorepersonalaffiliation.Thereappears tohavebeenareciprocityinthisrelationshipbetweencultandEmperor–whose participationdemonstratedarespectandgenuineacceptanceoftheseancientritesatthe highestechelonsofpowerwhilstalsocontributingtothe‘Romanization’ofthecultandits associatedpoliticalandcivicinfluences. IfweputHadrian’sevidentinterestinreligiontooneside,itcouldbesaidthatinvolvement withtheEleusiniancultalsoservedotherfunctions.Eleusis’peripherallocationinthepolis meantthatinteractionbetweenAthensandEleusisplayedanimportantroleinunifyingthe twoareas.43Eleusiswasalsolocatedonastrategicallyimportantsitenearthecoastand 39 Spawforth,1997,194 Clinton,1997,163 41 Birley,1976,71 42 Birley,1997,177 43 Sourvinou-Inwood,2003,26 40 10 thereareindicationsthattherehadbeenculticactivitytheresinceMycenaeantimes.By Hadrian’sinitiationintotheMysteriesatEleusis,hewasnotonlyassociatinghimselfwith thisancientGreekcult,hewaslegitimisingitunderRomanrule,andenhancinghisown reputationfurtheroutsideAthens.AnotherkeyfactorwiththecultatEleusisisthatitwas oneofthemostpopularPanhellenicreligiousfestivals.Therewasanenormousimbalance inthemilitary,economicandpoliticalpowerbetweenRomeandGreece,butculturally, Grecianinfluencecoulddominateinawaywhichposednosignificantthreattothestability oftheempire.ByHadrian’sendorsementoftheircultureandreligion,heacknowledgedthe importanceoftheGreekpastthroughtheprismofasubjugatedRomanprovince.Weare alsoawareofHadrian’smotivationsoffurtheringGreekunitybytheformationofthe PanhellenionofGreekcitystatesduringhisreign.44 ItappearsfromstatuaryandepigraphythattheremayhavebeenanImperialcultatEleusis fromthetimeofAugustus.45ThereisalsophysicalevidenceatEleusisofHadrian’s benevolence.Theoutercourtofthesanctuarycontainstwocommemorativearchesanda propylaiathoughttodatefromHadrianictimes.ThesearchesarecopiesoftheArchof HadrianinAthens.46Thereisaninscriptiononeachwhichreads“TotheTwoGoddessesand theEmperor,thePanhellenes”(Pl.III,2).Itisthoughtthatthesearcheswerededicatedby theLeagueofPanhellenes,andthedesignsimilaritiestotheAthenianHadrianicArchand collectivenameof“Panhellenes”suggeststheconnectiontoHadrian.Itisnotknown whetherHadriandidnotwishforhisnametoappearontheinscriptionorwhetherby simplyusingtheword“emperor”itcreatedapermanentlinkbetweentheEleusiniancult, ImperialcultandPanhellenion.47Otherbuildingsinthesanctuaryalsodisplayasimilar architecturalstyletobuildingsinAthens–includingtheFountainHouseandthepropylaia. Thissuggestsadefinitedecisiononthepartoftheemperorswhoconstructedthemto commemoratethemselvesatthisimportantpanhellenicsitethroughAthenian architecture.48Thisarchitectureofempireservedtolinkthepoliticalwiththereligiousand cultural,apolicythatisveryvisiblethroughHadrian’sreigninparticular.Itisalsothought 44 Birley,1997,219 Clinton,1997,170 46 Ibid,174 47 Ibid,175 48 Ibid,175 45 11 thatafterhisdeathstatuesofthedeified‘HadrianPanhellenios’wereerectedoneachof thearchesatEleusis.49 AugustusandHadrian’sconnectionwiththeMysteriesisfurtherevidencednumismatically. ThewidespreadofthecultandtheimportanceoftheEmperor’sparticipationareindicated bycoinsissuedinAsiaMinor.TheydepictHadrianholdingasheafofcornwiththe inscription‘HadrianusAug[ustus]p[ater]p[atriae],ren’(BMCIIIHadrianno.1094).The letters‘ren’wouldappeartobeshortfor‘renatus’,meaningreborn,withthecorn representingDemeterandthemysteriesatEleusis.Theothersideofthecoindepicts Augustuswiththewords‘Imp.CaesarAugustus’,linkingHadriantotheonlyotheremperor previouslyinductedintotheMysteries.50Thesecoinsnotonlydemonstrateareligious connectionbetweenthetwoemperors,butalsoapoliticalone,asitwasAugustuswho gainedcontroloftheGreekEastafterActium,withHadrianseekingtostrengthenthese bondsfurther,acenturyandahalflater. ThecultatEleusisundoubtedlyplayedanimportantroleintheGreekworldasaPanhellenic