Download Book Notes Unit 3 Religion

Book Notes Unit 3 Religion/Philosophy
WH
The Chinese Philosophies (pages 94–97)
A. From 500 to 200 B.C., three schools of thought about human nature and the universe
developed in China—Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Chinese philosophers
were concerned with how to live best in this world.
B. Confucius was known to the Chinese as the First Teacher. He was born in 551 B.C.
Motivated by Chinese society’s moral decay and violence, Confucius tried to convince
those in power to follow his ideas; his followers wrote down his sayings in the
Analects. Confucianism, the system of Confucius’s ideas, has been a basic part of
Chinese history. Confucius tried to show the Chinese how to restore order to society.
C. His ideas were political and ethical, not spiritual. If people followed the Dao
(Way) and acted in harmony with the universe’s purposes, people would prosper.
D. Confucius’s ideas of duty and humanity are perhaps his most important. Duty
dictates that individuals subordinate their needs to the needs of family and
community. Further, everyone should be governed by the Five Constant Relationships.
Most important is duty to parents. Finally, rulers must set a good example if society
is going to prosper. Confucius’s idea of humanity emphasizes compassion and empathy
towards others because “all men are brothers.”
E. One of Confucius’s most historically important political ideas was that
government service should not be the province of the rich and noble, but of those
with superior talent and virtuous character.
F. Daoism was a system of ideas based on the teachings of Laozi. Daoism’s chief
ideas are in the book Dao De Jing (The Way of the Dao). It expresses the proper forms of
behavior for people on Earth. Daoists believe that the way to follow the Dao is
inaction, not action. People should act spontaneously and let nature take its course.
G. Legalism was a third philosophy. Unlike Confucianism or Daoism, Legalism believed
human beings were essentially evil. Legalism’s formula for social order was having a
strong ruler and harsh, impersonal laws, both of which made people obedient through
fear.
V. Hinduism (page 77)
A. The religion of Hinduism is based on Aryan religious beliefs. We know about Aryan
religious beliefs from the Vedas, a collection of hymns and ceremonies. The Vedas
make up the oldest Hindu sacred text.
B. Hinduism is the religion of most of the Indian people. Early Hindus believed in an
ultimate reality (God) called Brahman. The individual self, or atman, had the duty to
come to know this ultimate reality. Then the self would merge with Brahman after
death.
C. The idea of reincarnation came into Hinduism in the 500s B.C. Reincarnation is the
idea that after death the individual soul is reborn in a different form. After many
existences the soul may unite with Brahman, the goal of all individuals.
D. Karma is an important part of this process. Karma refers to the idea that
people’s actions determine their form of rebirth and the class into which they are
reborn, if reborn as a person.
E. The divine law, or dharma, rules karma. This law requires all people to do their
duty. Duties vary with one’s caste. The higher the class the higher the social
duties and expectations.
F. The system of reincarnation provided a religious basis for the caste system. For
example, the fewer privileges of the lower classes were justified by saying they were
less deserving due to their karma. Reincarnation also gave hope to the lower classes,
however. They had a way to move up in the caste system.
G. Yoga (“union”) was developed as a practice to achieve oneness with God. This
union was a kind of dreamless sleep.
H. Hinduism has more than 33,000 deities. The three chief ones are Brahma the
Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. The many gods and goddesses
give ordinary Hindus a way to express their everyday religious feelings. Through
devotion at a temple they seek not only salvation but also a way of getting the
ordinary things of life.
VI. Buddhism (pages 78–79)
A. In the sixth century B.C. a new doctrine called Buddhism appeared in northern
India and rivaled Hinduism. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha
(“Enlightened One”).
B. Siddhartha lived a privileged, sheltered life among great wealth. Then he became
aware of life’s sufferings—death, disease, and old age. He gave up his rich life to
find the meaning of life and the cure for human suffering.
C. At first he was an ascetic and practiced self-denial. Abusing his body did not
bring Siddhartha enlightenment, however. He entered a period of intense meditation
and one evening reached enlightenment. He spent the rest of his life teaching what he
learned.
D. These teachings are the basis of Buddhism. The physical realm is illusion.
Desire’s attachments to the physical cause suffering. Giving up these attachments
leads to wisdom, or bodhi. Achieving wisdom is a key step in achieving nirvana, or
ultimate reality, in a reunion with the Great World Soul.
