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Book Notes Unit 3 Religion/Philosophy WH The Chinese Philosophies (pages 94–97) A. From 500 to 200 B.C., three schools of thought about human nature and the universe developed in China—Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Chinese philosophers were concerned with how to live best in this world. B. Confucius was known to the Chinese as the First Teacher. He was born in 551 B.C. Motivated by Chinese society’s moral decay and violence, Confucius tried to convince those in power to follow his ideas; his followers wrote down his sayings in the Analects. Confucianism, the system of Confucius’s ideas, has been a basic part of Chinese history. Confucius tried to show the Chinese how to restore order to society. C. His ideas were political and ethical, not spiritual. If people followed the Dao (Way) and acted in harmony with the universe’s purposes, people would prosper. D. Confucius’s ideas of duty and humanity are perhaps his most important. Duty dictates that individuals subordinate their needs to the needs of family and community. Further, everyone should be governed by the Five Constant Relationships. Most important is duty to parents. Finally, rulers must set a good example if society is going to prosper. Confucius’s idea of humanity emphasizes compassion and empathy towards others because “all men are brothers.” E. One of Confucius’s most historically important political ideas was that government service should not be the province of the rich and noble, but of those with superior talent and virtuous character. F. Daoism was a system of ideas based on the teachings of Laozi. Daoism’s chief ideas are in the book Dao De Jing (The Way of the Dao). It expresses the proper forms of behavior for people on Earth. Daoists believe that the way to follow the Dao is inaction, not action. People should act spontaneously and let nature take its course. G. Legalism was a third philosophy. Unlike Confucianism or Daoism, Legalism believed human beings were essentially evil. Legalism’s formula for social order was having a strong ruler and harsh, impersonal laws, both of which made people obedient through fear. V. Hinduism (page 77) A. The religion of Hinduism is based on Aryan religious beliefs. We know about Aryan religious beliefs from the Vedas, a collection of hymns and ceremonies. The Vedas make up the oldest Hindu sacred text. B. Hinduism is the religion of most of the Indian people. Early Hindus believed in an ultimate reality (God) called Brahman. The individual self, or atman, had the duty to come to know this ultimate reality. Then the self would merge with Brahman after death. C. The idea of reincarnation came into Hinduism in the 500s B.C. Reincarnation is the idea that after death the individual soul is reborn in a different form. After many existences the soul may unite with Brahman, the goal of all individuals. D. Karma is an important part of this process. Karma refers to the idea that people’s actions determine their form of rebirth and the class into which they are reborn, if reborn as a person. E. The divine law, or dharma, rules karma. This law requires all people to do their duty. Duties vary with one’s caste. The higher the class the higher the social duties and expectations. F. The system of reincarnation provided a religious basis for the caste system. For example, the fewer privileges of the lower classes were justified by saying they were less deserving due to their karma. Reincarnation also gave hope to the lower classes, however. They had a way to move up in the caste system. G. Yoga (“union”) was developed as a practice to achieve oneness with God. This union was a kind of dreamless sleep. H. Hinduism has more than 33,000 deities. The three chief ones are Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. The many gods and goddesses give ordinary Hindus a way to express their everyday religious feelings. Through devotion at a temple they seek not only salvation but also a way of getting the ordinary things of life. VI. Buddhism (pages 78–79) A. In the sixth century B.C. a new doctrine called Buddhism appeared in northern India and rivaled Hinduism. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (“Enlightened One”). B. Siddhartha lived a privileged, sheltered life among great wealth. Then he became aware of life’s sufferings—death, disease, and old age. He gave up his rich life to find the meaning of life and the cure for human suffering. C. At first he was an ascetic and practiced self-denial. Abusing his body did not bring Siddhartha enlightenment, however. He entered a period of intense meditation and one evening reached enlightenment. He spent the rest of his life teaching what he learned. D. These teachings are the basis of Buddhism. The physical realm is illusion. Desire’s attachments to the physical cause suffering. Giving up these attachments leads to wisdom, or bodhi. Achieving wisdom is a key step in achieving nirvana, or ultimate reality, in a reunion with the Great World Soul. E. The essential Buddhist teachings concern the Four Noble Truths and the way to achieve these truths, taking the Middle, or Eightfold, Path. Siddhartha accepted