entitythatunitedthroughreligion.Havingparticipatedtwice,itispossiblethatthis experiencemayhaveinfluencedHadrian’screationofthePanhellenion.Hadrianhad previouslytriedtoreconstitutetheDelphicAmphictyonyaspartofhisplansfortheGreek world,inordertoincludetheSpartans,butmetopposition.51Hisonlyoptionthereforewas tocreateanewentity,whereHEcouldformulatethebasisofmembershipinorderto createanewleagueofHellenicstates.SpawforthandWalkerdefinethePanhellenionasa “culturalandpoliticalentity”basedonitsmemberstatesandtheactivitiesundertaken.52 ThePanhellenionwasestablishedinAD131/2,intheyearHadrianvisitedAthensand presidedoverthededicationofthesanctuaryofZeusOlympios.53Dio’sturnofphrasein describingthisistellingashestates“HeallowedtheGreekstobuildinhishonourtheshrine whichwasnamedthePanhellenium”(Dio,LXIX16.2).Thissuggeststhattheconstruction wasinitiatedbythepeopleratherthanbyHadrianhimself,implyinganhonourortributeto theemperorasopposedtobeingpartofanImperialbuildingproject.Informationregarding 49 Clinton,1997,175 Birley,1997,215 51 Ibid,218-219 52 Spawforth&Walker,1985,78 53 Ibid,79 50 12 thePanhellenioncomesmostlyfrom54inscriptionsdescribingtheorganisationandits members.MostofthesewerefoundinGreece;howevertherearesevenfromTurkey,and oneeachinItalyandLibyawhichhelpillustratethegeographicalspreadofthenew league.54 GoldhilldescribesthePanhellenionas“theinstitutionalregulationofcivicGreekness”.55 MembershipwasdependantonbeingabletoprovedescentfromIonians,Doriansor AeoliansandwasalsopredicatedonagoodrelationshipwithRome.56ThePanhellenionhad limitedpoliticalpower-createdundertheauspicesoftherulingRomanempire,itserveda moreculturalandritualisticrole,withthelaterestablishmentofthePanhellenicgames. StrategicallyitalsoservedtheRomanEmpirewelltounitethisgroupofGreekcitiesinthis way,astheyoccupiedanimportantpositionattheEasternedgeoftheEmpire.However thelackofevidenceformembersfromareassuchasSyria,EgyptortheGreekWestis notable.ItispossibletheemperordidnotwishthisleagueofGreekstates,administeredby theGreekstohavetoolargeandwidespreadaninfluence.57Werethecitiesadmitted consideredthemoststableunderRomanrulesocouldbetrustedtoadministerthemselves inthisway? WhenreflectingonHadrian’smotivationsandlegacy,wemustconsiderthefactsavailable andtrytodisregardthemotivesascribedtohimovertwomillennia.Itisindisputablethat hespentalotoftimeintheGreekEastwhereheundertookamassivebuildingprogramme- particularlyinAthens,andparticipatedintheMysteriesatEleusis.TheHistoriaAugustatells usheworeabeardtocoverscarring,yetamotivationofPhilhellenismhasbeenascribedto thisovertime.Anypowerfulpersonisboundtohavesupportersanddetractors,anditmay bethatpublicopinionvariedquitedramaticallyfromRometoAthensandbeyond. AccordingtoDioheruledtheRomans“ratherbydignitythanbyflattery”(DioLXIX,6.1); couldthisbeinterpretedasabarbedcommentthathewasrespectedmorethanliked?We haveplentyofepigraphyinAthensandtheGreekEastworshippingtheemperoras‘Hadrian Olympios’;canweconsiderthisgenuineadmirationortheactionsofcitizensinreceiptof generousendowmentstotheircity?ThoughthePanhellenionwasfoundedduringHadrian’s 54 Spawforth&Walker,1985,79 Goldhill,2001,11 56 Romeo,2002,21 57 Spawforth&Walker,1985,81 55 13 reign,itonlyreacheditsapogeeafterhisdeath,fosteringasenseofdiplomacythatendured forcenturies.58DedicationsatEleusisindicatethattherelationshipbetweenthesetwo entitiesalsoendured.59Iftheseinstitutionsdidn’thavewidespreadsupport,andwere basedononeman’swhim,itisunlikelytheywouldhavecontinuedtoflourishafterhis death.Thelackofcivilunrestduringhisreignalsoindicatesthatbroadlyspeaking,hispolicy ofconsolidationworked,whilstalsofreeingupfundsforhisbuildingprogramme.The130 citiesthatbenefittedfromhislargesse,demonstratethewidegeographicalreachofthis buildingprogramme.60 