E. The essential Buddhist teachings concern the Four Noble Truths and the way to
achieve these truths, taking the Middle, or Eightfold, Path. Siddhartha accepted
reincarnation but rejected the Hindu caste system. For this reason Buddhism appealed
to those in the lower castes. After Siddhartha’s death in 480 B.C., his followers
spread the message throughout India. Monasteries were established to promote
Buddhism.
III. Religion and Government (pages 255–256)
A. By the time of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism and Daoism had emerged to
rival Confucianism. Confucianism reemerged at the end of the Tang period, and held
its dominance until the early twentieth century.
B. Buddhism came to China in the first century A.D. Indian merchants and missionaries
brought it. Because of the instability after the collapse of the Han dynasty, both
Buddhism and Daoism attracted many people, especially the ruling classes,
intellectuals, and the wealthy.
C. Early Tang rulers supported monasteries, and Buddhists and Daoists became advisors
at court. Ultimately, however, both were criticized and attacked.
D. Buddhism was attacked for being a foreign religion. Also, the Buddhist monasteries
held lands and serfs, and with these holdings came corruption.
E. During the late Tang period, the government destroyed many Buddhist temples and
forced thousands of monks to return to secular life. Buddhism and Daoism no longer
enjoyed state support.
F. Official support went to a revived Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism. It differs from
the original Confucianism. It teaches that the world is real, not illusory, and that
fulfillment comes from participation in the world.
III. The “Children of Israel” (pages 56–60)
A. The Israelites were a Semitic people living in Palestine along the eastern
Mediterranean Sea. Archaeological evidence indicates they emerged as a distinct group
between 1200 and 1000 B.C. The Israelites soon established a kingdom known as Israel.
B. The Israelites were not particularly important politically. Their main
contribution to history was their religion, Judaism. Judaism still flourishes as a
major religion, and it influenced both Christianity and Islam.
C. Israel ruled Palestine. Its capital was Jerusalem. King Solomon who ruled from 970
to 930 B.C., was Israel’s first great king. Solomon was known for his wisdom. Most
importantly, he built the temple in Jerusalem. To this day the Jewish people take
this temple as the symbolic center of Israel and Judaism.
D. After Solomon, the kingdom divided into two parts. The Kingdom of Israel was made
up of ten tribes. The Kingdom of Judah to the south was made up of two tribes. In
772 B.C, the Assyrians conquered and scattered the ten tribes of Israel. They lost
their Hebrew identity. It is this event that gave rise to the idea of the “ten lost
tribes” of Israel.
E. The Chaldeans conquered Assyria and the Kingdom of Judah, destroying the temple
in Jerusalem in 586 B.C. Many upper-class captives were sent to Babylonia.
F. After the Persians conquered the Chaldeans, the people of Judah were permitted to
return. The Kingdom of Judah was reborn and the temple rebuilt. The people of Judah
survived even conquest by Alexander the Great, eventually becoming known as the
Jews and giving their name to Judaism.
G. Jewish belief says there is one God, Yahweh. The belief in one God only is called
monotheism. Yahweh created and rules the world. God, however, is not in nature;
natural phenomena are not divine. All people are Yahweh’s servants, not just a
certain tribe or nation.
H. The three most important aspects of the Jewish religion are the covenant, the law,
and the prophets.
I. The covenant is the agreement between God and his people. The Jews could fulfill
the covenant by obeying the law of God, called the Ten Commandments.
J. The Jews believed that religious teachers, called prophets, were sent by God. The
prophets generally warned the people of Israel about Yahweh’s punishment should
they not follow the law.
K. The prophets also added a new element to the Jewish tradition. Prophets like
Isaiah expressed concern for all humanity and the hope that someday all people would
follow the law of the God of Israel in a time of peace. People would show compassion
to each other. They also would care for social justice and the condition of the poor
and unfortunate.
L. Judaism was unique in western Asia and Egypt. Its most distinctive feature is its
monotheism. Further, the ideas of Judaism were written down, so people besides
priests and rulers could have religious knowledge and know God’s will. The Jews also
would not accept the gods or goddesses of their neighbors.
M. Conflicts in Canaan between the Israelites and other groups are ancient. When the
Israelites entered Canaan around 1220 B.C., they fought with the Philistines. To beat
them they united around a new king, Saul. Saul was defeated, but David later defeated
the Philistines. Conflicts continue, today between Israelis and Arabs.
II. The Jewish Background and The Rise of Christianity (pages 170–172)
A. By A.D. 6, Judaea, which covered the lands of the ancient kingdom of Judah, was a
Roman province under the direction of a procurator. Unrest was common in Judaea,
even among factions of Jews.
