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Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Known and the Unknown Proceedings of the Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Known and the Unknown Cape Town, South Africa 23-26 September 2003 Edited by Cynthia Decker, Charles Griffiths, Kim Prochazka, Carmen Ras & Alan Whitfield Table of contents Page 3-5 Introduction National reports : Country – Liberia & Cote d’Ivoire : Country – Ghana, Togo & Benin : Country – Nigeria : Country – Cameroon, Sao Tome & Principe : Country – Gabon : Country – Angola : Country – Namibia : Country – South Africa : Country – Moçambique : Country – Tanzania : Country – Kenya : Country – Mauritius & Reunion : Country – Seychelles 6-25 26-45 46-63 64-74 75-85 86-98 99-123 124-137 138-155 156-168 169-187 188-205 206-227 Thematic reports : Macroalgae : Biogeography of estuarine fishes in Africa : Western Indian Ocean Project on marine biodiversity : Coastal and seabirds 229-241 242-245 246-252 253-262 Related initiatives : Census of Marine Life (CoML) Indian Ocean : Ocean Biogeographical Information Systems (OBIS) : Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) : World Wide Fund For Nature in South Africa (WWF-SA) : Marine Species Database for Eastern Africa (MASDEA) and Ocean Data and Information Network for Africa (ODINAfrica) : How to achieve a national biodiversity review and inventory : SeaweedAfrica Database : Seawaste Network 264-265 266 267-270 Workshop reports Appendix 271-272 273-276 277 278-280 281-282 : Summary of the first two days : Introduction to the workshop sessions : Working Session A – Exploration of mechanisms for information dissemination and communication : Working Session B – Identifying and addressing key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa : Working Session C – Developing appropriate capacity for furthering knowledge of Africa’s marine biodiversity : The Way Forward : Resolution 295-297 298-299 300 : Programme : List of delegates 302-303 304-310 2 284-285 286 287-289 290-294 PROCEEDINGS OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN MARINE BIODIVERSITY WORKSHOP The following document records the proceedings of a workshop entitled “Marine Biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa: the Known and the Unknown”, which was held in Cape Town, South Africa, from 24-26 September 2003. The workshop was an initiative of the Census of Marine Life (CoML) Programme, which has sponsored a series of other similar regional workshops, aimed at documenting the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity and at establishing regional networks of researchers to promote and co-ordinate future research in the discipline. Previous workshops have been held in Southeast Asia (Phuket, October 2001) and in South America (Conception, October 2002), and another is proposed for India in December 2003. The sub-Saharan African workshop was convened jointly by the Zoology Department at the University of Cape Town, the International Ocean Institute in Southern Africa (University of the Western Cape), and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, and was supported financially by the Alfred P Sloan Foundation. This workshop brought together African experts in the field of marine and coastal biological diversity from 14 coastal countries in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as relevant decisionmakers, representatives of their governments, and representatives of related regional and global initiatives. Their mandate was to explore the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa, and to evaluate the current status, and threats to, marine biological diversity in the region. The workshop also considered what actions could be taken to address shortcomings in the state of knowledge surrounding marine biological diversity in subSaharan Africa, and to mitigate current threats to this diversity. It is our hope that these discussions will ultimately result in the establishment of a broader Action Programme to address these vital issues, and a committee was appointed at the conclusion of the meeting to take these matters forward. The proposed Action Programme could focus on a number of key areas, including: • • • • • The formation of a network of biodiversity researchers and professionals in subSaharan Africa. Addressing key gaps in current knowledge of marine and coastal biological diversity in sub-Saharan Africa through, for example, mobilization of research funding. Information dissemination and communication, including the establishment and consolidation of the network of biodiversity researchers and professionals, and an electronic database of biodiversity and taxonomic resources (including species inventories, catalogues of museum holdings, lists of taxonomists working on different groups, etc.). Developing human, institutional and infrastructural capacity for furthering knowledge of marine and coastal biological diversity in the region through, for example, development of an MSc course in taxonomic and biodiversity studies, partnering with other institutions in exchange programmes, etc. Facilitating management of marine and coastal biological diversity in the region through, for example, provision of information through the database (including GISbased information), provision of advisory services, etc. 3 Our thanks to the Sloan Foundation for their generous support, without which this workshop could not have taken place, to the workshop participants for the considerable effort they put into their presentations and written reports and to our host institutions for allowing us to become involved in this important exercise. We trust you, the reader, will find these proceedings of interest The ORGANISING COMMITTEE Prof Charles Griffiths (Chair) Director: Marine Biology Research Institute University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 e-mail: [email protected] Ms Carmen Ras (Secretariat) Co-ordinator: Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Assessment Programme International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa (IOI-SA) C/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Bellville 7535 e-mail: [email protected] Dr Kim Prochazka Director: International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa (IOI-SA) C/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Bellville 7535 e-mail: [email protected] 4 Dr Alan Whitfield Deputy Director: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity Private Bag 1015 Grahamstown 6140 e-mail: [email protected] Dr Cynthia J. Decker Liaison Branch Oceanographer of the Navy (N096) U.S. Naval Observatory Bldg 1 3450 Massachusetts Ave., NW Washington, DC 20392-5421 email: [email protected] 5 National Report Marine biodiversity in Côte d’Ivoire – the known and the unknown Sankaré Yacouba & N’Goran Ya Nestor 29 Rue des Pêcheurs, Centre de Recherches Océanologiques, BPV 18 Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire 1. Introduction Located in the Gulf of Guinea, with an area of 322 465 km², Cote d’Ivoire (4°30’ and 10°30’N and 2°30’ and 8°30’W) is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the south, Liberia in the south east, Guinea in the northwest, Burkina Faso in the north and Ghana in the east. The coast between Liberia and Ghana is about 540 km length. The country is influenced by the Monsoon (humid) and Harmattan (dry) tropical air masses. These two air masses are separated by the intertropical front that influences the local climate. The climate in southern part, including the coast, is humid tropical and characterized by a climate with four seasons: two dry seasons from November to March and from July to August and two rainy seasons from April to June and from September to October. Forests occupy more than half part of the southern part of the country. Littoral savanna vegetation is found south of the lagoons between Port-Bouet and Grand-Bassam. Pre-lagoon savanna is located north of the lagoons in the dense forest of the south. The littoral zone contains different natural habitats, including five lagoon systems, closed lagoons, swamp forests, mangrove forests (mainly by Rhizophora racemosa and Avicennia africana) The continental shelf, with an area of 12 000 km², has two types of bottom sediments, sandy bottoms in the eastern part and rocky bottoms in the western part. The continental shelf is narrow, with a width that varies between 9 and 18 miles, with a mean of 13 miles. Different types of human activities are conducted in the region, notably agriculture, power generation, timber exploitation, sand extraction, and various industries (e.g. petrol and gas). Several ports are located in this region, including the political capital Abidjan. 2. The Known 2.1. Marine algae Microphytes belong to two major groups: the phytobenthos (mainly Cyanophyceae and Bacillariophyta) and phytoplankton (mainly Cyanophyceae, Diatomophyceae, Pyrrhophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Euglenophyceae). A total of 1241 microphyte species have been recorded including 113 species of Cyanophycaeae. Algae are dominated by green algae (Gamophyta and Chlorophyta) with 436 species, followed by diatoms (Bacillariophyta) with 331 species. Marine macroscopic algae are less abundant when compared to microscopic algae. Inventoried green algae correspond to 1.4% of the number of species described in the world, 6 brown algae (Phaeophyta) 1.2% and red algae (Rhodophyta) 1.5%. The main threat to algae is the pollution of marine and brackish waters in Cote d’Ivoire. However, some species of algae can be linked to water pollution, e.g. Oscillatoria formosa; Oscillatoria princeps; Oscillatoria tenuis; Chlorella vulgaris; Chlorella pyrenoidosa; Scenedesmus quadricauda; Tetraedron muticum; Hantzschia amphioxus; Melosira varians; Navicula cryptocephala; Nitzschia acicularis; Nitzschia palea; Euglena oxyuris; Euglena polymorpha; Euglena viridis; Lepocinclis ovum; Lepocinclis texta; Pandorina morum. Other species are indicative of oligotrophic waters, e.g. Ankistrosdesmus falcatus var. acicularis; Batrachospermum vagum; Amphora subcapitata; Synedra acus var. angustissima; Euglena spirogyra; Phacotus lenticularis; Phacus longicauda; Chrysococcus ovalis; Chrysococcus rufescens. The relatively low number of species found to date shows that there is a lot of work to done. In addition, the partitioning of algae in the marine and brackish waters of Cote d’Ivoire needs to be understood. 2.2. Aquatic macrophytes There are 327 species of aquatic and semi-aquatic macrophytes belonging to 74 families in Cote d’Ivoire. Among the main floating plants are R. fluitans, A. africana, S. nymphellula, S. molesta, C. cornuta, P. Striatiotes, E. crassipes, Lemna sp., Spirodela sp., Wolfia sp., et Wolffiella sp. Floating plants are also found in high energy zones near beaches and embayments. There are fixed floating hydrophyta (E. pyramidales), fixed floating submerged hydrophyta (Nymphea lotus), submerged floating hydrophyta (C. demersun) and free floating hydrophyta (Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta, Eichhornia crassipes). According to Traoré (1985), most of the rooted aquatic plants found in Cote d’Ivoire can live in fresh or saline water. Rooted plant associations around the lagoonal systems are arranged in parallel zones with regard to bathymetry. Their structure and specific composition is dependant on the type of substratum and salinity of the water. Swamp forests are found in poorly drained soils that are periodically inundated by fresh water. These zones often include ferns such as Nephrolepsis biserrata and Caratopteris cornula. Mangroves in Cote d’Ivoire comprise three species (Rhizophora racemosa, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus). Mangroves are being overexploited in certain areas and the wood is used for a variety of purposes, e.g. building, charcoal etc. Sand extraction for building houses also contributes to the destruction of mangroves. Only floating plants and mangroves have been studied in Côte d’Ivoire. Thus, nothing has been done on the other aquatic plants and it is necessary to conduct research on them. 2.3 Bacteria Eight phyla of eubacteria have been recorded in Ebrie lagoon, including Thiopneutes, Micrococcus and Pseudomonadaceae. In the sea, cyanobacteria have been recorded. Anoxyphototrophic and sulfur-reducing bacteria are present in the anoxic zone of sediments or in deep stratified waters. In lagoons, these bacteria facilitate mineralisation processes and the utilization of organic matter in the anoxic zone. Besides this above role, anoxy-phototrophic bacteria can fixed molecular nitrogen in waters lacking this element (Vignais et al., 1985), 7 e.g. Rhodopseudomonas palustris in the Ebrie lagoon is able to fix molecular nitrogen (Caumette, 1985). According to Margulis and Schwartz (1988), the known number of bacteria in the world is about 10.000 species. In Côte d’Ivoire bacterial studies have only just started and inventories are incomplete. Only 140 species have been described from Côte d’Ivoire lagoon and fresh waters, representing 1.38% of the total number of known species. In Côte d’Ivoire, taxonomic studies have been conducted on certain species belonging to the Gracilicutes and Firmicutes. Since there is not a lot of information on the topic for Côte d’Ivoire, it seems important to start the study of aquatic bacteria and to develop a survey plan since they can cause many diseases and are good indicator for water quality. 2.4 Zooplankton Zooplankton in the marine environment of Côte d’Ivoire is composed primarily of rotifers, cladocerans, calanoids, cyclopoids, harpacticoids, mysids, isopods, amphipods, chaetognathes, and the larvae of crabs, bivalves, polychaetes and fish. The variations in salinity and chlorophyll concentrations give rise to zooplankton communities marked by a succession in space and time. Three main communities of zooplankton can be recognised, namely lagoon, continental and marine. The lagoon community occupies a central position that corresponds to a salinity range of 4 to 15g/l and a concentration of chlorophyll between 10 and 50 µg/l. This community is relatively abundant and less diverse than the others, and is dominated by A. clausi, P. hessei, mollusk larvae and mysids. The marine community is associated to high salinity (>30 g/l) and low biomass of algae (<5µg chl a). This community is less abundant but most diverse and dominated by the following taxa: Penilia, Evadne, Paracalamus, Temora, chaethognathes, appendiculars, dodioles, salpes, lucifer. The continental community is associated with low salinities and is characterized by the presence of species of fresh waters such as Mesocyclops ogunnus, Moina micrura, Diaphanosoma excisum and Bosmina longirostris. Pollution and habitat degradation are the main threats to all three zooplankton communities. 2.5 Polychaete worms Inventories of the benthic macrofauna in west Africa was started by Augener (1918) and was continued in the sub-region with Fauvel (1958), Longhurst (1958), Fauvel et Rullier (1959). The inventory of marine benthic macrofauna of Côte d’Ivoire was published by Guy (1964) and Intès and Le Loeuff (1975, 1977), while the listing of lagoonal benthic macrofauna was undertaken by Gomez (1978) and Zabi (1982). The above inventories list 437 species of polychaetes. Of these 17 holotypes are deposited in the Laboratoire de Zoologie du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. In Côte d’Ivoire lagoons, only 44 species of polychaetes have been collected. Polychaetes have been found in marine waters deeper than 20 m and in the muddy-silt zone of coastal lagoons. Geographical studies are necessary to identify ecological characteristics of benthic macrofaunal communities, including polychaetes. In addition, we need to complete the identification and description of this faunal group, together with distribution maps. 8 Polychaete species are not on the IUCN Red List but because of pollution these animals are endangered. 2.6 Molluscs and Brachiopods Altogether 581 species of molluscs and one brachiopod have been identified in the marine waters of Côte d’Ivoire. The molluscs include gastropods, bivalves, scaphopods and cephalopods, and are found in fresh, brackish and marine waters. The distribution of marine molluscs in relation to environmental parameters has been conducted by Le Loeuff and Intès (1981 and 1993), for lagoon mollusc by Binder (1957, 1958 and 1968), Gomez (1975), Leung and Pagès (1986), Longhurst (1958), Maslin (1983), Oyenekan and Botlufawi (1986), Romanova et Diallo (1990), Wolf et al., (1987), Zabi (1982a), Maslin and Levet (1992), Zabi and Le Loeuff (1992a et 1992b). Table 1 shows number of brachiopod and molluscs found in Côte d’Ivoire. This number is low compare to what have been found globally (one species of brachiopod out of 335 globally and 581 molluscs out of 110 000 species globally). This result indicates that many more molluscs are likely to be found. Common families found in Côte d’Ivoire include Littorinidae, Muricidae, Thaididae, Melongeniidae, Nassariidae, Olividae, Volutidae, Conidae, Dentaliidae, Mytilidae, Pectinidae, Ostreidae, Donacidae, Corbulidae, Teredinae, Sepiidae, Octopodidae, Lymnaeidae and Bulinidae. Major threats to molluscs include pollution and dam building that affects mollusc habitats. Further work is needed to complete the mollusc inventory and to map the distribution of the various species. Table 1. Comparison between the number of molluscs and brachiopods in Côte d’Ivoire and those found in the world). Groups Number of species in the world Brachiopods Molluscs Gasteropods (marine) Number of species in Côte d’Ivoire 335 1 110 000 581 226 20 20 19 147 21 18 110 Gasteropods (brackish) Gasteropods (freshwater) Scaphopods Bivalves (marine) Bivalves (brackish) Bivalves (freshwater) Cephalopods 9 Total 110.335 582 2.7 Crustacés Les Crustacés ou Diantennates sont des Arthropodes répandus depuis le début du Primaire et qui connaissent pourtant aujourd’hui encore beaucoup de succès avec leurs 350.000 espèces. Ils tirent leur origine de la mer et lui sont restés fidèles dans leur majorité. Cependant, un grand nombre de Crustacés peuplent les eaux douces et même quelques espèces moins nombreuses, il est vrai, vivent sur la terre ferme. Ainsi les Crustacés de Côte d’Ivoire ont été subdivisés en 4 sous-classes, 13 ordres pour les 302 espèces recensées, et regroupées au sein de 61 familles. Les crustacés se rencontrent dans tous les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux ivoiriens. Toutefois, dans les milieux margino-littoraux, il a été inventorié une trentaine d’espèces dont celles vivants dans les milieux aquatiques et les amphibies. Dans les eaux marines, on note plusieurs groupes de crustacés en fonction de la répartition. Ainsi on observe des crustacés associés aux rochers, sédiment sableux ou vaseux et des crustacés des eaux profondes. Les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux ivoiriens sont relativement pauvres en crustacés comparativement aux autres milieux de la région. Cette situation est liée à l’étroitesse du plateau continental et la faible marnage des eaux lagunaires. Les espèces signalées se retrouvent dans toute la sous région. Quelques études de détail ont été conduites sur les crustacés. Celles-ci ont concerné les crevettes roses, les crabes des eaux profondes comme le Geryon, les crabes lagunaires et enfin le suivi des captures des espèces d’intérêt commercial comme les langoustes et les portunides du Genre Portunus. Très peu de travaux ont porté sur les crustacés, par conséquent et cela compte tenu de l’importance de ce groupe taxonomique, des études sont nécessaires pour inventorier les espèces, pour comprendre leur répartition etc. Plusieurs menaces pèsent sur les crustacés dont les plus importantes sont la surexploitation (exemple: Certaines espèces telles que les crevettes et les crabes sont surexploitées à tel point que les individus capturés depuis quelque temps sont de petite taille ou simplement le volume de capture a beaucoup baissé), la destruction des habitats (exemple: extraction de sable en lagune et en mer, exploitation des mangroves etc) et enfin la pollution. 2.8 Poissons Les informations disponibles font état des espèces nominales signalées non seulement dans les eaux douces et saumâtres, mais aussi dans les eaux intérieures marines de la Côte d’Ivoire. L’analyse montre 1.014 synonymes et/ou citations dont 496 espèces sont reconnues valides. Ces espèces valides se répartissent entre 276 genres et 130 familles. Ces dernières sont ellesmêmes rangées dans 33 ordres et 3 classes d’importance inégale. La première classe, celle des Chondrichthyes, compte 5 ordres pour 13 familles, 16 genres et 29 espèces, toutes locales. La seconde classe concernée, celle des Sarcopterygii, possède un seul ordre, une seule famille et 10 un seul genre monospécifique en Côte d’Ivoire. Il s’agit de l'espèce locale, Protopterus annectens. Quant à la troisième classe à savoir celle des Actinopterygii, elle regroupe l’ensemble des autres taxons valides répartis entre 27 ordres, 116 familles et 259 genres comportant 466 espèces. Par ailleurs, il existe 166 espèces exclusivement marines contre 152 en eaux douces et 19 en eaux saumâtres. Soixante-seize espèces vivent à la fois dans ces deux derniers milieux. Dix huit autres espèces sont capables de vivre dans les trois milieux à la fois (mer, eaux douces et saumâtres). Sur le plan ichtyologique, les lagunes ivoiriennes sont caractérisées par une grande diversité spécifique. Cette richesse spécifique est due au fait que ces lagunes sont les lieux d’échanges entre fleuves et mer si bien qu’on y rencontre toutes les formes d’espèces (marines, saumâtres et continentales). L’inventaire de la lagune Ebrié donne 153 espèces reparties dans 71 familles. Une soixantaine de ces espèces se rencontrent dans les deux autres lagunes (Aby et Grand Lahou). Les 71 familles sont inégalement représentées. Beaucoup le sont par un seul genre ou par une seule espèce. 19 de ces familles regroupent 60% des espèces. Quatre familles sont particulièrement bien représentées à savoir les Carangidae (11 espèces), les Clupéidae (7 espèces), les Cichlidae (9 espèces) et les Gobiidae (7 espèces). Tous ces peuplements sont classés en 8 groupes en fonction de l’euryhalinité du milieu et des caractéristiques fondamentales du cycle bioécologique des espèces (reproduction, répartition). Le milieu lagunaire joue un rôle très important dans la reproduction des poissons. Au total près de 30 espèces se reproduisent en lagune, 16 autres peuvent y accomplir la maturation de leurs produits génitaux jusqu’au stade précédant leur émission et occasionnellement, pour certaines y pondre. 10 autres, enfin, sont présentes en lagune sous leur forme juvénile, peuvent accomplir un début de première maturation sexuelle sans que celle-ci aboutisse en milieu lagunaire. De nombreux travaux ont été réalisés sur les poissons des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux de Côte d’Ivoire. Ces travaux portent aussi bien sur la systématique, la biologie, l’écologie etc que la dynamique des populations. Cet intérêt pour les poissons s’explique par le fait que la Côte d’Ivoire consomme en moyenne 300 000 tonnes par an alors qu’elle n’en produit que seulement 100 000 tonnes par an. Toutefois, de nombreuses études restent encore à faire car les poissons étudiés jusqu’à présent sont les poissons dits « vivriers » qui rentrent directement dans la consommation des populations et les thons tandis que les autres poissons n’ont pas fait l’objet de travaux détaillés. La surexploitation, la destruction des habitats et la pollution sont les deux menaces dont souffrent les poissons. 2.9 Reptiles aquatiques L’ordre des Crocodiliens renferment, en Afrique de l’Ouest, trois espèces de crocodiles : Crocodylus niloticus ; C. cataphractus et Osteolamus tetraspis. Ces trois espèces sont distribuées en Côte d’Ivoire et se rencontrent dans les zones humides côtières, avec toutefois une préférence pour les deux derniers. D’autres sauriens retiennent également l’attention : le varan (Aranus niloticus), assez commun et Cameleo gracilis. La biologie du comportement et la distribution des tortues sont en revanche mal connues. 11 Parmi les espèces rencontrées en zones humides côtières, tant au niveau des formations végétales qu’en lagunes, citons : Trionyx triungius ; Pelusios niger ; P. gabonensis et Cyclanorbis senegalensis. Dans l’ensemble les reptiles sont signalés dans les milieux lagunaires et les mangroves. Les tortues sont souvent pêchées en mer (plateau continental) et certaines espèces marines pondent sur les plages bordant les lagunes du Sud-ouest du pays et constituent une source complémentaire en protéines pour les villageois riverains. Ces comportements renforcent l’idée de création de réserves naturelles dans ces régions de la Côte d’Ivoire. Il existe très peu de reptiles aquatiques dans les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux ivoiriens. La préoccupation est de savoir si cela n’est pas lié au faible nombre de spécialistes dans le domaine. Très peu d’études ont été effectuées sur les reptiles aquatiques. Aussi, il apparaît important d’initier des travaux sur ce groupe taxinomique. la destruction des habitats constitue la principale menace des reptiles en Côte d’Ivoire (mangroves etc.) 2.10 Mammifères aquatiques Le lamantin (Trichechus senegalensis) est certainement le mammifère le plus spécifique de l’écosystème lagunaire et des estuaires de basse Côte d’Ivoire. Des travaux actuellement en cours, menés par Powell, suggèreraient que le lamantin soit assez bien représenté dans les zones humides côtières ivoiriennes, de l’embouchure du Cavally à la lagune Aby. Sa présence a été rapportée plusieurs fois dans les lagunes de Fresco, de Grand Lahou et Potou. Il est en outre fréquent que des individus remontent très loin le cours des fleuves, traduisant peut-être un comportement migratoire de cette espèce. Ces animaux herbivores ont une préférence pour les eaux douces et peu saumâtres. Cette espèce est signalée comme menacée sur la liste de l’UICN (1990). Les cétacés ou les baleines avec une famille, deux genres et deux espèces se rencontrent aussi dans les eaux marines ivoiriennes. La destruction des habitats et la pollution constituent les principales menaces des mammifères aquatiques. Il n’existe pas de travaux sur les mammifères aquatiques des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux ivoiriens sauf les études conduites par Nicolle et collaborateurs (1996) où ils citent le travail de Powel sur les lamantins. 3. Etat des connaissances de la diversité biologique des espèces végétales aquatiques introduites et envahissantes Parmi les plantes flottantes signalées dans les eaux africaines on rencontre presque toutes les familles dans les eaux douces des pays du Golfe de Guinée et onze espèces végétales: R. fluitans, A. africana, S. nymphellula, S. molesta, C. cornuta, P. Striatiotes, E. crassipes, Lemna sp., Spirodela sp., Wolfia sp., et Wolffiella sp. Deux familles de fougères, Azollaceae et Salviniaceae et une famille de plantes à fleur les lemnaceae, présentent des espèces végétales qui sont spécifiquement des plantes qui flottent 12 librement à la surface des milieux aquatiques bien que la dernière famille contienne des espèces qui vivent aussi submergées. En dehors de ces familles, il existe très peu d'espèces de plantes flottantes librement à la surface de l'eau car de façon générale la plupart des espèces appartiennent à d'autres formes de vie dans le milieu aquatique. Par exemple Eicchornia crassipes est la seule espèce de la famille des pontederiaceae qui flotte librement sur les eaux. Les principales espèces plantes aquatiques flottant libres envahissantes sont Pistia stratiotes (Araceae), Salvinia molesta (Salviniaceae) et Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae). 4. Etat des connaissances de la diversité biologique des espèces animales aquatiques introduites et envahissantes 4.1 Groupes d’invertébrés envahissant associés aux racines des macrophytes aquatiques Les invertébrés aquatiques introduits et envahissant n’ont pas souvent retenu l’attention des scientifiques. Cependant, on note l’introduction des espèces Physa acuta, Lymnae columella, Helisoma sp et très récemment la crevette géante, originaire des régions occidentales du Pacifique, Penaeus monodon, Fabricius (Crustacea, Peneidae) dans les eaux ivoiriennes. Cette espèce a été introduite dans le pays pour le développement de la creviticulture dans les année 1990 dans la région de Grand-Lahou. Les travaux ont été interrompus pour des problèmes de reproduction, toutefois certains individus se sont retrouvés dans le milieu naturel selon les populations locales. Enfin, avec le développement et la prolifération des macrophytes flottant libres dans presque tous les réseaux aquatiques des pays du Golfe de Guinée, on assiste à une nouvelle forme d’introduction et de transfert des espèces aquatiques : l’introduction des animaux associés aux racines des plantes. Aussi, on note un regain d’intérêt pour cette faune car on soupçonne l’existence d’animaux exotiques dont la prolifération pourrait négative pour les populations locales. Faune locale ou indigène Mollusques gastéropodes Les bulins sont caractérisés par une coquille sénestre plus haute que large et en Afrique de l’Ouest on rencontre 7 espèces qui sont : Bulinus globosus (Morelet), Bulinus Jousseamei (Dautzenberg), Bulinus truncatus Rohlfsi (Clessin), Bulinus guernei (Dautzenberg), Bulinus umbilicatus (Mandahl-Barth), Bulinus forskalii (Ehrenberg) et Bulinus senegalensis (Müller). Les espèces B. dyboski et B trigonus ont été mises en synonymie avec Bulinus truncatus. Enfin, les bulins dont le rôle dans la transmission de Schistosoma haematobium est confirmé en Afrique de l’Ouest sont B. globosus, B. truncatus, B. guerni, B jousseaumei, B. senegalensis et B. umbilicatus. Deux espèces de Biomphalaria (Planorbidae) : Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) et Biomphalaria sudanica (Martens) et une espèce de Physa (Physa marmorata) se rencontrent aussi en Afrique de l’Ouest et participent à la transmission de Schistosoma mansoni. En présence de plantes flottantes la population de ces Mollusques gastéropodes augmente et ces animaux dominent numériquement dans presque tous les biotopes. 13 Insectes Diptères hématophages De nombreux diptères hématophages et particulièrement les moustiques ou les culicidae (3 genres Anopheles – Aedes – Culex et 25 espèces), les Culicoides (2 genres et 2 espèces dont Bezzia pistiae), les Tabanides (3 sous familles, 8 genres et 46 espèces) prolifèrent aussi en présence des macrophytes aquatiques flottant libres. Faune involontairement introduite L'inventaire a à ce jour révélé trois groupes taxonomiques qui ont été introduits involontairement : Mollusque Gastéropode (Bulinus camerunensis et Potamopyrgus cilliatus), Diptères (deux Lépidoptères pyralidae non encore identifié à l’espèce), Crustacés amphipode (Gammarus sp, Gammaridae non encore identifié à l’espèce). Ces espèces sont signalées pour la première fois dans les eaux ivoiriennes. Faune volontairement introduite Dans le but de lutter biologiquement contre les plantes flottantes, le gouvernement ivoirien a décidé et autorisé l'introduction d'insectes phytophages. Ces insectes s'attaquent spécifiquement aux plantes flottantes et ont été introduites dans les eaux ivoiriennes dans les années 1998. 4.2 Crevettes et poissons introduits et envahissants Les introductions d’espèces animales aquatiques ont été souvent encouragées en Afrique et particulièrement dans les pays du Golfe de Guinée dans le but essentiellement d’améliorer la production. Celles-ci devait contribuer à répondre à la demande croissante en protéine animale de la population. Ces introductions sont l’objet de controverses entre les développeurs/décideurs/gestionnaires et les scientifiques. Les premiers avancent que l'on doit aider la nature et les populations et que l’introduction d’espèces dans le but d’améliorer la production se justifie. Les seconds au contraire pensent que toutes les introductions sont à priori susceptibles de causer des dégâts irréversibles à la flore, à la faune et aux écosystèmes aquatiques locaux. En effet, certaines introductions ont connu quelques succès tel le cas du poisson Oreochromis niloticus et Heterotis niloticus dans presque tous les bassins hydrographiques des pays du Golfe de Guinée et particulièrement en Côte d’Ivoire. D'autres introductions par contre ont induit des effets négatifs avec des impacts significatifs sur les espèces locales et les écosystèmes comme l'exemple des macrophytes aquatiques flottants libres Salvinia molesta (Salviniaceae) et Eichornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae). Ces végétaux, en tapis dense, forment un écran qui empêche la lumière de pénétrer dans le milieu. En conséquence, ils empêchent l’activité photosynthétique du phytoplancton. En plus, en modifiant l’hydrodynamisme et la qualité des eaux, ces végétaux contribuent à l’envasement, à la diminution de l’oxygène et à la dégradation du milieu. Cette dégradation est très souvent à l’origine des mortalités de nombreux organismes aquatiques. Etat de connaissance synthétique sur la diversité biologique des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux ivoiriens. 14 Taxons Microphytes Macrophytes Bactéries Zooplancton Cnidaires (Polype et méduses) Dans le monde (*) 7000 Indéterminé 10 000 Indéterminé Cténophores (Concombres de mer) 3100 dont 200 hydrozoaires 90 Plathelminthes 15 000 Némertes 900 Gnathostomulide Gastrotriche Rotifères 80 400 2000 dont 50 marins 150 10 600 150 80 000 Kinorhynche Loricifères Acanthocéphales Entoproctes Nématodes Nematophores Ectoprocte Brachiopodes 240 5000 dont 50 marins 335 Mollusques Gastéropodes Bivalves Céphalopodes Siphoncules Echiures Annélides Oligochètes Hirudinées Polychètes Arthropodes Crustacés Insectes aquatiques Paganophores Echinodermes 110 000 3100 300 5400 Indéterminé 350 000 Indéterminé 100 6000 Chaetognathes 100 Poissons (osseux) Amphibiens 25 000 2000 Reptiles 5000 Oiseaux 9000 Mammifères 45 000 300 140 Nombre Côte d’Ivoire 1241 327 140 Nombreuses espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Non signalé Non signalé Quelques espèces signalées Non signalé Non signalé Non signalé Non signalé Quelques espèces signalées Non signalé Non signalé Observations Quelques travaux Quelques travaux Quelques travaux Quelques travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Quelques espèces signalées 581 246 186 110 Non signalé Non signalé Travaux éparses 99 99 434 Travaux éparses Absence de travaux Travaux disponibles 302 Indéterminé Non signalé Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Travaux éparses Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Quelques espèces signalées Travaux disponibles Quelques travaux Quelques travaux Quelques travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Absence de travaux Travaux éparses Travaux disponibles Travaux éparses Travaux éparses Travaux éparses Travaux éparses (*)Margulis et Schwartz, 1988 Remarque : A ces chiffres, il est important d’ajouter les espèces introduites 15 5. Ressources 5.1 Ressources humaines Nom et prénoms Ama Antoinette Adingra Amon Kothias Jean Baptiste Atse Boua Celestin Jean-Baptiste Louis François Doumini Bouberi Da Costa Sebastino Da Kouete Philippe Etien N’DA Egnakou Wadja Goore B.I. Gourène K. Hie Daré Jean-Pierre Konan Amoin Annabelle Kouassi Aka Marcel N’Goran Ya Nestor N’Douba Valentin Otémé Ziriga Tidou Abiba Traoré Kassoum Traoré Dossahoua Sankaré Yacouba Zabi S. Guillaume Spécialité Bactérie Structure Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Aquaculture Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Aquaculture Centre National de Recherche Agronomique Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Poissons Centre National de Recherche Agronomique Algues Université de Cocody Environnementaliste Agence National de L’Environnement Mangroves Université de Cocody Crustacés Université de Cocody Poissons Université d’Abobo Adjamé Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Phytobenthos Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Bactérie Centre de Recherches Océanologiques Halieute –Biologie Centre de Recherches des Poissons Océanologiques Zooplancton Université de Cocody Aquaculture Centre National de Recherche Agronomique Zooplancton Université AbobAdjamé RCI Poisson Centre Nationale de Recherche Agronomique Macrophytes Université de Cocody aquatiques Centre de Recherches Benthos et Océanologiques entomofaune aquatique Benthos Centre de Recherches 16 Adresse BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan Bouaké 633 BPV 18 Abidjan Bouaké 633 Abidjan Abidjan Abidjan Abidjan Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan Abidjan Bouaké 633 Abidjan 1740 Abidjan 01 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan BPV 18 Abidjan Wongbe Yte Abouo Béatrice Adepo Zooplancton Poissons Océanologiques Centre National de Recherche Agronomique Université AboboAdjamé RCI 17 Man 440 Abidjan 5.2 Ressources institutionnelles Caractéristique des institutions Collection Observations Institution Type scientifique Centre de Recherche scientifique Dans le domaine Recherches Océanologiques océanologique, saumâtre et eaux douces -Poissons Benthos (collection gardé par l’IRD) et entomofaune aquatique et Université de Recherche scientifique Poissons Cocody dans le domaine des Crustacés eaux douces Université Recherche scientifique Poissons d’Abobo-Adjamé dans le domaine des eaux douces 18 Ancienne collection et Mise en place d’une nouvelle collection Nouvelle collection Nouvelle collection References Abé J. et Kaba N. 1997. 