reincarnation but rejected the Hindu caste system. For this reason Buddhism appealed to those in the lower castes. After Siddhartha’s death in 480 B.C., his followers spread the message throughout India. Monasteries were established to promote Buddhism. III. Religion and Government (pages 255–256) A. By the time of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism and Daoism had emerged to rival Confucianism. Confucianism reemerged at the end of the Tang period, and held its dominance until the early twentieth century. B. Buddhism came to China in the first century A.D. Indian merchants and missionaries brought it. Because of the instability after the collapse of the Han dynasty, both Buddhism and Daoism attracted many people, especially the ruling classes, intellectuals, and the wealthy. C. Early Tang rulers supported monasteries, and Buddhists and Daoists became advisors at court. Ultimately, however, both were criticized and attacked. D. Buddhism was attacked for being a foreign religion. Also, the Buddhist monasteries held lands and serfs, and with these holdings came corruption. E. During the late Tang period, the government destroyed many Buddhist temples and forced thousands of monks to return to secular life. Buddhism and Daoism no longer enjoyed state support. F. Official support went to a revived Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism. It differs from the original Confucianism. It teaches that the world is real, not illusory, and that fulfillment comes from participation in the world. III. The “Children of Israel” (pages 56–60) A. The Israelites were a Semitic people living in Palestine along the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Archaeological evidence indicates they emerged as a distinct group between 1200 and 1000 B.C. The Israelites soon established a kingdom known as Israel. B. The Israelites were not particularly important politically. Their main contribution to history was their religion, Judaism. Judaism still flourishes as a major religion, and it influenced both Christianity and Islam. C. Israel ruled Palestine. Its capital was Jerusalem. King Solomon who ruled from 970 to 930 B.C., was Israel’s first great king. Solomon was known for his wisdom. Most importantly, he built the temple in Jerusalem. To this day the Jewish people take this temple as the symbolic center of Israel and Judaism. D. After Solomon, the kingdom divided into two parts. The Kingdom of Israel was made up of ten tribes. The Kingdom of Judah to the south was made up of two tribes. In 772 B.C, the Assyrians conquered and scattered the ten tribes of Israel. They lost their Hebrew identity. It is this event that gave rise to the idea of the “ten lost tribes” of Israel. E. The Chaldeans conquered Assyria and the Kingdom of Judah, destroying the temple in Jerusalem in 586 B.C. Many upper-class captives were sent to Babylonia. F. After the Persians conquered the Chaldeans, the people of Judah were permitted to return. The Kingdom of Judah was reborn and the temple rebuilt. The people of Judah survived even conquest by Alexander the Great, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism. G. Jewish belief says there is one God, Yahweh. The belief in one God only is called monotheism. Yahweh created and rules the world. God, however, is not in nature; natural phenomena are not divine. All people are Yahweh’s servants, not just a certain tribe or nation. H. The three most important aspects of the Jewish religion are the covenant, the law, and the prophets. I. The covenant is the agreement between God and his people. The Jews could fulfill the covenant by obeying the law of God, called the Ten Commandments. J. The Jews believed that religious teachers, called prophets, were sent by God. The prophets generally warned the people of Israel about Yahweh’s punishment should they not follow the law. K. The prophets also added a new element to the Jewish tradition. Prophets like Isaiah expressed concern for all humanity and the hope that someday all people would follow the law of the God of Israel in a time of peace. People would show compassion to each other. They also would care for social justice and the condition of the poor and unfortunate. L. Judaism was unique in western Asia and Egypt. Its most distinctive feature is its monotheism. Further, the ideas of Judaism were written down, so people besides priests and rulers could have religious knowledge and know God’s will. The Jews also would not accept the gods or goddesses of their neighbors. M. Conflicts in Canaan between the Israelites and other groups are ancient. When the Israelites entered Canaan around 1220 B.C., they fought with the Philistines. To beat them they united around a new king, Saul. Saul was defeated, but David later defeated the Philistines. Conflicts continue, today between Israelis and Arabs. II. The Jewish Background and The Rise of Christianity (pages 170–172) A. By A.D. 6, Judaea, which covered the lands of the ancient kingdom of Judah, was a Roman province under the direction of a procurator. Unrest was common in Judaea, even among factions of Jews. B. Among the Jews, the Sadducees counseled cooperating with the Romans, the Essenes awaited