Download finalpaper_nosbisch - Protected Areas Law Capacity

Michael Nosbisch
5/12/16
ESE 466: Final Paper
Glacier National Park
National parks and protected areas can be found all around the world and
have numerous socio-economic and ecological benefits. They provide income for
employees, recreational and educational experiences for visitors, habitats to
countless species, and preserve environmental ecosystems. Glacier National Park in
Montana is no exception; however, if mitigation efforts are not made on a global
scale, and the current environmental trajectory is not altered, climate change will
destroy it. Though many aspects of the park are currently threatened and original
management plans did not foresee the climate issue, much planning and
implementation has already begun.
Before the area became Glacier National Park, it belonged to the Blackfoot
Indians (DeSanto, 1995). Approximately 800,000 acres were purchased in 1885 by
the United States Government with the intent to excavate and mine the area’s
natural resources (DeSanto, 1995). Even though a few oil companies persisted and
continued their search for mineral resources after the declaration of the national
park, no large discoveries were ever recorded (DeSanto, 199). Though the mineral
resources were not plentiful, other natural resources were abundant. Bills to declare
the area a national park were unsuccessfully proposed in 1907, 1908, and 1909, but
did pass in 1910 (DeSanto, 1995). President Taft signed the bill on May 11, which
officially declared the area as Glacier National Park (DeSanto, 1995).
Glacier National Park was the sixth designated national park in the United
States, and the Secretary of the Interior held authority over each of the parks
(Hudson, 1998). Though the same department held the authority, “each park was a
separate administrative unit with no consistency of management” (Hudson, 1998, p.
956). The inconsistencies led to an absence of public knowledge pertaining to the
parks, dissimilar regulations within and between the parks, and arguments related
to funding (Hudson, 1998). In order to alleviate the issue, the National Park Service
(NPS) was created (Hudson, 1998). President Taft signed the National Park Service
Organic Act, or Organic Act, on August 25, 1916 (Hudson, 1998). This act requires
the NPS to “conserve the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to
provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will
leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations” (Hudson, 1998, p.
956). In order to achieve the goals of the act, a balance must be placed on
preservation and conservation of natural areas and supporting tourism and the
recreation of patrons (Hudson, 1998). Although a balance is required, the Organic
Act places priority on preservation of the site (Hudson, 1998).
Glacier National Park’s northern border is also the border between the
United States and Canada. Canada’s Waterton Lakes National Park is directly across
the international border in Alberta, British Columbia (Parks Canada, 2015). Since
the creation of Glacier National Park in the beginning of the 20th century, both park
officials from US and Canada believed “the upper Waterton valley, which is
intersected by the Canada/ US border, could not and should not be divided” (Parks
Canada, 2015). They believed the two parks should be joined (Parks Canada, 2015).
Years later, in 1932, the two parks created the first international peace park,
Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (WGIPP) (Parks Canada, 2015). By
combining, management became a shared task for the protected land (Parks Canada,
2015). Joining the two areas increased the size of the park to 1,720 square miles
(Parks Canada, 2015). Later, in 1995, UNESCO designated the peace park as a World
Heritage Site due to its “distinctive climate, physiographic setting, mountain-prairie
interface, and tri-ocean hydrographic divide,” and because “it is an area of
significant scenic values with abundant and diverse flora and fauna” (Parks Canada,
2015).
Glacier National park was designated a national park in 1910, the National
Park Service was created in 1916, and the area became an international peace park
in 1932, but an official management plan was not written until 1977. The purpose of
the Master Plan in 1977 was “to preserve an outstanding mountain area,
characterized by spectacular northern Rocky Mountain topography, active glaciers,
and unique plant and animal communities” (Master Plan, 1977, appendix A), and “to
enable all visitors to derive benefit and enjoyment from their visit” (Master Plan,
1977, appendix A).
The original Master Plan of 1977 was updated through the encouragement of
the National Park Service (Management Plan, 1999). The new management plan
sought public involvement and held many public meetings in which the park was
discussed before the plan was finalized (Management Plan, 1999). After much
debate, the plan was finalized in 1999 (Management Plan, 1999). It provided broad
guidelines for future administration. As with the original plan, the park would
balance conservation and recreation, but furthermore, it stressed the importance of
resource management (Management Plan, 1999). The park would use a policy
created by the National Park Service to guide the resource management. The policy
explains an importance:
To understand natural processes and human-induced effects;
mitigate potential and realized effects; monitor and ongoing and
future trends; protect existing natural organisms, species
populations, communities, systems, and processes; and interpret
these organisms, systems, and processes to the park visitor
(Management Plan, 1999, p. 19).