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Trégouboff G.; Rose M., 1957.- Manuel de planctonologie méditerranéenne.- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Tome I texte, 587 p. ; Tome II illustrations,(207 planches). 24 Vladimir, (H.), Vratislav, (M.). 1979. Encyclopédie des animaux : Mammifères du monde entier. Gründ, Paris : 8-11. Vol. I, 1984, p. : 1-510. Vol. II, 1986, p. : 517-1007. Vol. III, 1986 p. : 1015-1473. Welcomme R.L. 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Fish Tech. Rap. (294): 318p. 25 National Report Marine biodiversity in Ghana, Togo and Benin – the known and the unknown A. K. Armah, S. D. Ababio and E. Lamptey Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana INTRODUCTION The coastline from the western border of Ghana to the eastern border of Benin is approximately 722 km long. About 550 km of this coastline is in Ghana (Armah and Amlalo, 1998) while Togo and Benin have approximately 47 km (Blivi et al., 1998) and 125 km (Adam, 1998) of shoreline respectively. Table 1 below shows the aerial coverage of the continental shelves and EEZs of Ghana, Togo and Benin. The Ghanaian continental shelf is approximately five times the combined areas of both Togo and Benin continental shelves. The subtidal environments are generally similar across the three countries, hence the biota are therefore unlikely to show any major differences. The shoreline and the intertidal environments however exhibit some differences in terms of habitat types. Table 1. Coastline, Continental Shelf and EEZ Areas of Ghana, Togo and Benin. Country Ghana Togo Benin Coastline (km) 550 47 125 Continental Shelf (km2) 20,000 1,200 3,100 EEZ (km2) 218,000 2,100 27,100 GHANA Coastal Zone The coastal zone of Ghana is a low-lying area, not more than 100 m above sea level. The major rivers which flow into the sea are, from the west, the Tano, Ankobra, Butre, Pra, Kakum, Amisa, Nakwa, Densu and the Volta. The coastal zone contains over 90 coastal lagoons, most of which are very small and less than 5 km2 in surface area (Armah, 1993). However, the largest lagoon (Keta) covers approximately 350 km2 (Ababio, 2001). The Ghanaian coastal zone may be divided into three geomorphologic zones; the west, central and east coasts (Ly, 1980). • The West Coast covers 95 km of stable shoreline and extends from Ghana's border with Côte d’Ivoire to the estuary of the Ankobra River. The gently sloping beaches comprise mainly fine sand and are backed by coastal lagoons. • The Central Coast shoreline is 321 km long and extends from the estuary of Ankobra River near Axim, to Prampram located to the east of Accra. Most of this embayed coast comprises rocky shores and headlands, together with littoral sand barriers enclosing coastal lagoons. 26 • The East Coast is made up of 149 km of shoreline extending from Prampram eastwards to Aflao, on the border with Togo. It is characterized by sandy beaches and about midway is the deltaic estuary of the Volta River. The Volta is the largest river in Ghana with a regulated flow of about 900 cumecs due to damming upstream. Climate The climate of the Ghanaian coastal zone is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, whereas the southwestern parts are hot and humid. Two thirds of the coastal zone falls within the dry coastal savanna strip where annual rainfall ranges from 625 mm to 1000 mm and averages 900 mm. Peak rainfall is in June and the lowest rainfall is recorded in January. There is a double maxima annual distribution of rainfall in the Ghanaian coastal zone, with the high maximum occurring during May-June and the low maximum in September-October. Minimum temperatures occur during July-August and the maximum during February-March. The relatively dry coastal climate of the southeast is believed to be caused by the prevailing winds (south-southwest) blowing almost parallel to the coast and to a cool current of water immediately offshore as a result of a local annual upwelling (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). Continental Shelf and Oceanography The Ghanaian continental shelf is narrow and extends seaward to between 20 and 35 km, except off Takoradi where it reaches up to 90 km (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). The nature of the topography of the continental shelf is generally known, but no detailed studies have been made on the shelf. A belt of dead madreporarian coral beginning at 75 m depth traverses the entire shelf. Beyond this coral belt, the bottom falls sharply suggesting that this marks the approximate transition from the continental shelf to the slope. A large elongate centrally located area of hard bottom stretching between Takoradi and Tema characterizes the shelf. Outside of this area, soft sediment predominates inshore of the coral belt (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). The Equatorial counter current, the Guinea Current, which flows eastward, influences the oceanography of the region. The current is weak, averaging about 0.5 knots, but frequently exceeds one knot and occasionally reaches two knots when acted upon by the southwesterly monsoon winds. The current may reverse temporarily under the influence of the northeasterly trade winds and can reach speeds of up to 1.0 knot (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). The tide is regular and semi-diurnal with the average range varying along the coast (mean tide = 0.95 m, Neap = 0.50 m, Spring = 1.5 m). The average range of neap and spring tides increases from west to east. Tidal phases are similar on the coasts of all three countries. Tidal currents are low and have an insignificant influence on coastal processes except within tidal inlets. Other possible sources of intermittent increases of local water levels include line squalls that can result in additional water level increases of about 30 cm. The main sources of sediment to the littoral zone are from rivers, together with erosion of coastal shores and cliffs. In Ghana, the Ankobra, Pra and Volta River are the main sources of fluvial sediment supply to the coast. It is estimated that the sediment yields of rivers along the coast varies between 30 and 80 tonnes/km2 per annum depending on the area of the catchment, topography, geology and climate of the coastal area (EC, 1989). 27 Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone General Demographic Economic Profile The coastal zone in Ghana makes up about 7% of the total land area and is home to some 4.5 million people or approximately 25% of the total population (EPA/World Bank, 1997). The zone serves as a nerve centre for national economic development and has two important harbours located at Tema and Takoradi. Over 70% of the industries in Ghana are located in the coastal region. Over 60% of all fish catches in Ghana are produced from marine fishing. The total Gross District Product (GDiP) of the coastal zone in 1994 was estimated at US$1,340 million. This is about 26% of the national GDP of US$5,238 million. Industrial Development Over 400 small to large industrial concerns are located within the coastal districts of Ghana. The largest concentration is in the Accra-Tema area where over 80% of the industries are located. A thermal plant for the production of electricity is also situated in the coastal zone at Takoradi. The effects of these industries include the discharge of effluents and pollutants into lagoons and coastal waters, resulting in a degradation of the coastal environment. Mining Mining in the costal zone falls under three main categories, namely sand and gravel mining, mineral extraction and oil/gas exploration. Sand and gravel mining in the coastal zone of Ghana is largely illegal but has continued to be carried out, resulting in increased coastal erosion. Mineral deposits are not very significant in the coastal zone and limited mining, conducted by small companies, does occur. Oil and gas development is still ongoing in the Ghanaian nearshore waters with several wells been sunk in the Saltpond and Tano basins. Salt Industry There are about 24 salt producing companies operating along the coast of Ghana. Of these, 8 are medium to large-scale producers whilst the rest are small-scale producers. The areas of high concentration of salt winning include the Anlo-Keta area in the Volta region; the Sege, Ada, Songor and Sakumo wetland areas in the greater Accra region; and Saltpond and Elmina in the central region. The salt industry is estimated to directly employ about 5,000 persons and indirectly generates some 15,000 other jobs. Fishery Sector Fishing is very important in Ghana and can be divided into canoe (or artisanal) fisheries, inshore (or semi-industrial) fisheries, distant water (or industrial) fisheries and tuna fisheries. The sector supplies about 66% of all animal-protein for human consumption. Artisanal fisheries are the most important in terms of landed catch and employment. The total fish catch has shown a general increasing trend since 1995. The total catch per annum in 1995 was 401,600 mt while in 2000 it was 508,800 mt. An estimated 100,000 fishermen can be found along the coast of Ghana using nearly 9,000 canoes and operating from about 300 landing sites. About 3% of the Ghanaian population is employed in this sector. 28 TOGO Coastal Zone The coastal zone in Togo forms part of the Gulf of Benin marine system. The zone also includes a sandy/clay plateau, lagoonal and riverine systems. The Mono, Zio, Haho, Boko and Elia rivers influence the hydrography of the coastal zone in Lome. The major lagoons include the Togo, Togoville, Zowla and Aneho systems. Climate Two types of air mass; the Harmattan or continental trade wind from the northeast, which is dry and hot, and the southwest Monsoon that is humid and hot influence the climate in the Togo coastal zone. This results in four seasons, a long dry season from November to midMarch, a long rainy season from mid-March to mid-July, a short dry season from mid-July to August and a short rainy season from September to October. Mean daily temperature values characteristically peak between February and March and are lowest between July and August. Continental Shelf and Oceanography The oceanographic characteristics are influenced by the same dynamics pertaining to Ghana (see above). Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone General Demographic and Economic Profile The Togo coastal zone does not have any significant mineral or energy resources. The coastal zone is home to an estimated 2.2 million people, corresponding to about 69% of the population of Togo. The coastal zone also serves as home to about 82% of the nations industries. Industrial Development The country’s major industries are located in the coastal zone and consist mainly of extraction industries, farm produce industries, processing and building companies. Togo also has a port facility and a phosphate processing facility located in the coastal zone. Fishery Sector Togo’s fishery resource is made up of pelagic and demersal species. The pelagic resource includes tunas and sardines while the demersal stock mainly comprises sparids, scianids and lutjanids, with 600 tons being marketed annually (FAO, 1995). BENIN Coastal Zone The Benin coastal zone includes barrier islands and lagoons whose geomorphological evolution has been determined primarily by Holocene sea-level fluctuations and climatic changes, and secondarily by local tectonics. The coastal region is made up of three zones identified by characterizing the hydrological systems as follows: 29 • • • The Mono estuary, which is characterized by inputs from the Mono and the Couffo rivers and tidal flows. The Oueme Delta, which is dominated by the Oueme-So riverine system. The mangrove systems associated with coastal lagoons, tidal estuaries and Aheme Lake. Climate The tropical climate is similar to that of Ghana and Togo. Benin experiences four seasons; two rainy and two dry under the influence of the monsoons and the northeasterly trade winds. Continental Shelf and Coastal Oceanography The average breadth of the continental shelf varies between 12 and 13 nautical miles and broadens to about 17 nautical miles near the Nigerian border, covering an area of about 2,800 km². The continental shelf and the coastal oceanography are similar to the Ghanaian and Togolese coastal areas and are influenced by the same oceanographic regimes. Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone General Demographic and Economic Profile The population of the Benin coastal zone is about 1.5 million, comprising over 30% of the country’s population. This zone forms the economic hub of the country, with the majority of the country’s industries located in the coastal zone. Industrial Development The port facility at Cotonou has grown steadily and serves several landlocked countries in the sub-region, including Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. Other industries in the coastal zone include manufacturing and processing industries. Fishery Sector Fishing is now being carried out on a commercial basis, with an influx of fishers from Ghana. These fishers have introduced more efficient gears into the fishing industry that now produces about 39,000 tons of fish per year, mostly for domestic consumption. Habitats The identifiable habitats within the coastal zone can be described as onshore habitats, which extend from the +30 m contour to the mean upper tidal mark, the inshore habitat that encompasses the tidal and sub-tidal areas, and the oceanic zone, which extends beyond the continental shelf and excludes the tidal areas. The onshore habitats comprise the estuarine wetlands, lagoons, lagoonal depressions and their associated marshes. The inshore habitats include the sandy shores, rocky beaches/pools and immediate sub-tidal environments, while the oceanic habitat is made up of the pelagic and the offshore benthic environments. The onshore habitats in the three countries are diverse but dominated by several coastal lagoons that may or may not be fringed by mangrove strands. These environments serve as nursery grounds for several marine fish species as well as permanent habitats for several 30 species. The Keta lagoon, which is the largest coastal lagoon in this area, serves as home to several water bird species that either migrate there to avoid winter in the northern hemisphere, or are permanent residents on the lagoon. The inshore habitats are dynamic and diverse, with rocky shore and rocky pool habitats occurring naturally only in Ghana. The coastlines of the other countries are generally sandy. The oceanic environment includes the pelagic, demersal and the benthic habitats. THE KNOWN Marine Biota Knowledge of the marine biota is comparatively better for larger organisms such as fish and molluscs, and for those organisms inhabiting more accessible habitats such as the marine intertidal and shallow subtidal areas where fishing occurs. Information is available on the biodiversity of commercially exploited species in the region. Non-target species (such as hermit crabs, jelly fishes and star fishes) belonging to other groups have also been recorded from catches of commercial fishermen. Table 2 summarizes the major groups of commercially exploited families and species in the subregion. Table 2. Major commercially exploited taxa in the subregion. GROUP Bony Fishes Sharks Batoid Fishes (sawfishes, rays and skates) Lobsters Shrimps and Prawns Cephalopods Bivalves Gastropods Sea turtles FAMILY 80 11 7 3 10 7 17 13 2 SPECIES 627 77 41 3 17 23 47 26 5 Benthic Fauna Biodiversity coverage of the benthic fauna in the region is generally poor. Species that have been studied in any detail are mainly species from the coastal lagoons and wetlands or species from the intertidal environments. Benthic fauna, especially meiofauna, have been poorly studied. Table 3 shows the number of species recorded for benthic faunal groups in the subregion. 31 Table 3. Polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrates in the subregion. GROUP Polychaeta Polychaetes (west Africa) Polychaetes (Ghana) Mollusca Molluscs Crustacea Cumacea Gammaridea Caridean crustaceans Echinodermata Echinoidea Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Bryozoa Byozoan (Ghana) Bryozoan (West Africa) SPECIES REFERENCE 630 140 Kirkegaard (1988) Ibe et al. (1998) 200 Edmunds (1978) 10 235 246 Jones (1956) Reid (1956) Holthus (1951) 10 13 26 Clark (1955) Clark (1955) Clark (1955) 135 222 Cook (1985) Cook (1985) Plankton Some work has been conducted on the biodiversity and distribution patterns of certain species. Studies include work on characteristic species associated with upwellings and periods of hydrographic stability. Ghana has been made the center of plankton analysis in West Africa under the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project. The Department of Oceanography, University of Ghana, and the Marine Fisheries Research Division of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture are spearheading plankton research in Ghana and the subregion under this project. Table 4 shows the major plankton groups and the number of species known for each group in the sub-region. Table 4. Major plankton groups in the subregion (after Wiafe and Frid, 2001) GROUPS Anthomedusae Leptomedusae Limnomedusae Trachymedusae Narcomedusae Scyphomedusae Ctenophora Cladocera Ostracoda Copepoda Chaetognatha Chordata Diatoms Dinoflagellates Coccolithophores NUMBER OF SPECIES 7 8 3 7 8 4 3 3 2 190 8 3 35 37 10 32 Aquatic Flora Seaweed diversity is considerably higher on rocky shores than any other habitat. Differences in biotope complexity, exposure to waves, rock type as well as grazing pressure all influence seaweed diversity. Subtidal habitats are generally less known than the intertidal zone. Subtidal seaweeds usually constitute less than 20% of seaweed flora in the subregion, but in Ghana, subtidal seaweeds account for as much as 40% of the total flora (Table 5). Table 5. Macroalgae diversity in the subregion (after John and Lawson, 1997) COUNTRY Ghana Togo Benin GENERA 112 33 15 SPECIES 209 41 17 % SUBTIDAL 41 17 6 Coastal Avifauna The coastal birds generally occur in lagoons, wetlands and on the seashore. Based on regional abundance, they can be placed into three groups (Table 6), namely: • ‘waders’ (Burhinidae, Jacanidae, Charadriidae and Glareolidae) which wade in the shallow floodplain and lagoon waters in search of food. • terns (Laridae) that fly over the water and dive for food. • ‘others’ (Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Ardeidae, Threskiornithidae and Anatidae) which are mainly herons, gulls, ducks, kingfishers, etc. The abundance and diversity of the coastal birds in the sub-region follows a seasonal pattern. Some species migrate long distances to avoid unfavorable weather (such as winter in the northern hemisphere) conditions. However, there are some resident species that are found throughout the year in the lagoons and associated wetlands. Factors that affect coastal avifaunal populations in the region include anthropogenic perturbations, food, and the availability of roosting and nesting sites. Table 6. Coastal birds GROUP Waders Terns ‘Others’ FAMILIES 4 1 5 SPECIES 25 8 13 REFERENCE Piersma et al., 1995 Piersma et al., 1995 Piersma et al., 1995 Reptiles and Mammals Not much is known about the distribution and occurrence of marine reptiles and mammals in the subregion. Some studies have been conducted on sea turtles in Ghana and on the occurrence of marine mammals in Ghana and Benin. Five species of sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea, Erectmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta and Lepidochelys olivacea) have been reported from Ghanaian coastal waters. Eight species of dolphins (Stenella clymene, S. attenuata, Steno bredanensis, Tursiops truncatus, Grampus griseus, Lagenodelphis hosei, Globicephala macrorhynchus and Delphinus capensis) have been recorded in a recent study in Ghana (Debrah, 2000) with S. clymene as the most abundant species. The diversity of whales is poorly known although several whales, some with calves, have been sighted or washed ashore in the region. 33 THE UNKNOWN Generally, the vertebrates are fairly well studied in the region, with only about 20% of them being unknown. The invertebrates, on the other hand, are poorly studied with an estimated 60% unknown in the inshore waters and an even higher percentage unknown in offshore waters. The following major groups of organisms in the coastal waters of the three countries are relatively unknown and require attention: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Porifera Cnidaria Brachiopoda Sipunculida Echiurida Nemertina Platyhelminthes Pogonophora Oligochaetes Priapulida Brachiopoda Phorona Pycnogonida Protozoa (mainly Foraminifera, Ciliata and Radiolaria) Meiofauna Polychaeta, Mollusca The following groups have been investigated but further studies are needed: • • • • • Whales Dolphins Bivalves Gastropods Scaphopods THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY The various threats to biodiversity can be broadly placed under three main categories, namely over-exploitation, habitat loss and encroachment as a result of rapid human population growth. Over-exploitation of living marine resources both directly and indirectly constitutes a major cause of biodiversity decline in the Gulf of Guinea. Besides dwindling species numbers and abundance, the pressure exerted also lead to a reduction in genetic diversity within affected populations. In West Africa, there has been a decline in the pelagic Sardinella fishery of Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana, as well as catches of demersal species such as the sea bream Pagellus sp., benthic molluscs Cymbium sp. and spiny-lobster Panulirus sp. (Armah & Amlalo, 1998). The by34 catches of shrimpers and beach seiners also have an adverse affect on biodiversity. Nunoo & Evans (1997) have estimated the non-target (by-catch) fishes to be about 75% by weight of the total catch of shrimpers in Ghana. Out of this proportion, about 63% comprises either juveniles of commercial species or fish that are of little commercial value, with both components being discarded. The beach-seine fishery consists of more than 60% juveniles. Habitat Loss Habitat destruction is the most serious threat to the biodiversity of coastal marine habitats. In West Africa, felling of mangroves, destruction of wetlands through human encroachment, pollution of coastal waters and trawling activities are primary causes of habitat loss. Marine protected areas (MPAs) could reduce the rate of habitat loss, but MPAs are non-existent in Ghana, Togo and Benin. In Ghana, Ramsar sites (mainly for waterbird conservation) exist at five coastal wetlands, namely the Densu wetlands and Muni, Sakumo, Songor and Keta lagoons. Mangroves In Ghana, for example, mangrove over-exploitation in the eastern portion of the Lower Volta has led to >60% loss during the twelve year period between 1973 and 1986 (Adu-Prah et al., 1997). The decline of the coastal shrimp fishery off the Volta estuary is believed to be a direct consequence of the loss of nursery sites and nutrients provided by the mangrove habitat. Mangrove loss may have severe repercussions for several endemic macrobenthic species. The situation is similar in many parts of the Gulf of Guinea (Saenger et al., 1997). Encroachment in Coastal Areas Encroachment into wetlands, for the purpose of establishing residential areas, or for the purpose of agriculture (aquaculture) or industry (salt production) is also a major threat to the coastal zone. Expanding coastal populations, coupled with the need to feed them and to provide them with employment has resulted in encroachment into wetlands with negative consequences for biodiversity. Illegal activities, such as sand and shingle winning, leads to alterations in the shoreline and, subsequently, the destruction of intertidal habitats. Large-scale sand winning also has the potential of accelerating shoreline erosion, hence threatening onshore habitats. Trawling Physical alteration of the seabed changes the composition and functioning of the biological community. Although resource managers generally agree that the physical alterations of ecosystems is the greatest threat to biodiversity on land, the importance of physical alteration on marine biodiversity as a result of trawling is often underestimated or overlooked. In the Gulf of Guinea, perhaps the one single activity that most disturbs the subtidal community is trawling. Trawling churns and resuspends sediments, damages the sea floor and associated benthic communities, smothers benthic organisms and alters habitats, and eventually leads to major changes in the benthic food web. Pollution Oil pollution is a major threat to countries exploiting the resource offshore, notably Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon. Blowouts in the Niger delta have destroyed biota over large areas. 35 Benin and Ghana are extracting oil on an exploratory basis, and this could have some effect on the marine environments in the vicinity of test sites. Other forms of pollution in the coastal zone include domestic and industrial wastes, which are released, untreated into lagoons and the oceanic environment. This could have effects on lagoonal flora and fauna as well as on coastal and benthic marine resources. The effects of pollution can already be seen in some coastal lagoons in Ghana such as the Chemu and Korle lagoons, which have lost their biota as the results of domestic and industrial effluent. Some forms of pollution have sub-lethal effects on the environment with their actions mainly evident after long-term exposure, or as a result of bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Such pollutants can have significant consequences for biodiversity in terms of altered composition, structure and functioning of marine communities. Of special interest is tributyltin (TBT) pollution, normally associated with harbours and marinas. TBT is used as an anti-biofouling agent in paints on the hulls of ships and other marine vessels. Studies by Nyarko and Evans (1998) have shown the adverse effects of TBT (imposex) on two marine intertidal gastropods, Thais haemastoma and Thais nodosa in the Tema port. A regional study with the aim of establishing the extent and magnitude of TBT pollution on marine invertebrates in the Gulf of Guinea is therefore necessary. CAPACITY A. Human Capacity Name Field/Taxa Personal Details Armah, A. K. Benthos Lamptey, E. Benthos, Coastal birds Yankson, K. Benthos (molluscs) Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y Coastal birds Blay, J. Jr. Fishery Darpaah, G. A. Fishery Department of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Department of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana E-mail: [email protected] Department of Zoology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast. Department of Zoology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 98, Ghana Department of Zoology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast. Department of Zoology, P. O. Box LG 98, Legon, Accra. Email: [email protected] 36 Koranteng, K. A. Fishery Nunoo, F. K. E. Fishery Entsua-Mensah, M. Fishery Ababio, S.D. Fishery Ofori-Danson Fishery Addo, S Fishery Aadra, Y. Fishery Zacharie, S. Fishery Wiafe, G. Plankton Addico, G. N. D. Plankton Yaqub H. B. Plankton Marine Fisheries Research Division, P. O. Box BT62, Tema. Email: [email protected] Department of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana Water Research Institute, P.O. Box 38, Achimota, Ghana Fax: 777170/761030 Deptartment of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana E-mail: [email protected] Deptartment of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana Deptartment of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana E-mail: [email protected] Deptartment of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lome, B.P. 1515, Lome, Togo. Email: [email protected] [email protected] National Center for Oceanography, Benin Center for Technique and Scientific Research, Cotonou, Benin. Email: [email protected] Deptartment of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana E-mail: [email protected] Water Research Institute P.O.Box 38 Achimota, Ghana Fax: 777170/761030 Marine Fishery Research Division, P.O.Box BT -62, Tema Ghana Email: [email protected] 37 Edorh, M. T. Plankton Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lome, B.P. 1515, Lome, Togo Email: [email protected] [email protected] Mangroves, semi-aquatic Department of Botany, vegetation University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana Macroalgae Department of Botany, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana Adomako, J. K. Ameka, G. B. Institutional Capacity Institution Address Taxa Capacity Documentation Department of Oceanography & Fisheries, University of Ghana Department of Botany, University of Ghana Department of Zoology, University of Ghana Marine Fishery Research Division University of Cape Coast Department of Oceanography & Fishery, University of Ghana P.O. Box LG 99, Legon Accra, Ghana Department of Botany, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana Fish Small None Plankton Small None Benthos Macroalgae Moderate None Moderate Excellent Department of Zoology, MacroModerate Inadequate P.O. Box LG 98, Legon, invertebrates Accra, Ghana and Fish Fish Small Satisfactory Macroinvertebrate and Fish Small None Universite National du Benin Small Department of Zoology, MacroBP 526, Cotonou, Benin invertebrates and Fish None National Center for Oceanography Benin Center for Technique and Scientific Research, Cotonou, Benin. Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lome, B.P. 1515, Lome, Togo Macroinvertebrate and Fish Small None Macroinvertebrate and Fish Small None University of Lome Marine Fishery Research Division, P.O.Box BT -62, Tema, Ghana Department of Zoology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast 38 C. Museum Facilities Museum facilities are generally non-existent, and where they exist, comprise mainly teaching specimens used in tertiary institutions. The collections are inadequate with the probable exception of the Macroalgae Collection at the University of Ghana. Country Human capacity Museum/Collection Ghana Fisheries = Adequate Benthos = Very poor Plankton = Poor Others = Poor Fisheries = Adequate Benthos = Very poor Plankton = Poor Others = Poor Fisheries = Adequate Benthos = Very poor Plankton = Poor Others = Poor Poorly kept and often limited to personal collections in Universities and Research Institutes Togo Benin Poorly kept and often limited to personal collections in Universities and Research Institutes Poorly kept and often limited to personal collections in Universities and Research Institutes 39 REFERENCES AVIFAUNA Ber Van Perlo (2002). Birds of Western and Central Africa. Harper Collins Pub. Ltd., London. Finlayson, C. M., C. Gordon, Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu, J. Tumbulto and M. Storrs (2000). The hydrobiology of Keta and Songor lagoons: Implications for Coastal Wetland Management in Ghana. Supervising Scientist Report 152, Darwin. GLDD/RPI/ESL (2001-2003). Annual Monitoring Report for the Keta Sea Defence Project. Environmental Protection Agency, Accra, Ghana Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. and I. R. Hepburn (1988). Wintering Waders in Coastal Ghana. RSPB Conserv. Rev. 2:85-88 Piersma, T. and Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu (1995). Waterbird Ecology and the Management of Coastal Wetlands in Ghana. Ghana Coastal Wetlands Management Project/Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ-Report 1995-6)/Ghana Wildlife Report. Serle, W., G. J. Morel and W. Hartwig (1977). A Field Guide to the Birds of West Africa. Collins, London BRYOZOA Cook, P. L. (1985). Bryozoa from Ghana. - Zoologische Wetenschappen Musee Royal l'Afrique Centrale Tervuren, Belgique 238: 1-315. CRUSTACEA Holthuis, L. B. (1951). The Caridean Crustacean of West Africa. Atlantide Rep., 2:7-187 Le Lœuff, P. et A Intès (1974). Les Thalassinidae (Crutacea, Decapoda) du Golfe de Guinèe, Systèmatique, Écologie. Cah. Orstom, sér. Océanogra., 12 (1):17-69 Manning, R. B. and L. B Holthuis (1981). West African Brachyuran crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda). Smithsonia Contr. Zool., 306, 379p Reid, D. M. (1951). Report on the Amphipoda (Gammaridae and Caprellidae) of the Coast of Tropical West Africa. Stubbings H. G. (1961). Cirripedia Thoracica from Tropical West Africa. Atlantide Rep., 6:742. ECHINODERMATA Clark, A. M (1955). Echinodermata of the Gold Coast. Journal of the West African Science Association, 1, (2), p. 16-56. 40 FISHES Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds) (1984). FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes. Eastern central Atlantic. (Fishing area 34 and part of 47). FAO, Rome. Vols. 1-7: pag. Var. Ofori-Adu, D. W. (1988). List of Fishes, Shellfishes and other Marine Food Resources in Ghanaian Coastal Waters. Marine Fisheries Technical Paper 1. Fisheries Research Unit, Tema, Ghana. Troadec, J. P. and S. Garcia (eds) (1980). The Fish Resources of the Eastern Central Atlantic. Part 1: The Resources of the Gulf of Guinea from Angola to Mauritania. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., (186.1): 166p. Wolfgang, S. (1990). Field Guide to the Commercial Marine Resources of the Gulf of Guinea. FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes. Rome. MOLLUSCA Buchanan, J. B (1954). Marine Molluscs of the Gold Coast, West Africa. Journal of the West African Science Association, 1, 1: 30-45 Knudsen, J. (1952). Marine prosobranchs of Tropical West Collected by the ‘Atlantide’ Expedition (1945-46). Vidensk. Medd. fra dansk naturh. Foren., Bd. 114, 129-85 Maslin J. L. (1986). Les Mollusques Benthicques d’une Lagune du sud du Bénin, le lac Ahémé les Facteurs de leur Repartition, Dynamique des Populations et Estimation de la Production de Corbula trigona. Thèse doct. 3e cycle, univ. Lyon I, 116p + Figures Monod, T. (1956). Hippidae et Brachyura Ouest-Africains. Mem. Ifan, 45, 674p. Nicklès, M. (1950). Mollusques Testacés Marins de la Côte Occidentale d’Afrique. Manuels Ouest- Africains, Le Chevalier éd., Paris. 2, 10 +269p MACROALGAE John, D.M. and Lawson G. (1997). Seaweed Biodiversity in West Africa: a Criterion for Designating Marine Protected Areas. In: S. M. Evans, C. J. Vanderpuye and A. K. Armah (eds.). The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Penshaw Press, U.K. Lawson, G and John D.M. (1987). The Marine Algae and Coastal Environment of Tropical West Africa (2nd Ed). Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia, Heft 93. Pub. J. Cramer, Berlin. POLYCHAETA Day, J. H. (1967). A monograph on the polychaete of Southern Africa. Part 1. Errantia. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. 41 Day, J. H. (1967). A monograph on the polychaete of Southern Africa. Part 2. Sedentaria. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. Intès, A. et P. le Lœuff (1975). Les Annélides Polychète de Côte-d’Ivoire. I – Polychètes Errantes, Compte Rendu Systematigue. Cah. Orstom, sér. Océanogra., 13 (4):267-349 Intès, A. et P. Lœuff (1977). Les Annélides Polychète de Côte-d’Ivoire. I – Polychètes Sedentaries, Compte Rendu Systematigue. Cah. Orstom, sér. Océanogra., 15 (3):215249. Fauchald, K. (1977). The polychaete worms: definitions and keys to the Orders, Families and Genera. Natural History Museum, Los Angeles County. Kirkegaard, J. B. (1983). The Polychaete of West Africa. Part II: Errant species. I Aphroditidae to Nereidae. Atlantide Report, 13: 181-230. E.J. Brill/ Scandinavian Science Press Ltd. Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Ecological Musuem, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Part 1. Sedentary species. In: J. Knudsen and T. Wolff (eds.) Atlantide Report 14. E.J. Brill/ Scandinavian Science Press Ltd. Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Part 2. Errantia species. In: J. Knudsen and T. Wolff (eds.) Atlantide Report 14. E.J. Brill/ Scandinavian Science Press Ltd. Tebble N. (1955). The Polychaete Fauna of the Gold Coast. Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Zool. London, 3(2): 61-148. Zibrovius, H. (1978). Introduction du Polychaete Serpulidae Japonais Hydroides ezoensis sur la Côte Ouest de l’Afrique et des Archipels Voisins. Ann. Mus. R. Agr. Centr., 207:1-9. PLANKTON Bainbridge, V. (1972). The zooplankton of the Gulf of Guinea. Bulletin of Marine Ecology 8: 61 - 97. Binet, D. (1977). Grand traits de d'ecologie de principaux taxons du zooplankton Ivoirien. Cahiers Orstom Series Oceanographie 15: 89 - 109. Boden, B.P. (1961). Euphausiacea (crustacea) from Tropical West Africa. In Atlantide Report No. 6. Danish Science Press Limited, Copenhagen. 251 - 262. Einarson, H. (1945). Euphausiacea - North Atlantic species. Dana Reports 5 no. 27. 185p. 42 Furnestin, M. L. (1966). Chaetognathes des eaux africaines. In Atlantide Reports No. 9. Danish Science Press Limited. 105 - 135p. Kramp, P. L. (1955). The medusae of the tropical west coast of Africa. In Atlantide Report No. 3. Bruun A. Fr. (ed.). Danish science Press Limited, Copenhagen. 239 - 324p. Mensah, M. A. (1966). Zooplankton occurrence over the shelf of Ghana. In Proceedings of the symposium on the oceanography and fisheries resources of the tropical Atlantic. Abidjan, La Côte d'Ivoire. 241 - 254p. Mensah, M. A. (1974). The occurrence of the marine copepod Calanoides carinatus (Krϕyer) in Ghanaian waters. Ghana Journal of Science 14: 147-166. Thiriot, A. (1977). Peuplements zooplanctoniques dans les regions de remontees d'eaus du littoral atlantique africain. Documentation Scientifique Centre Rechercher Oceanographie. Abidjan. 8: 1 – 72. Vervoort, W. (1963). Pelagic Copepoda. Part I: Copepoda Calanoida of the families Calanidae up to and including Euchaetidae. In Atlantide Report No. 7, Wolff, T. and J. Knudsen (eds.). Danish Science Press limited, Copenhagen. 77 - 194p. Vervoort, W. (1965). Pelagic Copepoda. Part II: Copepoda Calanoida of the families Phaennidae up to and including Acartiidae, containing the description of a new species of Aetideidae. In Atlantide Report no. 8, Wolff, T. and J. Knudsen (eds.). Danish Science Press limited, Copenhagen. 9 - 216p. Wiafe, G. and C. L. J. Frid (1997). Hydrographic forcing and zooplankton temporal variation off the coast of Ghana, West Africa. In Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. and Armah, A.K.(eds.), The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 149 - 159. Wiafe, G. (1997). Zooplankton biodiversity in the Gulf of Guinea. In: Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. and Armah, A.K.(eds.), The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 243. Wiafe, G. and C. L. J. Frid (1999). Short-term temporal variability within coastal zooplankton communities. Journal of the Ghana Science Association 2 (3): 122- 128. Wiafe, G. and C. L. J. Frid (2001). Marine zooplankton of West Africa (with CD-ROM). Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West African Sub-region. Darwin Initiative Report 5, Ref. 162/7/451. Sywula, T., G. Wiafe, J. Sell and I. Glazewska (2002). Genetic subdivision of the upwelling copepod Calanoides carinatus (Krøyer, 1849) off the continental shelf of Ghana. Journal of Plankton Research 24 (5): 523 – 525. 43 GENERAL Ababio, S. D. (2001). The Population Parameters, Food Habits and Physico-Chemical Environment of Three Cichlid Species in the South-Western Sector of the Keta Lagoon. Unpublished M. Phil. Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. Adam, K. S. (1998). Managing the Coastal Zone of Benin. In: Perspectives in Integrated Coastal Areas Management in the Gulf of Guinea. A. Chidi Ibe (Ed). Large Marine Ecosystem Project of the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin. Adu-Prah, S., J. Gyamfi-Aidoo and G. T. Agyepong (1997). Lower Volta Mangrove Project Technical Report No. 5. Volta Basin Research Project, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. Amiteye, B. T. (2001). Ecology and Occurrence of Nesting Turtles in Ghana. Unpublished M. Phil. Thesis. University of Ghana, Legon. Armah, A. K. (1993). Coastal wetlands of Ghana. Coastal Zone 93: 313-322. Armah, A. K. and D. S. Amlalo (1998). Coastal Zone Profile of Ghana. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem Project. Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Accra, Ghana. Blivi, A., K. Houekador and D. Johnson (1998). Strategy for Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Togo: The Coastal Profile. In: Perspectives in Integrated Coastal Areas Management in the Gulf of Guinea. A. Chidi Ibe (Ed). Large Marine Ecosystem Project of the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin. Buchanan, J. B. (1958). The Bottom Fauna Communities across the Continental Shelf off Accra, Ghana (Gold Coast). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. Vol. 130, Part 1, pp. 1-56. Debrah, J. S. (2000). Taxonomy, Exploitation and Conservation of Dolphins in the Marine Waters of Ghana. Unpublished M. Phil Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. EC, (1989). Coastal Erosion in the Bight of Benin – National and Regional Aspects. Report on Expert Findings to the European Community. 370 pp. EPA/World Bank, (1997). Towards an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy for Ghana. The World Bank and the Environmental Protection Agency, Accra, Ghana. Evans, S. M., M. E. Gill, F. G. Hardy and F. O. K. Seku (1993). Evidence of Change in some Rocky Shore Communities on the Coast of Ghana. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 172: 129-141. Ibe, A. C., A. A. Oteng-Yeboah, S. G. Zabi, and D. Afolabi (eds) (1998). Integrated Environmental and Living Resources Management in the Gulf of Guinea. Proceedings of the First Symposium on GEF’s LME Project for the Gulf of Guinea, Abidjan. UNDP/UNIDO.GEF. 274pp. 44 Jefferson, T. A., B. E. Curry, S. Leatherwood and J. A. Powell (1997). Dolphins and Porpoises of West Africa: a review of records. ( Cetacea: Delphinidae, Phocoenidae). Mammalia 61 (1): 87-108. Longhurst, A. R. (1958). An Ecological Survey of the West African Benthos. Fish. Publ. Col. Office London, 11, 102p Longhurst, A.L., (1962). A Review of the Oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. Bull. Inst.fr.Afr.noir, Ser. A, 24 (3): 633-663. Ly, C. K. (1980). The Role of the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in causing erosion in Central and Eastern Ghana ( West Africa). Mar. Geol., 37: 323 – 332. Nyarko, E and S. M. Evans (1998). Impacts of Tributyltin Pollution and Human Food Gathering on Populations of the Gastropods, Thais haemastoma and Thais nodosa along the Coast of Ghana. In: Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. and Armah, A.K. (eds.), The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 243. Nunoo, F. K. E and S. M. Evans (1997). The By-Catch Problem of the Commercial Shrimp Fishery in Ghana. In: Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. and Armah, A.K.(eds.), The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 243. Sackey, E. (1994). Ecological Studies of Ghanaian Mangroves. Unpublished M. Phil. Thesis. University of Ghana. Legon. Saenger, P. and M. F. Bellan (1995). The Mangrove Vegetation of the Atlantic Coast of Africa – A Review. Laboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre (UMR). Universite de Toulouse, France, 96 pp. Wauthy, B., (1983). Introduction á la Climatologie du Golfe de Guinée. Océanogr. Trop., 18 (2): 103-138. Yankson, K. and M. Kendall (2001). A Student’s Guide to the Seashore of West Africa. Darwin Initiative Report 1, Ref. 162/7/451. 45 National Report Marine biodiversity in Nigeria – the known and the unknown Catherine E. Isebor Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Victoria Island, P. M. B. 12729, Lagos, Nigeria Introduction Nigeria has a coastline of 853 km, a maritime area of 46,500 km2 and an exclusive economic zone of 210,900 km2. The Nigerian coastal area is hot and humid, with an annual temperature range between 26 and 34oC, and the highest temperatures occurring during the dry season (November to March). The total annual rainfall averages between 350 and 600 centimeters. More than 80 percent of the rain falls during the rainy season (April to October) when tropical storm conditions are frequent. Rainfall is usually heavy and occasionally lasts for over 24 hours. Rainfall of about 50mm/hour between July and August are common and results in flash floods. The predominant wind is the rain bearing southwest trade wind from the Atlantic Ocean. During the short dry period, the dust laden north east dry wind from the Sahara desert reaches the coastal areas, producing hazy conditions (Ibe et al. 1985). The Nigerian intertidal mangrove swamps cover an area of about 5,590 square kilometres (Allen 1965). The swamps are separated from the sea by barrier-bar islands that are usually broken by tidal channels. The Niger delta area, which has a flourishing mangrove ecosystem, was formed by long and continuous interactions of sediment laden Niger River water and coastal processes, creating beach-ridges, barrier islands, a fresh water floodplain and brackish mangrove swamp. This coastal habitat is interrupted by a series of estuaries, lagoons and embayments. The total brackish water habitat is estimated as 12,900 km2. The mangroves, wetlands and inter-tidal systems occur in saline soil subject to tidal inundation and occupy a total area of almost 1 million hectares (Okigbo 1984, FAO 1981). Fishing is the main occupation of the coastal communities, with various types of gears being employed. Fishing is conducted in creeks, rivers, estuaries, mudflats, near-shore and offshore. Commercial fishing supports about 440 trawlers, with about three quarters of the fleet targeting the shrimp resources. The mangrove plants and associated halophytic plants are used for building, extraction of tannin; construction works, curing of fish, and other fishing implements. Mineral resources in the coastal and marine waters include petroleum, with an oil reserve of about 21 billion barrels and gas reserve estimated at more than 11 trillion cubic feet. Current production levels are at about 1.9 million barrels of crude oil and 200,000 barrels of gas condensate per day. The current natural gas production is 3,400 million cubic feet per day in the form of associated gas, of which about 340 million is marketed in the domestic market, 340 million re-injected and 2,720 million cubic feet is flared daily. Sand and gravel are exploited onshore and offshore, in the riverbed, lagoons, estuaries and beaches. Millions of cubic meters of sand are dredged annually during oil exploration and exploitation, as well as for the construction industry. Most of the sand mined is used for reclamation of swampy areas, in the block-making industry and construction work. 46 The Known The Nigerian coast comprises four distinct geomorphic zones. On the western side is the barrier bar lagoon complex that changes about 100 km eastwards of Lagos into mud beaches. The mud beaches then grade into the Niger delta that consists of a chain of sandy beach ridge barrier islands backed by an extensive mangrove swamp. The barrier islands rim the subaerial Niger delta from the Benin River on the northwest flank of the delta to the Opobo River in the east. There are more than 20 major beach ridge barrier islands between the mangrove swamp and the open sea (Allen 1964). Eastward of the Opobo River to the eastern border with Cameroon is the strand complex coastline. The continental shelf widens from 25-30 km off Lagos to 75 km at the Niger delta. There are 36 estuaries on the coast, which owe their origin to bar-built (such as the Lagos lagoon) drowned river valleys (such Qua Iboe River) and river delta estuaries The end of the continental shelf is marked by an often-steep continental slope. The slope is the beginning of what is called the offshore ocean environment (as distinct from what is generally referred to as the near shore coastal ocean). Most of the physical factors such as winds, waves and tides affecting the coastal zone have their origin in the offshore ocean. This offshore ocean feature, together with the near shore ocean and their drainage basins (the socalled marine catchment basins) constitute the geographical space sometimes referred to as a Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) by Sherman and Alexander (1986). The coastal area is richly endowed with abundant aquatic and other natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable. Considerable information is available on the plankton, fish and fisheries of the Nigerian coastal zone (Olaniyan 1957, Williams 1962, Fagade 1969, Ezenwa 1981, Ajayi 1982, Ssentogo et al 1986). Coastal vegetation (mangroves) Taxonomic considerations are based on Hutchinson and Dalziel (1927-1936) and Olorode (1984). Strict mangroves are separated from their relatives at least by generic level, often at subfamily or family level. Minor elements are distinguished by their inability to form conspicuous elements of mangrove vegetation, and may occupy peripherial habitat and only rarely form a pure community. Mangrove associates are never inhabitants of strict mangrove community and may occur only in transitional vegetation. Specialized elements include climbers, epiphytes and parasites. Attempts have been made to classify mangrove zones occurring within the Nigerian coastal zone. These categories are not sharply circumscribed and assessment is somewhat subjective given the continuum of possibilities. The major elements of mangroves in the country include the dominant species Rhizophora racemosa, Avicennia africana and Nypa fructicans. A list of plant families found in the Nigerian coastal zone is given in Table 1 and includes 60 species belonging to 49 genera. Various surveys carried out in the Nigerian coastal zone indicate that the mangroves have been impacted by human activities. Phytoplankton Nwankwo (1988b) produced a checklist of Nigerian marine algae. Other studies on plankton of the Nigerian coastal zone have been documented (Olaniyan 1969&1977, Nwankwo 1984, 1988a, 1990a and 1990b). A total of 103 genera of phytoplankton have already been identified from Nigerian coastal waters (Table 2). 47 Table 1: Mangrove and associated vegetation in the Nigerian coastal zone No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Family Genera Species Rhizophoraceae 1 3 Avicenniaceae 1 1 Combretaceae 2 2 Adiantaceae (Polypodiaceae) 1 1 Amaranthaceae 1 2 Palmae 5 6 Araceae 2 2 Apocynaceae 1 1 Cannaceae 1 1 Convolvulaceae 1 2 ceratophyllaceae 1 1 Panadanaceae 1 1 Papilionaceae 2 2 Cyperaceae 5 8 Typhaceae 1 1 Lemmaceae 2 2 Loganiaceae 1 1 Moraceae 1 2 Nymphaeaceae 1 1 Onagraceae 1 1 Poaceae 5 7 Polygonanceae 2 2 Rubiaceae 4 4 Salviniaceae 1 1 Scrophulariaceae 1 1 Sphenocleaceae 1 1 Passifloraceae 1 1 Pontederiaceae 1 1 Total 49 60 Source: Chapman, V. J. (1984), RPI/NNPC (1985) & Isebor, C. E. (1998) Table 2: Taxonomic listing of phytoplankton genera from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Family Bacillariophyceae Chlorophyceae Cyanophyceae Chrysophyceae Dinophyceae Euglenophyceae Total Genera 42 39 17 1 3 1 103 48 Zooplankton Within the zooplankton community, crustaceans are the dominant group, with copepods frequently the most abundant component. Shrimp larvae are recorded in most samples, with tunicates and chaetognaths also common. Other zooplanktonic animals found in the Nigerian coastal zone include protozoans, bryozoans, cnidarians, ctenophores, worms (e.g. oligochaetes), and the larvae of crustaceans (e.g. barnacles, crabs, shrimps), insects (e.g. mosquitoes), molluscs (e.g. bivalves, gastropods, scaphopods), echinoderms, ascidians and fishes. A listing of the number of species and genera already identified is given in Table 3. Table 3: Taxonomic list of zooplankton from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Group Copepoda Ciliatea Hydrozoa Polychaeta Cirripedia Isopoda Pisces Scyphozoa Chaetognatha Polychaeta Ostracoda Genera 8 2 4 3 1 2 unknown 3 2 4 3 Species 8 2 4 3 1 2 unknown 3 3 5 4 Genera 4 3 2 4 Species 4 3 unknown unknown Table 4: Taxonomic list of Cnidaria from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 Class Hydrozoa Scyphozoa Anthozoa Total Table 5: Taxonomic list of Annelida from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Family Capitellidae Nereidae Nephytidae Paraonidae Pilargiidae Cossuridae Maldanidae Glyceridae Pisionidae Chaetopteridae Genera 5 4 2 1 5 1 7 1 1 5 49 Species 5 4 3 1 5 1 7 4 1 5 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Spionidae Orbiniidae Arenicolidae Opheliidae Cirratulidae Ampharetidae Flabelligeridae Nanididae Hesionidae Mageloniadae Funicidae Aphroditidae Sabellidae Sternapsidae Owenidae Pectinariidae Sabellaridae Scalibregmidae Terebellidae 3 6 1 1 1 3 1 unknown 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 4 4 3 6 1 3 1 3 1 unknown 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 2 4 6 A total of 23 species of shrimp, belonging to 16 genera, have been recorded (Table 6). These include commercially important species such as Penaeus notialis, Penaeus monodon, P. kerathurus, Parapenaeopsis atlantica, Macrobrachium macrobrachium, M. vollenhovenii and Nematopalaemon hastatus. These species are most abundant and dominate the catch landings. Shrimps are concentrated in Nigerian estuaries, lagoons and adjacent near shore waters. There are 9 families of crabs comprising 17 genera and 23 species (Table 7). The Portunidae (Callinectes sp. and Portunus sp.) are the most economically important in the Nigerian coastal zone. Table 6: Taxonomic list of some commercially important Crustacea from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Family Hippolytidae Nematocarcinidae Palaemonidae Pandalidae Pasiphaeidae Palinuridae Scyllaridae Aristeidae Penaeidae Sicyonidae Solenoceridae Total Genera 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 16 50 Species 1 1 7 3 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 23 Table 7: Taxonomic list of Decapoda from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Family Calappidae Gecarcinidae Geryonidae Graspsidae Homolidae Majidae Ocypodidae Portunidae Xanthidae Genera 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 4 2 17 Species 3 1 1 4 1 1 3 7 2 23 Molluscs The diversity of the coast corresponds to the variety of coastal and marine sediments (sandy, muddy and rocky) that are transported into the coastal area and sea by the numerous rivers. There are no near shore coral reefs but there is dead coral in deeper waters. The different bottom sediments support different populations of molluscs. In Nigeria, molluscs are found on/in various substrata, including the zones between fresh and brackish waters, and between estuaries and the marine environment. A taxonomic listing of the number of bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods is given in Tables 8, 9 and 10. Table 8: Taxonomic list of Bivalvia from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Family Arcidae Aloididae Cardiidae Carditidae Chamidae Donacidae Dreissenidae Erycinidae Garidae Glycymeridae Hiatellidae Mactridae Mytilidae Ostreidae Pectinidae Petricolidae Pholadidae Pinnidae Pteriidae Saxicavidae Genera 4 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 51 Species 4 4 3 2 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 5 7 3 2 1 3 2 3 1 21 22 23 24 25 26 Solecurtidae Solenidae Tellinidae Teredinidae Veneridae Vulsellidae Total 2 3 2 1 4 1 49 2 3 4 1 6 1 71 Table 9: Taxonomic list of Gastropoda from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Family Haliotidae Fissurellidae Patellidae Neritidae Littorinidae Turritella Architectonia Vermetidae Melanidae Potamididae Cerithidae Calyptraeidae Xenophoridae Strombidae Naticidae Cypraeidae Cassididae Doliidae Muricacea Columbellidae Buccinidae Galeoidae Nassidae Olividae Mitridae Harpidae Volutidae Turridae Conidae Terebridae Genera 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 42 52 Species 1 3 1 2 4 4 1 3 2 2 3 2 1 1 8 4 3 1 15 1 2 1 7 3 1 1 5 6 5 2 94 Table 10: Taxonomic list of Cephalopoda from Nigeria No. 1 2 3 4 Family Sepiidae Loliginidae Ommastephidae Octopodidae Genus 2 2 8 1 13 Family 6 2 9 2 19 Pisces Marine fish resources off West Africa exhibit a geographical variation in distribution and abundance. Longhurst (1961) observed three distinct zones as follows: (a) A northern subtropical zone of abundant fish resources beginning from the south of Senegal (under the influence of the cold Canary Current). (b) A southern subtropical zone of equally abundant resources beginning from the mouth of the Congo River (under the influence of the cold Benguela Current). (c) The two rich zones enclose a less productive equatorial tropical zone with the Nigerian marine area located in the Gulf of Guinea. The listing of teleost and elasmobranch fishes found in Nigerian coastal waters is given in Tables 11, 12 and 13. Demersal fishes The term ‘demersal’ refers to fishes and invertebrates that spend most of their adult life on or near the sea bottom. The demersal assemblages considered here account for the bulk of the catches by various gears. Despite such rich diversity, only about 284 species occur regularly in trawl catches and far less is commercially important. Trawl surveys provide information on the magnitude, composition and distribution of demersal resources over time. The bulk of the demersal fish biomass comprises zoobenthos feeders, indicating the importance of the large detritus sources as a major driving factor in the coastal fisheries ecosystem of Nigeria. Pelagic Fishes The term ‘pelagic’ as used here refers to fishes that spend all or most of their adult life living in the water column, away from the sea bottom. While considerably less diverse than the demersal species, the pelagic assemblage is still species-rich. The species listed are brackish, coastal marine and oceanic species. The pelagic species have been categorised into small and large, the former characterised by maximum lengths of 20-30 cm. The small pelagic species feed mainly on zooplankton and small crustaceans. They are fast growers with high mortality rates and relatively short life spans (2-3 years). Spawning is frequently a year round activity with two spawning and recruitment peaks annually. In contrast, the large pelagics are located at the top of the aquatic food chain and are piscivorous in adult life. Large pelagics are frequently the first resource group to suffer the effects of heavy fishing pressure in view of their more favourable market prices. Small pelagics include Clupeidae (Ethmalosa fimbriata, Sardinella aurita, S. maderensis and Ilisha africana), Ariommidae (Ariomma bondi and A. melanum) and Engraulidae (Engraulis sp.). Large pelagics include Carcharchinidae, Scombridae (Thunnus albacares, Katsuwonus pelamis, T. obesus) and Sphyraenidae. 53 Table 11: Teleost fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Family Acanthuridae Albulidae Antennariidae Ariidae Ariommidae Ateleopodidae Balistidae Batrachoididae Belonidae Bothidae Bramidae Branchiostegidae Carangidae Centracanthidae Centrolophidae Chlorophthalmidae Citharidae Clupeidae Congridae Coryphaenidae Cynoglossidae Dactylopteridae Diodontidae Diretmidae Drepanidae Eleotridae Elopidae Emmelichthyidae Engraulidae Ephippidae Excocoetidae Fistulariidae Gempylidae Gerridae Grammistidae Haemulidae Hemiramphidae Istiophoridae Kyphosidae Labridae Lampridae Lethrinidae Lobotidae Lophiidae Lutjanidae Macrouridae Genera 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 6 1 1 14 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 2 1 2 4 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 3 54 Species 2 2 1 4 2 1 2 4 5 9 1 1 26 2 2 1 1 6 2 2 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 2 3 2 2 5 5 5 1 3 1 1 1 2 6 4 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Megalopidae Merlucciidae Molidae Monodactylidae Moridae Mugilidae Mullidae Muraenesocidae Muranenidae Ophichthidae Ophidiidae Percophidae Periophthalmidae Peristediidae Platycephalidae Polynemidae Pomacentridae Pomatomidae Priacanthidae Psettodidae Rachycentridae Scaridae Sciaenidae Scombridae Scorpaenidae Serranidae Soleidae Sparidae Sphyraenidae Stromateidae Synodontidae Tetraodontidae Trachichthyidae Trachinidae Trichiuridae Triglidae Uranoscopidae Xiphiidae Zeidae 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 5 6 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 6 9 2 6 6 6 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 2 1 1 2 191 1 1 1 1 3 6 1 1 9 6 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 13 11 5 10 13 11 4 1 1 4 3 4 4 5 2 1 2 284 Table 12: Rajiform fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species. No. 1 2 3 4 5 Family Dasyatidae Gymuridae Torpedinidae Myliobatidae Mobulidae Genera 1 1 1 3 2 55 Species 4 2 4 3 3 6 7 8 9 10 Pristidae Rajidae Rhinobatidae Rhynchobatidae Rhinopteridae Total 1 1 1 1 1 13 3 5 3 1 1 29 Table 13: Squaliform fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Family Hexanchidae Carcharhinidae Hemigalidae Ginglymostomatidae Leptochariidae Odontaspididae Oxynotidae Scyliohinidae Sphyrnidae Squalidae Squatinidae Triakidae Genera 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 21 Species 2 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 9 2 2 30 Reptiles The Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, is found in some estuaries. Turtles are protected species, species occurring in the Nigerian zone include (Caretta caretta carretta(Atlantic Loggerhead), Lepidochelys olivacea (Pacific riddley turtle), Eretmochelys imbricata (Atlantic Hawksbill turtle) and Demochelys coriacea (Leatherback turtle). They nest along the Nigerian beaches and inhabit mainly coastal waters. Birds A total of 13 bird families, comprising 45 species, have been recorded in the Nigerian coastal zone (Table 14). Most of these birds are migratory, utilizing the mangrove and mudflat areas of the estuaries for short periods each year, while others are resident. The most common palaeartic migrant shorebirds are Charadrinus hiaticula, Pluvialis squatorola, Tringa tetanus, T. nebularia and Actitis hypoleucos. Among the water birds, the most common large residents are Egretta species (e.g. E. intermedia, E. garzetta and E. alba). Table 14: Families, genera and species of birds in the coastal zone of Nigeria No. 1 2 3 Family Alcedinidae Ardeidae Charadriidae Genera 8 3 2 56 Species 11 8 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Hirundinidae Laniidae Muscicapidae Nectarinidae Pelicanidae Phylacrocoracidae Pycnonotidae Scolopacidae Scopidae Sylviidae 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 1 1 29 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 9 2 1 45 Source: Roux, F. (1999) Studies of the mangrove forests have so far not taken into account the bird community living within this habitat. A previous contribution (Roux 1998) has underlined the common features of mangrove bird community in Senegal and in Western Nigeria, as well as peculiarities of these countries in terms of specific composition. There is a degree of dependency of the most characteristic mangrove species towards the coastal zone. All 45 species have been reported to utilize the mangrove and mudflat areas as foraging grounds and/or roosting sites. Shore and water birds consume large amounts of crustaceans, annelids, molluscs and fish in their diet. The Nigerian coastal zone is a very suitable wintering or staging site for migratory waders. The expansive areas of exposed mud and sand flats at low tide and the large mangrove systems provide rich nutrient flows into the intertidal zone, thus providing suitable conditions for visiting water birds. A typology of mangroves in terms of bird composition may reflect the different organisational types of mangrove ecosystems, an essential tool for mangrove study and management. Mammals Fruit bats most likely play an important role in the reproductive biology of most mangrove plants by acting as their pollinator. A large population of tree pangolin (Manis tracuspis), Grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus), Leopard (Panthera capensis), Otter (Aonyx capensis), Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), short nosed crocodile (Orteolaemis tetraspis), Mona monkeys (Cercopithecus mona), Putty nose monkey (C. nictitanus), Forest genet (Genetta poensis), Hippoptamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), Red river hog (Potamocherus porcus), Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), Maxwell duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli), Yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultor), Blue duiker (C. monticola), Brush tailed porcupine (Antherurus africanus), Olive colombus (Colobus verus), Chimpanzees (Pan trogloytes), Pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropis liberiensis), Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei) and manatees (Trichenchus senegalensis) classified as endangered species of wildlife utilize the coastal zone, occurring in remote and undisturbed mangrove forests, they feed on leaves and fruits and palm shoots. Some monkeys have a preference for feeding on mangrove leaves. The Unknown The marine environment is very difficult to study, as it requires special mobility and equipment. Unlike the terrestrial environment that is easily accessible by road or by foot, the marine environment has wide ranging depths, from one metre to thousands of metres deep. 57 The craft used are expensive and most of the vessels used for research have been donations from the Japanese Government. Another constraint has been that most of the available literature is usually from temperate or other tropical areas and species identification therefore often difficult. Many taxa have not been studied and others have not been described. The most studied taxa are those of commercial importance. Unknown marine invertebrate constitute the bulk of the unknown. These include the phyla Porifera, Cnidara (Coelenterata), Ctenophora, Plathyhelminthes, Nemertea, Sipunculida, Echiurida and Nematoda, Entoprocta, Tardigrada, Chaetognatha, Bryozoa, Branchiopoda, Mollusca (Aplocorphora, Polyplacophora, shell-less gastropods, scaphopods, some bivalves and gastropods), Arthropoda (Crustacean, Insecta, Collembola, Pycnogonida and Arachnida) Annelida, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Echinodermata and Ascidiacea. For the marine vertebrates, the fishes (bony and cartilaginous) are not fully studied and some are listed only by their generic name. The biology and ecology of most species still requires investigation. Marine birds are not always correctly identified, especially from a distance or based on listening to their calls. The coastal environment is not always suitable for ornithologists but a wide variety of birds winter on the mud flats, sand bars and within the mangroves. Coastal mammals, reptiles and amphibians are yet to be studied due primarily to the inhospitable terrain. Threats The Nigerian marine environment continues to come under various serious threats, usually linked to development pressure. Man-made impacts tend to impair the integrity of the marine environment and negatively influence biodiversity. Pollution of coastal waters The main sources of pollution include industrial waste, raw/untreated sewage and pesticides. Hydrocarbon production contributes about 95% of the country’s Gross National Product (GNP). Oil exploration, exploitation and transportation have a significant effect on the environment. Crude and refined oil spills incidents are very frequent in the coastal and marine environment, especially during periods of very strong ocean currents when it can spread to cover the entire 853 km coastline. The area where frequent spillages occur is categorized as ecologically sensitive or critical (mangrove ecosystems). Gas flaring Efforts to reduce the flaring of associated gas have not been very successful as low technology does not permit the exploitation of natural gas. Flaring impacts on the quality of the coastal atmosphere and affects coastal vegetation and human habitation. The mixture of flared gas and precipitation causes acid rain, with harmful effects on the mangrove biota and marine organisms. These impacts are yet to be studied and fully understood. 