B. Among the Jews, the Sadducees counseled cooperating with the Romans, the Essenes
awaited a Messiah who would save Israel from oppression and establish a paradise on
Earth, and the Zealots advocated overthrowing Roman rule. A revolt begun in 66 was
crushed by the Romans, who destroyed the temple in Jerusalem
C. Jesus, a Jew, began to preach in the midst of this conflict. Jesus taught that
inner transformation was most important, not adhering to laws or rituals. He claimed
that the Golden Rule summed up the Jewish teachings. He commanded that we love God
and love each other, treating all as our neighbors. Jesus taught the virtues that
would be the basis of medieval Western civilization: humility, charity, and love of
others.
D. The Judaeans turned Jesus over to the Romans as a subversive because they thought
he might cause people to revolt against Rome. The procurator, Pontius Pilate, ordered
his crucifixion. Followers of Jesus believed he overcame death, however. Many Jewish
followers believed he was the Messiah who had come to save Israel.
E. Simon Peter was a prominent figure in early Christianity. Peter and the other
disciples taught that Jesus was the Savior and Son of God who had come to Earth to
save all people. Jesus’ death could make up for people’s sins and offer them
salvation. Another prominent leader was Paul of Tarsus. Paul followed Jesus’
command to preach the gospel to both Jews and non-Jews, or Gentiles. He founded many
Christian communities in Asia Minor and along the Aegean Sea.
F. After word spread that Jesus had overcome death, people converted in droves. Only
60 days after his crucifixion, Jerusalem alone had ten thousand converts. Paul wrote
letters (epistles) to Christian communities and other disciples may have written down
Jesus’ sayings. Between A.D. 40 and 100, these became the basis of the written
Gospels (“the good news”). The Gospels tell of Jesus’ life and teachings, and form
the basis of
the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible.
G. Christianity’s basic values differed from Greco-Roman values. Even so, at first
the Romans paid little attention to the spread of Christianity. That attitude
changed. Romans came to see Christianity as harmful to public order and morals
because Christians would not worship the Roman gods. This was an act of treason, a
capital crime. Christians believed, however, in one God only and that worshipping
false gods would endanger their salvation.
H. Roman persecution of Christians began under Nero (A.D. 54–68), who blamed them for
the fire that burned much of Rome. He subjected them to cruel deaths. Until the end
of the next century, persecution lessened, though it continued to a degree. By the
end of the rule of five good emperors, Christians made up a small but strong
minority.
III. The Triumph of Christianity (pages 172–174)
A. Roman persecution strengthened Christianity by forcing it to become more
organized. The emerging control over Christian communities by bishops was important
to this change. The Christian Church was creating a distinction between the clergy
(church leaders) and the laity (everyday church members).
B. For a number of reasons, Christianity grew steadily. First, it was more personal
than the Roman religion and offered eternal life and salvation. Second, it was
familiar because it was like other religions that offered immortality through the
sacrificial death of a savior-god. Third, it fulfilled the human need to belong.
Christians formed communities based on love and care. Christianity was especially
attractive to the poor and powerless. Everyone, regardless of status, could gain
salvation and all were equal in the eyes of God.
C. Emperors in the third century began new waves of persecution, ending with the
great persecution by Diocletian at the beginning of the fourth century. Christianity
was too strong for force to destroy it, however. Christianity prospered in the fourth
century. Constantine became the first Christian emperor. In 313 his Edict of Milan
officially sanctioned tolerating Christianity. Under Theodosius the Great, the
Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion.
Islam
C. Most early Arabs were polytheistic, but Allah (Arabic for “God”) was the supreme
God. They traced their ancestry to Abraham and his son Ishmael, who were believed
to have built a shrine called the Kaaba at Makkah (Mecca). The cornerstone of the
Kaaba, the Black Stone, was revered for its association with Abraham.
D. By the sixth century A.D. the trade route through Makkah to modern Yemen and
across the Indian Ocean became popular. Communities along this route flourished.
Tensions arose between the wealthy merchant class and the poorer clanspeople and
slaves.
II. The Life of Muhammad (pages 192–193)
A. Muhammad was born into a merchant family in Makkah. He was orphaned early. He
became a caravan manager and married his boss, a rich widow named Khadija.
Muhammad was deeply troubled by the gap in his area between the rich merchants,
who he thought were greedy, and most Makkans, who he thought were simple and
honest. He went to the hills to meditate on the matter.
B. While meditating, Muslims believe, Muhammad received revelations from God. Islam
teaches that the messages were given by the angel Gabriel, who told Muhammad to
recite what he heard.