a Messiah who would save Israel from oppression and establish a paradise on Earth, and the Zealots advocated overthrowing Roman rule. A revolt begun in 66 was crushed by the Romans, who destroyed the temple in Jerusalem C. Jesus, a Jew, began to preach in the midst of this conflict. Jesus taught that inner transformation was most important, not adhering to laws or rituals. He claimed that the Golden Rule summed up the Jewish teachings. He commanded that we love God and love each other, treating all as our neighbors. Jesus taught the virtues that would be the basis of medieval Western civilization: humility, charity, and love of others. D. The Judaeans turned Jesus over to the Romans as a subversive because they thought he might cause people to revolt against Rome. The procurator, Pontius Pilate, ordered his crucifixion. Followers of Jesus believed he overcame death, however. Many Jewish followers believed he was the Messiah who had come to save Israel. E. Simon Peter was a prominent figure in early Christianity. Peter and the other disciples taught that Jesus was the Savior and Son of God who had come to Earth to save all people. Jesus’ death could make up for people’s sins and offer them salvation. Another prominent leader was Paul of Tarsus. Paul followed Jesus’ command to preach the gospel to both Jews and non-Jews, or Gentiles. He founded many Christian communities in Asia Minor and along the Aegean Sea. F. After word spread that Jesus had overcome death, people converted in droves. Only 60 days after his crucifixion, Jerusalem alone had ten thousand converts. Paul wrote letters (epistles) to Christian communities and other disciples may have written down Jesus’ sayings. Between A.D. 40 and 100, these became the basis of the written Gospels (“the good news”). The Gospels tell of Jesus’ life and teachings, and form the basis of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible. G. Christianity’s basic values differed from Greco-Roman values. Even so, at first the Romans paid little attention to the spread of Christianity. That attitude changed. Romans came to see Christianity as harmful to public order and morals because Christians would not worship the Roman gods. This was an act of treason, a capital crime. Christians believed, however, in one God only and that worshipping false gods would endanger their salvation. H. Roman persecution of Christians began under Nero (A.D. 54–68), who blamed them for the fire that burned much of Rome. He subjected them to cruel deaths. Until the end of the next century, persecution lessened, though it continued to a degree. By the end of the rule of five good emperors, Christians made up a small but strong minority. III. The Triumph of Christianity (pages 172–174) A. Roman persecution strengthened Christianity by forcing it to become more organized. The emerging control over Christian communities by bishops was important to this change. The Christian Church was creating a distinction between the clergy (church leaders) and the laity (everyday church members). B. For a number of reasons, Christianity grew steadily. First, it was more personal than the Roman religion and offered eternal life and salvation. Second, it was familiar because it was like other religions that offered immortality through the sacrificial death of a savior-god. Third, it fulfilled the human need to belong. Christians formed communities based on love and care. Christianity was especially attractive to the poor and powerless. Everyone, regardless of status, could gain salvation and all were equal in the eyes of God. C. Emperors in the third century began new waves of persecution, ending with the great persecution by Diocletian at the beginning of the fourth century. Christianity was too strong for force to destroy it, however. Christianity prospered in the fourth century. Constantine became the first Christian emperor. In 313 his Edict of Milan officially sanctioned tolerating Christianity. Under Theodosius the Great, the Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion. Islam C. Most early Arabs were polytheistic, but Allah (Arabic for “God”) was the supreme God. They traced their ancestry to Abraham and his son Ishmael, who were believed to have built a shrine called the Kaaba at Makkah (Mecca). The cornerstone of the Kaaba, the Black Stone, was revered for its association with Abraham. D. By the sixth century A.D. the trade route through Makkah to modern Yemen and across the Indian Ocean became popular. Communities along this route flourished. Tensions arose between the wealthy merchant class and the poorer clanspeople and slaves. II. The Life of Muhammad (pages 192–193) A. Muhammad was born into a merchant family in Makkah. He was orphaned early. He became a caravan manager and married his boss, a rich widow named Khadija. Muhammad was deeply troubled by the gap in his area between the rich merchants, who he thought were greedy, and most Makkans, who he thought were simple and honest. He went to the hills to meditate on the matter. B. While meditating, Muslims believe, Muhammad received revelations from God. Islam teaches that the messages were given by the angel Gabriel, who told Muhammad to recite what