WeknowthathissuccessorAntoninushaddifficultyinpassingtheusualdeificationofthe lateemperorinthesenate.61ManyinscriptionsremainintheGreekEasthowevertothe late‘HadrianPanhellenios’,andnotjustamongstthemembersofthePanhellenion,an indicationofhispopularityinthoseterritories.62Onreflection,Iwouldlargelyagreewith Vout’sstatementthat“HadrianiscreditedwithchangingRomanimperiumbeyond recognition,makingitsfulcrumGreekculture”.63Itisclearhowever,thatthisshiftwould havebeenviewedmorefavourablyinGreecethaninRome.Wecannotdismissasskindeep,orcynicalpoliticalmachinations,theHellenicempathyofamanwhogaveAthenian namestoareasofhisimperialvillaandwhovoluntarilyspentsomuchofhisreignthere.64 Howeverwithoutfurthercontemporaryliteraryevidence,itisdifficulttosurmisetowhat degreethesePhilhellenictendenciesinfluencedkeypoliticaldecisions.Hadrianappearsto havetakeninspirationfromthepast;bothbythereignsofpreviousemperors,andthe historyoftheterritoriesheruled,andincorporatedaspectsintohisownpolicy-making.This indicatesathinker,agoodstrategistandsomeonewhoknewhowtobuildonhisstrengths; inotherwordsashrewdpolitician,diplomatandstatesman.Acertainserendipitous symbiosismayhavebeenatworkhoweverbetweenHadrian’spersonalHellenicleanings andapoliticalstrategyfocusedontheGreekEastthatprovedhighlyeffectiveand appropriateforitstime. 58 Spawforth&Walker,1986,104 Spawforth&Walker,1985,100 60 Boatwright,2000,15 61 Grant,1994,11 62 Romeo,2002,29 63 Vout,2003,443 64 Shear,1981,373-374 59 14 Bibliography AnnaS.Benjamin(1963),‘TheAltarsofHadrianinAthensandHadrian’sPanhellenic Program’,Hesperia,Vol.32,No.1,57-86 A.R.Birley(1975),‘HadriantotheAntonines’inS.A.Cooketal(eds.)TheCambridgeAncient HistoryVolumeXI,ImperialPeaceAD70-192,Cambridge,132-194 AnthonyBirley(trans.)(1976),LivesoftheLaterCaesars,Harmondsworth AnthonyBirley(1997),HadriantheRestlessEmperor,London A.R.Birley(2003),‘Hadrian’sTravels’,inLukasdeBlois,PaulErdkamp,OlivierHekster,Gerda deKleijn,StephanMols(eds.),TheRepresentationandPerceptionofRomanImperialPower, ImpactofEmpire(RomanEmpirec.200BC–AD476),Amsterdam,442-458 MaryT.Boatwright(2000),HadrianandthecitiesoftheRomanEmpire,Princeton MaryT.Boatwright(1983),‘FurtherThoughtsonHadrianicAthens’,Hesperia,Vol.52,No.2, 173-176 HughBowden(2010),MysteryCultsoftheAncientWorld,Princeton J.B.Campbell(1984),TheEmperorandtheRomanArmy31BC-AD235,Oxford KevinClinton(2003),‘StagesofInitiationintheEleusinianandSamothracianMysteries’,in MichaelB.Cosmopoulos(ed.),TheArchaeologyandRitualofAncientGreekSecretCults, London,50-79 KevinClinton(1997),‘LiteratureandCult;EleusisandtheRomans:LateRepublictoMarcus Aurelius’,inMichaelC.Hoff&SusanI.Rotroff(eds.),TheRomanizationofAthens: proceedingsofanInternationalconferenceheldatLincoln,Nebraska(April1996),Oxford, 162-176 MatthewDillon(1997),PilgrimsandPilgrimageinAncientGreece,London PanagiotisN.Doukellis(2007),‘Hadrian’sPanhellenion:ANetworkofCities?’, MediterraneanHistoricalReview,22:2,295-308 15 JonathanEdmondson(2010),‘CitiesandUrbanLifeintheWesternProvincesoftheRoman Empire30BCE–250CE’,inDavidS.Potter(ed.),ACompaniontotheRomanEmpire,Oxford, 250-281 NeilFaulkner(2008),‘HadrianandtheLimitsofEmpire’,HistoryToday,Vol.58no.8,14-21 MaudW.Gleason(2010),‘GreekCitiesUnderRomanRule’,inDavidS.Potter(ed.),A CompaniontotheRomanEmpire,Oxford,228-250 SimonGoldhill(2001),‘Introduction,Settinganagenda’,inSimonGoldhill(ed.),BeingGreek underRome:CulturalIdentity,thesecondsophisticandtheDevelopmentofEmpire, Cambridge,1-29 MartinGoodman(1997),TheRomanWorld44BC–AD180,London MichaelGrant(1994),TheAntonines–TheRomanEmpireinTransition,London ErichS.Gruen(1984),TheHellenisticWorldandthecomingofRomeVol.1,Berkeley ChristianHabicht(1997),‘RomanCitizensinAthens(228-31BC)’inMichaelC.Hoff&SusanI. 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