Download Abstract That the emperor Hadrian was a Philhellene

Abstract
ThattheemperorHadrianwasaPhilhellenehasbeenwidelyacknowledgedfornearlytwo
millennia.Butisitpossibletoascertainfromthesurvivingevidencehowmuchofthisisthe
resultofagenuinepersonalinterest,andhowmuchmayhavebeenpolicy,enactedfor
politicalexpediencyandconsolidationofhisempire?
TheemperorHadrianwasacomplexcharacter,whofocusedonconsolidationratherthan
conquest.Hadrianhasthereputationasthemostwidely-travelledofallemperors,and
spentlargeperiodsofhisreignintheGreekEast.Thispaperexplorestherelationship
betweenHadrianandtheGreekworld,focusingonthreeareasinparticular–his
relationshipwithAthens,participationintheEleusinianmysteries,andfoundingofthe
PanhellenionofGreekstates.Throughtheanalysisofphysicalevidencesuchasinscriptions,
coinsandbuildings,thisworkexaminesHadrian’smotivationtoascertainifitispossibleto
differentiatethepersonalfromthepolitical.Analysisoftheliterarysourceswasalso
undertakeninanefforttoseparatefactfromcommentary.Itisindisputablethatthe
emperorHadrianleftanindeliblephysicallegacyinallareasoftheRomanEmpire,andthe
politicalandarchitecturalimpactofhisreign,particularlyatAthensandEleusisisanalysed
inthelightofthesephilhellenictendencies.Itisconcludedthatadefinitephilhellenic
empathyexistedwhichprovidedthebasisofasuccessfulstrategyofgovernance.
1
HadrianandPhilhellenism–enamouredEmperororcannypoliticaloperator?
HadrianbecameemperoroftheRomanEmpireinAD117.AknownPhilhellene,hehadthe
nickname‘Graeculus’asachild(HA,Hadr.1.5,Epit.DeCaes.14.2)andcontrarytothe
normsofseveralhundredyears,woreawell-tendedbeardassociatedwiththeGreeks.
Hadrianruledfortwentyyears,butspentmorethanhalfofhisreigntravellingaroundthe
empire,spendingextendedperiodsintheGreekEast.1Hadriandemonstratedagenuine
loveoftravelandinterestinothercultures,whichservedhimwellinhistimeasEmperor.
HisreignwasatimeofconsolidationoftheRomanEmpire,andinthemainwaspeaceful,
apartfromtheJewishrevoltsthatoccurredinhislaterreign.Thispaperwillexaminesome
keyaspectsthatnotonlyenhancedHadrian’sreign,butalsohelptogiveusaninsightasto
hisinterestsandthetypeofmanhewas.Thesethreestrandsare:hisrelationshipwithand
munificencetowardsthecityofAthens,hisinvolvementwiththemysteriesatEleusis,and
thefoundationofthePanhellenion.
InordertoassesstheextentofHadrian’sinteractionwiththeGreekEast,weneedto
considertheevidenceavailableandwhatcanbedrawnfromit.Althoughtherearea
numberofsourcesrelatingtohisreign,weneedtoevaluatethenatureofthese,andtheir
reliability.AlthoughHadriancompletedanautobiographyinlateryears,thishasbeenlost,
ashavetwolaterbiographieswritteninthethirdcenturyAD.2Theonlysurvivingwritten
sourceistheHistoriaAugusta-abiographyoflateremperors,fromthefourthcenturyAD.
Thisworkdrawsfromtheearlierwritings,butthelengthoftimethathadpassedsince
Hadrian’sreign,andhowthesevariousworksmayhavebeenamalgamatedneedstobe
borneinmindwhenusingitasasource.WealsohavethelatertravelwritingsofPausanias,
whoprovidesalotofinformationonthemonumentsandbuildingserectedinGreeceduring
Hadrian’sreign.ThecontemporaneousevidencethatremainsisintheformofHadrianic
inscriptionsandbuildingsfromaroundtheempire.Whenusingtheseasasourcewehaveto
considertheircontext–buildingswereerectedasasignofmunificenceandthepowerofan
emperorsowillreflectthisintheirlocation,designandconstruction.Likewiseinscriptions
werecomposedtohonouranindividualandwouldhavehadadistinctformula.Thesefor
themostpartwouldhaveaccompaniedstatuarydedicatedtotheemperorthatmaynot
1
2
Boatwright,2000,11
Opper,2008,26
2
remainintact–thereforecanwedecipherthetruemeaningoftheseinscriptionsin
isolation?Thesesourcesandevidenceprovidedifferentchallengesinunravellingthe
motivesandmind-setoftheemperorHadrian.Despitetheselimitationshowever,wecan
stillconductahypothesisofwhyHadrianbuiltwhathedidinAthens,hispersonal
motivationinbeingindoctrinatedintothecultatEleusis,thefoundationofthePanhellenion
andwhatimpactthesedifferentfacetshadonhisreputationandlegacy.
