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Michael Nosbisch 5/12/16 ESE 466: Final Paper Glacier National Park National parks and protected areas can be found all around the world and have numerous socio-economic and ecological benefits. They provide income for employees, recreational and educational experiences for visitors, habitats to countless species, and preserve environmental ecosystems. Glacier National Park in Montana is no exception; however, if mitigation efforts are not made on a global scale, and the current environmental trajectory is not altered, climate change will destroy it. Though many aspects of the park are currently threatened and original management plans did not foresee the climate issue, much planning and implementation has already begun. Before the area became Glacier National Park, it belonged to the Blackfoot Indians (DeSanto, 1995). Approximately 800,000 acres were purchased in 1885 by the United States Government with the intent to excavate and mine the area’s natural resources (DeSanto, 1995). Even though a few oil companies persisted and continued their search for mineral resources after the declaration of the national park, no large discoveries were ever recorded (DeSanto, 199). Though the mineral resources were not plentiful, other natural resources were abundant. Bills to declare the area a national park were unsuccessfully proposed in 1907, 1908, and 1909, but did pass in 1910 (DeSanto, 1995). President Taft signed the bill on May 11, which officially declared the area as Glacier National Park (DeSanto, 1995). Glacier National Park was the sixth designated national park in the United States, and the Secretary of the Interior held authority over each of the parks (Hudson, 1998). Though the same department held the authority, “each park was a separate administrative unit with no consistency of management” (Hudson, 1998, p. 956). The inconsistencies led to an absence of public knowledge pertaining to the parks, dissimilar regulations within and between the parks, and arguments related to funding (Hudson, 1998). In order to alleviate the issue, the National Park Service (NPS) was created (Hudson, 1998). President Taft signed the National Park Service Organic Act, or Organic Act, on August 25, 1916 (Hudson, 1998). This act requires the NPS to “conserve the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations” (Hudson, 1998, p. 956). In order to achieve the goals of the act, a balance must be placed on preservation and conservation of natural areas and supporting tourism and the recreation of patrons (Hudson, 1998). Although a balance is required, the Organic Act places priority on preservation of the site (Hudson, 1998). Glacier National Park’s northern border is also the border between the United States and Canada. Canada’s Waterton Lakes National Park is directly across the international border in Alberta, British Columbia (Parks Canada, 2015). Since the creation of Glacier National Park in the beginning of the 20th century, both park officials from US and Canada believed “the upper Waterton valley, which is intersected by the Canada/ US border, could not and should not be divided” (Parks Canada, 2015). They believed the two parks should be joined (Parks Canada, 2015). Years later, in 1932, the two parks created the first international peace park, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (WGIPP) (Parks Canada, 2015). By combining, management became a shared task for the protected land (Parks Canada, 2015). Joining the two areas increased the size of the park to 1,720 square miles (Parks Canada, 2015). Later, in 1995, UNESCO designated the peace park as a World Heritage Site due to its “distinctive climate, physiographic setting, mountain-prairie interface, and tri-ocean hydrographic divide,” and because “it is an area of significant scenic values with abundant and diverse flora and fauna” (Parks Canada, 2015). Glacier National park was designated a national park in 1910, the National Park Service was created in 1916, and the area became an international peace park in 1932, but an official management plan was not written until 1977. The purpose of the Master Plan in 1977 was “to preserve an outstanding mountain area, characterized by spectacular northern Rocky Mountain topography, active glaciers, and unique plant and animal communities” (Master Plan, 1977, appendix A), and “to enable all visitors to derive benefit and enjoyment from their visit” (Master Plan, 1977, appendix A). The original Master Plan of 1977 was updated through the encouragement of the National Park Service (Management Plan, 1999). The new management plan sought public involvement and held many public meetings in which the park was discussed before the plan was finalized (Management Plan, 1999). After much debate, the plan was finalized in 1999 (Management Plan, 1999). It provided broad guidelines for future administration. As with the original plan, the park would balance conservation and recreation, but furthermore, it stressed the importance of resource management (Management Plan, 1999). The park would use a policy created by the National Park Service to guide the resource management. The policy explains an importance: To understand natural processes and human-induced effects; mitigate potential and realized effects; monitor and ongoing and future trends; protect existing natural organisms, species populations, communities, systems, and processes; and interpret these organisms, systems, and processes to the park visitor (Management Plan, 1999, p. 19). The plan also discusses critical issues surrounding the park, such as