58 Land reclamation Land reclamation of swamps adjoining the coast for the increasing human population and other development activities destroys the nursery, breeding and feeding grounds of marine organisms. It also restricts the distribution of organisms and leads to considerable loss of biodiversity. Coastal erosion Coastline erosion is prevalent in Nigeria and has been closely associated with ocean front constructions such as ports and harbours. Ibe (1988) reported that the Nigerian coastline experiences some of the fastest erosion rates in the world averaging about 20-30 metres per year in some locations. Over fishing The coastal and marine resources are either over fished, or fished close to, or beyond their maximum sustainable yield. The heterogeneity of species of different sizes poses a problem in mesh size regulation in the fishery sub-sector. Deforestation Deforestation of the coastal mangrove vegetation exposes the coast to storm surges, coastal erosion and loss of land. The mangrove swamp is the spawning, breeding, nursery and feeding ground for fish and shellfish for both brackish and marine organisms. Construction of canals and channels Construction of canals/channels contributes to land loss as craft movement generates strong waves that impact on the banks of these waterways. Mining of sand Mining activities on the foreshore and seabed are a very common feature in Nigeria and they impact negatively on the bottom communities. Mining of sand affects the environmental sediment balance and has major impacts on the associated bottom dwelling organisms. Invasive species Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes entered Nigeria through the freshwater lagoon system in September 1984. The present distribution in coastal waterways has been estimated at 3,561 km2 by the Chemical Task Force on Water Hyacinth Control (1992). Spreading of the infestation to adjoining lagoons in the Republic of Benin and the Cameroon is estimated at 500 km2 and 275 km2 respectively. The tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon entered the Nigerian coastal waters in about 1992 following the escape of captive stocks from a shrimp farm in the Rivers area. These shrimps now occur throughout Nigerian coastal waters less than 20 m deep. They are most abundant in Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Cross River coastal waters and have recently been reported in Lagos lagoons and other estuaries along the coast. The shrimps are caught throughout the year with 59 a peak period in abundance between February and October. Initial trawl landings in 19981999 were limited (500-800 kg per trip of 50 days) but by the year 2000 it had become a major fishery for the commercial shrimp trawlers with each vessel landing between 10 and 14 tonnes per annum. By the end of 2001 each vessel landed an average of 17-21 tonnes per annum (Isebor 2003). The impact of this invasive species on indigenous shrimps is unknown. Nypa fruticans is gradually replacing Rhizophora sp. due to mangrove deforestation and the lack of a management plan for the coastal zone. Slow natural regeneration of deforested areas leading to the rapid invasion and colonisation by Nypa. This invasive plant is a threat to the economically and ecologically important mangrove trees, as well as exacerbating the destabilisation and erosion of coastal foreshores. Nypa lacks the necessary prop root system that stabilises and consolidates the muddy banks. Threatened coastal species A list of threatened animal species in the coastal and brackish water zones of Nigeria is given in Table 15. Table 15: Some threatened fauna in the coastal and brackish water zones of Nigeria. Group Pholidon Rodentia Carnivora Carnivora Tubulidentata Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Reptilia Reptilia Primates Primates Primates Primates Primates Primates Carnivora Proboscidea Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Rodentia Species name Manis tricuspis Expixerus epii Thryonomys swinderrianus Panthera capensis Aonyx capensis Trichenchus senegalensis Choeropis liberiensis Tragelaphus spekei Crocodylus niloticus Orteolaemis tetraspis Pan troglodytes Cercopithecus erythrogaster Cercopithecus mona Colobus verus Cercopithecus nictitans Cercopithecus nictitanus Genetta poensis Loxodonta africana Hippopotamus amphibius Potamocherus porcus Syncerus caffer Tragelaphus scriptus Cephalophus maxwelli Cercopithecus sylvicultor Cercopithecus monticola Antherurus africanus 60 Common name Tree Pangolin African palm squirrel Grasscutter Leopard Otter Manatee Pigmy hippopotamus Sitatunga Nile Crocodile Short nosed crocodile Chimpanzee Red bellied quenons Mona monkey Olive colombus Putty nosed monkey White- throated monkey Forest genet Elephant Hippopotamus Red river hog Buffalo Bushbuck Maxwell duiker Yellow-backed duiker Blue duiker Bush tailed porcupine Capacity Human Capacity Most taxonomists are focussed on terrestrial species. Marine biodiversity research is still in its infancy in Nigeria. Institutional Capacity Nigerian has signed and ratified all the necessary conventions. Research is primarily concentrated on species of commercial value. The Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research was primarily established in 1975 to conduct research on the living and nonliving resources of the coastal zone. Other institutions active in marine biodiversity research are the coastal Universities such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Uyo, Calabar and the Science and Technology Institute in Port Harcourt. There are no national museums but collections can be found in various institutions. Nigeria welcomes any assistance leading to establish a central national museum. The state of species identification and documentation is in its infancy, with limited and scattered collections currently available. There is no electronic cataloguing of museum specimens. 61 References Allen, J. R. L. and Wells, J. W. (1962): Holocene and coral banks and subsidence in the Niger Delta. J. Geology 70 (4): 381-397. Buchanan, J. B. (1954): the Marine Molluscs of the Gold Coast. J. West Afr. Sci. Ass. No. 1: 30-45. Buchanan, J. B. (1957): Benthic fauna of continental edge of Accra, Ghana. Nature, 79: 636635. Boely, T. and F. Freon (1980): Coastal pelagic resources, In J. P. Troadec and S. M. Garcia (eds). The Fish Resources of the Eastern Central Atlantic Part 1: The Resources of the Gulf of Guinea from Angola to Mauritania. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 186 (1): 1-66. FAO [Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN]. (1981): Report of the seventh Session of the Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF). Lagos, Nigeria. 10-14 April 1981. FAO Fish. Rep. 225: 95 p. FAO [Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN]. (1992): FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics. Vol.70 (for 1990) FAO, Rome. Fisher, W., G. Bianchi and W. B. Scot (eds). (1981): FAO Species Identification sheets for fishery purposes. Eastern Central Atlantic fishing Area 43, 47 (in part). Vols. 1-7. Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J. N. (1927-1936): Flora of Tropical West Africa, Vol. 1-III. Crown Agents, London. 1033 pp. Isebor, C.E. 1999: Effects of Pollution and Over- Cutting in the Nigerian Mangrove Ecosystem and Restoration. A UNDP/UNIDO/NOAA/UNEP/ GOG LME Project. Technical Report. Isebor, C. E. (in press): The invasive and exotic species in the Nigerian coastal zone In Coastal Zone 2003, Baltimore, USA. Isebor, C. E. et al. (1999): The Result of the Fish Trawl Survey of the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem. A UNDP/UNIDO/NOAA/UNEP/GOG. LME Project, Technical Report. Knudsen, J. (1952): Marine prosobranchs of tropical West Africa collected by the “Atlantide” expedition 1945-46 Part 1. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk naturh. Foren. 114: 129-185 Longhurst, A. R. (1961): Report on the fishery of Nigeria. Ministry of Economic Development, Lagos. 30pp. Longhurst, A. R. (1962): A review of the oceanography of the Gulf Guinea. Bull. Inst. Franc. Afr. Noire (A) 24 (3): 633-663. Nickèls, M. (1955): Scaphopodes et Lamellibranches rècoltès dans l’Ouest Africain. Sci. Res. Dan. Exp. W. Afr. 3: 93-238. Olorode, O. (1984): Taxonomy of West African Flowering Plants. Longman, London. 158 pp. Picaut, J. (1984): On the dynamics of thermal variation in the Gulf of Guinea. Oceanog. Trop. 19(2): 127-53 Postel E. (1955): Les facies bionomiques de Cotes de Guineé d’A. o.f. Rapp. Cons. Explor. Mer. 137: 10-13. Salzen, E. A. (1957): A trawling survey of Gold Coast. J. Cons. 23. (1) 72-82. Shannon, L. V. and S. C. Pillar (1986): The Benguela Ecosystem. 3. Plankton. In Oceanography and Marine Biology. An Annual Review. Barnes M. (ed.), Aberdeen University Press: 65-170. Shannon, L. V., Crawford, R. J. M., Brundrit, G. B. and L. G. Underhill (1988): Responses of fish populations in the Benguela ecosystem to environmental change. J. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 45 (1): 5-12. 62 Shelton, P. A., A. J. Boyd, and M. J. Armstrong (1985): The influence of large-scale environmental processes on neritic fish populations in the Benguela Current system. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish Invest. Rep. 26: 72-92 Sherman, K. (1991): The Large Marine Ecosystem Concept: A research and management strategy for living resources. Ecol. Applications 1 (4): 349-360. Sherman, K. and L. M. Alexander (Editors). (1986): Variability and management of large marine ecosystems. AAAS Selective Symposium 99, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. 319pp. Tobor, J. G. (1965): Identification notes, fishes of the Nigeria trawling grounds. Fed. Fish Occ. Pap No. 9. 10pp Tobor, J. G. (1968): Checklist of the less common marine fishes of Nigeria caught in Lagos trawling grounds. Fed. Fish Occ. Pap. No. 10. 70pp. UNIDO (1999): Preliminary Report of the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem Fish Trawl survey. 50pp. Wauthy, B. (1983): Introduction a la climatologie de Golfe de Guineé. Oceanogr. Trop. 18 (2): 103-38. Williams, F. (1968): Report on the fishing trawling survey. Publ. Organ. Afr. Unity Sci Tech. Reports. Comm. (99) Vol. 1: 828 pp. Williams, F. (1968): Review of the Principal results of the Guinea Trawling Survey. In Proceedings of the Oceanography and Fish Resources of the Tropical Atlantic. UNESCO, Paris: 139-149. 63 National Report Marine biodiversity in Cameroon – the known and the unknown C.E. Gabche, IRAD – Fisheries and Oceanography Research Station, Batoke, PMB 77 – Limbe, South West Province, Cameroon 1. INTRODUCTION Cameroon’s coastal zone (Figure 1) is 402 km in length (Sayer et al., 1992), from latitude 2.30°N at the Equatorial Guinea border to 4.67°N at the Nigeria border. This zone is considered to be the area that extends from the high tide mark up to 60 km into the hinterland and 200 nautical miles offshore. The coastal zone land area is estimated at 9,670 km² (Adam, 1998) representing 22% of the surface area of Gulf of Guinea countries. Aquatic ecosystems within these limits include the incoming rivers, their estuaries, the continental shelf and deep ocean. Between the coastline and the deep ocean, the continental shelf gradually descends through the 10, 30, 50 and 100m depth contours, with a high degree of aquatic biological diversity throughout. The survival of this biodiversity depends on natural factors, anthropogenic influences and the implementation of appropriate conservation measures. Considering the location and connection of Cameroon’s aquatic ecosystems with other African ecosystems, the management of marine biological diversity cannot be done in isolation. The term biodiversity is used to describe the variety that is found in both living organisms and their habitats. This paper gives baseline information on Cameroon’s coastal and marine natural characteristics, existing anthropogenic influences, and highlights the richness of its biodiversity. In addition, the development of conservation projects around biological diversity, both at a national and international level, is outlined. 1.1 Natural Characteristics 1.1.1 Coastal Climate Cameroon’s coastal climate is equatorial and influenced by the meeting of the anticyclonic weather patterns of the Azores (North Atlantic) and those of Saint Helen (South Atlantic). This climate results from the combined effect of convergence of the tropical oceanic lowpressure zone and the inter-tropical front within the continent. Two distinct seasons: a long rainy season of more than 8 months (March-October) and a dry season of four months (November-February) exist. Air temperatures are high throughout the year and humidity values close to saturation point. South-westerly monsoon winds predominate, modified by land and sea breezes. Wind speeds attain can attain 18 m sec-1 (April, 1993) but average values recorded over a period of 10 years (1983-1993) varied between 0.5-2.5 m sec-1. The hot and dry northeasterly Harmattan occurs when the inter tropical convergence zone deviates from its normally southern position at 5-7°N. 64 Cross Ndian Cameroon and Rio del Rey estuaries Meme 4.5 Rio del Rey Mungo Cameroon Atlantic Ocean Wouri Doula 4.0 Dibamba Sanaga Malabo 3.5 Nyong 3.0°N 0 50 Kilometers 8.0°E 9 9.0 10.0 Figure 1. Map of Cameroon’s coastal zone. 1.1.2 Hydrological Systems A dense river network, classified into three major estuarine systems, characterize the coast. The West/Rio-del-Rey system has several rivers (Cross-river, Ndian and Meme) that discharge at Rio-del-Rey Point (4.8°N; 8.3°E). The Cameroon estuarine system with several rivers (Mungo, Wouri, Dibamba etc.) discharges at Douala Point (3.8-4.1°N and 9.25-10°E). This system extends westwards to Bimbia and southwards to the Sanaga River estuary. The third estuarine system in the south is made up of several rivers (Nyong, Lokoundje, Kienke, Lobe and Ntem) which discharge independently into the Atlantic Ocean. Some physical characteristics of the Cameroon and Rio-del- Rey estuarine complexes are given in Table 1. The rivers of these estuaries have watersheds arising at high altitudes (2,000-2,500 m) in the Adamawa Plateau, Rumpi Hills and Manegumba Mountains. The mangroves of the Rio-del-Rey cover an area of about 1,500 km2 with 50 km of coastline and a landward extension of 30 km. The Cameroon estuarine system extends along the coastline for some 60 km, from the Sanaga to the Bimbia estuary, and 30 km into the hinterlands giving a total area of 1,800 km2. Other estuarine mangrove swamps are supplied by the southern river systems at Ntem. The main hydrological characteristics (seasonal runoff) are indicated in Table 2. Rainfall and evaporation with seasonal values are given in Table 3. The supplies of freshwater from the dense river network, groundwater and rainfall enter the continental shelf (area = 15,400 km²) (Gabche and Folack, 1997). The gradual slope of the continental shelf results in generally weak circulation with subsequent high sedimentation rates. 65 Table 1. Physical characteristics of some of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine systems. Estuarine System Cameroon Long (°E+) 9.2510.00 Lat (°N+) River Catchment Area (km2) Mungo Wouri Dibamba 3.834.10 Rio-delRey 8.28 4.83 Mean Depth (m) Water 15 15 15 4,200 8,250 2,400 14,850 Total/Mean Estuarine Area (km2) Mangrove 1,800 1,500 14 13 14 800 2500 500 Cross Ndian Meme 3800 Total/Mean 15 1,500 1,350 14 Table 2. River runoff of some of Cameroon’s coastal estuarine systems. Estuarine System/Rivers Cameroon • Mungo • Wouri • Dibamba Total Rio-del-Rey • Cross river • Ndian • Meme • Others Total River Flow (m3 s-1) Annual Dry Rainy River Runoff (VQ) (106 m3 d-1) Annual Dry Rainy 415 737 480 52 92 60 519 921 520 36 64 41 141 4 8 5 17 45 80 45 170 577 246 300 96 142 60 74 24 725 310 377 121 50 21 26 8 105 12 5 6 8 31 63 27 33 10 133 Table 3. Rainfall and evaporation for some of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine systems. Estuarine system/location Cameroon Douala Ro-del-Rey Calabar Rainfall (mm month-1) Annual Dry Rainy Evaporation (mm month-1) Annual 273 44 388 100 246 86 326 117 66 1.1.3. Oceanographic Conditions Hydrodynamic processes within the estuarine complexes indicate that tidal changes (semidiurnal) in the rivers can be detected a long distance from the sea (40 km in the Wouri; 35km up the Dibamba), with water level recordings ranging from 1.5-4.5 m. There is considerable wave action in the estuarine complexes (Olivry, 1986; Morin et al., 1989). Tidal currents are sometimes strong: 1-1.5m sec-1 for flood tides and up to 2.6 m sec-1 for ebb tides. Chaubert et al. (1977) noted that sea swells are from south to southwest and distant in origin. This peculiarity results from the double obstacle constituted by Bioko Island and the widening of the continental shelf at Rio-del-Rey (80 km as compared to 40 km on the Kribi coast). The swells of stronger magnitude (226 m long) are common between June and September with lesser ones between November and April. Salinity distribution within Cameroon’s estuarine complexes is determined by large inputs of fresh water from rivers, rainfall and ground water. Salinities are generally low, with values at Douala Port ranging between 9 and 12 psu. Lafond (1967) showed maximum values of 20 psu 15 km offshore the port during the dry season, and less than 12 psu during the rainy season. These values decrease towards the port at a rate of approximately 2.6 psu for each km traveled. Near Japoma, on the river Dibamba, maximum salinity values decline to 6.5 psu at low tide. Values of between 12.0 and 17.5 psu have been recorded within the Mungo estuary, with increased values due to seawater intrusion of the system during the dry season. Salinity values, with seasonal variations at different depths and various stations (fresh, estuarine and marine) of the Cameroon and Rio-del-Rey estuarine systems are given in Table 4. Areas of high river flow have low salinities, with higher values recorded at the Cameroon estuary due to salt-water intrusion. Salinity distributions are in line with regional surface values, which show significant fresh water in the Gulf of Guinea and, in particular the Bight of Biafra, with ocean values lower than 29 psu (ICITA, 1973; Gate, 1980). Table 4. Mean temperature, salinity and nutrient levels of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine systems (Gabche, 2003). River Estuarine system Cameroon estuary Rio-delRey estuary Estuary Ocean Parameter o Temp ( C) Salinity (psu) Si (بM) NO3 (بM) PO4 (بM) Temp (oC) Salinity (psu) Si(بM) NO3(بM) PO4 (بM) Dry 29.9 0 26 2.6 2.1 29.2 0 32 1.9 2.0 Wet 21.7 0 27 2.4 2.0 28.4 0 30 1.8 1.6 67 Dry 25.0 15.8 24.5 3.8 1.2 28 17.8 26 3.2 0.9 Wet 21.1 8.7 24 3.6 1.1 27 11.3 25 3.1 0.8 Dry 30.4 21.4 20 5.2 0.6 30 19.2 24 0.4 0.5 Wet 27.5 16.5 18.1 2.5 0.5 29 15.3 23 0.3 0.4 2. THE KNOWN Fish species diversity The exploitable species of aquatic fauna within the marine and coastal ecosystems consist essentially of fishes, shrimps and molluscs. The locality of exploited species in Cameroon’s coastal waters has been described some time ago by Crosnier (1964) (Table 5). Pelagics (made up mostly of clupeids) comprised 41% of the catch and demersals (made up mostly of sciaenids) comprised 42% of the catch. The diversity of exploited species contributes to the abundance of the fishery resources. Currently the Sciaenidae and Clupeidae families are overexploited but the full impact on fish species biodiversity has not been determined. In the south, where the bottom of the sea is rocky, there are stocks of demersal fish and lobsters that are either not exploited or are under-exploited. Cameroon’s coastal waters also contain zooplankton, comprising mainly copepods, which serve as food for fish larvae and the adults of planktivorous taxa. 68 Table 5. Targeted fish, shrimps and other crustacean species, together with their habitats in Cameroon marine waters (modified from Crosnier, 1964). SPECIES A) FISH Pseudotolithus typus P. senegalensis Galeoides decadactylus Pteroscion peli Brachydeuterus auritus Sardinella maderensis Ethmolsa fimbriata Pseudotolithus elongatus Arius spp. Drepane africana Pentanemus quinquarius Dentex angolensis D. congolensis Epinephelus dentatus Lutjanus dentatus L. goreensis Cynoglossus spp. B) CRUSTACEA Parapenaeopsis atlantica Palaemon hastatus Penaeus duorarum Euparopeus africanaus Callinectes latimatus Ocypoda ippeus C) MOLLUSCS Siphonaria mouret Purpura yetus P. collifera Sepia officinalis Mytilus tenuistriatus Crassostrea gasa C. rufa ZONE NATURE OF HABITATS Off-shore surface water Very warm, low salinity water Coastal and estuarine waters Mud, sand or rocks Estuarine waters Sandy mud Coastal waters Muddy sand (<150 m) Coastal waters Sandy mud (20-50 m) Below thermocline, water cold and saline Sandy rock (40-300 m) Base of the thermocline Rocky bottom Thermocline zone Muddy/muddy sand (15-300 m) Sandy mud (15-40 m) Very warm, low salinity Sandy mud (10-50 m) water Thermocline zone Mud/muddy sand (15-100 m) Brackish water, estuaries, Mud and mangroves lagoons, rivers Sandy beaches Coastal zone Solid substrata Open sea Coastal zone Sandy mud (0-200 m) Mangrove roots, rocky beaches Plankton, macro-algae and seagrasses Phytoplankton species form the primary producers within the pelagic zone on which most zooplankton feed. The zooplankton is, in turn, consumed by fish larvae and the adults of certain species. No studies have been carried out on marine zooplankton or the associated pelagic food web dynamics in Cameroon waters. Phytoplankton in this region comprises mainly diatoms, dinoflagellates and Cyanophycea. Available information includes studies by Folack (1988, 1989) relating to phytoplankton distribution and phytoplankton pigments in the southern region of Cameroon, Valet (1973) on marine macro-algae, Valet (1975) on Chlorophycea, and Gutwinski (1906) on freshwater 69 algae. Phytoplankton species in Cameroon were dominated by diatoms such as Chaetoceros testissimus, Nitzchia closterium, Diatomavulgare spp., Trachyneis spp. and Coscinodiscus spp. (Folack, 1991). In order to link with future studies on seaweeds in the Gulf of Guinea area, David et al. (2001) developed an identification manual under the Darwin Initiative Project. This manual will be very useful for future studies on phytoplankton, macro-algae and sea grasses. Coastal mangrove forests and associated fauna Cameroon’s coastline tropical rain forest is interrupted by the mangroves associated with estuarine complexes. These complexes are characterized by very low altitudes (0-20 m), and the mangroves develop on soils generally less than 5 m high, with primary stages of mangroves developing at 0-5 m and mature stands at 2 m. Mangrove complexes in Cameroon occupy approximately 30% (3,500 km2) of Cameroon’s coastal zone. There are about 38 species of mangroves dominated by Rhizophora (R. racemosa and R. harrisanii) species (Gabche, 1997). Adjacent swamp forests are dominated by Rapphia spp., Matritia quadricorius, Clenolephon englerianus and seasonally inundated forests by Guitbortia demeussei and Oxysttigma menil. Faunal species within the mangroves and estuarine complexes are dominated by the forest elephant (Loxondonta africana), giant forest hog (Hylochohrus meinertz hageni), endangered drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), highly vulnerable black colobus (Colobus satanus), upper guinea primates (Cercopithecus Mictitans martini, C. erythrotis camerunensis and C. pogomius pogonius). An important population of the highly vulnerable African manatee (Trichechus senegalesis) is found in the Sanaga estuary. Cameroon estuarine complexes and mangroves serve as habitats for meiofauno taxa such as nematodes, copepods, amphipods and protozoans, all of which contribute to the conversion of mangrove primary production to detritus. The benthic fauna is made up of polychaetes (e.g. Amphiura sp., Nephthys sp.), bivalves (e.g. Arca nuculana, Aloidis, Nsa sp.) and sponges. They also serve as breeding grounds and nurseries for invertebrates (crabs e.g. Grapsidae, Ocypodidae and Portunidae; shrimps e.g. Penaeidae and Palaemonidae) shellfish (oysters e.g. Crassostrea gasar) and finfish species (e.g. Periopthalmus sp., Cichlidae, Scianidae, Polynemidae, Clupeidae, Drepanidae etc.). 70 3. THE UNKNOWN The unknown in Cameroon lies mainly within the following areas: • The existing diversity of marine mammals in Cameroon has not been documented. • No detailed knowledge exists on the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems around the beaches, muddy flats, mangroves and the continental shelf. • Studies on marine endemic species and the ecology of these taxa have been completely neglected. Whenever this information has been obtained, it has been limited to economically useful species. • Most of the coastal zone areas within the Cameroon and Rio del Rey estuaries are inaccessible either by land or by boat. This has greatly limited the sampling of marine biodiversity in these areas. • The absence of a research vessel in Cameroon has limited inventories and surveys of offshore marine biodiversity. Most results obtained so far come from samples collected by commercial boats. • The identification of all aquatic fauna and flora is based on the use of morphometric characteristics. The use of genetics in the identification of species and populations has not been undertaken. 4. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Several anthropogenic factors contribute to the depletion and degradation of aquatic resources, notably: • • • • • Pollution: Sewage, agro-industrial wastes, industrial wastes, etc., cause damage to marine biodiversity and fishery resources. Inappropriate fishing techniques: Fishing techniques currently used in Cameroon target two families, Clupeidae (artisanal and semi-industrial fishery) and Sciaenidae (artisanal and industrial fisheries). The indiscriminate use of fishing gears results in the capture of immature fish. Fishing in nursery areas destroys eggs and juveniles. Fishing techniques involving the use of explosives and chemicals destroy the juveniles and hinder stock renewal. Overexploitation of stocks: Overexploitation in the industrial fishing sector results from the fact that the capital investment deployed is not commensurate with the yield potential of the stocks. More adults than necessary are exploited, thereby hindering stock renewal. The disparity between exploitation effort and existing stock potential can also be explained by the inadequacy of knowledge on the fishery resources (absence of inventory of exploitable stocks, evaluation and study of population dynamics). Inventory and stock assessment are thus necessary steps to ensure better management of fishery resources. Socio-cultural constraints: The high degree of individualism prevailing amongst fishermen constitutes an obstacle for the organization and development of fishing activities. All existing associations are based either on family ties or tribal affiliation. Lack of training and supervision of fishermen: There is limited professional grounding and the lack of supervision is due to the fact that the field officers are few and inadequately trained in biodiversity monitoring. Instead of training field officers, emphasis is laid more on tax collection and control of fish product quality. 71 • • • • Conflicts: Besides conflicts between artisanal and industrial fisheries, there are conflicts between shrimps fishermen and those using Mbara (a technique, which uses pegs, planted in the water to form a barrier). These pegs are usually abandoned in the water, constituting an obstacle for fishermen using nets. Mbaras also destroy immature fish. Such conflicts also exist in the sea and Wouri areas where Awasha units are accused of destroying the stock, resulting in a loss of biodiversity. Inappropriate fishing legislation: The present fishing regulations have severe limitations. The legislation fails to define the different mesh sizes to be used per exploited species, to define fishing seasons and fishing areas, to provide a clear procedure for resolving permanent conflicts between industrial and artisanal fisheries, or amongst fishermen themselves. No consideration is given to conservation of biodiversity in the legislation. Poor performance of the administration: This is a function of the inappropriate legislation, poor collaboration amongst the different administrative units, lack of enforcement measures and inefficiency of controllers. Mangroves and coastal forest: The coastal forest is protected by the forestry law but the mangrove, which is a specific type of coastal forest, is not yet protected by this law. In effect, the forestry law, of which the main objective is the protection of the biodiversity, does not make any specific provisions for mangroves. The immediate consequence of this omission is the accelerated destruction of the mangrove ecosystem, which serve both as habitat and nursery ground for many fish species. • Soil erosion: Loss of vegetation cover as a result of coastal urbanization, development of tourism facilities, agricultural development, leads to erosion and siltation. This impacts, in turn, on estuarine and marine biodiversity. 5. PRESENT AND FUTURE STATE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY The present state of marine biodiversity knowledge in Cameroon is still in its infancy. Government, research and university institutions seldom fund projects on marine biodiversity because they do not see the immediate economic benefits. Tourist attractions centred around biodiversity, particularly in the domain of eco-tourism, need to be identified. There is an urgent need to increase these attractions in Cameroon and other coastal marine states. Forestry activities represent 20% of total exports from Cameroon but these are also areas (mangroves) of importance to aquatic biodiversity. Their conservation is therefore of the utmost importance. There exist a large number of endemic species within Cameroon’s coastal ecosystems, with the conservation of these taxa a high priority. Research needs to be carried out to identify all species, characterize the functioning of these ecosystems, determine species distributions and their life history strategies, and assess the environmental characteristics of the ecosystems and the various influences upon these habitats. Level of biodiversity and constraints to the development of the aquatic resources sector 72 There is an urgent need to address the environmental issues, identify their causes and develop a strategy to solve them. The base of such a solution should be directed at a strategic system of monitoring of factors responsible for biodiversity loss. Coastal management can then follow this, with planning based on solutions drawn from the results of monitoring. This will obviously lead to reduced pollution, erosion and improvement of the negative effects on the health and quality of life of all stakeholders. Some recommended approaches geared towards getting solutions towards biodiversity conservation are as follows: • • • Use of the research approach to solve problems by involvement of researchers at the doctoral (PhD) level in finding solutions to biodiversity related problems. Improved planning of human activities in the coastal zone and better utilization of resources are necessary in order to address the issues of marine resources degradation. A more integrated approach to coastal area use is needed to replace current policy. Government bodies concerned with these issues recognize that the pressure on coastal resources is increasing but little attempt has been made to solve the problems. 73 REFERENCES Adam, S.K. (ed) 1998 Towards Integrated Coastal Zone management in the Gulf of Guinea. A framework document. UNIDO/UNDP-GEF. Les Editions du Flamboyant. 86 pages. David, M. J., George, W. L. and Gabriel, K. A. 2001. Seaweeds of the West Africa Subregion-Identification Manual. Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West Africa Sub Region. Darwin Initiative Report 4, Ref. 162/7/451. Folack, J. 1989 Etude préliminaire du phytoplancton d’une zone côtière d’exploitation crevetticole (Kribi – Cameroun, Golfe de Guinée – Atlantique centre Est. Cameroon Journal of Biological and Biochemical Sciences 2(1): 51-65. Folack, J. 1988 Estimation et degradation de la chlorophyll dans une zone creveticole: KribiCameroon (Golfe de Guinée). Cameroon Journal of Biological and Biochemcial Sciences. 1(2): 35-43. Folack, J. Mbome, I/L Bokwe, A. and Tangang, A. (eds). 1991 Cameroon Coastal Profile. Ministry of the Environment, Large marine Exosystem Project for the Gulf of Guinea. MINEF – C/UNIDO/UNDP-GEF, 102 pages. Gabche, C.E. 1997 An appraisal of fisheries activities and evaluation of economic potential of the fish trade in the Douala – Edea reserve – Cameroon. Cameroon Wildlife and Conservation Society Consultancy Report. June 1997. 39 pages. Gate, 1980 Physical oceanography of the tropical Atlantic during GATE, GARP/ATE, Miami, USA. 89 pages. ICITA, 1973 Oceanographic Atlas, Equalant I and II, UNESCO, Paris, 237 pages plus appendices. Lafond, L.R. 1967 Etudes Littorales estuariennes en Zone intertropical Humide. These d’Etat Université de Paris. Morin, Kuete M, 1989 Le littoral Camerounais: Problems morphologiques. Trav. Labo. Geogr. Phys. Appliquee. Inst. Geogr. Univ. Bordeaux II No. 11:5-33. Olivry, 1986 Fleuves et riviers du Cameroun. ORSTOM, MESIRES, Mem. No 9. 733 pages. Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S., Collins, N.M., (eds). 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forest – Africa. Macmillan Publishing Ltd., London. 74 National Report Marine biodiversity in Gabon – the known and the unknown Carole Ogandagas; Ministere de L’economie Forestiere, des Eaux, de la Peche; Charge de L’environnement et de la Protection de la Nature; Direction Generale des Peches et de L’aquaculture, B.P. 9498, Gabon INTRODUCTION Gabon is situated in central Africa and has a coastline approximately 800 km long. It is located in the inter-tropical zone and endowed with a humid climate and a surface area of 267 667 km². There is also an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that almost equals its land area, i.e. 265 000 km². There are two major seasons, a wet season ranging from September to May and a dry season from June to July. The high rainfall and humid climate supports dense coastal forests interspersed by estuaries, deltas, bays, coastal lakes and lagoons. The major systems include the Muni estuary in the north, the Como estuary in the central coastal zone, the bay of Mondah, the delta of the Ogooué River, and the lagoons of Fernan-Vaz, Ndogo and Iguela. This diversity of habitats supports a wide variety species, including many marine species that occupy these systems even though they are located far away from the sea. In this marine biodiversity review, the focus will be on the fish diversity of the Gabonese coastal zone. At present, the marine resources do not appear to be overexploited but fishing activities require close monitoring. There are two major fishing sectors in Gabon, viz. traditional and industrial. In 2000, the quantity of resources harvested in the industrial fishing sector totalled 11 730 tons and 24 890 tons in the traditional fishing sector. In 2001, industrial fishing increased to 23 490 tons and traditional fishing declined to 20 500 tons. The rapid increase in industrial fishing and decline in traditional fishing is of concern. Apart from fish resource exploitation, other activities that are growing in the Gobonese maritime domain include tourism (the hotel trade business, seaside tourism, ecotourism), sea transportation, and off-shore oil exploitation. The marine and coastal environment of Gabon The Gabonese marine and coastal systems include: • • • The ocean, which has a surface area of about 265 000 km² and a biological diversity that is poorly understood because of the difficulty in obtaining adequate collections for study. The estuaries that were formed with the inundation of the coastal zone 12000 to 5000 years before present. The rising sea level gave birth to the current estuaries located along the coast, e.g. the estuaries of the Como the Muni rivers. The deltas, mainly those formed by the Ogooué River, including a maritime delta and an inland delta, the latter ranging from Lambaréné to the frontier between Enyonga et Ngola. 