TowhatextentHadrian’sbenevolencetocertaincitiesintheempire,andparticularly
AthensispurelydowntohissenseofaffiliationtotheGreekworld,andhowmuchwasdue
toshrewdpoliticaljudgementinstrengtheningthebondsofempire,ishardtodistinguish.It
wouldseemtohavebeenamutuallybeneficialarrangementthatHadrian’sloveofallthings
Greek,whichmanifesteditselfinhisgenerositytothecitiesoftheEasternempire,also
servedtoenhancethestabilityofhisrulethere.ThecreationofthePanhellenioncouldbe
consideredHadrian’sgreatestachievement–theunificationoftheGreekworldunderthe
umbrellaofaRomanconstructofGreekidentity.Itdidnotappeartostrikeprospective
membersasironic,thatitwasundertheaegisofaRomanemperorofSpanishextraction
whoadjudicatedastowhethertheirGreekcitywassufficiently‘Greek’toaccess
membership.
Hadrian’stimeasruleroftheRomanEmpirecannotbelookedatinisolation.Onemust
considertheprecedentssetbyhisforerunnersandhowthiswouldhaveinfluencedhisstyle
ofruleandthedecisionshemade.Hadrian’simmediatepredecessorTrajanhailedfromthe
sameancestralSpanishtownofItalica,andHadrianmarriedhisgreatniece,VibiaSabina.
WhenonethinksofTrajan,whatfirstcomestomindishiscolumn,erectedtocelebratehis
victoryovertheDacians.ThismonumentalstructureindicateshowTrajanwishedtobe
commemoratedandremembered–asagreatwarriorEmperor,vanquishingfoesand
expandingthemightoftheRomanEmpire.Healsoundertookgreatbuildingprojectsin
Rome,developingabathcomplex,forumandmarkets.3Onhisdeath,thesuccessionwasfar
fromclear,andanepisodedamagedHadrian’sreputationinRome.Diorecordedthatitwas
Plotina,Trajan’swife,whowrotetotheSenateannouncingHadrianassuccessoronher
husband’sdeathinSelinus(Dio,LXVIII,69.1).HadrianwasgovernorofSyriaatthetime,but
beforehereachedRome,fourex-consulsweretriedin-absentia,convictedofconspiracy
3
Opper,2008,100
3
andkilledwherevertheywerecaught.Hadriandeniedanyinvolvementandblamedhis
praetorianprefect,buttheincidentcontinuedtoblighthisreputationinRomethroughout
hisreign.4
ItwouldbewronghowevertoconsiderHadrianasanemperorwhoattemptedtocontrol
andappeasetheempiresolelybymeansofarchitectureandreligion.Hadrianwasan
experiencedmilitarycommanderandservedoncampaigninGermaniaandwithTrajanin
thesecondDacianwar(CILIII550).5Hevisitedanumberofoutpostsoftheempirebefore
hisaccession–aswellasGermaniaandDacia(modernRomania),hewasgovernorofLower
PannoniafromAD106-8,andtravelledtoAthensin111-12,beforebecomingSyrian
governorintheyearTrajandied(DioLXIX,2.1).ThusHadrianwouldhavehadaninsightinto
therealitiesofempire-buildingandconsolidationfromboththemilitaryperspectiveand
thatofadministrator/governor.