The plan also discusses critical issues surrounding the park, such as endangered
species, prominent sites, land management zones, and tourist accommodations in
need of repair (Management Plan, 1999). It then provides examples of potential
alternatives and strategies to correct them and environmental assessments of
proposed actions (Management Plan, 1999).
Since the establishment of Glacier National Park in 1910, climate change and
global warming have continually impacted the park. Each policy and plan created
has had potential to become a tool for climate change mitigation. Past actions and
policies, including the drafting of the 1999 management plan, may not have had
adequate information pertaining to climate change or global warming, changes in
the landscape were still evident. A clear reduction from the past, the 1999
management plan stated, “Nearly 40 glaciers still remain in the park” (Management
Plan, 1999, p. iii). Though the plan emphasized plans for resource management and
the Organic Act was a guiding principle, there were no actions or plans to mitigate
threats to the ecological system, which, perhaps unknowingly, would have would
have been mitigating the effects of global warming.
Climate change has gained attention across the globe. In Glacier National
Park, global warming has and will continue to impact many ecological systems.
Glaciers, wild fires, hydrology, flora and fauna are a portion of the areas directly or
indirectly affected. However, teams of people are joining together in hopes of
protecting the national park. Glacier National Park and groups around the world are
implementing plans to reduce effects of climate change and help restore threatened
environments.
Glacier National Park has experienced drastic changes since its
establishment. In 1850, 150 glaciers existed (Hall and Fagre, 2003), 1999, as
mentioned in the management plan, 40 remained (Management Plan, 1999), and
today, the number has been reduced to 25 (Wines, 2014). A minimal part of the
glacial decline is from natural weather cycles of the earth, however, since 1980, the
reduction of glaciers has sped up increasingly (Wines, 2014). The loss of the glaciers
is not simply an issue of losing the visual appeal of the park; many ecological
systems depend on and are influenced by them.
Glaciers are excellent indicators of global warming (Hall and Fagre, 2003).
Regarding climate change, they have been compared to canaries in coalmines for
their ability to warn of invisible dangers (Hall and Fagre, 2003). As Hall and Fagre
stated:
Moreover, they provide a signal that integrates climate change over
time, because they do not respond to year-to-year variability.
Rather, they change their dimension and mass slowly in response
to decadal trends in climate. Thus, the global retreat of glaciers can
be attributed to real climatic changes, not to temporary anomalies
(2003, p. 132).
Though climate change affects all organisms and ecosystems, glaciers are unique in
their inability to adapt to the changes (Hall and Fagre, 2003). This inability enables
them to be “excellent barometers… because they respond directly to trends in
temperature, precipitation, and cloud cover” (Hall and Fagre, 2003, p. 131).
Many studies have been conducted to determine the rate and scope of the
deterioration of the glaciers at Glacier National Park. Myrna H. P. Hall and Daniel B.
Fagre modeled climate-induced glacier change spanning the years of 1850 to 2100.
Recorded data of Glacier National Park has shown an increase of average summer
temperatures by 1.66 degrees Celsius (2.988 degrees Fahrenheit) between 1910
and 1980 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). They reviewed collected data under the pretense
of two different climate scenarios: the linear temperature-extrapolation scenario
and the carbon dioxide-doubling scenario and (Hall and Fagre, 2003).
Although the melting rate at Glacier National Park has increased since 1980
and many have accepted human induced climate change already; Hall and Fagre
studied the linear temperature-extrapolation scenario (Hall and Fagre, 2003). The
scenario “assumes a cyclical climate not linked to human-caused increases of
atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide” (2003, p. 137). With this hypothesis,
there would be an increase of 0.21 degrees Celsius by 2050 and an average summer
temperature of 16.94 degrees Celsius by 2100 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Under this
model, the glaciers persist beyond the year 2100 and the average summer
temperatures (Hall and Fagre, 2003).
Alternatively, the carbon dioxide-doubling scenario is based off the
Environmental Protection Agency’s prediction of the doubling of atmospheric
carbon dioxide by 2030 (Hall and Fagre, 2003). It is believed this doubling would
incite a global average temperature increase of 2.5 degrees Celsius by 2050 (Hall
and Fagre, 2003). Under this regime, the glaciers at Glacier National Park will
disappear by 2030 and by 2100, the average summer temperature will be higher
than 19 degrees Celsius (Hall and Fagre, 2003).