75 • The lagoons, including (a) The lagoons of the Fernan-Vaz region. The Nkomi lagoon (coastal lake) is the largest with a surface area of about 1200 km² and depths of up to 20 m. This lagoon is linked to the delta system of the Ogooué River. (b) The Ngové lagoon (coastal lake) which covers about 100 km² with depths of 12 m. (c) The Ndogo lagoon (coastal lake) is about 380 km² in area, with depths of up to 19 m. (d) The Banio lagoon is located in the southern part of Gabon and extends over 60 km along the coast, separated from the ocean by a narrow strip of sand. Mangrove forests (swamps) occur all along the Gabon coast, especially along channel inlets linking estuaries, deltas and lagoons to the sea. Mangroves are very rich in terms of the abundance of biota. Figure 1. Map of Gabon showing major river and coastal systems. 76 THE KNOWN Carangidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distibution: Carangue Caranx hippos (Linnaeus, 1766) Nkawa (in Galoa tongue) Evlababa (in Fang tongue) In the lakes of south Lambaréné, Ningué-Rolé and estuaries Commercial name: Sceintifique name: Distribution: Carangue Alectis alexandrinus In coastal waters and the Como estuary Carcharinidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Requin bouledogue Carcharhinus leucas (Valenciennes, 1839) Nkondjé (in Galoa tongue), Nkwégnan (in Fang tongue) This species has been captured in the Lambaréné lakes Clupeidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Rasoir Ethmalosa fimbriata (Bloch, 1795) Ossako mbèrè (in Nkomi tongue) In estuaries and lagoons Commercial name: Nom scientifique: Nom vernaculaire: Distribution: Sardine of estuaries Ilisha africana (Bowdich, 1825) Mbèrè (in Nkomi tongue) Ogooué and Ningué-Rolé estuaries Elopidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Hareng Elops lacerta Valenciennes, 1846 Nyanga (in Galoa tongue), Ebole (in Fang tongue) All brackish waters of the Ogooué lower basin Ephippidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Distribution: Disque Drepane africana Osorio, 1892 In the Fernan-Vaz lagoon and the Como estuary Haemulidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Grey Sea Bream Pomadasys peroteti (CUVIER, 1830) 77 Vernacular name: Distribution: Nkuéré (in Galoa tongue) Woroworé (in Fang tongue) Ogooué, Fernan-Vaz and Banio lagoons, Como estuary Lutjanidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Red Lutjanus goreensis (Valenciennes, 1830) Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue) Ogooué estuary and Como, Banio and Fernan-Vaz lagoons Commercial name: Scientific nome: Vernacular name: Distribution: Red Lutjanus agennes Bleeker, 1863 Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue) Coastal and brackish waters, Como and Ogooué estuaries, Fernan-Vaz lagoon and Banio river Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution : Red fish Lutjanus dentatus (Dumeril, 1858) Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue) Come estuary, Ogooué and Banio rivers, Lambarene lakes Paralichthyidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Distribution: Perpeire lisse Citharichthys stampflii (Steindachner, 1895) In estuaries of the Ningué-rolé region and Port-Gentil bay Polynemidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Captain Plexiglass Galeoides decadactylus (Bloch, 1795) Ntchena mandji ( in Nkomi tongue) Ningué-rolé region and Port-Gentil’s bay. Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: : Captain Royal Pentanemus quinquarius (Linnaeus, 1758) Ntsena oronga (in Galoa tongue) Estuaries of the Négué-Rolé region and Port-Gentil’s bay Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Big Captain Polydactylus quadrifilis Cuvier, 1829 Ntsena (in Nkomi and Galoa tongues) Nsna (in Fang tongues) Southern lakes, Lambaréné, Fernan-Vaz and Ningué-Rolé regions Mugilidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Vernacular name: Distribution: Mullet Liza falcipinis (Valenciennes, 1836) Mono (Galoa) , Bone (Fang) and Mono tchama (Nkomi) Ogooué system, lakes of Lambaréné, Fernan-Vaz 78 Sciaenidae Commercial name: Scientific name: Distribution: Bossus Pseudotolithus elongatus (Valenciennes, 1833) Ogooue river, Como estuary Commercial name: Scientific name: Distribution: Bar Pseudotolithus senegalensis (Valenciennes, 1833) Ogooué, Como estuary Commercial name: Scientific name: Distribution: Bar Pseudotolithus typus (Bleeker, 1893) Ogooué, Como estuary. List of fish species found in the marine and coastal waters of Gabon Alectis alexandrinus Alestes kingsleyae Alestes longipinnis Alestes macrolepidotus Aphyosemion australe Arius latiscutatus Atopochilus savorgnani Barbus compinei Barbus condei Barbus guirali Barbus holotaenia Batanga lebretonis Bathygobius soporator Bostrychus africanus Boulengeromyrus knoepffleri Brienomyrus longicaudatus Caecomastacembelus flavomarginatus Caecomastacembelus marchei Caranx hippos Carcharhinus leucas Chiloglanis cameronensis Chromidotilapia guentheri Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus Chrysichthys walkeri Citharichthys stampflii Clarias buthupogon Clarias camerunensis Clarias gabonensis Clarias gariepinus Congocharax gossei Ctenopoma kingsleyae Ctenopoma nanum 79 Dasyatis ukpam Distichodus notospilus Doumea typical Drepane africana Elops lacerta Enneacampus kaupi Epiplatys sexfasciatus Ethmalosa fimbriata Liza falcipinnis Liza grandisquamis Lutjanus agennes Lutjanus dentatus Lutjanus goreensis Malapterurus electricus Microsynodontis batesii Monodactylus sebae Mugil cephalus Nannaethiops unitaeniatus Nannocharax intermedius Nannopetersius ansorgii Neolebias ansorgii Neolebias unifasciatus Parrachana obscura Parauchenoglanis boutchangai Pellonula vorax Pentanemus quinquarius Periophthalmus papilio Petrocephalus simus Physailia occidentalis Plectorhinchus macrolepis Polynemus quadrifilis Pomadasis jubelini Pomadasis peroteti Pomadasis rogeri Pristis microdon Protopterus dolloi Pseudotolithus elongatus Pseudotolithus senegalensis Pseudotolithus typus Sardinella aurita Sardinella maderensis Sicydium brevifile Sphyraena barracuda Sphyraena dubia Sphyraena piscatorum Stomatorhinus walkeri Eucinostomus melanopterus Eutropius grenfelli Galeoides decadactylus Gerres nigri 80 Grasseichthys gabonensis Hemichromis bimaculatus Hemichromis fasciatus Hepsetus odoe Heterotis niloticus Ilisha africana Ivindomyrus opdenboschi Kribia kribensis Tarpon atlanticus Tilapia cabrae Tilapia guineensis Tilapia heudelotii Tilapia macrochir Tilapia nilotica Tilapia ogowensis Tilapia rendalli Tilapia schwebischi Tilapia tholloni Xenocharax spilurus Xenomystus nigri Despite the lack of detailed marine investigations in Gabon, the studies already undertaken in continental waters confirms the existence of a highly diverse biological community. The degree of endemism to Gabon is very low, due to the fact that most marine species in the Gulf of Guinea occur in a variety of gulf countries. The limited research that has been conducted in Gabon has been directed toward the river and brackish water environments, primarily as a result of the existing utilisation of these habitats by people. Although very limited research has been conducted in the sea, it is already noticeable that the number of marine species with a capacity to adapt to estuarine and lagoonal waters is remarkably high. There are also interesting faunal and floral distribution patterns within the coastal environments that require investigation. THREATS Several impacts are threatening the marine and coastal environments of Gabon, including: Human activities As part of people’s fishing activities in the coastal zone, the mangrove is used as firewood to cure fish by smoking. The mangrove forests should be conserved since they constitute a breeding and nursery areas for many marine species. The destruction of such an ecosystem will have an adverse effect on the overall productivity of the coastal zone. Fishermen sometimes destroy marine biodiversity by using illegal fishing techniques. This is especially the case in certain lagoons where traditional poisonous products are sometimes used to kill fish. These activities not only upset the ecological balance within the lagoons, they also cause some species to become increasingly rare. 81 Industrial fishing is increasingly using more sophisticated technology in order to improve fish and prawn capture rates in the marine environment. Unfortunately the gear used in this fishing sector damages marine biodiversity through high by-catches that are then discarded at the expense of the ecosystem. Oil exploitation Oil exploration and exploitation activities are widespread in the coastal zone of Gabon. Pipelines are situated along most sections of the coast. Several accidents have occurred, with oil then leaking from these damaged pipelines and resulting in hydrocarbon pollution of coastal and marine habitats. Off-shore oil drilling activities also impact negatively on biological marine diversity, especially those oil rigs that are installed near prohibited fishing zones. Marine species are sometimes infected by oil pollution and this is obvious when eating these organisms. Industrial activities In Gabon, most industrial activities are concentrated in the coastal zone. In the case of hotels and industries (e.g. breweries), there is a pollution threat due to the concentration of these activities in certain areas. Indeed, the waste water from coastal hotels often flows directly into the sea, resulting in the physico-chemical pollution of nearshore waters to the detriment of holidaymakers and the marine biota. Coastal erosion Coastal erosion is increasingly prevalent along the coast of Gabon. This phenomenon has resulted in the destruction of coastal sections known as ‘frayères’. In certain zones there was sand 35 years ago, together with associated marine species. Today, only rock outcrops occur in these zones, resulting in the disappearance of species such as crabs from these areas. CAPACITY Human capacity As far as maritime investigations are concerned, very little research has been conducted in recent times. Gabon is still to invest in a marine biodiversity research programme. The research that has been undertaken to date has focused on the continental margin, with the first explorations commencing in 1866 and including names such as Chaillut, Braouezec, Serval, Walker, Gunther, Marche, Sauvage, Dumeril, Günther, Steindachner, Gill, Bleeker And Peters. The results of these early works were analysed and collated in the 1990s for a wider audience by P. Gilbert (Hydrobiologist at the Agronomic Research and Forest Institute), M. L. Manfredini (National Pédagogic Institute), A. Pham Dang Cang (Professor at the National College of Forest and Water). 82 Surname First names Department Expertise MBEGA Jean-Daniel Institut de Doctorant, Recherche chercheur Agronomique et Forestière (IRAF) BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ; Laboratoire d’Hydrobiologie et d’Ichtyologie MVE-BEH Jean Hervé Institut de Technicien Recherche Supérieur de Agronomique et recherche Forestière (IRAF) BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ; Laboratoire d’Hydrobiologie et d’Ichtyologie LIWOUWOU Jean Félicien Institut de Technicien Recherche Supérieur de Agronomique et recherche Forestière (IRAF) BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ; Laboratoire d’Hydrobiologie et d’Ichtyologie NDOUTOUME Essono Jean Ferdinand Institut de Technicien Recherche Supérieur de Agronomique et recherche Forestière (IRAF) BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ;Laboratoire d’Hydrobiologie et d’Ichtyologie BANGOLO Joséphine Institut de Recherche Agronomique et Forestière (IRAF BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ; Laboratoire d’Hydrobiologie et d’Ichtyologie NZIENGUI Jehovane Direction générale Technicien Supérieur des Pêche et de l’Aquaculture BP : 9498 Libreville/ Gabon Fax : (241) 76 46 02 RERAMBYATH Guy Anicet Direction générale Docteur Vétérinaire des Pêche et de l’Aquaculture BP : 9498 Libreville/ Gabon Fax : (241) 76 46 02 Email:[email protected] POSSO PAUL Enseignant Institut de Chercheur Recherche en Ecologie Tropical (IRET) RABENKOGO Nicaise Institut de Recherche en science Humaine (IRSH) Technicien Supérieur de recherche Chercheur Contact Tél. : +241 37 08 44 Email: [email protected] Email:[email protected] Institutional capacity Unfortunately there is no museum for marine collections in Gabon. However, the Gabon government department in charge of the fishing sector has just commenced a joint 83 investigation with Spain to evaluate Gabonese marine fish stocks. Samples collected will form the basis of a collection of marine biological diversity of Gabon territorial waters. As part of the improvement in marine environmental knowledge from the region, the department is also planning to publish a catalogue (in 2004) of the fish fauna found in Gabon. 84 REFERENCES GILBERT, P., MANFREDINI, M.L. & PHAM DANG CANG, A. 1989. Les poissons du Gabon (eaux douces et eaux saumâtres). I.P.N, 216 pages. MBEGA, J.D., TEUGELS, G.G. 2003. Guide de détermination des poissons du bassin inférieur de l’Ogooué. Presse Universitaires de Namur, 165 pages. MOMBO, J.B.,OGANDAGAS, C., AGONDOGO, M. & MBA ASSEKO, G. Etude de faisabilité pour la mise en place d’un Observatoire de la zone côtière en Afrique Centrale, le cas du Gabon. Association pour le Développement de l’Information Environnementale (ADIE), 131 pages TSUBAKI, I. 2003. Liste des produits de la pêche artisanale. Rapport provisoire, 104 pages. 85 National Report Marine biodiversity in Angola – the known and the unknown Nkosi Luyeye*, Maria de Lourdes**, Silvi Edith* & Jean-Paul Roux*** *Instituto de Investigação Marinha, P.O. Box 2601, Luanda, Angola ** BHEP Center, P.O. Box 2601, Luanda, Angola *** MFMR, P.O. Box 394, Lüderitz, Namibia 1. Introduction Environmental concerns in the post-war era Angola has just woken up from 4 decades of war. The end of this year will mark the transition from an emergency situation to a development situation, where efforts need to be redirected to the empowerment of people to meet their own needs – which in many cases include the most basic needs, such as water and food. In this scenario, environmental concerns may not seem to be a priority to most people. However, the majority of the people’s livelihoods depend on natural resources. Angola is endowed with rich and diverse natural resources, some of which remain in the hands of a few. Those resources that are available to the population – such as trees, fish, soil and biodiversity – have been seriously depleted in the past decades. The rural population is concentrated in small areas, both for agro-climatic and war insecurity reasons, exhausting the soil, often with inappropriate cultivation systems. In the rural areas, most people still depend on wood and charcoal for cooking. The war has resulted in the breakdown of the protected area system (established prior to independence and covering 6,5% of the national territory), and there is a risk that some unique ecosystems will be lost. There has been considerable over-fishing off the Angolan coast, particularly in the south, which has traditionally supported some of the richest fish stocks. The Ministry for Urbanism and Environment is slowly taking shape. The preparation of national environmental plans and policy frameworks is on the agenda. In a time when the socio-economic system is being rebuilt, there is a unique opportunity to incorporate environmental concerns in the planning process from the outset. There is, however, a lack of qualified people and, above all, a lack of an environmental conscience. A brief overview of the coastline Angola is located on the south-western coast of Africa. Angola’s borders are bounded by Namibia in the south, Zambia in the east and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the north. Geomorphologically six regions can be distinguished: the coastal strip, the transitional zone, the coastal hill ranges, the high plateau, the Congo basin, and the Zambezi basin. The whole of Angola is situated in the tropical zone. Most of the coastal area in the south is dry with a desert climate (less than 110 mm rain per year). Only Cabinda and the area just south of the Congo River has meaningful rainfall (up to 1000 mm per annum) and high humidities. The annual mean temperature is about 20ºC in the south and 25ºC in the north. 86 The Angolan coast ranges from tropical in the north to temperate in the south, and offers several potential fishery and aquaculture opportunities. The coastline of the Angola is about 1650 km long, including Cabinda. The continental shelf is about 51 000 km2 (using the 200 m depth contour), with a mean width of about 20 nautical miles. The southernmost region from Cunene up to Tombwa has a relatively broad and shallow shelf, but with a steep slope except in the extreme southern part. From Tombwa to Benguela the shelf is very narrow and the slope is too steep for any deep water trawling. From Benguela northwards the shelf is generally wide all the way up to Cabinda, but with a narrow part off Luanda and a steep underwater canyon adjacent to the Congo River. Three large rivers discharge their waters into sea: the Congo River, the Kwanza River and the Cunene River. The Estimated Exclusive Zone (EEZ) is about 330 000 km2 (Anon, 1991). Habitat types Little is known about the types of habitat along the Angolan coast. Most studies have been concentrated around Luanda, the capital of the country. The following summary information was extracted from an unpublished BCLME document entitled “Integrated overview of coastal developments in the Benguela Current region” by Pat Morant (CSIR, Stellenbosch, South Africa): a) Congo River-Luanda The coastline is characterized by extensive wetlands, some of which are in permanent contact with mouth of rivers and are also associated with evergreen forests and areas of mangroves. There exist an important lagoon complex (Mussulo lagoon), within which the mangroves, fish and invertebrates are heavily used for subsistence. b) Luanda-Porto Amboim The coast between Luanda and Porto Amboim is influenced by a black water system with extensive areas of mangroves and wetlands. It is characterized by cliffs reaching 100m in height places. However there are some 20 km of sandy beach south of Ponta das Palmeirinhas and sandpits in the vicinity of the Kwanza and Longo rivers. The Cabo de São Braz bay is separated from the open sea by an extensive sandbar. c) Porto Amboim to Lobito This coastline is also influenced by black water systems, with about 70 km of wetlands and lagoons. There are long sandpits sheltering a narrow lagoon on this section of the coast. Extensive saltworks are located in Lobito Bay. d) Lobito to Benguela This section of the coast marks the northern limit of the Namib Desert. It is characterized by a complex of lagoons supporting a variety of water birds, e.g. pelicans, herons and pink flamingos. 87 e) Benguela to Namibe The coast is arid mainly rocky and arid without any perennial rivers. f) Namibe to Cunene River mouth A large part of this stretch of coast is the Namibe partial reserve. The coast comprises sandy desert backed by mobile sandy dunes. Baia dos Tigres lies some 80 km south of Tombwa and the bay is protected by a 30 km long sand island. There is a large wetland area at the mouth of the Cunene River The river seems to be an important bio geographical boundary of several species such as the fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium vollenhoveni). The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) can be found around the mouth of river. Hydrography The physical oceanography off southern Angola is described by Dias (1983), and features of the oceanic frontal system by Shannon et al. (1987). Two different, highly productive systems can be identified in Angolan waters: seasonal coastal upwelling, typifying most of the northern and central parts southward to Tombua, and the almost permanent upwelling zone located adjacent to the southern part of the coast and coinciding with the northernmost extension of the Benguela current. Other factors contributing to the nutrient enrichment of the Angolan marine waters include freshwater discharge from the Congo River and shelf-break upwelling, a phenomenon that is common in the tropics and elsewhere, e.g. the Gulf of Guinea (Longhurst & Pauly, 1987). 2. The Known Marine Biota The study of Angolan marine fish fauna and flora is of special interest because of the major changes in species composition taking place along the continental shelf. The shelf extends from about 5ºS to 17ºS and encompasses a typical tropical regime in its northern part as well as a temperate one in the south, separated by the Benguela-Angola frontal system (Moroshkhin et al., 1970). Several authors have recognized that a major zoogeographic boundary is present along the Angolan coast, separating the tropical fauna of Guinean origin from the temperate fauna associated with the Benguela system (Longhurst 1962). According to the field guide to living marine resources of Angola there are about 312 species of fish (115 families) (Bianchi, 1986). From the Nansen´s demersal survey results in February and March 1989 (Annex I - Table 1) there were approximately 289 species collected off Angola (Bianchi, 1992). The species were distributed within different biotopes. The Angolan continental shelf and the upper slope have about 8 different biotopes: Shallow coastal waters under the influence of Equatorial water (northern and central Angola) 88 Coastal waters, to the bottom of the thermocline, mainly on soft bottoms (northern and central Angola) Coastal waters, to the bottom of the thermocline, on sandy, hard bottoms (northern and central Angola) Subthermocline sparid assemblage, sandy, sandy-mud bottoms off northern and central Angola Subthermocline fish assemblage from mud bottoms off northern and central Angola Subthermocline fish assemblage from southern Angola (Tombua-Cunene) Upper slope (to 350 m depth) Upper slope (to 750 m depth) From Cabinda (5º00´S) to the Benguela (12º30´S) the coastal zones may be covered by mangroves, providing substantial areas for the reproduction of crustaceans and other marine organisms. Further south (Namibe) there is very little mangrove colonisation. It also well known that the mangroves are very important as nursery areas for the early life stages of many marine species. The mangroves along the Angolan coast are not well studied and are also not protected. Mangroves were heavily exploited during the war because the coastal areas offered good opportunities to people seeking safe settlements. The mangrove families and species identified along the Angolan coast are presented in the Table 1. Between the area above indicated (5º - 12º30´S) (Figure 1) there are five coastal lagoons which have been poorly surveyed. Fish species such as Oreochromis macrochir and Oreochromis angolensis are present in these lagoons. Demersal communities off Angola The Angolan shelf and upper slope areas are characterised by a rich and diverse fauna that has formed the focus of industrial and small-scale fishing since the 1960s. These resources are mainly represented by fish species, crustaceans and cephalopods. Shelf assemblages (20-200 m depth) include important families such as Sparidae, Sciaenidae, Merluccidae, Lutjanidae, Haemulidae, Ophidiidae, Aridae, and Sepiidae etc. Slope assemblages (200-800m depth) include several fish families such as Sparidae and Merluccidae, as well as invertebrate families such as Aristeidae, Penaeidae, Geryonidae, Sepiidae and Loliginidae (Bianchi, 1992). The distribution of fish assemblages is mainly influenced by depth, temperature and bottom type (Bianchi, 1992). The major discontinuities in assemblage distribution are associated with depth (shelf versus slope assemblages) and, on the shelf, with depth (shallow-warm water assemblages versus mid and deep-shelf assemblages) (Bianchi et al., 2000). Mid and deepshelf assemblages show clear latitudinal differences that can be related to the presence of the Benguela Current on the southern shelf. 89 Figure 1. Map of Angola The northern part of Angola (5ºS-9º10´S) is characterized by large areas of fine to coarse sand. Silt is found outside the Congo River mouth, south of Cabinda and north of Luanda. These areas are interrupted by beds of stones, rocks and corals. The central part of Angola, from south of Ponta das Palmeirinhas to Benguela (9º10´S-12º30´S), is also characterized by alternating fields of mud and fine to coarse sand, but silt and clay dominate large areas and rocky bottoms are found mainly north of Cabo Ledo (9º40´S) and Cabeça da Baleia (11º40´S). The shelf between Tombua (15º50´S) and Cunene River mouth (17º10´S) has a flat bottom, with clay and silt in Baia dos Tigres and sand northwards to Tombua. Shelf assemblages typical of muddy bottoms can be identified (Bianchi, 1992). 90 Table 1: Mangroves identified along the Angolan coast Family Rhizophoraceae Species Rhizophora mangle R. racemosa R. harrisonni Avicenniaceae Avicennia germinans Combretaceae Laguncularia An important difference between the southern region and the remaining Angolan coast is that the latter is characterized by a strong and shallow thermocline and by a major seasonal signal (Sætersdal, Bianchi & Strømme 1999). The presence of the thermocline and its seasonal changes affect the distribution of fish assemblages, particulary in the zone where thermocline impinges on the shelf bottom. Seabirds and marine mammals During the last two pelagic surveys carried out by the R/V F. Nansen along the Angolan shelf, a new component was introduced to the regular survey, viz. making an inventory of seabird and marine mammal species. Counts of seabirds and mammal species were made analyzing patterns of distribution and abundance in relation to oceanographic features and fish distribution. Results of the two surveys (2002-2003) are presented in the Tables 2 and 3. Table 2: Seabird species and numbers of individuals identified during the 10’ observation periods and in total (including CTD, trawl and incidental sightings). Cape fur seal numbers are also given (2002). Species 10' obs total Species Diomedea cauta Diomedea melanophris Diomedea chlororhynchos Diomedea sp. 5 6 57 4 Daption capense Procellaria aequinoctialis 29 1025 Puffinus griseus Puffinus puffinus Puffinus gravis 29 8 1 Oceanites oceanicus Hydroba pelagicus St pet sp. 1648 Sterna maxima 6 Sterna sandvicensis 90 Chlidonias niger Sterna caspia 0 Phalarope sp. Oceanod leucorh Stercorarius sp Catharacta antarctica 10' obs total St. longicaudus St. pomarinus St. parasiticus 4 6 9 1 4 19 Sterna hirundo Sterna paradisea Sterna “comic” 1308 38 777 Pelican 91 65 8 249 2 5 Phalacrocorax capensis Phalacrocorax carbo Gan ad Gan leop Gan juv Gan age? 813 0 Larus fuscus ad L. fuscus sa L. fuscus ju 0 L. fuscus/domin? 29 22 12 370 558 381 99 3073 L. sabini L. dominicanus juv L. dominic ad L. dominic? 148 1 3 520 Arctocephalus pusillus 94 Table 3: Seabird species and numbers of individuals identified during the 10’ observation periods and in total (including CTD, Trawl and incidental sightings). Cape fur seal numbers are also given (2003). Species 10' obs total Species Diomedea cauta 1 Diomedea melanophris 7 Diomedea chlororhynchos 98 Daption capense Procellaria aequinoctialis Puffinus griseus Puffinus puffinus 0 771 59 4 Oceanites oceanicus 2524 Phalacrocorax capensis Phalacrocorax carbo 95 29 Morus capensis 4564 2 8 154 Stercorarius sp Catharacta antarctica 10' obs total 0 27 Larus dominicanus 1068 5 Larus cirrocephalus 5 1296 114 Sterna hirundo 235 5 Sterna paradisea 3 Sterna hirundo/paradisea 196 3156 Sterna maxima 4 Sterna sandvicensis 1 182 Chlidonias niger 5 64 Arctocephalus pusillus 127 6449 2 47 2143 7 313 3 238 15 2 10 259 Patterns of abundance On a broad scale and according to seabird and marine mammal distributions observed during the 2002 and 2003 surveys, southern Angolan waters can be divided in 4 distinct zones (the latitudinal limits given below are approximate and the description of the patterns only for late winter and spring). a) 9o30’S to 12o30’S This area is characterized by: • Presence of the tropical Royal tern Sterna maxima inshore, • Presence of the Sooty shearwater P. griseus at low densities in deep waters only, • Presence of White-chinned petrel at low densities at the shelf break and beyond, • Absence of Albatrosses, Cape Petrel, Cape cormorant 92 • • • Concentration of turtles (probably Lepidochelis olivacea) around the shelf break Low densities of the Cape fur seal A. pusillus, on the shelf, Presence of Balaenoptera sp. (probably B. edeni). In the southern half of this zone, a small area stands out at 11o10’S-11o15’S (the “Quicombo area”). In this area, exceptionally dense aggregations of Wilson’s storm petrels can be found, marking the steep shelf break (indicating concentrations of zooplankton along a frontal zone). Also associated with this feature is the unexpected presence of the subantarctic skua (C. antarctica) noted during the 2002 and 2003 surveys. This species is otherwise found only south of the Angola-Benguela Front. b) 12o30’S to 14o30’S This area is noticeable because of the general low densities of all seabird species and is characterized by • Absence of the tropical Royal tern • Lowest density of the four most abundant and widespread species, Wilson’s Storm petrel, White-chinned petrel, Kelp gull and Cape Gannet • Absence of Balaenoptera spp. and turtles • Absence of Cape fur seal to 14oS, and very low abundance to 14o30’S c) 14o30’S to 16o00’S This area seems to constitute a transition zone with the appearance, at low densities, of some species more common further south, e.g. Yellow-nosed albatross Diomedea chlororhynchos, Cape cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis and Cape petrel Daption capense and a slight increase in fur seal abundance. d) 16o00’S to 17o15’S South of 16oS, the avifauna changes dramatically and is marked by a large increase in density of many subantarctic species (Yellow-nosed albatross, Cape petrel, Sooty shearwater, Subantarctic skua, White-chinned petrel) as well as Benguela Current region endemics (Cape gannet, Cape cormorant, Kelp gull). The density of Cape fur seal increases dramatically as well at around 16oS. Sub-antarctic species more common in Namibian waters at this time of the year appear in this area (Black-browed albatross, Shy albatross) and marine mammals characteristic to the Benguela upwelling region are also present (Heaviside’s dolphin, Dusky dolphin). Marine mammals a) Cape fur seal: Arctocephalus pusillus Fur seals were present in small numbers north of 12o30’S, absent between 12o30’S and 14oS, and becoming regular and abundant south of 16oS. It is generally restricted to the shelf in waters of less than 200m depth, except between 14oS and 15oS were the shelf is extremely narrow. 93 b) Cetaceans The summary of the cetacean sightings made during this part of the survey is given in Table 4. Most of the rorqual sightings are believed to be of the Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) although only one individual could be positively identified at close range. Several rorquals including that of a B. edeni cow-calf pair were sighted in the same area during the September 2002 survey. These observations possibly indicate a regular breeding/feeding ground for this species in winter and spring in Angolan waters between 10oS and 12oS. Four sightings of Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) were made during this survey, all between 100 and 200m depth. The sighting of Killer whales, Orcinus orca, is believed to be only the second sighting of this species in Angolan waters (one sighting was made during the 2002 survey). The presence of the Heaviside’s dolphin, endemic to the Benguela, in the Baia dos Tigres area is a confirmation of the suspected northern limit of distribution for this species and of its presence in the extreme south of Angolan waters. Table 4: Summary of cetacean sightings Species Number Depth Water temp Latitude Longitude Balaenoptera sp Balaenoptera sp M. novaeangliae 1 2 m 20.6 99.4 21.6 22 decimal -10.395 -10.756 decimal 13.516 13.522 Balaenoptera sp O. orca 2 60 - 80 1 1 2 106.2 502.2 35.6 42.6 153.4 22.1 21.9 21.3 21.2 21.8 -10.764 -10.855 -10.808 -10.837 -11.134 13.507 13.305 13.718 13.713 13.598 M. novaeangliae M. novaeangliae Balaenoptera sp Balaenoptera sp Balaenoptera sp 1 2 1 1 1 140.7 113.5 298 109.6 474.9 20.6 20.9 20.7 20.6 20.6 -11.635 -11.637 -12.115 -12.127 -12.108 13.405 13.503 13.427 13.454 13.408 Balaenoptera sp Balaenoptera sp balaenoptera edeni Balaenoptera sp T. truncatus 2 1 1 1 17 - 20 621.9 771.4 808.4 98.6 454.7 20.9 20.7 20.8 20.7 20.8 -12.098 -12.114 -12.142 -12.229 -12.629 13.376 13.329 13.318 13.458 13.068 M. novaeangliae C. heavisidii 3 4-6 195.6 38.3 16.4 15.5 -15.810 -16.609 11.677 11.656 L. obscurus 6 -10 119.6 13.8 -17.105 11.504 Stenella sp large baleen whale c) Turtles Marine turtles were encountered during 15 sightings for a total of 24 individuals. From the shape of the carapace they were identified as either loggerhead (Caretta caretta) or Olive 94 Ridley (Lepidochelis olivacea) turtles. The sightings were concentrated between 10o 23’S and 11o08’S and depths ranging from 85m to 700m. In addition, in the same area (11o 03’S, 13o 30’E), during a night pelagic trawl over depths of 240-330m, a turtle was caught, together with myctophids, and released alive. It was identified as L. olivacea (D. Zaera, 2003) and it is likely that the other sightings in this region are from the same species. Of the 8 species of sea turtles worldwide, 5 of which occur in Angola (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Dermochels coriacea, Lepidochelis olivacea and Erytmochelys imbricata), and are inadvertently caught in some fisheries. 3. The Unknown Marine Biota The marine biota of the inshore coastal (shallow water) zone is not well known due to the lack of coverage by the R/V F. Nansen. Artisanal fisheries exploit this area and there is a lack of qualified people to identify catches. There is also a shortage of knowledge on the mammals and seabirds from the north of Luanda to Cabinda. More than 50 rivers are located in the 18 provinces of Angola with considerable numbers of unidentified species. There is little or no available information on the zoobenthos and aquatic plants along the Angolan shelf. The Ministry of Fisheries has promulgated rules for the protection of the sea and rivers. This Ministry is also planning the implementing of a national aquaculture programme. The programme has several phases, the first of which will be the conducting of baseline studies. 