Unfortunatelythelackofcontemporaryliteraryrecordshindersusingainingsignificant
insightintoHadrian’smotivesinmovingawayfromconquestandtowardsamore
contractedempireunitedthroughcommonarchitecture,cultureandreligion.Oneofhis
greatestachievementswasinharmonisingthedisparateregionsoftheempire.Thiswas
achievednotsomuchthroughan“ironfistinavelvetglove”butbyminimisingtheuseof
the“ironfist”(thearmy)andbyreimaginingthe“velvetglove”.ThoughultimatelyaRoman
instrument,this“glove”incorporatedhistoricalelementsparticularlyfromtheGreekEast,
soallwhowereheldinitspalmrestedtherelightlybutsecurelysharingacommonsenseof
identityexpertlywovenbytheastuteemperor.Veryearlyinhisreign,Hadrianmadethe
decisiontomaintainhisempireonfoundationsofconcreteandmarbleratherthansword
andshield,althoughinAD118hedidundertakeacampaigntosuppresstroubleinMoesia.6
ThetimingofthisunrestmayhaveworkedinHadrian’sfavour–itgavehimanearly
opportunitytodemonstratehiscapacityforwarfareifnecessary.However,aroundthe
sametimehewithdrewhisarmiesfromthenewprovincesTrajanhadtriedtoestablish
beyondtheEuphrates,decidingtosupportclientkingsratherthanruledirectly.7
4
Birley,1975,135
Sherk,1988,165
6
Goodman,1997,78
7
Birley,1975,134
5
4
Despitehisunwillingnesstoengageinfurtherexpansionistconflict,Hadrianrecognisedthat
thestabilityoftheempirewasfoundedonthemightofthearmy.Theancientsourceslaud
himforhisrelationshipwithhistroops,whichinvolvedhimvisitinggarrisonsinthevarious
cornersoftheempire,andcritically,livingamongstthemasafellowsoldier(DioLXIX,9.3).
Diofurtherclaimsthatitwasthisdisciplinethathelpedmaintainpeace,asthispreparation
forwarposedadeterrenttoanypossibleforeignattack,reinforcedbydonationstoforeign
nationsandHadrian’slackofprovocation(DioLXIX,9,5).Thedeliveryofformalspeeches–
adlocutio,wasakeypartoftheemperor’sinteractionwithhistroops.InAD128Hadrian
makeaspeechtotheIIIAugustaatLambaesisinAfrica,partofwhichsurvivesthroughan
inscription.8Thisspeech’sevidentpowerandresonanceisreinforcedbythefactthatitwas
deemedworthyofrecordinginthisway,praisingandinspiringthetroopsinequalmeasure.
Hadrianmaintainedtheloyaltyofthetroopsunderhiscommandbyskilfullydemonstrating
thatinpracticalterms,heasafellow-soldier,understoodtheirrole.
HadrianwasnottheonlyRomanaristocrattobeconsidereda‘philhellene’–demonstrated
bytheirabilitytospeakandwriteGreek,anadmirationofGreekcultureandawishto
emulateit.9Philhellenismwasalong-standingphenomenon,ScipioAfricanuswassaidto
haveembracedallthingsGreekwhilstatSyracusein205BC,andFlamininuswassaidtobe
fluentinGreek.10WhilstservingasquaestorinAD101,theHistoriaAugustarecountsthat
HadrianconcentratedonimprovinghisLatinrhetorichavingpreviouslybeen“laughedatfor
hissomewhatuncultivatedaccent”whilstdeliveringanaddressforTrajanintheSenate.11
ThismayhavebeenwhatledtothedisparagingassertionthatHadrianspokeGreekbetter
thanLatin(notnecessarilyacomplimentinRome).FlorusdocumentedthatHellenicarthad
madeitswaytoRomeasthespoilsofwarfromthe270sBC,andthataristocratsemployed
Greektutorsfortheirsons.12Onealsoneedstoconsiderthestabilityoftheempireunder
thepaxAugustaenablingRomantravellerstojourneytoAthensandexperienceitsculture.
HoweverthereremainedsomeprejudicetowardsGreeceinRome,whichmayhave
contributedtoHadrian’sunpopularityinsomequarters,giventheamountoftimehespent
8
Campbell,1984,77
Gruen,1984,250
10
Ibid,255-256
11
Birley,1976,59
12
Gruen,1984,252
9
5
intheEasternEmpire.Theemperorwouldhavebeeninvolvedinlocalmatterssuchas:
modificationsofacity’sterritory,impositionoftaxes,revenuesandgrainsuppliesand
promotionorratificationofacity’sfestivals.13Thiskindofin-depthinvolvementinhowa
citywasrunhadthepossibilityofgeneratingresentmentandopposition,howeverHadrian
wasfortunateinthesetofcircumstancesheinheritedthatmoreeasilyenabledhisproHellenicpolicies.PoliticalcontactbetweenGreeceandRomebeganinthethirdcenturyBC,
sobyHadrian’stime,theGreekEastwasaccustomedtoRomanhegemony.14Rometended
toruleitsprovinceswithalackofbureaucracy–usuallyasinglegovernor,andasfarasthe
Easternprovinceswereconcerned,relativelyfewlegionswererequired-apartfromtimes
ofunrestwithParthia–duringTrajan’sreignandtheJewishrevoltunderVespasian.15
Greekidentitywasfirstlinkedtotheircityratherthana‘state’andthishelpedminimisea
senseofaPan-HellenicpoliticalconsciousnessthatmayhaveprovedathreattotheRoman
Empire.16
HadrianfirstvisitedAthensinAD111/112priortohisaccessionasemperor.Whiletherehe
wasinvitedtobecomeanAtheniancitizen,andwasenrolledintheBesademe.17Itislikely
thatthishonourwasbestowedpartlybecauseofHadrian’srelationshipwithhigh-ranking
GreeknobleswhoheldRomancitizenship.Hadrian’sacceptanceofAtheniancitizenshipis
anindicatorofthecloselinksthatGreeceandRomeenjoyed–itwasnotseenasa
distillationofRomancitizenshiptoacceptAtheniancitizenship.HowevertheAthenians
wentfurtherthanthis,electingHadrianasarchoneponymous–thehonourgivingsome
indicationofthereciprocalesteemtheAtheniansandHadrianheldforeachother.