endangered species, prominent sites, land management zones, and tourist accommodations in need of repair (Management Plan, 1999). It then provides examples of potential alternatives and strategies to correct them and environmental assessments of proposed actions (Management Plan, 1999). Since the establishment of Glacier National Park in 1910, climate change and global warming have continually impacted the park. Each policy and plan created has had potential to become a tool for climate change mitigation. Past actions and policies, including the drafting of the 1999 management plan, may not have had adequate information pertaining to climate change or global warming, changes in the landscape were still evident. A clear reduction from the past, the 1999 management plan stated, “Nearly 40 glaciers still remain in the park” (Management Plan, 1999, p. iii). Though the plan emphasized plans for resource management and the Organic Act was a guiding principle, there were no actions or plans to mitigate threats to the ecological system, which, perhaps unknowingly, would have would have been mitigating the effects of global warming. Climate change has gained attention across the globe. In Glacier National Park, global warming has and will continue to impact many ecological systems. Glaciers, wild fires, hydrology, flora and fauna are a portion of the areas directly or indirectly affected. However, teams of people are joining together in hopes of protecting the national park. Glacier National Park and groups around the world are implementing plans to reduce effects of climate change and help restore threatened environments. Glacier National Park has experienced drastic changes since its establishment. In 1850, 150 glaciers existed (Hall and Fagre, 2003), 1999, as mentioned in the management plan, 40 remained (Management Plan, 1999), and today, the number has been reduced to 25 (Wines, 2014). A minimal part of the glacial decline is from natural weather cycles of the earth, however, since 1980, the reduction of glaciers has sped up increasingly (Wines, 2014). The loss of the glaciers is not simply an issue of losing the visual appeal of the park; many ecological systems depend on and are influenced by them. Glaciers are excellent indicators of global warming (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Regarding climate change, they have been compared to canaries in coalmines for their ability to warn of invisible dangers (Hall and Fagre, 2003). As Hall and Fagre stated: Moreover, they provide a signal that integrates climate change over time, because they do not respond to year-to-year variability. Rather, they change their dimension and mass slowly in response to decadal trends in climate. Thus, the global retreat of glaciers can be attributed to real climatic changes, not to temporary anomalies (2003, p. 132). Though climate change affects all organisms and ecosystems, glaciers are unique in their inability to adapt to the changes (Hall and Fagre, 2003). This inability enables them to be “excellent barometers… because they respond directly to trends in temperature, precipitation, and cloud cover” (Hall and Fagre, 2003, p. 131). Many studies have been conducted to determine the rate and scope of the deterioration of the glaciers at Glacier National Park. Myrna H. P. Hall and Daniel B. Fagre modeled climate-induced glacier change spanning the years of 1850 to 2100. Recorded data of Glacier National Park has shown an increase of average summer temperatures by 1.66 degrees Celsius (2.988 degrees Fahrenheit) between 1910 and 1980 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). They reviewed collected data under the pretense of two different climate scenarios: the linear temperature-extrapolation scenario and the carbon dioxide-doubling scenario and (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Although the melting rate at Glacier National Park has increased since 1980 and many have accepted human induced climate change already; Hall and Fagre studied the linear temperature-extrapolation scenario (Hall and Fagre, 2003). The scenario “assumes a cyclical climate not linked to human-caused increases of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide” (2003, p. 137). With this hypothesis, there would be an increase of 0.21 degrees Celsius by 2050 and an average summer temperature of 16.94 degrees Celsius by 2100 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Under this model, the glaciers persist beyond the year 2100 and the average summer temperatures (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Alternatively, the carbon dioxide-doubling scenario is based off the Environmental Protection Agency’s prediction of the doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide by 2030 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). It is believed this doubling would incite a global average temperature increase of 2.5 degrees Celsius by 2050 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Under this regime, the glaciers at Glacier National Park will disappear by 2030 and by 2100, the average summer temperature will be higher than 19 degrees Celsius (Hall and Fagre, 2003). If recent trends persist and the predictions made by Hall, Fagre, and others are correct, temperatures will continue to rise. The effects of steadily rising temperatures include the continued decline of glaciers at Glacier National Park along with other widespread effects. Many environmental and socio-economic aspects are interrelated with the climate. A few of the systems at risk are water and hydrologic systems, flora, fauna, and human lifestyles and