4. Current Threats The main threats to marine biodiversity are: a) Fisheries The marine fishery in Angola can be divided into artisanal (mainly for horse mackerel, Sardinella sp., as well as the spiny lobster (Panulirus regius), semi-industrial where the main species caught are the crab (Chaceon maritae) and prawns (Penaeus sp.). The industrial fishing sector is well developed and is targeting deep water shrimps, demersal and pelagic fish (e.g. Horse mackerel). The main impact fisheries exert on the ecosystem is related to the non-optimal harvesting of the resources. The primary cause may be fishing over-capacity (e.g. in the demersal fisheries). In some cases there are too many boats fishing the resource. In the other hand there is a conflict between the artisanal and industrial fishery, which compete in the same fishing areas and for the same resource (e.g. Horse mackerel). This can lead to a depletion of the resource below sustainable levels, high by-catch (as in the case of the deep-water shrimp fishery) and undersized catch. The above actions lead to changes in species composition and abundance of many marine species and there is an urgent need for these changes to be documented. Most sea turtle species are considered endangered and are technically protected under laws promulgated by the National Ministry of Fisheries. However, there is still exploitation of turtles for their meat, eggs, for ornamental crafts made from their shell, and for leather from their skin. 95 One of the species of sharks, Bronze whaler (Carcharhinus brachyurus) is a shared species between Angola and Namibia. This species is declining according to a Namibian report documenting trends over the last three years. In Namibia the species is caught by shore anglers and occasionally by seine netters. However, the industrial fishery targets the same species in Angola. A number of the seabird species present in Angolan waters during winter and spring are susceptible to being accidentally caught by longline fisheries (as well as direct catch from small crafts). These include all species of albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters as well as the Cape gannet. By-catch by long-line fisheries in the southern hemisphere has impacted widely on many species of seabirds and, despite major international efforts to limit the problem, is threatening the survival of several species of albatrosses and petrels. The high incidence of Cape gannets sighted in southern Angola during this survey (2003) (particularly south of Tombua) with remnants of lines and hooks in their beaks attests to the reality of this potential threat which might be impacting negatively on the threatened Namibian gannet population. b) Habitat destruction due to people settlements and unplanned urbanization During the war period the majority of the human population lived in informal settlements surrounding the urban centers along the coast. With a climate that is predominantly semi-arid or arid, the coastal region has relatively limited agricultural potential. This implies that, in the absence of other income generating opportunities, the population relies increasingly on the sea for a livelihood. The expanding urban population also results in a serious pollution threat as untreated sewage is discharged into the sea in increasing volumes. The settlement of large numbers of people along the coast during the war period has also led to the destruction of mangrove forests. c) Oil exploration According to the National oil spill contingency plan, a major risk of oil spills emanates from shipping activities, including those taking place in ports. Large tankers call at the oil production facilities to export the crude oil to countries such as U.S.A. Smaller tankers, including coastal vessels, are used to transport crude oil from the production facilities to the refinery in Luanda and refined products from the refinery to Angolan ports or overseas. The majority of licensed blocks are located north of Luanda. However, there is a southward expansion into areas currently used for fishing activities, thus creating competition for space between the two sectors. 5. Human Capacity There is a lack of qualified people in Angola and no more than 5 persons at the national level are working in the biodiversity field. For instance, at the National Museum of Natural Resources in Luanda there is only one scientist conducting taxonomic studies. Most of the specimens (e.g. molluscs, fish, birds, turtles and butterflies) in this museum were identified during the colonial era. The name and the address of the person working at the National Museum are: Esteves da Costa Afonso Museu Nacional de História Natural 96 Rua da Muxima nº 47 C.P. 2528 Tel: 334054/334055 Fax: 338907 E-mail: [email protected] Cell:092314957 E-mail: [email protected] 97 Literature Bianchi, G. (1986). Fichas FAO de identificação de espécies para propósitos comerciais. Guia de campo para as espécies comerciais marinhas e de àguas Salobras de Angola. Bianchi, G. (1992). Study of the dermesal assemblages of the continental shelf and upper slope of Angola. (Norway). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Vol. 81:101-120. Bianchi, G., Hamukuaya, H., Alvheim, O. (2001). On the dynamics of demersal fish assemblages off Namibia in the 1990s. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 23:491-428. Bianchi, G., Lundsør, E. & Hamukuaya, H. (2001). On Namibia´s marine diversity. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 3-5 pp. Compagno, L. J. V., Ebert, D. A. & Smale, M. J. (1989). Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. Longhurst, A. R. (1962). A review of the oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. Bull. Inst. Fond. Afr. noire 24:633-633. Moroshkhin, K. V., V. A. Bubbnov & R. P. Bulatov. 1970. Water circulation in the Eastern South Atlantic Ocean. Oceanology, 10 (1); 27-34. Newell, G. E. & Newell, R. C. (1963). Marine plankton - a practical guide. Olivar, P. M., Fortuňo, M. J. (?). Guide to ichthyoplankton of the southeast Atlantic (Benguela Current Region). Sci. Mar., 55 (1) :1-383. Smith, M.M. & Heemstra, P.H. (1986). Smiths’ sea fishes. Southern Book Publishers. van der Elst, R. (1993). A guide to the common sea fishes of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers 98 National Report Marine biodiversity in Namibia – the known and the unknown Lizette Voges, Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Coordinator, National Biodiversity Programme, P.O. Box 3098, Vineta 9000, Namibia Author’s note: Most of the material in this document has been copied directly from Palomares & Pauly (2003) and Sakko (1998). 1. INTRODUCTION The Namibian coast runs generally in a north-south direction, with few embayments and is hyper-arid desert along its entire length (1470 km). Most of the shore is sandy beach (54%) or mixed sand and rock (28%). Rocky shores constitute 16% of the total length, while 2% is made up of lagoonal shores. 1.1 Climate The marine environment of Namibia falls within the Benguela system, and, although the system is continuous, there is an unusually intense cell of upwelling off Lüderitz at 27°S, which effectively divides it into two parts. The southern Benguela system thus extends as far northwards as Lüderitz, while the rest of the Namibian coast as far as the Kunene River mouth falls within the northern Benguela system. The driving physical process in the Benguela system is coastal, wind-induced upwelling. Prevailing south to southwesterly winds, which occur all year round off Namibia, tend to move near shore surface water northwards and offshore, while cool, central water from a depth of about 300m wells up to take its place. The deeper water is rich in dissolved nutrients which, when present in the photic zone, facilitate rapid growth of phytoplankton. The high productivity of these microscopic plants supports abundant marine life. The most intense upwelling regions off Namibia are found where the continental shelf is narrowest and the wind strongest, e.g. off Cape Frio, Palgrave Point and Lüderitz (Figure 1). Upwelling in the Benguela system is potentially of great significance for the biological diversity of Namibia’s marine environment. Continuous physical, chemical and biological changes give rise to a three-dimensional mosaic of environmental conditions, which varies continuously in time and space. This gives rise to marine habitats of variety and variability, and imparts an inherent unpredictability to the system as a whole. 1.2 Habitat types Like those elsewhere, Namibia’s marine environment can be divided into several zones forming a gradient stretching west from the coast. The littoral zone marks the boundary between land and sea, and extends from the splash zone down to the low tide mark. The euphotic zone extends down about another 50 m at a distance of 10 -15 km from the shore. The key features of this whole zone are the shallowness of the water and the abundance of light, which may penetrate to the sea floor. The entire coast is exposed to heavy wave action with accompanying silting and sand scour. 99 16 N Cunene 18 Cape A Rocky 20 M Dune Palgrave Toscanini Cape I 22 Swakopmund Walvis 24 B Sandwich Conception pronounced divergence of current Meob I Sylvia Dolphin 26 A Lüderitz Upwelling 28 Panther Angola Benguela front Orange 10 12 14 16 18 Figure 1. Map of the Namibian coastline showing the most intense upwelling areas and position of the Angola Benguela front. The continental shelf of Namibia is generally fairly narrow, especially off southern Angola and Lüderitz. It is at its widest off the Orange River mouth and Walvis Bay. It extends some 90 km offshore between Cape Cross and Conception Bay, and the shelf area from the shore to a depth of 200 m is approximately 110 000 km2. The predominant surface sediment on the Namibian shelf is biogenic, or formed from living matter. A noteworthy feature is a belt of diatomaceous mud containing a high organic content as well as sulphur, stretching 500 km 100 between Cape Frio and Conception Bay. Decomposition of the organic matter leads to oxygen depletion, and these shelf waters are uniformly oxygen-poor. Such sediments are typical of areas of high primary production. At the edge of the continental shelf the seabed descends rapidly to the ocean floor, marking the shelf break zone. The Namibian shelf is one of the world's deepest, generally thought to reach 400 m in places. A double shelf break exists off Walvis Bay, with two parallel shelves of different depths. Waters around the slope tend to be richer in oxygen than shelf waters, and specific communities of organisms are associated with this zone. The oceanic or abyssal zone is the area of open sea beyond the continental shelf, cradled between the continental masses. On the whole, understanding of the biology of this zone is confined to the surface photic zone. The Angola and Cape basins, which are the abyssal plains of the south-east Atlantic, both lie in part off the Namibian coast. The two basins are separated by an undersea mountain range, the Walvis Ridge, which extends to the south and west of the shelf edge off Walvis Bay. The Walvis Ridge acts as a barrier to the movement of deeper water. 1.3 Nature and intensity of utilization Seabirds – guano is harvested from four different bird platforms and from islands in the south. Seals are harvested for commercial use. Recreational fishing from the beach occurs throughout the year especially along the central and northern coasts. Skiboats are sometimes used to fish for popular angling species like kob, steenbras, galjoen, dassie and sharks. Approximately 250km of Namibia’s coastline between Lüderitz and the Orange River mouth falls in the zone known as the ‘Sperrgebiet’ or ‘Diamond Area’. This is the site of Namibia’s most productive diamond mines. Sea-based operations involve the removal of gravel from intertidal and subtidal habitats, whereas land-based mining involves the removal of the sand overburden until bedrock is exposed. In some areas (e.g. vicinity of Oranjemund), sections of sea are reclaimed by building a surrounding dyke and then pumping out the seawater. Sediments are then removed in order to locate the buried diamonds. At Elizabeth Bay, diamonds are mined from the land adjacent to the coast. Undersized grits, or “fines”, resulting from the extraction processes are pumped into the sea. Fisheries activities cover all marine habitats except the deepest ocean floors and abyssal depths. The most important impacts of fishing are the removal of large numbers of naturally occuring organisms and the physical alteration of habitats by bottom trawl gear. Fishing is the third-largest sector of the Namibian economy, after agriculture and mining. This sector has generated more than 10% of the GDP since 1998, up from 5% in 1991, and the projected export value for 2003 is N$ 2 900 million, which will make the fishing sector the secondlargest export earner after mining. It is the second fastest growing industry in the Namibian economy (behind tourism) with the value of exports now approximately six times greater than at Independence. The following species are all harvested by controlled TAC’s: Horse mackerel Hake Monk Pilchard Orange roughy 101 Deepsea red crab Crayfish 2. THE KNOWN 2.1 Characteristics of Namibian marine biodiversity Biodiversity in the Namibian marine environment shows several pertinent trends. Most habitats support no endemic species. A few species are endemic to the Benguela system, of which the Namibian waters form a part. Species richness in most habitats is relatively low. In almost all cases, richness is lower than in comparable habitats in the southern Benguela system off the west coast of South Africa. In most cases, this low richness is accompanied by high biomass. There is a well-recognized latitudinal gradient in patterns of global species richness, with highest richness in equatorial regions and lowest richness towards the poles. Namibian marine biodiversity provides an anomaly in this gradient since, in general, species richness is substantially lower than recorded in the more southerly marine habitats off South Africa. In addition, there is a clear trend of decreasing marine species richness from south to north off Namibia, contrary to the expected trend. Why is this? A given supply of food may be partitioned among many species with narrow diets (specialists) and small populations, or among few species with wider diets (generalists) and large populations. Specialization is favored where food availability is predictable and competition may lead to the evolution of specialized feeding behavior. This is the case in tropical regions, where the high genetic diversity is correlated with trophic stability. In temperate regions, however, where conditions are seasonally variable, food availability is less predictable and organisms may need to feed opportunistically during times of food shortage. Specialization is thus not as feasible, and resources tend to be partitioned between fewer species with large populations. Upwelling systems in general are extreme cases of unstable environments, where continuous variation prevents the fine-tuning of genotypes to local conditions. Food availability is variable, and generalist feeders are favored. Such systems predictably support only low species richness, while at the same time being among the most productive habitats in the world. Significantly the Namibian marine environment (particularly the northern Benguela system) is species-poor, even by comparison to other upwelling systems, such as the southern Benguela and West African upwelling systems. This may arise in part due to the intensely dynamic and perennial nature of upwelling off the Namibian coast, which creates extreme instability and unpredictability of numerous environmental factors such as temperature and water chemistry. 102 2.2 State of knowledge In this section a summary of the work by Maria Lourdes D. Palomares and Daniel Pauly (2003) Biodiversity of the Namibian Exclusive Economic Zone: a brief review with emphasis on online databases, is presented. The reference to Appendices, refer to their report. Birds Bianchi et al. (1999) reported that a total of 62 species of seabirds, including 20 rare visitors, have been recorded in Namibia. Of the 25 endangered bird species listed in the Birdlife International species database for Namibia, 5 are seabirds and 4 are shorebirds. Appendix IA (refers to the list in the report of Palomares and Pauly) considers only seabirds and lists 58 of the 62 seabird species from these different sources, including 3 endemic species, all of which are endemic to southern Africa. It also includes 4 commercially important guano producing species. All seabirds are protected by law in Namibia but only 38 of those listed in Appendix IA are listed by CITES. Marine mammals Jefferson et al. (1993) lists 36 species of cetaceans (8 baleen whales and 28 toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises) and 4 pinnipeds occurring between 20-40°S. Bianchi et al. (1999) reported 31 species (8 baleen and 23 toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises) and 3 species of pinnipeds but provides information on only 12 cetaceans and 2 pinnipeds. The number of cetaceans occurring in Namibian waters represents a considerable 41% of the total number of species of cetaceans worldwide. Of these, only one is an endemic species, Heaviside’s dolphin, Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, which is a coastal shallow water species found only off southern Africa from about 17ºS to the southern tip of Africa (Jefferson et al. 1993). This species is common in Namibian waters and seen mostly about 5 miles from the shore in small groups of 2-7 individuals (Bianchi et al. 1999). Peddemors (1999), who reported 18 species of delphinids from Africa south of 17°S, concludes that there seems to be little human-induced threat to these species at present and only two inshore species are considered vulnerable, i.e., the Namibian population of Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, and a localized Namibian population of Tursiops truncates which is reportedly vulnerable to future coastal development and commercial fishery expansions. The offshore species Lissodelphis peronii is also a localized population and may be adversely affected by the expansion of commercial driftnet fisheries off Namibia (Peddemors 1999). Cephalopods There are 55 species of cephalopods occurring in Namibia according to Nesis (1991) but Bianchi et al. (1999) include only 19 commercially important or potentially important species in 8 families. The list in Appendix ID includes 66 species (26 families) and may include species found in South Africa (Branch et al. 1994). Appendix ID includes 13 species caught with bottom trawls or as bycatch of bottom trawls. None of the cephalopod species are listed in the IUCN or in the CITES Appendices. 103 Lobsters There are 11 species of lobster occurring in Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999) but Appendix IE documents only 10 species from 5 families. Four of these have commercial value or of potential interest, i.e. Cape rock lobster, Jasus lalandii, Royal spiny lobster, Panulirus regius, Red slipper lobster, Scyllarides herklotsii, and Scarlet lobsterette, Nephropsis atlantica. The Namibian Cape rock lobster fishery is now protected by closed seasons (November-May) and size restrictions. Crabs Bianchi et al. (1999) reported 38 species of crabs occurring in Namibia, of which 9 have existing fisheries or are incidentally caught as by-catch. Branch et al. (1994) recorded 300 species occurring in South Africa and reported a few more species, which are known to occur in the southern border area of Namibia with South Africa. These are integrated here in Appendix IF, which lists 43 species, 58% of which are found at depths 0-1000 m. None of these crabs are listed in the IUCN or CITES lists and receive no protection from the Namibian government. Shrimps and prawns The lists of shrimps and prawns indicate 54 (Macpherson 1991) to 56 (Bianchi et al. 1999) species occurring in Namibia. Appendix IG reconstructs 48 taxa, 40% of which are swimming and 60% benthic shrimps, of which 50% are found at 200-1000 m depths, 15% at 0-200 m and about 1% are deepwater species (occurring at depths >1000 m). Only a third of the shimps and prawns are of commercial interest and usually targeted using bottom or pelagic trawls. None of these species are listed under IUCN or CITES and there are indications of local protection by the Namibian government. Fishes Bianchi et al. (1999) listed a total of 492 fish species from 163 families, consisting of 2 species of jawless fishes from 1 family, 46 sharks from 15 families, 28 species belonging to 7 families of batoid fishes, skates and rays, 6 chimaerids from 3 families and 410 bony fishes from 137 families. Only about 40% of these are discussed in detail by Bianchi et al. (1999) because of their commercial or potential value as exploitable resources. However, the checklist obtained from FishBase (see www.fishbase.org) and presented in Appendix IC accounts for a total of 515 native and 1 endemic species. Almost 50% of these 515 species are bottom dwellers (20% demersals and 18% benthopelagic; see Figure 2) while 36% are deepwater species (18% each bathypelagic and bathydemersals) and only 13% are truly pelagic species. This is not surprising given that the Namibian EEZ comprises 64% of waters deeper than 1000 m, 24% between 200-1000 m, and 12% between 0-200 m. Further analyses of the FishBase data indicate about 34% have commercial use in Namibia and another 42% are reported to have potential commercial value. More than 60% are exploited by commercial and about 25% by the sport fisheries (see Figure 3). Three species are currently under the IUCN list of threatened species, i.e., Broadnose sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus (Data Deficient), Yellowspotted catshark, Scyliorhinus capensis (Low Risk/near threatened) and Sharptooth houndshark, Triakis megalopterus (Low Risk /near threatened) while two appear in the CITES list of species, i.e., Great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Appendix III for Australian populations) and Whaleshark, Rhincodon typus (Appendix II). 104 Reef-associated 2% Pelagics 13% Bathydemersals 18% Demersals 20% Bathypelagics 29% Benthopelagics 18% Figure 2. Contribution of marine fish species by habitat in the Namibian marine ecosystem. Data from FishBase list of marine fishes of Namibia (SE Atlantic, FAO Area 47). Protected Potential n = 218 Uses and status Endemic Threatened Exported live Recorded n = 175 Aquaculture Sport fish Fisheries 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Number of species (% of total) Figure 3. Number of fish species by commercial use, status of threat and protection in the list of marine fishes of Namibia (SE Atlantic FAO Area 47) extracted from FishBase. 105 70 Benthic invertebrates Sakko (1998) reports about 200 benthic invertebrate species occurring in Namibia. Appendix II covers about 70% of these, including 2 endemic species, i.e. Disc lamp shell, Discinisca tenuis and Cape mantis shrimp, Pterygosquilla armata capensis. The Disc lamp shell is a benthic filter feeder abundant at depths to 25 m off the southern coast of Namibia (Sakko 1998). The Cape mantis shrimp is the only southern west African coast stomatopod (endemic according to Griffiths and Blaine 1988) found burrowed in soft terrigenous sediments at depths < 300 m between St. Helena Bay and the south border of Namibia (Griffith and Blaine 1988) but may congregate in large swarms near the surface where it is preyed on by seals, hake and other fish (Branch et al. 1994). The bulk of benthic invertebrates occur in depths at 0-200 m. Only the Sea spider, Pallenopsis bulbifera, a new species described from the Namibian coast in Munilla and Stock (1984) is recorded at a depth of 260-269 m. Jellyfishes Appendix IJ lists 7 species of jellyfishes and 10 species of planktonic crustaceans. The dominant jellyfish of the Benguela Current system, Aequorea aequorea, is a large medusa found usually offshore and to the north of Namibia between 0-200 m (Sparks et al 2001). Another abundant species in the Benguela is the Moon jelly, Aurelia aurita (Senn 2000). Macrozooplankton Different krill species dominate the different regions of the Benguela Current. The shelf region of the southern Benguela Current is dominated by Euphausia lucens while that the outer shelf is dominated by Euphausia hanseni. The neritic region of the northern Benguela is dominated by Nyctiphanes capensis (Pillar et al. 1991). These species have high turnover rates, as they reproduce throughout the year with multiple recruitment pulses and large numbers of eggs per brood. Northern Benguela euphausiids have twice as much biomass as that of the southwest Benguela. Adults are opportunistic omnivores, while juveniles are herbivorous. Pillar et al. (1991), report that euphausiid grazing has a minor impact on the phytoplankton biomass but has a high predatory impact on other mesozooplankton species and compete directly with fish species, the major consumer of euphausiid production in Benguela ecosystem. Ichthyoplankton Eggs and larvae of fish species are evenly distributed within the water column (0-200 m) when the coastal area is undergoing strong upwelling influxes, with isotherms running parallel to the coast in winter and spring (Olivar et al. 1991). However, ichthyoplankton distribution is clearly segregated between coastal and slope/oceanic areas in intense upwelling seasons in northern Benguela, i.e. the lanternfishes, Lampanyctodes hectoris and Maurolicus muelleri dominate oceanic areas while Sufflogobius bibarbatus dominates the coastal areas. In the 1980s, Olivar and Barange (1989) reported that the most abundant ichthyoplankton species on the Namibian continental shelf and slope were larvae of Ringneck blenny, Trachurus pilicornis; lanternfishes, Symbolophorus sp., Hygophum macrochir; and the pelagic goby, Nematogobius bibarbatus (synonym of Sufflogobius bibarbatus). Larval and egg abundance were different between the southern and northern coasts, i.e. the northern coast apparently acts as a nursery area for the majority of the species. Similarly, vertical distribution 106 showed stratification with highest ichthyoplankton concentrations above the thermocline. Upwelling affected the diurnal distribution of anchovy and pilchard eggs and larvae as well as those of King gar, Scomberesox saurus scombroides, larvae which were most abundant at night. In another survey of the area, 20-100 miles off the coast between 17-25oS, Belyanina and Stejker (1988) reported that during the non-upwelling period of April-May 1985 and January 1986, ichthyoplankton was scarce. Larval oceanic mesopelagic fishes, mainly myctophids, dominated the samples. At depths < 500 m, the average ichthyoplankton abundance increased with high concentrations of Pilchard, Sardinops ocellatus (synonym of Sardinops sagax) and mackerel, Trachurus spp. Assuming that the data in Appendix I are representative of the species occurring in the Namibian EEZ, the results probably reflect the particular topography of the Namibian EEZ, i.e. a narrow shallow shelf area and large oceanic zone with an upwelling area (Sakko 1998), with a predominance of deep-water fish groups, e.g. bathypelagic fishes (15.2%) closely followed by demersals (10.5%) and benthopelagic fishes (9.7%). The next most important groups are from high trophic levels, including cephalopods, seabirds and marine mammals, (together comprising 15%), while benthic invertebrates comprised 13% of the species composition. Figure 4 gives an overview of the contribution of each functional group, and indicates a ‘seemingly’ greater number of high trophic level species. This is biased however, as large, high trophic level and commercially important species are better documented than the small, less conspicuous species of no commercial importance. Number of species (% of total) 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% Seabirds Marine mammals Turtles Bathydemersal fishes Bathypelagic fishes Benthopelagic fishes Demersal fishes Pelagic fishes Reef-associated fishes Cephalopods Lobsters Crabs Shrimps and prawns Pycnogonids Bivalves Chitons Gastropods Echinoderms Ascidians Hexacorals Brachiopods Polychaetes Cirripeds Isopods Amphipods Stomatopods Mysids Hacpacticoids Hydroids Jellyfishes Planktonic crustaceans Macroalgae Diatoms Dinoflagellates Protozoans Bacteria Figure 3. Number of species (in % of total) by functional groups from an analysis of data assembled in Appendix I for the Namibian marine ecosystem (SE Atlantic, FAO Area 47). 107 16% Table 1 summarizes species counts of endemic, commercial, threatened and protected species, and provides counts of the number of species by depth range and habitat. The number of endemic species accounts for 0.9% of the total number of species listed in Appendix I, confirming the low level of endemicity reported in Sakko (1998). Commercially important species account for 14.4%, with fish groups making up 66% of those that are commercially important. 3. THE UNKNOWN The intertidal rocky shores of Namibia are among the least studied in the southern African region, and very few biological collections have been made in the area. During the last few years more effort has been put into these areas. The information has not been included in this study and has not been fully processed. Research on subtidal organisms along the Namibian cost has also been very limited. Few scientific publication are available on the biodiversity of this particular habitat, and museum collections have not been updated. The occurrence of many subtidal benthic species is underreported, with the consequence that distribution maps for species along the southern African coastline often do not include Namibian waters, even though many of the species may be common there. Current knowledge is restricted to macrobenthic communities of rocky substrata in depths < 30 m, mainly in the area between Diaz Point and Mercury Island. The ecology of subtidal seaweeds of Namibia is almost uninvestigated. No research has been done specifically on the biodiversity of oceanic or abyssal habitats in Namibian waters. Only 57 species of bony fish deeper than 1000m have been recorded. An estimated 500 species of demersal fish are found at depths greater than 1000m in the Atlantic as a whole, indicating the relatively small number recorded in Namibian waters. The deep-sea benthic communities off Namibia are largely unknown. However, in samples of macrobenthic organisms from 10 deep-ocean basins in the Atlantic Ocean, species richness in sediments from the Cape Basin and the Angola Basin (off Namibia) was intermediate between the rich tropical regions and less rich higher latitude areas. 4. CURRENT THREATS 4.1 Natural threats Fluctuations in the Benguela system The Benguela ecosystem is characterised by continuous environmental changes on scales from hours to decades. For example, nutrient availability may vary on an hourly basis, as upwelled nutrients reach the photic zone and are rapidly used by phytoplankton. Levels of dissolved oxygen in the water may also change rapidly as patches of low-oxygen water move. Winds, which induce upwelling, and thus drive the system, are perennial off the coast of Namibia, although seasonal changes in the position of the southeast Atlantic high-pressure system influence the intensity of upwelling. Seasonal changes in atmospheric 'forcing' also control the penetration of warm Angolan Current waters into the northern Benguela region with southerly movement of Angolan waters most likely in late summer and autumn. In addition, the exceptional southward incursions of warm Angolan waters as far as Walvis Bay, known as Benguela-Ninos, occur on a decadal scale. The combination of hourly, daily, seasonal and decadal patterns of change creates an inherently variable marine environment. Since biodiversity is often linked to habitat complexity, it is clear that this variety is important in maintaining biodiversity off the Namibian coast. However, it also makes the environment 108 unpredictable, leading to mortalities of organisms that cannot cope with, or escape from, sudden changes. Of particular interest are the intrusions of Angolan waters into the northern Benguela region. These occur seasonally, although the exact timing and extent are not predictable. At these times the front between the two systems moves southwards by up to 2°, and tongues of warm water reach into the otherwise cold waters of the Benguela. The warm, saline Angolan water brings with it plant and animal species of more tropical affinity. Such species have been recorded in all the marine habitats in northern Namibia, as described in the relevant sections above. In some instances these species may become established, such as the sandy shore mussel Donax rugosis, but more often they retreat with the northward movement of the warm water. Conditions may become unfavorable for some temperate species during warm-water intrusions, and they tend to move away. Local mortalities are possible for less-mobile species, but these are unlikely to influence regional biodiversity. During Benguela-Ninos, warm, saline water may intrude as far south as Walvis Bay, as occurred in 1995. These intrusions may happen quickly, over a matter of days, and may last as long as six weeks. Associated with higher sea temperatures, the oxygen content of Angolan Current water can be extremely low, making conditions unsuitable for many Namibian species. During the 1995 Benguela-Nino, hake distributions off central and northern Namibia changed dramatically in response to the presence of poorly oxygenated water. Several species of fish including hake, horse mackerel and pelagic goby are physiologically adapted to cope with low oxygen conditions. However, Benguela-Ninos represent extreme conditions and it is possible that mortalities of less-mobile species could occur. Fluctuations in environmental conditions in the Benguela system are thus a potential short term and localized threat to marine species off Namibia. Local extinctions of fish and crayfish in response to intrusions of low-oxygen water have been recorded. However, these fluctuations are inherent in the functioning of the system, a system that has been in existence in some form off northern Namibia for about 12 million years. Even the modern Benguela system, as we know it today, is 2 million years old. Clearly, species, which persist, have evolved mechanisms for coping with the inherent variability. Local mortalities in response to environmental fluctuations should therefore not be seen as significant threats to Namibian biodiversity on a regional or national scale. Sulphur eruptions Sulphurous patches in coastal and near-shore waters are a common feature off the Namibian coast, especially the central region near Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. Low oxygen water is a feature of the shelf bottom over large areas in this region. Some bottom-dwelling bacteria produce sulphur as a product of decomposition, and they may form patches of concentrated sulphur. Such eruptions have been associated with mortalities of fish and other species. Extensive deposits of fish scales and bones found in the region of Walvis Bay may be the remains of large populations of fish that died in response to sulphur outbreaks. Like other variations, sulphur eruptions are a feature of this system and do not pose a threat to biodiversity on anything but the local level. 