Hadrian’sfreedmanPhlegonofTralleswrotea‘BookofMarvels’,recountingamazingand
unbelievablephenomena;withinthis,inrelatingwhatmaybethebirthofSiamesetwins,he
datestheoccurrencetothetimeofHadrian’sarchonshipatAthens.18Furtherconfirmation
comesfromastatuewithaLatininscriptionerectedbytheAtheniansintheTheatreof
DionysusontheAcropolislistinghispreviousmilitaryandofficialofficesheld(CILIII550).19
AfterhisaccessionHadrianspentmoretimeinAthensthaninanyothercityexceptRome,
13
Boatwright,2000,16
Goodman,1997,229
15
Gleason,2010,240
16
Smith,2010,427
17
Birley,1997,64
18
Hansen,1996,47
19
Sherk,1988,165
14
6
visitingagaininAD124/125,128/129and131/132.20Onhisfirstvisitasemperorthe
Athenianscreatedanewtribeinhishonournamedthe‘Hadrianis’(Pausanias,BkI,5.5).
ExcavationsintheagoraatAthensshowtheremodellingofthepedestalofthemonument
totheEponymousHeroes,patronsofthetribesofAthens,aroundAD125,whenthe
emperor’stribewascreated.21
HadrianundertookasignificantbuildingprogrammeinAthens,literallyempire-building,ina
citythathadseenlittleimperialbenefactionsincethetimeofAugustus.22Hestrengthened
thelinkbetweenAncientGreeceandtheRomanEmpirebycompletingthecolossalTemple
ofOlympianZeus.HefurtherfusedthetwocivilisationsbyrededicatingtheOlympieionin
AD131/132whenhevisitedtoformallyestablishthePanhellenion(DioLXIX16.1).
PausaniasalsoattributestheconstructionofaPantheonbuildingtheretoHadrian,stating
thatitcontainedinscriptionsrecordingalltheconstructionendowmentsbytheemperorto
thecitiesofGreece(Pausanias,1.5.5).Theexactlocationofthistempleisunknown,
howevertheremainsofathree-aisledbasilicawithlargecellaandporchattheeastend
havebeenlocatedeastoftheLibraryofHadrian.Theseremainscanbedatedtothelatter
partofHadrian’sreignbyconstructionmethodsandhasbeenpositedbyTravlosasthis
Pantheon,withindicationsthatitexceededeventheParthenoninsize.23However
SpawforthandWalkersuggestthatthisbasilicaisinfacttheheadquartersofthe
Panhellenion,andthatitcouldhavecomfortablyheldupto700delegates.24Whethera
religiousorpoliticalbuilding,itreinforcedthesupremepowerofRome,byexceedingin
scaleandsizethegreatesttempleofantiquityonthesacredAcropolis.