If recent trends persist and the predictions made by Hall, Fagre, and others
are correct, temperatures will continue to rise. The effects of steadily rising
temperatures include the continued decline of glaciers at Glacier National Park
along with other widespread effects. Many environmental and socio-economic
aspects are interrelated with the climate. A few of the systems at risk are water and
hydrologic systems, flora, fauna, and human lifestyles and livelihoods.
Water is essential to sustain all life. Plants, animals, and humans depend on
the natural resource, and in mountainous regions, winter snowfall is necessary to
create enough water throughout the year (Hall and Fagre, 2003). However,
increased temperatures in Glacier National Park have caused mountain snowpacks
to melt (Wines, 2014). Michael Wines stated in an article interviewing Dr. Fagre
about Glacier National Park, “In recent decades, rising winter temperatures have
increasingly changed snow to rain. Rising spring temperatures are melting the
remaining snow faster” (2014). With less water in the summer months, rivers
shrink and soils dry out (Wines, 2014). In recent years, more frequent wildfires and
forest infestations and diseases have already been seen (Wines, 2014). Farmers
near Glacier National Park are also experiencing the results of less stream water as
they try to irrigate fields and provide livestock with water (Wines, 2014).
Higher climate temperatures do not only disrupt hydrology by reducing the
supply of water, but also disrupt ecosystems by increasing the temperature of the
water. In summer months, cold water from glaciers and snowpacks feed streams
(Hall and Fagre, 2003). Consequently, when glaciers and snowpacks disappear, less
cold water can support summer streams, which then become warmer (Hall and
Fagre, 2003). This is an issue for many mountainous species, such as net-spinning
caddisflies (Hall and Fagre, 2003) and the rare stonefly, which is only found in
Glacier National Park, (Giersch et al. 2015) because they require cold-water
habitats.
Abiotic changes such as receding glaciers and snowpacks are not the only
landscape alterations resulting from climate shifts. There are numerous indirect
implications of global warming. Climate change causes snow and ice to retreat,
which allows space for new vegetation to establish (Hall and Fagre, 2003). As
explained in Hall and Fagre’s article, “Glacial retreat provides new areas for plant
colonization and alters sediment transport in streams” (2003, p. 139). However, as
pioneer species and trees invade the newly open space, diversity of herbaceous
plants may decrease (Hall and Fagre, 2003).
The climate is changing. Twenty-one of earth’s twenty-two hottest years
have been in the last thirty years (Rennicke, 2007). Evidence shows this change has
occurred quickly in Glacier National Park. Records show glaciers retreated less than
seven meters per year in 1910 and 40 meters per year between 1917 and 1926
(Hall and Fagre, 2003). In the 1940s, the reduction was above 100 meters per year
in some areas (Hall and Fagre, 2003). Ice in the Mount Jackson-Gunsight Basin area
reduced from 21.6 kilometers to 7.4 kilometers between 1850 and 1980, (Hall and
Fagre, 2003). Overall, the park has lost 73% of its glaciers (Rennicke, 2007). Though
Glacier National Park has many challenges to overcome, the park and other groups
are taking steps to help mitigate and slow future effects of climate change.
The National Park Service (NPS), which was created by the federal
government to lead administration at each national park, is a leader in climate
change mitigation. NPS has accepted the notion of climate change affecting parks at
an accelerated rate, and internal policies in their management plan have been
defined to help learn from and slow future deterioration (NPS Management Plan,
2006). Most importantly, “Parks containing significant natural resources will gather
and maintain baseline climatological data for reference” (NPS Management Plan,
2006). Additionally, their policies prevent attempts to modify the weather and
stress the importance of educating the public on global climate change (NPS
Management Plan, 2006).
In order to add specific guidance in their climate change policies, the
National Park Service has created an overarching climate change action plan
(Whittington et al. 2014). The plan assists park officials with planning for climate
change in the present and future (Whittington et al. 2014). To hold parks
accountable, each region in the United States, Glacier National Park is in the
Intermountain Region (IMR), is expected to conduct an annual report on activities
implemented that reflect the eight emphasized areas of the Climate Change Action
Plan (Whittington et al. 2014). The eight areas include:
Enhance workforce climate literacy, engage youth and their
families, develop effective planning frameworks and guidance,
provide climate change science to parks, implement the Green
Parks Plan, foster robust partnerships, apply appropriate adaption
tools and options, and strengthen communication (Whittington et
al. 2014, p. 2).