livelihoods. Water is essential to sustain all life. Plants, animals, and humans depend on the natural resource, and in mountainous regions, winter snowfall is necessary to create enough water throughout the year (Hall and Fagre, 2003). However, increased temperatures in Glacier National Park have caused mountain snowpacks to melt (Wines, 2014). Michael Wines stated in an article interviewing Dr. Fagre about Glacier National Park, “In recent decades, rising winter temperatures have increasingly changed snow to rain. Rising spring temperatures are melting the remaining snow faster” (2014). With less water in the summer months, rivers shrink and soils dry out (Wines, 2014). In recent years, more frequent wildfires and forest infestations and diseases have already been seen (Wines, 2014). Farmers near Glacier National Park are also experiencing the results of less stream water as they try to irrigate fields and provide livestock with water (Wines, 2014). Higher climate temperatures do not only disrupt hydrology by reducing the supply of water, but also disrupt ecosystems by increasing the temperature of the water. In summer months, cold water from glaciers and snowpacks feed streams (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Consequently, when glaciers and snowpacks disappear, less cold water can support summer streams, which then become warmer (Hall and Fagre, 2003). This is an issue for many mountainous species, such as net-spinning caddisflies (Hall and Fagre, 2003) and the rare stonefly, which is only found in Glacier National Park, (Giersch et al. 2015) because they require cold-water habitats. Abiotic changes such as receding glaciers and snowpacks are not the only landscape alterations resulting from climate shifts. There are numerous indirect implications of global warming. Climate change causes snow and ice to retreat, which allows space for new vegetation to establish (Hall and Fagre, 2003). As explained in Hall and Fagre’s article, “Glacial retreat provides new areas for plant colonization and alters sediment transport in streams” (2003, p. 139). However, as pioneer species and trees invade the newly open space, diversity of herbaceous plants may decrease (Hall and Fagre, 2003). The climate is changing. Twenty-one of earth’s twenty-two hottest years have been in the last thirty years (Rennicke, 2007). Evidence shows this change has occurred quickly in Glacier National Park. Records show glaciers retreated less than seven meters per year in 1910 and 40 meters per year between 1917 and 1926 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). In the 1940s, the reduction was above 100 meters per year in some areas (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Ice in the Mount Jackson-Gunsight Basin area reduced from 21.6 kilometers to 7.4 kilometers between 1850 and 1980, (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Overall, the park has lost 73% of its glaciers (Rennicke, 2007). Though Glacier National Park has many challenges to overcome, the park and other groups are taking steps to help mitigate and slow future effects of climate change. The National Park Service (NPS), which was created by the federal government to lead administration at each national park, is a leader in climate change mitigation. NPS has accepted the notion of climate change affecting parks at an accelerated rate, and internal policies in their management plan have been defined to help learn from and slow future deterioration (NPS Management Plan, 2006). Most importantly, “Parks containing significant natural resources will gather and maintain baseline climatological data for reference” (NPS Management Plan, 2006). Additionally, their policies prevent attempts to modify the weather and stress the importance of educating the public on global climate change (NPS Management Plan, 2006). In order to add specific guidance in their climate change policies, the National Park Service has created an overarching climate change action plan (Whittington et al. 2014). The plan assists park officials with planning for climate change in the present and future (Whittington et al. 2014). To hold parks accountable, each region in the United States, Glacier National Park is in the Intermountain Region (IMR), is expected to conduct an annual report on activities implemented that reflect the eight emphasized areas of the Climate Change Action Plan (Whittington et al. 2014). The eight areas include: Enhance workforce climate literacy, engage youth and their families, develop effective planning frameworks and guidance, provide climate change science to parks, implement the Green Parks Plan, foster robust partnerships, apply appropriate adaption tools and options, and strengthen communication (Whittington et al. 2014, p. 2). Other than determining an overarching climate action plan, the National Park Services has created numerous plans to help achieve mitigation and sustainability goals. The National Park Service created the Green Parks Plan (GPP) in 2012 to increase sustainability and reduce greenhouse gases at each national park. In order achieve the goals “the plan focuses on the impact of park facilities on the environment and human welfare and encourages NPS employees to adopt sustainability in their daily activities” (Green Parks Plan, 2012, p. 4). The nine goals of the Green Parks Plan include: to exceed all requirements of all environmental laws, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase utilization of renewable energy, increase water efficiency, apply greener transportation methods, use environmentally friendly products, preserve outdoor values, apply