Hadrianalsocontributedcivicamenitiessuchasanewaqueduct,startedinAD125,a
gymnasium,andalsotheLibraryofHadrian,inAD132.25Itisinterestingtonotethe
similaritiesinthedesignofthisbuilding-whichincorporatedapublicsquarewithgardens,
withtheTemplumPacisinRome.26Thisimperialforalacksapodiumtemplewhichis
presentinmanyRomanImperialfora.Instead,thelibraryprovidesthefocalpointwith
20
Boatwright,2000,144
Travlos,1971,210
22
Shear,1981,372
23
Travlos,1971,439
24
Spawforth&Walker,1985,97
25
Travlos,1971,242,244
26
Birley,1997,184
21
7
ShearsurmisingthatHadrian’sarchitectssoughttoemphasiseAthens’positionasthe
culturalcapitaloftheGreekworld,byplacingaTemplumCultusratherthanTemplumPacis
onthesite.27HadrianendowedAthenswiththetwomostcommontypesofRomanpublic
buildings–forumandbasilica,symbolicallyrooting“thephysicalpresenceofRomanrule”in
thispartoftheEmpire,givenbothwereassociatedwiththefunctionsofgovernment.28
94altarstoHadrianwereerectedinAthens,withmanyGreekcitiesdedicatingthemto
‘HadrianOlympios,SaviourandFounder’[ofthePanhellenion],intheOlympieion.29This
suggestsaconnectionbetweentheOlympieionandthePanhellenion,anddemonstratesthe
emperor’spopularity.Theemperor’stitulatureononeofthesestatuebases(IGII3289)
helpsdatethesestatuestoAD132andthededicationoftheOlympieion,andnotablythe
inscriptionisinLatin.30OneofHadrian’smoststrikinggestures,illustratingtheimportance
ofAthensinhismind,washisendowmentofanannualgrainsupply-aprivilegeonly
previouslybestowedonRome(Dio,LXIX,16.2).Thiswasnotonlyavitalallowancefora
rapidlygrowingcity,butcouldbeseentohavesymbolicovertonesaswell,connectingthe
emperortothecultatEleusisanditsrelationshipwithAthens.TheEleusinianmysteries
incorporatedthemythofDemeterintroducinggrain;byhissimilaractionsHadrianwas
creatingafurtherlinkbetweenhimselfandtheancientcult.
DiowritesthatHadrian“…wasalwaysverycuriousandemployeddivinationsand
incantationsofallkind”(Dio,LXIX,11.2-3).Thiskeeninterestinreligionwasoneofthe
cornerstonesofHadrian’sinteractionswiththeGreekEast.IncontrasttoTrajan,Hadrian’s
imperiallargesseinthewiderempirelargelyfocusedonreligiousratherthanutilitarian
buildings.31UnderRomanrule,religionwasfundamentaltohowtheGreeksmaintained
theiridentity,withreligiousfestivalsformingpartofcivicidentity.Incontrasttotoday,
religionwasseenasaunifyingratherthandivisiveforce,whichHadrianusedtoitsfull
extent.Involvementinlocalreligiouscustomsandendowmentofreligiousbuildings
enabledHadriantoplacehimself,asabountifulemperor,rightattheheartofGreeklife.
Hispersonalinvolvementwithanumberoffestivalsandacceptanceofpriesthoodsin
27
Shear,1981,376
Shear,1981,377
29
Benjamin,1963,60
30
Ibid,58
31
Boatwright,2000,12
28
8
variouscultsdemonstrateagenuineinterestinreligion,butconsideredintandemwiththe
templesheendowed,italsoindicatesanunderlyingpoliticalmotivation.
HadrianwasnotthefirstRomanorindeedthefirstemperortobecomeaninitiateat
Eleusis.TheEleusiniancultdatesbacktothemid-seventhcenturyBCandappearstohave
gainedtheattentionofthewiderworldbythemiddleofthefollowingcentury,steadily
increasinginpopularitytothemid-fourthcenturyandbeyond.32Although21kilometres
fromAthens,theagriculturalcultsiteatEleusiswasafocusofworshipfortheentirepolis.
Eachyearatthetimeofthefestival,sacredobjectswereescortedbythecult’spriestsfrom
theEleusinionontheAcropolistothesanctuary.Participationwassaidtoleadtoahappier
after-life,andthecultwasunusualinGreekreligioninthattheriteswerebasedonthe
divinerevelationofDemeter.33InitiallyonlyGreekspeakerswereeligibletoparticipatein
theMysteries,withthosedeemed“barbarians”excluded.HoweveronceAthenswas
subsumedintotheRomanEmpire,Romanswererecognisedas“Greeks”ratherthan
“barbarians”.ThegrowingpopularityofthecultledAthenstoappropriatethefestival
somewhatanddeclareit“oneofhergiftstotheGreekworld”,furtherdemonstratingthe
keyrolereligionplayedinGreekciviclife.34
FromthelatersecondcenturyBC,CicerorecordsRomanofficialsvisitingAthensingreater
numbersontheirwaytoandfromprovincessuchasMacedoniaandAsia.35LiciniusCrassus
hadjustmissedtheFestivalatEleusisonhisvisitin109BCandwassaidtobeangrywhen
theAtheniansrefusedtorepeatthemforhim.36TheemperorAugustusparticipatedinthe
Mysteriestheretwice–initiallyaftertheBattleofActiumin31BC.37TheAthenianserected
amonumenttotheEmperorinthesanctuarywhichhasaterminusantequemof27BC,as
theinscriptiondoesnotreferencetheemperoras‘Augustus’.38Spawforthsuggeststhatthis
gesturewaspromptedbytheAthenianshavingbeencompromisedbytheirsupportforthe
defeatedAntonyandthereforefeltthatpoliticallytheyhadtoadoptthemoreEastern
32
Clinton,1997,161
Sourvinou-Inwood2003,28
34
Clinton,1997,163
35
Habicht,1997,10
36
Ibid,10
37
Clinton,1997,163
38
Ibid,163
33
9
traditionoftherulercult.39Augustus’secondvisitin19BCdidnotoccurintheusualmonth
thefestivalwascelebrated,soitwascelebratedasecondtimeapparentlyathisbehest.40
Athens’acquiescencetothisrequest,incontrasttotheirrefusalofthatofCrassuseighty
yearsearlierhighlightstheincreasedRomandominanceintheregionoverthistimeandthe
increasedpoliticisationofsuchreligiousrituals.