109 4.2 Anthropogenic threats There are several ways in which humans influence biological diversity in the marine environment. Most important among them are pollution, physical encroachment by activities such as mining, overexploitation, and the introduction of exotic organisms. Underlying all these forms of disturbance are social and economic reasons, which, at the time, are deemed of more importance than are detrimental ecological effects. Usually, the activities, which directly or indirectly destroy marine biological diversity, bring short-term profit to some group or individual. The costs of such activities, on the other hand, are incalculable and are borne by everyone. Pollution of shore and ship origin The coastal zone of the Namibian marine system is virtually devoid of permanent human settlement. Apart from the four medium-sized coastal towns of Liideritz, Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay which have permanent populations of between 4500 and 50000, there are a number of conservation stations and fishing camps which support a few residents and a few dozen visitors at any one time. In addition, the coastal desert is not suitable for agricultural development. Consequently, the level of pollution normally associated with urban communities, shore-based industries and coastal agricultural land does not occur. Despite the lack of large-scale coastal urban development, partially enclosed lagoons at Walvis Bay and Lüderitz support cargo-handling harbor facilities. In addition, both ports are home to expanding fish-processing and related industrial factories. Organically rich effluent from fish factories has resulted in anoxic conditions in the vicinity of the outlet points of the lagoons. Spillages and disposal of inorganic pollutants, primarily hydrocarbons and anti-fouling paint, into the lagoons are additional threats. Localized shore litter, primarily plastics, originates from anchored vessels. Monitoring of the water quality in Walvis Bay has to date not indicated pollution levels, which have any more than a localized impact. In addition, species diversity of shorebirds on the mudflats of the Walvis Bay lagoon has changed little since biannual bird censuses began in 1983. However, the proximity of the harbors and fish factories at Walvis Bay and Lüderitz suggest that the lagoon communities may be vulnerable. Much of the cargo shipped between the Far East, North America and Europe rounds the southern tip of the African continent and thus passes close to Namibian waters. Apart from the few, which actually call at Namibian ports, however, these vessels remain outside the 'Exclusive Economic Zone' (EEZ). Therefore the high levels of pollutants from such vessels, which occur in other major shipping lanes, are not found in Namibian waters. Coastal diamond mining Approximately 250 km of Namibia's coastline between Lüderitz and the Orange River mouth falls in the zone known as the Sperrgebiet or Diamond Area 1. Access to the area is highly restricted, as this is the site of Namibia's most productive diamond mines. Historically, mining activities extended north to Conception Bay, but today operations are confined to the area between Oranjemund and Lüderitz. Several forms of mining take place in this area. Sea-based operations involve the removal of gravel from intertidal and subtidal habitats, whereas land-based mining involves the removal 110 of the sand overburden until bedrock is exposed. In some areas, such as the vicinity of Oranjemund, areas of sea are reclaimed by building a surrounding dyke and then pumping out the seawater. Sediments are then removed in order to locate the buried diamonds. On a local scale, these activities are highly destructive to biodiversity. The substrate is significantly altered and entire communities may be disturbed or totally eradicated. The mining operation at Elizabeth Bay, south of Lüderitz, is an example. At Elizabeth Bay diamonds are mined from the land adjacent to the coast. Undersized grits, or 'fines,' resulting from the extraction processes are pumped into the sea. Discharge from the original Elizabeth Bay plant, which processed grits from nearby deposits up until 1935, resulted in a beach deposit of over 100 m along the exposed rocky shore of the peninsula. Today there is no sign of this deposit, as it was rapidly eroded away by the action of the sea, after mining ceased. When mining operations recommenced at Elizabeth Bay in 1991, the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources expressed concern at the potential impact of suspended sediments within the bay. Surveys were conducted to determine both the effect of change in beach morphology within the bay on intertidal sandy shore communities, and the impact of suspended sediments on the ecology of nearby rocky shores. Unfortunately both studies were conducted after the discharge of fines was well under way and consequently no data were available prior to disturbance. Nevertheless, results of both studies suggested major changes to biological communities as a result of the beach disposal of fines. Sandy shore communities became depauperate, and limpet-dominated rocky shores were replaced with lushly growing seaweeds where limpets had become dislodged. In a recent survey, the Elizabeth Bay colony of Damara terns was found to have declined from 15-20 pairs before mining to two pairs. Poor foraging conditions in the bay were suggested as the reason for the decline. NAMDEB, the mining corporation, accepts responsibility for monitoring ongoing changes to the biology of the Elizabeth Bay area, and in 1992 launched an environmental programme to this end. The impacts of small-scale, surf-zone contractor operations on the intertidal and subtidal communities in the area are also monitored regularly. The monitoring programmes aim to detect and minimise long-term damage to the environment while still enabling diamond mining to contribute to the economy of the country. It is predicted that following the closure of the Elizabeth Bay mining operations, currents and winds within the bay will quickly resculpture the beach. In addition, the recovery of disturbed intertidal communities should progress rapidly once the sediment load in the water is reduced. Similar recoveries were documented after the fresh water and sediment loads in floodwaters of the Orange River caused large-scale limpet mortalities in that area. The potential for diamond-mining activities to cause biological damage is clearly great. Because of this there is an obligation to monitor changes in biological communities in areas where mining operations occur, and to restrict damage as far as possible. Since mining activity is restricted to relatively small areas, it is not considered a major threat to coastal biodiversity on a major scale. In addition, there is evidence that suggests that the physical processes occurring on the coastal zone of Namibia are of such magnitude that alterations are likely to be only temporary. 111 Fishing Fisheries activities are ubiquitous across marine habitats, directly affecting virtually every habitat except the deepest ocean floors and abyssal depths. The most important impacts of fishing are the removal of large numbers of naturally occurring organisms and the physical alteration of habitats. Both factors can have disastrous consequences for stocks of commercially exploited species and ultimately for those who derive benefit from their exploitation. All fisheries activities must therefore pursue a balanced strategy incorporating ecological considerations and socioeconomic needs to ensure the long term sustainability of marine resource use. Physical destruction of the benthic habitat through aggressive trawling techniques, particularly beam trawling, as well as the large scale incidental catches of seabirds and marine mammals through the use of drift-nets, are legislated against in Namibian waters. In addition, the massive catch of non-target species reported to occur in other fishing nations is limited through effective implementation of strict legislation. Bottom trawling for species such as hake and monkfish most certainly has an impact on demersal habitats, although since this is out of human view it has not been considered important enough to warrant study. Habitat degradation can potentially result in a loss of species richness, as habitats are made unsuitable for certain species. Genetic factors The removal of large numbers of individuals from a single species reduces the genetic diversity of the remaining populations. Within each species, genetic diversity in a population enhances its ability to adapt to environmental change. It is the basis for natural selection, and is perhaps most important in inherently variable systems. Current levels of intraspecific variation are the result of accumulated genetic mutations over millions of years of evolution. Severe reductions in population numbers, which occur when a stock is overfished, or collapses, cause a genetic bottleneck. Although populations, which are subsequently protected from harvesting, may recover, much genetic material has almost certainly been lost, since individuals removed from the breeding population are no longer able to pass on their genes. This phenomenon is known as 'genetic drift’. The recovered population will have a different genetic composition from the original population, as well as reduced heterozygosity and reduced ability to adapt to a changing environment. Fisheries activities can also change the genetic composition of exploited populations through the selection of specific sub-groups. Usually, larger individuals are targeted and their removal from the breeding community implies, in evolutionary terms, that there is directional selection for smaller size at maturity, smaller final size, decreased growth rate and younger age at maturity. These are the characteristics of the population left behind to continue breeding. This amounts to selection for lower productivity, and is diametrically opposed to the rationale behind genetic selection in aquaculture and agriculture in general. Exploited fish species in Namibian marine habitats display a variety of life-history characteristics. Some species are adapted to life in stable environments where food is predictable. These include the species of the deeper shelf, slope and oceanic floor habitats, such as orange roughy and alfonsino. These species are slow-growing, long-lived, and less fecund. Overfishing of stocks of these species can lead rapidly to population collapses because of the slow rate of replacement through reproduction. It has been estimated that deepsea orange roughy take 30 years to reach sexual maturity and approximately 100 years to grow to supermarket size. 112 In contrast, species which inhabit the neritic waters are adapted to survive in less stable environmental conditions. They grow rapidly, reach sexual maturity early and are highly fecund. Pilchard and anchovy are among the species with such life-history patterns. These species are considered highly susceptible to the effects of genetic drift and directional selection since their generation times are short. Indeed, reduced age at maturity, and possibly increased growth rates, have been documented in Namibian pilchard and horse mackerel stocks, suggesting that directional selection has already occurred. The substantial reduction ('crash') of the Namibian pilchard stock several times in the past three decades has certainly reduced the genetic diversity of this species. Unfavourable environmental conditions are usually invoked as the major cause of these population crashes. It appears from historical evidence, such as records of guano yield from piscivorous seabirds on nearshore islands and fish-scale deposits in the bottom sediments off central Namibia that populations of pelagic fish species fluctuated in the absence of exploitation. However, fisheries practices continually erode the genetic potential of populations to recover from and adapt to such conditions in the long term. Healthy fish stocks are clearly essential to the continued success of the fishing industry in Namibia. The promotion of practices leading to sustainable use of genetic resources is an urgent priority; such practices revolve around maximising population sizes and avoiding bottlenecks. Although naturally induced population fluctuations cannot be avoided in the Benguela system, overfishing of exploited species must be prevented at all costs. Rule-based fisheries management, whereby minimum spawner biomasses of exploited species are specified and exploitation is halted when biomasses are below the minimum levels, has potential to prevent the kind of overfishing that has occurred in the past. The expectation of obtaining even, reliable catches of marine resources from year to year seems unfounded. Natural populations experience favourable and unfavourable times, the 'prosperous' years serving as a cushion against leaner years to come. This is certainly true of the variable, unpredictable Benguela system. Unfavourable events such as the Benguela-Nino of 1995 place stresses on marine populations. The tolerance of populations to these stresses is directly related to their intraspecific genetic diversity, and the practice of eroding this diversity by overfishing is an additional stress undermining long term viability of populations. Introduced alien species Alien species have become common in virtually all habitats occupied or modified by human activities. The single most important source of invasive aliens in the marine environment is the ballast water of ships. Ballast water, containing the larvae and spores of coastal organisms, is taken on in one biogeographical zone, transported across oceans and then discharged wherever the ship happens to be at the time. It is estimated that more than 3000 species of coastal marine animals and plants are in transit around the world, at any given moment, in the ballast of ships. The effect of this is that coastal habitats all over the world are becoming dominated by alien species. One alien species has invaded Namibia's rocky shore habitats. The Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis was introduced to South Africa in the late 1970s and has spread progressively along the west coast of that country, where it is currently the dominant intertidal mussel. By the early 1990s the species was well established in southern Namibia as far north 113 as Sylvia Hill, where it dominates the indigenous intertidal mussels Aulacomya ater and Choromytilus meridionalis. Subtidal beds of the indigenous species appear unaffected by this invasion, since M. galloprovincialis is mainly found intertidally. Further north as far as the Kunene River mouth, only isolated individuals of M. galloprovincialis were found in the early 1990's. However, in 1994 in the extreme northern region, and in 1995 in the Swakopmund area, large numbers settled amongst the indigenous species of those areas (Perna perna and Semimytilus algosus. The rapid growth rate and high fecundity of the alien species are matched by those of the indigenous species, and it remains to be seen which species will become dominant. So far the presence of M. galloprovincialis along the Namibian coast does not appear to have had any ecosystem effects. Trophic relationships seem to remain unaltered and biodiversity on a regional scale is unaffected, although the intertidal distributions of indigenous species have been locally altered. This species appears unstoppable in its spread around the southern African coastline and no efforts are being made to control it. Several species of alien oysters, such as the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas and European oyster Ostrea edulis, have been introduced to Namibian coastal waters. They are farmed commercially in sheltered, warm water conditions near Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz. Currently these species have not become established outside the mariculture areas, and are not considered able to survive the rigors of the local marine environment. Consequently they may not threaten the biodiversity of these areas. The extent to which alien invasions may have occurred in the pelagic and shelf environments is largely unknown. There is a lack of baseline data on the composition of these communities, and there are no studies focused specifically on invasions. To some extent the variable and biologically harsh nature of the upwelling system that is Namibia's marine environment may inhibit invasions of species not specifically adapted to these conditions. Atmospheric pollution Atmospheric pollution with compounds generated by human activities, such as chlorofluorocarbons, is destroying the ozone layer of the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth's atmosphere from incident ultraviolet radiation, and its destruction alters the exposure of the oceans to ultraviolet radiation. Increased UV-B (the biologically damaging UV) radiation penetrates many meters below the surface of the ocean and can cause significant biological and ecological damage. Such effects have been demonstrated for phytoplankton, zooplankton, ichthyoplankton and certain benthic organisms in shallow or surface waters. Although not a problem of exclusively Namibian origin, the effects of global climatic changes on the marine environment have the potential to supersede in importance the effects of any of the current crises, including that of resource depletion. Namibians have an international responsibility to ensure that they do not contribute unduly to the escalation of these potentially destructive processes. In addition, policy-makers have a duty to note the possible effects and to plan accordingly. 114 4.3 Measures to counter threats to biodiversity Policy and legislation initiatives Under the Sea Fisheries Act (Act 29 of 1992), the Namibian marine environment (including open waters, tidal lagoons and sea-shore up to the high water mark) falls under the jurisdiction of the MFMR. This Act forms the legal framework whereby the 'conservation of the marine ecology and the orderly exploitation, conservation, protection and promotion of certain marine resources' are provided for. No allusion is made in the Act to protection of biodiversity per se, although the conservation of 'the marine ecology' is a stated aim. Sea Fisheries regulations are extensive, providing for the control of exploitation through total allowable catches (TACs), minimum mesh sizes on nets, minimum individual sizes, closed seasons and areas, and limited quantities. In addition, means of enforcement, and punishments for infringements, of the set regulations are detailed and potentially dissuasive. Initiatives for joint management of stocks are now developing in Angola, Namibia and South Africa. Protected marine areas Vast stretches of the Namibian coast are ostensibly protected from fishing, collection of resources and disturbance or damage in any form up to a distance of two nautical miles seawards from the high-water mark. These include the area of the Skeleton Coast Park, the Namib-Naukluft Park the area between Walvis Bay harbor and Pelican Point (22°53'S, 14°26'E), and the areas around offshore islands. In addition, there are two areas in the vicinity of Lüderitz where the catching of rock lobsters is prohibited. The closed areas described above are effectively closed only to recreational rock-and-surf anglers, to recreational ski-boat fishermen and to commercial ski-boat fishermen. Since most of these areas are inaccessible to these groups, this legislation would seem superfluous. 'Protection' up to 2 nautical miles offshore thus does not prevent commercial line fishing, purse seining or Cray fishing within the zone. Currently there is no proclaimed marine reserve along the Namibian coast. For many years (1979 to 1993), Sandwich Harbour was the site of a protected area, which extended 1.6 km seaward of the low water mark. This area was proclaimed under the legislation of the then South West African Directorate of Agriculture and Nature Conservation (now incorporated into the MET). In the Sea Fisheries Act (29 of 1992), the MFMR claimed control of the marine environment up to the high water mark, and did not make provision for the protection of any marine areas, except from unlicensed vessels, recreational anglers, and commercial ski-boat anglers as described above. Commercial trawlers may thus currently operate off Sandwich Harbour. The MET's legislation concerning the 1.6 km protected area off Sandwich Harbour still stands, but this Ministry is powerless to enforce the observance of the area. Walvis Bay lagoon is Namibia's largest coastal wetland and is used by large numbers of wetland birds. It has been recognized as a Ramsar wetland of international importance, particularly for migratory birds, which merits special protection. As a signatory of the Ramsar Convention, Namibia has an international obligation to protect this site. Although the lagoon had the status of a reserve under South African legislation, this was lost on transfer of 115 ownership to Namibia in 1994. The 15 near shore islands in Namibian waters were also reserves under South Africa's jurisdiction, and are also currently unprotected as a consequence of transfer of ownership to Namibia. The proclamation of one or more true marine reserves, in which human activities, especially commercial harvesting of marine resources, are strictly prohibited, is a priority. There is a glaring imbalance between the portions of Namibian terrestrial and marine environments, which are protected. Protection of even small patches of ocean can have significant effects, since they can support source populations, which may enable repopulation of depleted areas outside the reserve. However, the dynamic and fluctuating nature of the Namibian marine system makes the selection of sites for possible marine reserves an intimidating task. From the point of view of protecting marine biodiversity a marine reserve could prove ineffectual because so large a proportion of the marine species are migratory or highly mobile. This applies especially to those species, which are commercially exploited, and most in need of protection. Resident species may benefit more by such protection, although resident coastal species already enjoy protection in the vast areas, which are inaccessible to anglers and to commercial line-fish boats. The conservation of marine biodiversity might more effectively be accomplished through the protection of spawning and nursery areas of the commercially exploited species. Since the sites of spawning grounds differ for different species, no single protected site would suffice. Spawning centers exist off the Skeleton Coast Park for commercially exploited species such as hake, round herring, horse mackerel, pilchard and anchovy. Protection, especially of the northern Skeleton Coast Park waters, would ensure that spawning in these species could occur. This would, however, provide no guarantee of egg or larval survival, nor of recruitment into the adult populations. Protected species A search for ‘Namibia’ and the ‘Southeast Atlantic’ area through the IUCN (www.iucn.org) species search resulted to 13 marine species, 9 of which are marine mammals, 3 sharks and 1 turtle. This search approach did not find seabirds, which should actually have been marked for the Southeast Atlantic as well. Table 2 contains 28 marine species, i.e. 13 marine mammals, 11 seabirds, 3 sharks and 1 turtle. A similar search for species listed in the UNEP-WCMC database for Namibia yielded 31 amphibians, 627 birds, 106 fishes, 232 invertebrates, 208 mammals, 216 reptiles, 7 orchids and 459 others. Here, again, habitats were not provided and we had to examine the list for the necessary distinction by habitat. This yielded 76 species listed in the CITES Appendices I-III ratified in February 13, 2003 and 6 more which are protected locally by the Namibian government. Of these, 38 are seabirds, 35 marine mammals, 5 turtles, 2 sharks, 1 lobster and 1 macro-alga. Namibian legislature protects all marine mammals, marine turtles and seabirds. This contrasts to the level of protection (and research) focused on invertebrates: the only invertebrate species protected is Jasus lalandii, Cape rock lobster which is an important fishery in Lüderitz on lobster pots and hoop nets (Bianchi et al. 1999). More than 33% of benthic invertebrate species are commercially exploited, however, none of them figure in the IUCN nor CITES nor receiving any specific protection from the Namibian government. 116 5. Capacity and Resources 5.1. Human capacity Biodiversity researcher Bronwen Currie Groups studied Invertebrates Andre Goosen Invertebrates Colette Grobler Invertebrates; Lobster Marine mammals Mike Griffin JP Roux Rob Simmons Marine Mammals; Sea Birds Sea Birds Institution Contact details Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR), Namibia Marine De Beers, Namibia MFMR [email protected] Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia (MET) MFMR [email protected] MET [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Benedict Dundee Sea Birds MFMR [email protected] John Bolton Seaweeds [email protected] Deon Louw Rudi Cloete Phytoplankton Zooplankton University of Cape Town, South Africa (UCT) MFMR MFMR [email protected] [email protected] Anja Kreiner Ichthyoplankton MFMR [email protected] Graca d’Almeida Peter Schneider Pelagic fishes MFMR [email protected] Demersal Fishes Crabs MFMR [email protected] MFMR [email protected] Fabian Haufiku 117 5.2. Insititutional capacity Institution Contact adres Nature of Collection National Museum of Namibia Windhoek Alushe Hitula [email protected] Approximately 2 825 species, 124 genera and 54 families. MFMR (National Marine Information and Research Centre (NatMIRC) – Swakopmund) NatMIRC Bronwen Currie [email protected] Intertidal and shallow benthic invertebra – about 300 specimens Very bad state. Not catalogued at all. Johnny Gamatham [email protected] ov.na Starting with fish and shrimp collections and identification Few samples of juvenile fish and shrimps for testing methods of preservation Andre Goosen andre.goosen@debeersgr oup.com Soft bottom benthos – 30 to 50 m deep core samples ? De Beers Marine 5.3. State of collection Primarily alcohol-preserved specimens, containing marine fishes mainly from Southern Africa. Documented in EXCEL. Biodiversity Resources Sources used by Palomares and Pauly: The list of commercial marine resources of Namibia by Bianchi et al. (1999) was used as a starting point. Branch et al. (1994) and Sakko (1998) supplied a considerable part of the marine invertebrate list. Birdlife International (2001; see www.birdlife.net) supplied almost all information on seabirds. Information on fish groups was inferred from FishBase (Internet version April 2003; see www.fishbase.org). CephBase (www.cephabase.org@) was used to supplement Bianchi et al. (1999), notably on common names, feeding and predator information for cephalopods. AlgaeBase (see www.algaebase.org), was used to supplement the list provided by Bianchi et al. (1999) of important algae present or potential use in Namibian marine waters. 118 The taxonomic list was expanded to include, when applicable, the names of the Order, Suborder, Infraorder, Super Family and Family to which the species belong. These higher hierarchy names were obtained largely through the ITIS Biological name search site (see http://sis.agr.gc.ca/pls/itisca/taxaget?p_ifx=cbif) accessible through the Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility (CBIF) (see http://www.cbif.gc.ca/home_e.php). The list of threatened species was obtained from the Internet version of the IUCN (2002 and 1994; see www.redlist.org) and the list of internationally protected species was obtained from CITES (www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html? and www.unep-wcmc.org/CITES/redirect.htm~main). 6. Conclusion lUCN's report on biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa (1990), states that “Namibia's living natural sources are generally well managed and tie pressures on its biodiversity are not too great at present”. Certainly, the marine environment of Namibia is largely free of the extreme levels of pollution, oceanic dumping, disturbance and increasing human urban pressures found in the marine systems of many developed countries. In addition, there have been no recorded extinctions of known marine species on a national scale, although the caveat remains that a large proportion of species remain undescribed. Yet there is little room for complacency. Over fishing is a major threat to African marine biodiversity and there is an urgent need for protection of marine and coastal habitats. Namibia's fish and crustacean stocks are renewable resources, which generate vital income for the country. Healthy stocks are essential for a healthy economy. In the past, social and economic reasons, rather than ecological considerations, motivated management decisions concerning total allowable catches of resources. This has led to the over fishing of some stocks and a need fur drastic measures to enhance their chances of recovery. As a consequence of tie crash of pilchard stocks in 1996, a moratorium was placed on pilchard catches for the subsequent season. The social and economic implications of such drastic recovery measures are no more palatable than cutbacks in the TAG. Ultimately, the cost of conserving biodiversity is far less than the penalty of allowing its degradation. The Namibian marine environment is remarkable in many ways. It is exceptionally productive, supporting abundant marine life, and its habitats are relatively pristine, without threat of significant habitat degradation. The hyper-arid Namib Desert makes major urban and agricultural pressures unlikely in the future. And lastly, the inherently variable nature of processes within the system perhaps make its biota somewhat resilient to the vicissitudes of human activities. These features make Namibia's marine environment immeasurably precious, and worthy of protection, judicious use and careful management, both now and in the future. Conclusions from Palomares and Pauly on Namibian marine biodiversity information include: • The first lesson was that online resources are presently still not sufficient to create acceptable marine biodiversity lists for developing countries such as Namibia, i.e., those attempting to create biodiversity lists to meet the requirement of the membership in the convention on biological diversity will generally have to rely on 119 published sources, in this case the key reference was the early work of Bianchi et al. (1999); • Second, confirming an experience already observed in the process of creating FishBase, we noted that it would be more straightforward for countries interested in creating marine biodiversity lists to team up regionally in the creation of regional or global lists by taxonomic groups as these can be more efficiently produced and their species subsequently assigned to countries than by working country by country. • Third, the major deficiency, the major need, in this context, is for the creation of global marine invertebrate databases, of which only one so far, ‘CephBase’, has a global coverage. 7. References Bianchi, G., Carpenter, K.E., Roux. J.P., Molloy, F.J., Boyer, D. and Boyer, H.J. 1999. Field guide to the living marine resources of Namibia. FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. FAO, Rome. 265 p. Birdlife International. 2001. Birdlife's online world bird database: the site for bird conservation. Version 1.0 Cambridge, UK: Birdlife International. Available: http://www.birdlife.net (accessed February 10, 2003). Branch, G.M. Griffiths, C.L., Branch M.L. and. Beckley, L.E. 1994. Two oceans. A guide to the marine life of Southern Africa. David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd. South Africa. 360 p. Lawson, G.W., Simons, R.H. and Isaac, W.E. 1990. The marine algal flora of Namibia. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Bot.) 20: 153-168. Belyanina, T.N. and T.N. Stejker 1988. Contribution to the studies of ichthyoplankton from the Benguela upwelling. Oceanology (MOSC>) 28:663-666. Best, P.B. and G.J.B. Ross. 1989. Whales and whaling, p. 315-338. In: A.I.L. Payne and R.J.M. Crawford (Eds.) Oceans of life off southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town. Bustamante, R.H., G.M. Branch, C.R. Velasquez and M. Branch. 1993. Intertidal survey of the rocky shores at the Elizabeth Bay area (Sperrgebiet, Namibia). Report to CDM (NAMDEB), 37 p. Carola, M. 1994. Checklist of the marine planktonic copepoda of southern Africa and their worldwide geographic distribution. South African Journal of Marine Science 14: 225253. Coleman, C.O. and A. Leistikow. 2001. Supralitoral talitrid Amphipoda and oniscid Isopoda (Crustacea) from the Southwest African coast. Org. Divers. Evol. 1, Electr. Suppl. 3:132. Engledow, H.R. 1998. The biogeography and biodiversity of the Namibian intertidal seaweed flora. Ph. D. Thesis. Botany Department. University of Cape Town. Gosner, K.L. 1979. A Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Houghton Mifflin Company. Griffiths, C.L. and M.J. Blaine. 1988. Distribution, population structure and biology of stomatopod crustacean off the west coast of South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 7: 45-50. 120 Jefferson, A. and Leatherwood, S 1993. Marine Mammals of the World: Species Identification Guide. Karaseva, E.M. and T.A. Shiganov. 1993. Species composition and seasonal abundance dynamics of ichthyoplankton over the shelf of Namibia in 1988-1989 [Vidovoj sostav i sezonnaya dinamika chislennosti ikhtioplanktona na shel'fe Namibii v 1988-1989]. Okeanologiya/Oceanology (MOSC.) 33(2): 242-247. Kruger, I. 1980. A checklist of southwest African marine phytoplankton, with some phytogeographical relations. Fisheries Bulletin of South Africa 13:31-53. Lambert, K. 2001. Sightings of new and rarely reported seabirds in Southern African waters. Marine Ornithology 29: 115-118. Lawson, G.W., R.H. Simons and W.E. Isaac. 1990. The marine algal flora of Namibia: its distribution and affinities. Bull. British Mus. (Nat. History) Bot. 20: 153-168. Macpherson, E. 1991. Biogeography and community structure of the decapod crustacean fauna off Namibia (Southeast Atlantic). J. Crust. Biol. 11(3): 401-415. Márquez M., R. 1990. FAO species catalogue. Vol.11: Sea turtles of the world. an annotated and illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Vol. 11. Rome, FAO. 81 p. Munilla, T. and J.H. Stock 1984. A new pycnogonida of the genus Pallenopsis off the Namibian coast (SE Atlantic). Result. Exped. Cient. 12:31-37. Nesis, K.N. 1991. Cephalopods of the Benguela upwelling off Namibia. Bull. Mar. Sci. 49(12):199-215. Nielson, J.G. 1990/ Ophidiidae, p. 564-573. In : J.D, Quero, J.C. Hureau, C. Karrer, A. Post and L. Saldanha (eds.) Checklist of the fishes of the eastern tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA) . JNICT, Lisbon; SEI, Paris; and UNESCO, Paris, Vol.2. Palomares, M.L.D. and D. Pauly, 2003. Biodiversity of the Namibian Exclusive Economic Zone: a brief review with emphasis on online databases. 1 For submission to U.R. Sumaila, S. I. Steinshamn, M.D. Skogen and D. Boyer (Editors) Ecological, economic and social aspects of Namibian fisheries. Peddemors, V.M. 1999. Delphinids of southern Africa: a review of their distribution, status and life history. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 1(2):157-165. Olivar, M.P. and Barange, M 1989. Vertical distribution of fish eggs and larvae in the northern Benguela region. Rapp. P. –V. Reun. CIEM. 191:454. Olivar, M.P., P. Rubies and J. Salat. 1991. Horizontal and vertical distribution patterns of ichthyoplankton under intense upwelling regimes off Namibia. South African Journal of Marine Science 12:71-82. Pillar , S.C., V. Stuart, M. Barange and M.J. Gibbons.1991. Community structure and trophic ecology of euphausids in the Benguela ecosystem. South African Journal of Marine Science 12:393-409. Rose, B. and A.I.L. Payne. 1991. Occurrence and behavior of the southern right whale dolphin s off Namibia. Marine Mammal Science 7(1): 25-34. Rull-Lluch, J. and A. Gomez-Garreta. 2001. Contribution to the seaweed flora of Namibia: new records of Chlorophyta and Phaeophyceae. Cryptogamie: Algologie 22(3): 297304. 