sustainable operations, and encourage sustainable participation with visitors (Green Parks Plan, 2012). In order to implement the Green Park Plan, the NPS began the Climate Friendly Parks (CFP) Program. The program is an initiative that “provides parks with the tools and resources to address climate change and ensure the most sustainable operations across the agency” (Climate Friendly Parks). A park can only become a CFP Official Member, which Glacier National Park is, by completing four milestones (Climate Friendly Parks). The milestones include: submitting the CFP application, completing a greenhouse gas inventory for the park’s operations, conducting CFP training for park stakeholders, and completing a CFP action plan. Shawn Norton, a CFP coordinator, states in Rennicke’s article, “A perfect Climate Friendly Park is first and foremost carbon neutral, adding no emissions to the atmosphere” (2007, p. 29). The National Park Service has done a lot to promote sustainable practices and climate change mitigation on a national scale. They could encourage the change, but the parks were responsible for devising individual action plans. Glacier National Park created their Environmental Management Plan in 2006. It is in depth and has specific action items pertaining to the threat of climate change. Unlike their management plan in 1999, which ignored the changing features of the environment, the 2006 Environmental Management Plan addresses the issue (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Not only does the plan discuss retreating glaciers, but also contains information of the ecological effects of losing the glaciers. Aligning with their action items, the plan lists prospective visions for the park’s future. Some of the visions park officials listed include; Empty parking lots due to shuttles and carpooling, staff members utilizing bicycles to commute between park buildings, buildings using “green” technology and are energy efficient (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The plan also listed many of the operation interactions of the park and their perceived impacts. By doing so, they were able to better understand which areas had the largest impacts and needed the most attention (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The impact assessment enabled them to focus develop plans to help reduce the negative outcomes of the most harmful interactions (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). “Severity, frequency, financial, and stakeholders” were the parameters used to measure the interactions (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). According to the assessment, building use/facility operations, visitor transportation, employee transportation, vehicle use and fleet maintenance, and waste management had the highest impact (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The park recognized opportunities to reduce the impacts and created action plans to accomplish the tasks. For example, one of the greatest impacts on the assessment was a result of visitor transportation. According to Glacier National Park’s Environmental Management Plan: “Transportation is a leading cause of GHG emissions in the park. Collectively, vehicles travelled more than 42 million miles in the park in 2002.” To combat, the park believed a multi-modal shuttle system would create an alternative for visitor transportation in the park and hoped to partner with the surrounding community to develop additional alternatives to transportation (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). In recent years, plans had been implemented within the park to help accomplish this goal. Rennicke’s article explains: “At Glacier National Park, the historic red buses now run on alternative fuels and have inspired a program to allow employees to ride ‘red bicycles’ between buildings” (2007, p. 31). Concluding sections are “Training” and “Legal and Other Requirement” (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The training section is a matrix of necessary training park employees must accomplish (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The matrix is segmented into environmental and safety training and explains how often the employee must be retrained in the area (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Legal and other requirements list laws, regulations, and executive orders pertaining to Glacier National Park (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). A few of the federal ordinances relating to climate change mitigation may include the National Environmental Policy Act, Clean Air Act, and Endangered Species Act (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The Executive Order 13101, 13123, and 13149 are related to “greening the government” through recycling, efficient energy management, and federal fleet and transportation efficiency (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Glacier National Park’s Environmental Management Plan reflects goals and tasks set by United States. However, being an International Peace Park, “illustrates the need for cooperation in a world scarce but shared resources” (Management Plan, 1999, p. 17). Recently, in 2010, both the Prime Minister of British Columbia and the Governor of Montana agreed to the, Memorandum of Understanding and Cooperation on Environmental Protection, Climate Action and Energy (Memorandum, 2010). Their signatures acknowledged joint efforts to improve environmental protection, climate action, and renewable and low carbon energy (Memorandum, 2010). Men and women who have no authority or management power at the park