ThereisnoevidenceofdirectinteractionwiththecultatEleusisbyanotheremperoruntil
Hadriannearly100yearslater.HadrianwasinitiatedintothefirststageoftheMysteriesat
EleusisinAD124,anditissaidthattheephebeswhocollectedthesacredobjectswere
unabletobearmed,astheywouldusuallyhavebeen,duetotheEmperorspresence.41Itis
thoughtthatatthistimehealsohadanewbridgebuiltovertheriverCephisusontheroute
fromAthenstoEleusis.42OnHadrian’ssecondvisitinAD128Diorecordedthat“oncoming
toGreecehewasadmittedtothehighestgradeattheMysteries”(Dio,LXIX,11.1).Are
thereanyparallelswecandrawfrombothemperors’involvementwithsuchakeyfestival
ofAthenianreligion?OnehypothesisisthatAugustus’firstvisitafterActiumwasa
conciliatorygesturetowardstheGreekworldandacknowledgementoftheMysteries’
importanceintheregion.Augustus’wishtorepeattheexperiencehowever,demonstrates
hisaffinitywiththeMysteries.InalsovisitingasecondtimeHadriandemonstratedasimilar
affinitywiththeMysterycult.Visitingandparticipatinginsuchritualsoncecouldbeviewed
asdiplomacy,arepeatexperiencedemonstratesamorepersonalaffiliation.Thereappears
tohavebeenareciprocityinthisrelationshipbetweencultandEmperor–whose
participationdemonstratedarespectandgenuineacceptanceoftheseancientritesatthe
highestechelonsofpowerwhilstalsocontributingtothe‘Romanization’ofthecultandits
associatedpoliticalandcivicinfluences.
IfweputHadrian’sevidentinterestinreligiontooneside,itcouldbesaidthatinvolvement
withtheEleusiniancultalsoservedotherfunctions.Eleusis’peripherallocationinthepolis
meantthatinteractionbetweenAthensandEleusisplayedanimportantroleinunifyingthe
twoareas.43Eleusiswasalsolocatedonastrategicallyimportantsitenearthecoastand
39
Spawforth,1997,194
Clinton,1997,163
41
Birley,1976,71
42
Birley,1997,177
43
Sourvinou-Inwood,2003,26
40
10
thereareindicationsthattherehadbeenculticactivitytheresinceMycenaeantimes.By
Hadrian’sinitiationintotheMysteriesatEleusis,hewasnotonlyassociatinghimselfwith
thisancientGreekcult,hewaslegitimisingitunderRomanrule,andenhancinghisown
reputationfurtheroutsideAthens.AnotherkeyfactorwiththecultatEleusisisthatitwas
oneofthemostpopularPanhellenicreligiousfestivals.Therewasanenormousimbalance
inthemilitary,economicandpoliticalpowerbetweenRomeandGreece,butculturally,
Grecianinfluencecoulddominateinawaywhichposednosignificantthreattothestability
oftheempire.ByHadrian’sendorsementoftheircultureandreligion,heacknowledgedthe
importanceoftheGreekpastthroughtheprismofasubjugatedRomanprovince.Weare
alsoawareofHadrian’smotivationsoffurtheringGreekunitybytheformationofthe
PanhellenionofGreekcitystatesduringhisreign.44
ItappearsfromstatuaryandepigraphythattheremayhavebeenanImperialcultatEleusis
fromthetimeofAugustus.45ThereisalsophysicalevidenceatEleusisofHadrian’s
benevolence.Theoutercourtofthesanctuarycontainstwocommemorativearchesanda
propylaiathoughttodatefromHadrianictimes.ThesearchesarecopiesoftheArchof
HadrianinAthens.46Thereisaninscriptiononeachwhichreads“TotheTwoGoddessesand
theEmperor,thePanhellenes”(Pl.III,2).Itisthoughtthatthesearcheswerededicatedby
theLeagueofPanhellenes,andthedesignsimilaritiestotheAthenianHadrianicArchand
collectivenameof“Panhellenes”suggeststheconnectiontoHadrian.Itisnotknown
whetherHadriandidnotwishforhisnametoappearontheinscriptionorwhetherby
simplyusingtheword“emperor”itcreatedapermanentlinkbetweentheEleusiniancult,
ImperialcultandPanhellenion.47Otherbuildingsinthesanctuaryalsodisplayasimilar
architecturalstyletobuildingsinAthens–includingtheFountainHouseandthepropylaia.