he heard. C. Muhammad came to believe that Allah had revealed himself partially through Moses (Judaism) and Jesus (Christianity), and that Allah’s final revelations were to him. The Quran, the holy scriptures of Islam, came out of these revelations. (The word Islam means “submission to the will of Allah.”) The Quran contains the ethical guidelines for Muslims, those who practice Islam. Islam has only one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet. D. Muhammad set out to convince the people of Makkah that his revelations were true. His wife was his first convert, but after preaching for three years he had only 30 followers. They were persecuted. In 622 he and some of his followers moved north to Yathrib, later renamed Madinah (Medina: “city of the prophet”). This journey is known as the Hijrah, and 622 is the first year of the Muslim calendar. Muhammad won support from residents of Madinah and Bedouins, Arabs in the desert. These formed the first community of practicing Muslims. E. Muhammad did not separate political and religious authority. Submission to the will of Allah meant submitting to his prophet, and Muhammad became a religious, political, and military leader. He assembled a military force to defend his community. His military victories soon attracted many followers. F. In 630 Muhammad returned to Makkah with ten thousand soldiers. The city surrendered and many residents converted to Islam. Muhammad declared the Kaaba a sacred shrine. Two years later, Muhammad died, as Islam was first spreading throughout the Arabian Peninsula. III. The Teachings of Muhammad (pages 193–194) A. Islam is monotheistic. Allah is the all-powerful Creator of everything. Islam offers salvation and the hope of an afterlife for those who subject themselves to Allah’s will. B. Muhammad is not considered divine, as Jesus is. He is a prophet who conveys Allah’s final revelation. To do Allah’s will, one must follow an ethical code comprised of the Five Pillars of Islam: Believe in Allah and Muhammad as his prophet; pray to Allah five times a day with public prayer on Fridays; give alms to the poor and unfortunate; observe the holy month of Ramadan, especially by fasting; make a pilgrimage to Makkah once, if possible. This pilgrimage is called the hajj. C. Islam is more a way of life than a set of beliefs. After the prophet’s death, Muslim Scholars drew up a law code called the shari’ah. It provides guidelines for daily living, and much of it comes from the Quran. Muslims must follow sound principles, such as honesty and justice. Muslims may not gamble, eat pork, drink alcoholic beverages, or be dishonest. III. Hellenistic Culture (pages142–143) A. The Hellenistic Age saw considerable cultural achievement, especially in science andphilosophy. The most important cultural center was Alexandria, home to scholars of all kinds—philosophers, scientists, and writers. Alexandria’s library was the largest of its kind, with over five hundred thousand scrolls. B. Founding and rebuilding cities provided opportunities for architects and sculptors. The baths, theaters, and temples that characterized the Greek homeland lined the streets of the Hellenistic cities. Hellenistic sculptors added realism and emotion to the classical period’s technical skill. C. Important advances in mathematics and astronomy were made during the Hellenistic Age. Aristarchus developed the theory that the sun is the center of the universe and that the earth rotates around the sun. Eratosthenes determined that Earth is round and nearly calculated the correct circumference of the Earth. Euclid wrote a textbook on plane geometry, the Elements, that was used up to modern times. D. Archimedes was one of the most important Hellenistic scientists. He established the value of pi and did important work in the geometry of spheres and cylinders. He also invented machines to repel attackers during his city’s siege and, perhaps, the Archimedes screw, used in pumping and irrigation. It is said that when he discovered specific gravity while in the bath, he jumped up and ran down the street naked shouting, “Eureka!” (“I have found it!”) He thought levers were so significant that reportedly he told the king of Syracuse, “Give me a lever and a place to stand on and I will move the earth.” E. Athens remained a center for philosophy. It became the center of two new schools of thought, Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicurus believed that human beings were free to follow their self-interest. Happiness was the goal of life, and happiness was achieved by pursuing pleasure, the only true good. Pleasure, however, was not satisfying physical appetites but rather the freedom from anxiety that comes from a mind at rest. Achieving this peace meant removing oneself from public life, but not social life. Life could only be fulfilled when centered on virtuous friendship. F. A teacher named Zeno founded Stoicism. This school of thought also emphasized achieving happiness. For the Stoics, however, happiness was gained by living in harmony with the will of God. Then life’s problems could not disturb a person. Stoics also regarded public service as noble and did not remove themselves from public life.