are still doing their best to help preserve the natural resources and ecosystem there. They are stakeholders who enjoy the park and want to see it persist for the enjoyment of future generations. One recent effort exemplifies the ambition of outside parties and their aspiration to protect the park. In 2006, a petition was written to declare the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, which was also declared a World Heritage Site in 1995, as endangered (NBC, 2006). By labeling the park as endangered, petitioners hoped the action would prompt the World Heritage Committee to implement policies to reduce greenhouse gases (NBC, 2006). Though the park was never declared as endangered (Gallagher, 2006), the actions of the groups and individuals are evidence of non-affiliated groups working together to help mitigate the effects of climate change. It proves that every person can help. Some of the groups associated with the petition are the Center for Biological Diversity, Defenders of Wildlife, David Suzuki Foundation, Green House Network, Montana Wilderness association, and more (NBC, 2006). There is sufficient information explaining how the government and environmental groups have and continue to work to preserve nature. However, there are many ways in which individuals can help mitigate global warming as well. It is a goal for Glacier National Park to educate visitors and stress the harmful effects of greenhouse gas emissions. To help educate the public about global warming, Glacier National Park has created interpretive displays, which explain the effects climate change has on national parks and their resources (Rennicke, 2007). By being more educated, individuals can become more aware of their own carbon footprint and seek ways to reduce it. Global warming has effected and altered lands around the world. Glacier National Park in Montana is no exception. The threat of change is most apparent in high altitude regions, such as Glacier National Park, where mean temperatures have increased more than twice the global average (Giersch et al. 2015). Though the earth experiences climate change naturally, the rates of which temperatures have been increasing are beyond natural. Increasing temperatures have drastically reduced the amount of glaciers and threaten many other ecological systems such hydrology or sediment flow (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Though only a few glaciers remain, government agencies, park management, and individuals are all implementing plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase energy efficiencies in order to preserve the remaining environment. References Climate Friendly Park. Climate friendly park program. Retrieved from: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/cfpprogram.htm DeSanto, J. (1995). Foundation for a park: Explorer and geologist bailey willis in the area of glacier national park. Forest & Conservation History, 39(3), 130. Gallagher, S. (2006) U.N. takes up proposal to declare Glacier Park in danger. Retrieved from: http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/media-archive/GlacierPark7-12-06.pdf Giersch, J. J., Muhlfeld, C. C., Jones, L. A., Jordan, S., Luikart, G., & Hauer, F. R. (2015). Climate-induced range contraction of a rare alpine aquatic invertebrate. Freshwater Science, 34(1), 53-65. doi:10.1086/679490 GNP Environmental Management Plan. (2006). Glacier National Park environmental management plan. Retrieved by: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/upload/GLAC_CFP-Action-Plan.pdf Green Parks Plan. (2012). Green Parks Plan: advancing our mission through sustainable operations. Retrieved from: f https://www.nps.gov/greenparksplan/downloads/NPS_2012_Green_Parks_Plan.pd Hall, M. H. P., & Fagre, D. B. (2003). Modeled climate-induced glacier change in glacier national park, 1850-2100. Bioscience, 53(2), 131. Hudson, E. (1998). The national park service organic act and section 7(A) of the endangered species act: Prioritizing recreation and endangered species preservation in the national parks. Vermont Law Review, 22(4), 953-977. Master Plan. (1977). Glacier final master plan. Retrieved from: https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/glac/final_master_plan/appa.htm Management Plan. (1999). Final general management plan and environmental impact statement volume I. Retrieved from: https://www.nps.gov/features/glac/pdf/gmp1.pdf Memorandum. (2010). Memorandum of understanding and cooperation on environmental protection, climate action and energy between the province of British Columbia and the state of Montana. Retrieved from: http://www.gov.bc.ca/igrs/attachments/en/MTEnvCoop.pdf NBC. (2006). Endangered status for Glacier National Park? Retrieved from: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/11389665/ns/us_news-environment/t/endangeredstatus-glacier-national-park/#.VzKfsWO1345 NPS Management Plan. (2006). Management policies 2006 the guide to managing the national park system. Retrieved from: https://www.nps.gov/policy/mp/policies.html Parks Canada. (2015) Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. Retrieved from: http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/ab/waterton/natcul/inter.aspx Rennicke, J. (2007). A CLIMATE OF change. National Parks, 81(4), 26-31. Whittington, T., Olliff, T., Benjamin, P. (2013). Climate change action plan report: Intermountain region 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.montana.edu/lccvp/documents/NPS_CCAR_dec2013.pdf WINES, M. (2014). Climate change threatens to strip the identity of glacier national park. New York Times, 164(56694), 20-26.