Other than determining an overarching climate action plan, the National Park
Services has created numerous plans to help achieve mitigation and sustainability
goals.
The National Park Service created the Green Parks Plan (GPP) in 2012 to
increase sustainability and reduce greenhouse gases at each national park. In order
achieve the goals “the plan focuses on the impact of park facilities on the
environment and human welfare and encourages NPS employees to adopt
sustainability in their daily activities” (Green Parks Plan, 2012, p. 4). The nine goals
of the Green Parks Plan include: to exceed all requirements of all environmental
laws, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase utilization of renewable energy,
increase water efficiency, apply greener transportation methods, use
environmentally friendly products, preserve outdoor values, apply sustainable
operations, and encourage sustainable participation with visitors (Green Parks Plan,
2012).
In order to implement the Green Park Plan, the NPS began the Climate
Friendly Parks (CFP) Program. The program is an initiative that “provides parks
with the tools and resources to address climate change and ensure the most
sustainable operations across the agency” (Climate Friendly Parks). A park can only
become a CFP Official Member, which Glacier National Park is, by completing four
milestones (Climate Friendly Parks). The milestones include: submitting the CFP
application, completing a greenhouse gas inventory for the park’s operations,
conducting CFP training for park stakeholders, and completing a CFP action plan.
Shawn Norton, a CFP coordinator, states in Rennicke’s article, “A perfect Climate
Friendly Park is first and foremost carbon neutral, adding no emissions to the
atmosphere” (2007, p. 29).
The National Park Service has done a lot to promote sustainable practices
and climate change mitigation on a national scale. They could encourage the change,
but the parks were responsible for devising individual action plans. Glacier National
Park created their Environmental Management Plan in 2006. It is in depth and has
specific action items pertaining to the threat of climate change.
Unlike their management plan in 1999, which ignored the changing features
of the environment, the 2006 Environmental Management Plan addresses the issue
(GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Not only does the plan discuss
retreating glaciers, but also contains information of the ecological effects of losing
the glaciers. Aligning with their action items, the plan lists prospective visions for
the park’s future. Some of the visions park officials listed include; Empty parking
lots due to shuttles and carpooling, staff members utilizing bicycles to commute
between park buildings, buildings using “green” technology and are energy efficient
(GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006).
The plan also listed many of the operation interactions of the park and their
perceived impacts. By doing so, they were able to better understand which areas
had the largest impacts and needed the most attention (GNP Environmental
Management Plan, 2006). The impact assessment enabled them to focus develop
plans to help reduce the negative outcomes of the most harmful interactions (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006). “Severity, frequency, financial, and
stakeholders” were the parameters used to measure the interactions (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006). According to the assessment, building
use/facility operations, visitor transportation, employee transportation, vehicle use
and fleet maintenance, and waste management had the highest impact (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006).
The park recognized opportunities to reduce the impacts and created action
plans to accomplish the tasks. For example, one of the greatest impacts on the
assessment was a result of visitor transportation. According to Glacier National
Park’s Environmental Management Plan: “Transportation is a leading cause of GHG
emissions in the park. Collectively, vehicles travelled more than 42 million miles in
the park in 2002.” To combat, the park believed a multi-modal shuttle system would
create an alternative for visitor transportation in the park and hoped to partner
with the surrounding community to develop additional alternatives to
transportation (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). In recent years, plans
had been implemented within the park to help accomplish this goal. Rennicke’s
article explains: “At Glacier National Park, the historic red buses now run on
alternative fuels and have inspired a program to allow employees to ride ‘red
bicycles’ between buildings” (2007, p. 31).
Concluding sections are “Training” and “Legal and Other Requirement” (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006). The training section is a matrix of
necessary training park employees must accomplish (GNP Environmental
Management Plan, 2006). The matrix is segmented into environmental and safety
training and explains how often the employee must be retrained in the area (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Legal and other requirements list laws,
regulations, and executive orders pertaining to Glacier National Park (GNP
Environmental Management Plan, 2006). A few of the federal ordinances relating to
climate change mitigation may include the National Environmental Policy Act, Clean
Air Act, and Endangered Species Act (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006).
The Executive Order 13101, 13123, and 13149 are related to “greening the
government” through recycling, efficient energy management, and federal fleet and
transportation efficiency (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006).