C. Muhammad came to believe that Allah had revealed himself partially through Moses
(Judaism) and Jesus (Christianity), and that Allah’s final revelations were to him.
The Quran, the holy scriptures of Islam, came out of these revelations. (The word
Islam means “submission to the will of Allah.”) The Quran contains the ethical
guidelines for Muslims, those who practice Islam. Islam has only one God, Allah, and
Muhammad is his prophet.
D. Muhammad set out to convince the people of Makkah that his revelations were true.
His wife was his first convert, but after preaching for three years he had only 30
followers. They were persecuted. In 622 he and some of his followers moved north to
Yathrib, later renamed Madinah (Medina: “city of the prophet”). This journey is
known as the Hijrah, and 622 is the first year of the Muslim calendar. Muhammad
won support from residents of Madinah and Bedouins, Arabs in the desert. These
formed the first community of practicing Muslims.
E. Muhammad did not separate political and religious authority. Submission to the
will of Allah meant submitting to his prophet, and Muhammad became a religious,
political, and military leader. He assembled a military force to defend his
community. His military victories soon attracted many followers.
F. In 630 Muhammad returned to Makkah with ten thousand soldiers. The city
surrendered and many residents converted to Islam. Muhammad declared the Kaaba a
sacred shrine. Two years later, Muhammad died, as Islam was first spreading
throughout the Arabian Peninsula.
III. The Teachings of Muhammad (pages 193–194)
A. Islam is monotheistic. Allah is the all-powerful Creator of everything. Islam
offers salvation and the hope of an afterlife for those who subject themselves to
Allah’s will.
B. Muhammad is not considered divine, as Jesus is. He is a prophet who conveys
Allah’s final revelation. To do Allah’s will, one must follow an ethical code
comprised of the Five Pillars of Islam: Believe in Allah and Muhammad as his prophet;
pray to Allah five times a day with public prayer on Fridays; give alms to the poor
and unfortunate; observe the holy month of Ramadan, especially by fasting; make a
pilgrimage to Makkah once, if possible. This pilgrimage is called the hajj.
C. Islam is more a way of life than a set of beliefs. After the prophet’s death,
Muslim Scholars drew up a law code called the shari’ah. It provides guidelines for
daily living, and much of it comes from the Quran. Muslims must follow sound
principles, such as honesty and justice. Muslims may not gamble, eat pork, drink
alcoholic beverages, or be dishonest.
III. Hellenistic Culture (pages142–143)
A. The Hellenistic Age saw considerable cultural achievement, especially in science
andphilosophy. The most important cultural center was Alexandria, home to scholars of
all kinds—philosophers, scientists, and writers. Alexandria’s library was the
largest of its kind, with over five hundred thousand scrolls.
B. Founding and rebuilding cities provided opportunities for architects and
sculptors. The baths, theaters, and temples that characterized the Greek homeland
lined the streets of the Hellenistic cities. Hellenistic sculptors added realism and
emotion to the classical period’s technical skill.
C. Important advances in mathematics and astronomy were made during the Hellenistic
Age. Aristarchus developed the theory that the sun is the center of the universe and
that the earth rotates around the sun. Eratosthenes determined that Earth is round
and nearly calculated the correct circumference of the Earth. Euclid wrote a textbook
on plane geometry, the Elements, that was used up to modern times.
D. Archimedes was one of the most important Hellenistic scientists. He established
the value of pi and did important work in the geometry of spheres and cylinders. He
also invented machines to repel attackers during his city’s siege and, perhaps, the
Archimedes screw, used in pumping and irrigation. It is said that when he discovered
specific gravity while in the bath, he jumped up and ran down the street naked
shouting, “Eureka!” (“I have found it!”) He thought levers were so significant
that reportedly he told the king of Syracuse, “Give me a lever and a place to stand
on and I will move the earth.”
E. Athens remained a center for philosophy. It became the center of two new schools
of
thought, Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicurus believed that human beings were free
to follow their self-interest. Happiness was the goal of life, and happiness was
achieved by pursuing pleasure, the only true good. Pleasure, however, was not
satisfying physical appetites but rather the freedom from anxiety that comes from a
mind at rest. Achieving this peace meant removing oneself from public life, but not
social life. Life could only be fulfilled when centered on virtuous friendship.
F. A teacher named Zeno founded Stoicism. This school of thought also emphasized
achieving happiness. For the Stoics, however, happiness was gained by living in
harmony with the will of God. Then life’s problems could not disturb a person.
Stoics also regarded public service as noble and did not remove themselves from
public life.