Thissuggestsadefinitedecisiononthepartoftheemperorswhoconstructedthemto
commemoratethemselvesatthisimportantpanhellenicsitethroughAthenian
architecture.48Thisarchitectureofempireservedtolinkthepoliticalwiththereligiousand
cultural,apolicythatisveryvisiblethroughHadrian’sreigninparticular.Itisalsothought
44
Birley,1997,219
Clinton,1997,170
46
Ibid,174
47
Ibid,175
48
Ibid,175
45
11
thatafterhisdeathstatuesofthedeified‘HadrianPanhellenios’wereerectedoneachof
thearchesatEleusis.49
AugustusandHadrian’sconnectionwiththeMysteriesisfurtherevidencednumismatically.
ThewidespreadofthecultandtheimportanceoftheEmperor’sparticipationareindicated
bycoinsissuedinAsiaMinor.TheydepictHadrianholdingasheafofcornwiththe
inscription‘HadrianusAug[ustus]p[ater]p[atriae],ren’(BMCIIIHadrianno.1094).The
letters‘ren’wouldappeartobeshortfor‘renatus’,meaningreborn,withthecorn
representingDemeterandthemysteriesatEleusis.Theothersideofthecoindepicts
Augustuswiththewords‘Imp.CaesarAugustus’,linkingHadriantotheonlyotheremperor
previouslyinductedintotheMysteries.50Thesecoinsnotonlydemonstrateareligious
connectionbetweenthetwoemperors,butalsoapoliticalone,asitwasAugustuswho
gainedcontroloftheGreekEastafterActium,withHadrianseekingtostrengthenthese
bondsfurther,acenturyandahalflater.
ThecultatEleusisundoubtedlyplayedanimportantroleintheGreekworldasaPanhellenic
entitythatunitedthroughreligion.Havingparticipatedtwice,itispossiblethatthis
experiencemayhaveinfluencedHadrian’screationofthePanhellenion.Hadrianhad
previouslytriedtoreconstitutetheDelphicAmphictyonyaspartofhisplansfortheGreek
world,inordertoincludetheSpartans,butmetopposition.51Hisonlyoptionthereforewas
tocreateanewentity,whereHEcouldformulatethebasisofmembershipinorderto
createanewleagueofHellenicstates.SpawforthandWalkerdefinethePanhellenionasa
“culturalandpoliticalentity”basedonitsmemberstatesandtheactivitiesundertaken.52
ThePanhellenionwasestablishedinAD131/2,intheyearHadrianvisitedAthensand
presidedoverthededicationofthesanctuaryofZeusOlympios.53Dio’sturnofphrasein
describingthisistellingashestates“HeallowedtheGreekstobuildinhishonourtheshrine
whichwasnamedthePanhellenium”(Dio,LXIX16.2).Thissuggeststhattheconstruction
wasinitiatedbythepeopleratherthanbyHadrianhimself,implyinganhonourortributeto
theemperorasopposedtobeingpartofanImperialbuildingproject.Informationregarding
49
Clinton,1997,175
Birley,1997,215
51
Ibid,218-219
52
Spawforth&Walker,1985,78
53
Ibid,79
50
12
thePanhellenioncomesmostlyfrom54inscriptionsdescribingtheorganisationandits
members.MostofthesewerefoundinGreece;howevertherearesevenfromTurkey,and
oneeachinItalyandLibyawhichhelpillustratethegeographicalspreadofthenew
league.54
GoldhilldescribesthePanhellenionas“theinstitutionalregulationofcivicGreekness”.55
MembershipwasdependantonbeingabletoprovedescentfromIonians,Doriansor
AeoliansandwasalsopredicatedonagoodrelationshipwithRome.56ThePanhellenionhad
limitedpoliticalpower-createdundertheauspicesoftherulingRomanempire,itserveda
moreculturalandritualisticrole,withthelaterestablishmentofthePanhellenicgames.