Glacier National Park’s Environmental Management Plan reflects goals and
tasks set by United States. However, being an International Peace Park, “illustrates
the need for cooperation in a world scarce but shared resources” (Management
Plan, 1999, p. 17). Recently, in 2010, both the Prime Minister of British Columbia
and the Governor of Montana agreed to the, Memorandum of Understanding and
Cooperation on Environmental Protection, Climate Action and Energy (Memorandum,
2010). Their signatures acknowledged joint efforts to improve environmental
protection, climate action, and renewable and low carbon energy (Memorandum,
2010).
Men and women who have no authority or management power at the park
are still doing their best to help preserve the natural resources and ecosystem there.
They are stakeholders who enjoy the park and want to see it persist for the
enjoyment of future generations. One recent effort exemplifies the ambition of
outside parties and their aspiration to protect the park. In 2006, a petition was
written to declare the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, which was also
declared a World Heritage Site in 1995, as endangered (NBC, 2006). By labeling the
park as endangered, petitioners hoped the action would prompt the World Heritage
Committee to implement policies to reduce greenhouse gases (NBC, 2006). Though
the park was never declared as endangered (Gallagher, 2006), the actions of the
groups and individuals are evidence of non-affiliated groups working together to
help mitigate the effects of climate change. It proves that every person can help.
Some of the groups associated with the petition are the Center for Biological
Diversity, Defenders of Wildlife, David Suzuki Foundation, Green House Network,
Montana Wilderness association, and more (NBC, 2006).
There is sufficient information explaining how the government and
environmental groups have and continue to work to preserve nature. However,
there are many ways in which individuals can help mitigate global warming as well.
It is a goal for Glacier National Park to educate visitors and stress the harmful effects
of greenhouse gas emissions. To help educate the public about global warming,
Glacier National Park has created interpretive displays, which explain the effects
climate change has on national parks and their resources (Rennicke, 2007). By
being more educated, individuals can become more aware of their own carbon
footprint and seek ways to reduce it.
Global warming has effected and altered lands around the world. Glacier
National Park in Montana is no exception. The threat of change is most apparent in
high altitude regions, such as Glacier National Park, where mean temperatures have
increased more than twice the global average (Giersch et al. 2015). Though the earth
experiences climate change naturally, the rates of which temperatures have been
increasing are beyond natural. Increasing temperatures have drastically reduced the
amount of glaciers and threaten many other ecological systems such hydrology or
sediment flow (GNP Environmental Management Plan, 2006). Though only a few
glaciers remain, government agencies, park management, and individuals are all
implementing plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase energy
efficiencies in order to preserve the remaining environment.
References
Climate Friendly Park. Climate friendly park program. Retrieved from:
https://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/cfpprogram.htm
DeSanto, J. (1995). Foundation for a park: Explorer and geologist bailey willis in the
area of glacier national park. Forest & Conservation History, 39(3), 130.
Gallagher, S. (2006) U.N. takes up proposal to declare Glacier Park in danger.
Retrieved from:
http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/media-archive/GlacierPark7-12-06.pdf
Giersch, J. J., Muhlfeld, C. C., Jones, L. A., Jordan, S., Luikart, G., & Hauer, F. R. (2015).
Climate-induced range contraction of a rare alpine aquatic invertebrate.
Freshwater Science, 34(1), 53-65. doi:10.1086/679490
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f
https://www.nps.gov/greenparksplan/downloads/NPS_2012_Green_Parks_Plan.pd
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Master Plan. (1977). Glacier final master plan. Retrieved from:
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http://www.gov.bc.ca/igrs/attachments/en/MTEnvCoop.pdf
NBC. (2006). Endangered status for Glacier National Park? Retrieved from:
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/11389665/ns/us_news-environment/t/endangeredstatus-glacier-national-park/#.VzKfsWO1345
NPS Management Plan. (2006). Management policies 2006 the guide to managing
the national park system. Retrieved from:
https://www.nps.gov/policy/mp/policies.html
Parks Canada. (2015) Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. Retrieved from:
http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/ab/waterton/natcul/inter.aspx
Rennicke, J. (2007). A CLIMATE OF change. National Parks, 81(4), 26-31.
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Intermountain region 2013. Retrieved from:
http://www.montana.edu/lccvp/documents/NPS_CCAR_dec2013.pdf
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park. New York Times, 164(56694), 20-26.