StrategicallyitalsoservedtheRomanEmpirewelltounitethisgroupofGreekcitiesinthis
way,astheyoccupiedanimportantpositionattheEasternedgeoftheEmpire.However
thelackofevidenceformembersfromareassuchasSyria,EgyptortheGreekWestis
notable.ItispossibletheemperordidnotwishthisleagueofGreekstates,administeredby
theGreekstohavetoolargeandwidespreadaninfluence.57Werethecitiesadmitted
consideredthemoststableunderRomanrulesocouldbetrustedtoadministerthemselves
inthisway?
WhenreflectingonHadrian’smotivationsandlegacy,wemustconsiderthefactsavailable
andtrytodisregardthemotivesascribedtohimovertwomillennia.Itisindisputablethat
hespentalotoftimeintheGreekEastwhereheundertookamassivebuildingprogramme-
particularlyinAthens,andparticipatedintheMysteriesatEleusis.TheHistoriaAugustatells
usheworeabeardtocoverscarring,yetamotivationofPhilhellenismhasbeenascribedto
thisovertime.Anypowerfulpersonisboundtohavesupportersanddetractors,anditmay
bethatpublicopinionvariedquitedramaticallyfromRometoAthensandbeyond.
AccordingtoDioheruledtheRomans“ratherbydignitythanbyflattery”(DioLXIX,6.1);
couldthisbeinterpretedasabarbedcommentthathewasrespectedmorethanliked?We
haveplentyofepigraphyinAthensandtheGreekEastworshippingtheemperoras‘Hadrian
Olympios’;canweconsiderthisgenuineadmirationortheactionsofcitizensinreceiptof
generousendowmentstotheircity?ThoughthePanhellenionwasfoundedduringHadrian’s
54
Spawforth&Walker,1985,79
Goldhill,2001,11
56
Romeo,2002,21
57
Spawforth&Walker,1985,81
55
13
reign,itonlyreacheditsapogeeafterhisdeath,fosteringasenseofdiplomacythatendured
forcenturies.58DedicationsatEleusisindicatethattherelationshipbetweenthesetwo
entitiesalsoendured.59Iftheseinstitutionsdidn’thavewidespreadsupport,andwere
basedononeman’swhim,itisunlikelytheywouldhavecontinuedtoflourishafterhis
death.Thelackofcivilunrestduringhisreignalsoindicatesthatbroadlyspeaking,hispolicy
ofconsolidationworked,whilstalsofreeingupfundsforhisbuildingprogramme.The130
citiesthatbenefittedfromhislargesse,demonstratethewidegeographicalreachofthis
buildingprogramme.60
WeknowthathissuccessorAntoninushaddifficultyinpassingtheusualdeificationofthe
lateemperorinthesenate.61ManyinscriptionsremainintheGreekEasthowevertothe
late‘HadrianPanhellenios’,andnotjustamongstthemembersofthePanhellenion,an
indicationofhispopularityinthoseterritories.62Onreflection,Iwouldlargelyagreewith
Vout’sstatementthat“HadrianiscreditedwithchangingRomanimperiumbeyond
recognition,makingitsfulcrumGreekculture”.63Itisclearhowever,thatthisshiftwould
havebeenviewedmorefavourablyinGreecethaninRome.Wecannotdismissasskindeep,orcynicalpoliticalmachinations,theHellenicempathyofamanwhogaveAthenian
namestoareasofhisimperialvillaandwhovoluntarilyspentsomuchofhisreignthere.64
Howeverwithoutfurthercontemporaryliteraryevidence,itisdifficulttosurmisetowhat
degreethesePhilhellenictendenciesinfluencedkeypoliticaldecisions.Hadrianappearsto
havetakeninspirationfromthepast;bothbythereignsofpreviousemperors,andthe
historyoftheterritoriesheruled,andincorporatedaspectsintohisownpolicy-making.This
indicatesathinker,agoodstrategistandsomeonewhoknewhowtobuildonhisstrengths;
inotherwordsashrewdpolitician,diplomatandstatesman.Acertainserendipitous
symbiosismayhavebeenatworkhoweverbetweenHadrian’spersonalHellenicleanings
andapoliticalstrategyfocusedontheGreekEastthatprovedhighlyeffectiveand
appropriateforitstime.
58
Spawforth&Walker,1986,104
Spawforth&Walker,1985,100
60
Boatwright,2000,15
61
Grant,1994,11
62
Romeo,2002,29
63
Vout,2003,443
64
Shear,1981,373-374
59
14
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