121 Sakko, A. 1998. Biodiversity of marine habitats, p. 189-226. In: P. Barnard (ed.) Biological diversity in Namibia: a country study. Namibian National Biodiversity Task Force, Directorate of Environmental Affairs. Windhoek, Namibia. Senn, D.G. 2000. Knowledge-based value addition to Africa’s seaweeds. Henties Bay Coastal Resource Research Centre (http://www.unam.na/research/henties/valadd.htm). Skinner, J. D. and R.H.N. Smithers. 1990. The mammals of the Southern African subregion. University of Pretoria. Pretoria. Sparks, C.A.J., E. Buecher, A.S. Brierley, B. E. Axelsen, H. Boyer and M.J. Gibbons 2001. Observations on the distribution and relative-abundance of Chrysaora hysoscella (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) and Aequorea aequorea (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) in the northern Benguela ecosystem. Hydrobiologia 451: 275-286. 122 Table 1. Summary of data assembled in Appendix I for the Namibian EEZ ecosystem. @Data for all fish groups to be completed later. Functional group Seabirds Marine mammals Turtles Bathydemersal fishes Bathypelagic fishes Benthopelagic fishes Demersal fishes Pelagic fishes Reef-associated fishes Cephalopods Lobsters Crabs Shrimps and prawns Invertebrates: Ascidians Invertebrates: Brachiopods Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Cirripeds Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Amphipods Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Harpacticoids Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Isopods Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Mysids Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Stomatopods Invertebrates: Echinoderms Invertebrates: Hexacorals Invertebrates: Hydroids Invertebrates: Mollusks, Bivalves Invertebrates: Mollusks, Chitons Invertebrates: Mollusks, Gastropods Invertebrates: Polychaete worms Invertebrates: Pycnogonid Zooplankton: Crustaceans Zooplankton: Jellyfishes Primary producers: Macroalgae Primary producers: Phytoplankton, Diatoms Phytoplankton: Dinoflagellates Plankton: Protozoa Plankton: Bacteria Sub-total: Non-fish groups Number 58 35 5 97 160 102 111 70 12 66 10 43 48 2 1 3 14 2 20 1 1 5 1 7 11 4 37 31 1 10 7 41 26 7 3 1 501 Endemic Commercial 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 8 4 4 1 17 4 24 27 25 3 8 4 9 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 52 123 IUCN 11 13 1 CITES 38 35 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 80 0-200 m 0 16 5 200-1000 m 0 30 0 1000-4000 m 0 23 0 Pelagic 0 0 5 27 3 11 7 2 1 3 14 2 20 1 1 5 1 7 11 4 37 31 0 3 7 10 0 0 0 1 230 28 3 14 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 104 5 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 33 30 0 0 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 7 0 26 7 3 0 100 Dem National Report Marine biodiversity in South Africa – the known and the unknown Charles L. Griffiths, Zoology Department and Marine Biology Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa 1. Nature of the South African coastline Detailed descriptions of the South African coast, its biota and associated fisheries can be found elsewhere (e.g. Payne et al. 1989, Field and Griffiths 1991). The coastline is some 3100 km in length, very linear and wave exposed throughout. Other than this, it is one of the most variable of any nation comprising distinct west, south and east coast sections, each of which forms separate biogeographical provinces (Emanuel et al. 1992). The west coast or ‘Namaqua’ Province is dominated by the Benguela Current system. The coastal zone is arid, with very few significant rivers or estuarine systems, and supports a very low human population, involved largely in the fishing and mining sectors. The marine environment is cool-temperate in nature and characterized by intense upwelling, high primary productivity and the presence of large stocks of pelagic and demersal fish, rock lobster and other living marine resources. These form the basis of large industrial fisheries. The south coast, from Cape Town to approximately East London, forms a warm-temperate or ‘Agulhas’ Province. The climate here is more benign and supports a larger human population and an economy based largely on agriculture and tourism. There are many smaller estuaries, most of which are seasonally closed. The fishing industry is far less dominant, but there are significant inshore trawl, line-fishing, rock lobster and squid fisheries. The coast from East London northwards to the Mocambique border forms a subtropical ‘Natal’ Province. This region supports a high population density that includes both rural communities and dense urban ribbon development. There are many estuaries, including some larger systems. Very little large-scale commercial fishing activity occurs in this region, but recreational and subsistence fishing activity can be intense. 2. State of knowledge of marine biodiversity Gibbons et al. (1999) give a comprehensive review of the state of knowledge of the South African marine fauna and a summarised tabulation of their findings is presented in Table1. At the time of the article 11 130 marine faunal species were recorded from South Africa (clearly this figure increases with each new taxonomic publication), representing 5.45% of known global marine species. More significantly, more than 31% of species recorded (3 496 species overall), were endemic to the region. The seaweed flora is described by Bolton and Stegenga (2002), who report 803 described species. As a result of recent discoveries the current flora is has reached approximately 850 species (Bolton, pers. comm.). Percentage endemism is highest at over 50% on the west coast, but declines steadily to less than 20% in the east (note that this figure excludes phytoplankton, for which we have no reliable biodiversity data). In conclusion, the total number of confirmed marine species described from South Africa is in excess of 11 980. This figure is, of course, well below the real number of species, as some groups have never been studied in the region and the rate of discovery of new species, even within relatively well-researched groups, still remains high (see Gibbons et al. 1999 for further discussion). To give just two examples, it has been estimated that there may be 124 between1 000 and 10 000 free living species of Protista and as many as 1 000 species of Nematoda around South Africa, whereas only 400 Protista and 358 Nematoda have been described to date (Gibbons 2000). 3. Biogeographic distribution patterns The biogeographic distribution patterns of coastal fish, seaweeds and 11 groups of marine invertebrate around the South African coastline have been analysed. All studies used the same technique, in which the coast was divided into 50 or 100 km units and the numbers of species and rates of endemicity in each unit were compared. The data for fish (Turpie et al. 2000) indicate that species richness rises progressively from west to east, but that the numbers of endemics are greatest along the south coast. Given the low species richness along the west coast, however, the percentage of endemics is highest in this region. The invertebrate data shows remarkable variation between groups, not only in distribution pattern, but also in percentage endemicity. Some groups, such as the Bivalvia and Gastropoda, show an increase in species richness from west to east, but others, such as Amphipoda and Isopoda, show peak species richness in the temperate south-west. Rates of endemicity also vary widely from 84% in Isopoda to 19% in Echinodermata, but rates of endemicity are consistently highest along the south coast. The seaweed data of Bolton and Stegenga (2002) shows maximal species richness of about 250-300 species per 50 km section along the south coast and minima of about 140 species per section on the west coast, with the east coast intermediate at around 200 species per section. 4. Threats to biodiversity The effects of various human activities on the marine biota in the Benguela region have been comprehensively reviewed by Griffiths et al. (in press). The following account is thus brief and concentrates on expanding their analysis to include the south and east coasts of South Africa. a) Coastal development With the exception of some estuaries and those bays in which harbours have been developed, notably Saldanha Bay, Table Bay, Durban Bay and Richards Bay, development has had little impact on the marine biota. This is largely because of the small number of urban centers along the South African coastline and the exposed nature of the coast (which mitigates against the construction of engineering structures). b) Pollution This takes two main forms – catastrophic events, particularly in the form of shipping losses and consequent oil pollution, and the deliberate disposal of materials through outfalls. Catastrophic events are an ongoing threat, as this region lies on a major shipping route, and oil spills are a particular hazard to seabirds, such as African penguins. There are relatively few marine outfalls along the South African coastline and the impact of these is thought to be very localized. There is some justifiable concern as to the effects of storm water outfalls and plastics pollution, but overall it is thought that pollution has only minor effects on the biota as a whole, especially when compared to exploitation of resources (Griffiths et al. in press), as described below. c) Invasive marine alien species Griffiths (2000) lists 22 marine species known or suspected to have been introduced to South African waters. Five of these, all commercially cultured molluscs, were deliberately 125 introduced, but only one (the oyster Crassostrea gigas) has become naturalized and is found in several estuaries along the south coast (Robinson and Griffiths, unpublished data). Accidental introductions have been more common, but only two such species have become truly invasive in the region - the European shore crab Carcinus maenas (Linn.) and the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck . Carcinus maenas was first recorded from Table Bay Docks in 1983 (Joska and Branch 1986) and by 1990 had spread from Camps Bay to Saldanha Bay (Le Roux et al. 1990), a distance of some 100 km. No subsequent expansion has been noted; indeed the one record from Saldanha has not been followed by the establishment of a viable population. Notably all existing records are from wave-sheltered shores, suggesting that C. maenas has difficulty establishing populations on the exposed open coastline of South Africa. Although this species has not spread widely since its introduction more than 20 years ago there is grave concern that it could cause widespread damage if it established large populations in the sheltered waters of Saldanha Bay, which is both the center of mariculture activities in South Africa and the site of a major marine national park. Mytilus galloprovincialis was first recorded in South Africa by Grant et al. (1984), by which stage it had already established extensive populations along the west coast between Cape Point and Luderitz, in Namibia. By the early 1990's it had spread as far east as Port Alfred, in the south eastern Cape, and was the dominant intertidal organism along the entire west coast, with an estimated biomass of some 194 t wet mass/km of rocky coast (van Erkom Schurink and Griffiths 1990). The main ecological effects of the invasion have been to increase the standing stock and vertical extent of mussel beds in the region. This has led to the displacement of other primary space occupying species, particularly the limpet Scutellastra angenvillei. The invasion has also increased habitat availability for infaunal species and increased the amount and availability of food for predatory species, notably oystercatchers (Griffiths 2000). There are proposals for the establishment of a small-scale commercial fishery for the species (Robinson and Griffiths, unpublished). d) Exploitation of resources There can be little doubt that direct exploitation has been the most dramatic human impact on the marine biota of South Africa. Despite this, no marine species has been recorded as having been driven to extinction in the region (reports of the probable extinction of estuarine pipefish in the Eastern Cape by Whitfield and Bruton 1996 have subsequently been found to be in error). The impacts of direct exploitation have, however, included dramatic declines in the populations of some targeted species. For example, Southern Right Whales were estimated to have been reduced from 20 000 individuals to as few as 35-68 mature females in the 1930’s, but have now recovered to over 3 000 individuals (Griffiths et al. in press). Similarly the populations of a number of important linefish species have been reduced to a point where population size and catch per unit effort are less than 10% of pristine value (Griffiths 2000). Amongst invertebrates, populations of rock lobster and abalone are greatly reduced from historical values, as are those of mussels in some areas (Griffiths and Branch 1997, Griffiths et al. in press). The ecosystem effects of this high level of exploitation have received little attention, despite the fact that some 50 million tons of biomass has been extracted from the region over the past 200 years (over 1 million tons per annum in the 1960’s and 1970’s, declining to approximately 0.6 million tons per annum at present, Griffiths et al. in press). In the intertidal zone, removal of mussels and other edible species has been shown to result in a 126 community dominated by algae and inedible invertebrates (Griffiths and Branch 1997). Equivalent studies of the effects of fishing on ecosystem structure and function in the wider marine environment are still in their infancy and the effects, specifically on biodiversity, have not been investigated. 5. Conservation areas The development of a network of marine protected areas around the South African coast began long after that of terrestrial reserves, as has been the pattern worldwide. Indeed the first such reserve, the Tsitsikamma National Park, was only established in 1964. Perhaps surprisingly, South Africa currently has more than 112 marine protected areas, which together make up 17% of the coastline (Robinson and de Graaf 1994). This might seem a more than adequate coverage, but unfortunately most of the existing reserves are either extremely small in size, still permit angling or other exploitative activities, or protect only selected species (for example, some are simply abalone or rock lobster sanctuaries). Many are also very poorly policed. As a result there are in reality only a handful of large, no-take reserves that provide effective protection for significant areas of coastline. These also need be distributed in such a way that they protect the rich diversity of the South African coast, which incorporates at least three distinct bio-geographical regions: a subtropical east coast, a warm-temperate south coast and a cool-temperate west coast region – each of which harbours very distinct communities of both plants and animals. At present the subtropical east coast is relatively well protected by the St Lucia and Maputaland reserves and the warm-temperate south coast by the Tsitsikamma and De Hoop reserves. The cold west coast is less well catered for, with a single large reserve, the West Coast National Park. However this situation is due to improve with the soon-to-be-declared Cape Peninsula and Namaqualand marine reserves about to come on line. 6. Museum collections The main taxonomic collections held by natural history museums and marine research organizations in South Africa are listed in Table 2. The largest general collection of marine specimens is that of the Iziko Museums (formerly the South African Museum) in Cape Town. This collection, which dates back over 150 years, incorporates the holotypes of many marine invertebrate species described in South Africa over that period. The main collection of non-cephalopod molluscs is housed at the Natal Museum and the National Fish Collection (both marine and freshwater) at the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (formerly JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology) in Grahamstown. The largest marine mammal collection, and those of otoliths and squid beaks, is at the Port Elizabeth Museum. 7. Taxonomic capacity The history of marine invertebrate systematics in South Africa has been reviewed by Brown (1999), that of marine malacology by Kilburn (1999), that of crustacean systematics by Griffiths (1999) and that of seaweed systematics by Bolton (1999). The patterns in most groups are similar, early research being carried out mainly by overseas specialists who obtained much of their material from the great marine exploratory expeditions of the 19th century. The early 20th century saw the appointment of the first resident marine specialists, most notably Keppel Barnard, whose 200 publications span an astounding range of taxa and who provided the inspiration and groundwork on which many later workers were able to develop. Subsequent major contributions by South African authors who are no longer active, 127 or who have left the country, include those of JH Day (polychaetes), Millard (hydroids), Kensley (isopods), Gosliner (nudibranchs), Kilburn (molluscs), Smith (fish) and Simons, Papenfuss and Norris (seaweeds). The presently active marine taxonomists in South Africa, their areas of expertise and contact details are listed in Table 3 (zoologists) and Table 4 (botanists). Although the length and coverage of these lists is quite gratifying, many of the researchers listed are either recently retired, or close to retirement age. Also many of the remaining younger workers are either postgraduate students, who are hence undertaking short-term thesis-based projects, or occupy temporary postdoctoral positions. Indeed the few who do have permanent positions are mostly at universities, where their job descriptions do not oblige them to undertake taxonomic work. Only five of the animal workers listed are permanently employed as systematists, of whom three work on fish and two on molluscs (not a single person is professionally employed to undertake taxonomic work on any of the other invertebrate groups). A similar situation pertains with the algal specialists, whose positions are mostly temporary, or include only a limited component of taxonomic work. It is thus essential for the future development of marine taxonomy in South Africa that permanent positions are found for the workers currently undergoing training, or else the capacity they have developed is likely to be lost or exported. 8. Literature resources The principal identification resources used by South African marine taxonomists and ecologists are listed in Appendix 1. Relative to other southern nations, the region is relatively well-resourced in terms of both more general ‘field guides’ and specialist identification guides to specific taxa. In the present context the general field guides are of limited value, since they treat only the more common species within groups. Comprehensive identification guides do, however, exist to South African birds, fish, molluscs, seaweeds, some cnidarian groups, polychaetes, amphipods, isopods, shrimps and prawns, echinoderms and ascidians. Unfortunately, some of these publications are long out of print and many others have become severely dated by subsequent discoveries and/or taxonomic revisions. There thus remains a critical need for: - The production of user-friendly regional guides to important taxa for which no comprehensive resources presently exist (most importantly Porifera, Nematoda,, Copepoda, Bryozoa). - Revision of guides which are now outdated, for example those to Polychaeta (1967), Amphipoda (1976) and Echinodermata (1976). - Taxonomic research into the numerous (usually ‘minor’) groups for which little or no local taxonomic data presently exists (for detailed listing of group not yet worked on see Gibbons et al. 1999) The most effective way of achieving these aims would be to establish a comprehensive, webbased marine identification guide. This route offers numerous advantages over traditional print media, most notably much lower cost, wider accessibility, greater capacity to include photographs and/or electronic keys to species, but most importantly the ability to continuously update and enhance the database as new information becomes available. Such a system could be started using existing guides and then gradually enhanced and expanded until comprehensive coverage is achieved. The system could, moreover, be expanded to cover wider geographical regions (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa). 128 9. References Awad, A, Griffiths, C.L. and Turpie, J.K. 2002. Distribution of South African marine benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas. Diversity and Distributions 8: 129-145. Bolton, J.J. 1999. Seaweed systematics and biodiversity in South Africa: an historical account. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 167-177. Bolton, J.J. and Stegenga, H. 2002. Seaweed species diversity in South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 24: 9-18. Brown, A.C. 1999. Marine invertebrate systematics and biodiversity in Southern Africa; an historical overview. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 21-30. Field, J.G. and Griffiths, C.L. 1991. Littoral and sublittoral ecosystems of southern Africa. In: Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems. P.H. Niehuis & A.C. Mathieson (Eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam. pp 323-346. Gibbons, M.J. et al. 1999. The taxonomic richness of South Africa’s marine fauna: a crisis at hand. South African Journal of Science 95: 8-12 Gibbons, M.J. 2000. Protista and Animalia. In: Summary Marine Biodiversity Status Report for South Africa. B.D. Durham and J.C. Pauw (eds). National Research Foundation Pretoria, pp 32-40. Grant, W.S., Cherry, M.I. and Lombard, A.T. 1994. A cryptic species of Mytilus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) on the west coast of South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 2: 149-162. Griffiths, C.L. and Branch, G.M. 1997. The exploitation of coastal invertebrates and seaweeds in South Africa: trends, ecological impacts and implications for management. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 52: 121-148 Griffiths, C.L. 1999. Crustacean systematics in South Africa- status and historical overview. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 53-52. Griffiths, C.L. 2000. Overview of current problems and future risks. In: Best management Practices for Preventing and Controlling Invasive Alien Species. G. Preston, G. Brown & E. van Wyk (Eds). The Working for Water Programme, Cape Town pp 235-240. Griffiths, C.L. et al. (17 authors). Human impacts on marine animal life in the Benguela – a historical overview. Oceanogr. Mar Biol. Ann. Rev. (in press) Griffiths, M.J. 2000. Long-term trends in catch and effort of commercial linefish off South Africa’s Cape Province: snapshots of the 20th century. South African Journal of Marine Science 22: 81-110. Josca, M.A.P. and Branch, G.M. 1986. The European shore crab - another alien invader? African Wildlife 40: 63-65. Kilburn, R.N. 1999. A brief history of marine malacology in South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 31-41. Le Roux, J.P., Branch, G.M. and Joska, M.A.P. 1990. On the distribution, diet and possible impact of the invasive European shore crab Carcinus maenas (L.) along the South African coast. South African Journal of Marine Science 9: 85-93. Payne A.I.L., Crawford, R.J.M. and Van Dalsen, A.P. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.380pp. Robinson, G.A. and de Graaf, G. 1994. Marine protected areas of the Republic of South Africa. Council for the Environment, IUCN 202pp. Turpie, J.K., Beckley, L.E. and Katua, S.M. 2000. Biogeography and the selection of priority areas for the conservation of South African coastal fishes. Biological Conservation 92: 50-72. Van Erkom Schurink,,C. and Griffiths,,C.L. 1990. Marine mussels in South Africa - their distribution patterns, standing stocks, exploitation and culture. Journal of Shellfisheries Research 9: 75-85. 129 Whitfield, A.K., Bruton, M.N. 1996. Extinction of the river pipefish Syngnathus watermeyeri in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 92: 59-60. 130 Table 1. Review of the state of knowledge of the South African marine fauna (after Gibbons et al. 1999). Phylum Placozoa Porifera Cnidaria Ctenophora Nematoda Platyhelminthes Rotifera Tardigrada Gastrotricha Kinorhyncha Gnathostomula Annelida Mollusca Crustacea Chelicerata Brachiopoda Bryozoa Echinodermata Echiura Priapula Entoprocta Loricifera Sipuncula Pogonophora Phorona Chaetognatha Nemertea Hemichordata Chordata Total Number Number SA species SA endemics 0 0 289 10 842 238 11 0 338 30 28 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 766 161 3062 1592 2333 719 115 57 31 15 280 99 410 187 21 1 1 0 6 0 0 0 47 0 1 1 0 0 28 0 17 5 11 2 2492 362 11130 3496 131 Percentage SA endemism 0 3 28 0 9 61 0 0 0 0 0 21 52 31 50 48 35 46 5 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 29 18 15 Average = 31% Table 2. Principal marine natural history collections held by South African institutions, including taxa held and contact details of collection managers. Institution and city Iziko Museum, Cape Town South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg East London Museum Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban Port Elizabeth Museum Transvaal Museum, Pretoria Bolus Herbarium Cape Town Selmar Schonland Herbarium, Rhodes University Grahamstown Natal University Herbarium Pietermaritzburg Main groups held and approximate collection sizes Molluscs: 40 000 Cephalopods: 4 500 Other invertebrates: 20 000-30 000 Sharks: 1 600 Fish: >30 000 Marine Mammals: 1 500 Fish: ca. 50 000 lots with 530 000 specimens Comment Contact person and email Main national collections of marine invertebrates except molluscs (see below) Ms Elizabeth Hoenson [email protected] Main national collections of marine and freshwater fish Dr Eric Anderson [email protected] Mollusca: (excluding Cephalopoda): 70 000 lots Mollusca: ca 16 000 Other invertebrates: >1 000 Porifera: 275 Corals: ca 1 000 Other <100 Marine mammals: 3 055 Fish otoliths: 19 146 Squid beaks: 1 354 Crabs: ca 300 Other invertebrates: <100 Seaweeds: 27 000 Largest collection of South African molluscs Dr Dai Herbert [email protected] Mostly local Eastern Cape material Mary Bursey [email protected] Mostly from local coral reef surveys Alke Kruger [email protected] Main local marine mammal and otolith/beak collections Gill Watson [email protected] Small collection from W Cape and KZN Klaas Manamela [email protected] Mainly South and west coasts Seaweeds: ca. 32 000 South African Terry Trinder-Smith [email protected] Tony Dold T. [email protected] Seaweeds: ca. 12 000 Mainly from KwaZulu-Natal 132 Prof. Trevor Edwards [email protected] or Christina Potgieter [email protected] Table 3. List of marine faunal taxonomists active in South Africa (as of 2003), with taxa worked on, contact addresses and employment status. Researchers who have published on South African taxa, but are resident outside the country, are not included. Taxonomic group Foraminifera Porifera Cnidaria: Hydromedusae Nematoda Researcher Institution and email Status Ms Rashieda Toefy Dr Toefiek Samaai University of the Western Cape [email protected] University of Durban-Westville [email protected] University of the Western Cape [email protected] [email protected] University of the Western Cape [email protected] University of the Western Cape [email protected] Permanent staff University of the Western Cape [email protected] Natal Museum [email protected] Iziko Museums, Cape Town [email protected] University of Cape Town [email protected] University of Cape Town [email protected] University of Port Elizabeth [email protected] University of the Western Cape [email protected] University of Durban-Westville [email protected] University of Durban-Westville [email protected] Iziko Museums, Cape Town [email protected] South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Postgraduate student Dr Emanuelle Buecher Prof Mark Gibbons Mr Martin Hendricks Platyhelminthes: Monogean fish parasites Polychaeta Dr Kevin Christison Mollusca Gastropoda Mollusca Cephalopoda Crustacea: Fish parasites Crustacea: Amphipoda Crustacea: Mysidacea Bryozoa Ms Tshifhiwa Namgammi Ms Martina Roeleveld Dr Nico Smit Echinodermata: Holothuroidea Sipunculida Prof Achmed Thandar Dr R Biseswar Pisces: Chondrichthyes Pisces: Osteichthyes Dr Leonard Compagno Dr Phil Heemstra Myctophidae Mr Dylan Clarke Prof Charles Griffiths Prof Tris Wooldridge Mr Wayne Florence Dr Eric Anderson Mr Ofer Gon Dr Butch Hulley 133 Permanent staff Postdoc Permanent staff Permanent staff Postdoc Permanent staff Permanent staff Postdoc Permanent staff Permanent staff Postgraduate student Recently retired but active Recently retired but active Permanent staff Recently retired but still active Permanent staff Permanent staff Retired, still active Table 4: Algal systematists active in South Africa, with their areas of interest and employment status (adapted from a compilation by J. Bolton). Researcher Richard Pienaar [email protected] Grant Pitcher [email protected] Stuart Sym [email protected] Linda Joyce [email protected] Carlos Ruiz [email protected] Claudio Marangoni [email protected] Lizeth Botes [email protected] Research Area All marine phytoplankton, with special interests in Prymnesiophyta, Dinophyta, Chlorophyta, Chrysophyta and Cryptophyta and those implicated in harmful algal blooms All phytoplankton, particularly those that are involved in harmful algal blooms All groups of marine microalgae, but with special interests in prasinophytes (green algae) and Prymnesiophyta Interests in Dinophyta, particularly cysts Harmful microalgae All marine microalgae, specializing in Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyta Dinophyta Employment status Deputy Vice Chancellor, University of the Witwatersrand Marine and Coastal Management, Cape Town Senior Lecturer, School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand Postdoctoral Fellow, MCM, Cape Town PhD student, University of Cape Town & MCM Associate Researcher and PhD student, University of the Witwatersrand Just completed PhD, MCM, Cape Town John Bolton [email protected] Seaweeds Associate Professor, UCT Rob Anderson [email protected] Seaweeds MCM, Cape Town Enrico Tronchin [email protected] Red seaweeds (Gelidiaceae) PhD student, UCT Gavin Maneveldt [email protected] Coralline red algae Neil Griffin [email protected] Porphyra Contract lecturer, University of the Western Cape PhD student at UCT; contact post at UWC currently 134 APPENDIX 1 Key references used for the identification of South African marine biota GENERAL WORKS BRANCH, G. and BRANCH, M. 1981. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. C. Struik, Cape Town. 272pp. DAY, J.H. 1974. A Guide to Marine Life of South African Shores. A.A. Balkema, Cape Town. 272pp. (out of print). GRIFFITHS, C., GRIFFITHS, R. and THORPE, D. 1988. Seashore Life. Struik Pocket Guide Series, Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 64pp. (out of print) LUBKE, R.A., and DE MOOR, I. 1998. Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern Cape Coasts. University of Cape Town Press, Cape Town. 559pp. McNAE, W. and KALK, M. 1995. A Natural History of Inhaca Island, Moçambique. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg. (3rd ed). 395pp. PAYNE, A.I.L., CRAWFORD, R.J.M. and VAN DALSEN, A. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town. 380pp. RICHMOND, M.D. 1997. A Guide to the Seashore of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. SIDA, Dept for Research Cooperation, SAREL. 448pp. GROUP IDENTIFICATION GUIDES Porifera SAMAAI, T. and GIBBONS, M.J. 2004. Desmospongiae taxonomy and biodiversity of the Benguela region on the west coast of South Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. (in press). Cnidaria CARLGREN, O. 1938. South African Actinaria and Zoantheria. Kungl. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl. (Series 3) 17(3):1-148. KRAMP, P.L. 1961. Synopsis of the medusae of the world. J .Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 40:1469. MILLARD, N.A.H. 1975. Monograph on the Hydroida of southern Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 68:1-513. PAGÈS, S., GILI, J.M. and BOUILLIN, J. 1992. Planktonic cnidarians of the Benguela Current. Scientia Marina 56 (Suppl.1):1-144. VERON, J.E.N. 1986. Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Angus and Robertson, North Ryde, Australia. 644pp. WILLIAMS, G.C. 1990. The Pennatulacea of southern Africa (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 99:31-119. WILLIAMS, G.C. 1992. The Alcyonacea of southern Africa. Stoloniferous octocorals and soft corals (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100:249-358. WILLIAMS, G.C. 1992. The Alcyonacea of southern Africa. Gorgonian octocorals (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 101:181-296. WILLIAMS, G.C. 1993. Coral Reef Octocorals. An illustrated Guide to the Soft Corals, Sea Fans and Sea Pens Inhabiting the Coral Reefs of Northern Natal. Durban Natural Science Museum, Durban. 64pp. Unsegmented Worms WESENBERG-LUND, E.1963. South African sipunculids and echiurids from coastal waters. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturh. Foren. 126:101-146. Polychaeta 135 DAY, J.H. 1967. A Monograph on the Polychaeta of Southern Africa. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. 878pp. (out of print) Pycnogonida BARNARD, K.H. 1954. South African Pycnogonida. Ann. S. Afr.Mus. 41:81-159. Crustacea BARNARD, K.H. 1950. Descriptive catalogue of South African decapod Crustacea (crabs and shrimps) Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38:1-837. BARNARD, K.H. 1950. Descriptive list of South African stomatopod Crustacea (mantis shrimps) Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38:838-864. BERRY, P.F. 1971. The spiny lobsters (Palinuridae) of the East Coast of southern Africa: distribution and ecological notes. Investl. Rep. Ocean. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 27:1-23. BODEN, B.P. 1954. The euphausiid crustaceans of southern African waters. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 34:181-234. DAY, J.A. 1975-80. South African Cumacea, parts I-IV. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 66:177-220; 75:159-290: 76:137-189; 82:187-292. DEBELIUS, H. 1999. Crustacea- Guide of the World. IKAN-Unterwasserarchiv, Frankfurt. 321pp. DE FREITAS, A.T. 1985. The Penaeoidea of southern Africa 1. The study area and key to the southern African species. Investl. Rep. Ocean. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 56:1-31. GRIFFITHS, C.L. 1976. Guide to the Benthic Marine Amphipods of Southern Africa. South African Museum, Cape Town. 106pp. KENSLEY, B. 1972. Shrimps and Prawns of Southern Africa. South African Museum, Cape Town. 65pp. KENSLEY, B. 1978. Guide to the Marine Isopods of Southern Africa. South African Museum, Cape Town. 173pp. Brachiopoda HILLER, N. 1991. The southern African recent brachiopod fauna. In: Brachiopods through Time (Eds. D.I.McKinnon, D.E.Lee and J.D.Campbell), pp.439-445. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. JACKSON, J.W. 1952. A revision of some South African Brachiopoda, with descriptions of new species. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 41:1-40. Mollusca AUGUSTYN, C.J. and SMALE, M.J. 1989. Cephalopods. In: Oceans of Life off Southern Africa (Eds. A.I.L. Payne, R.J.M. Crawford and A.P. van Dalsen), pp. 91-104. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town. GOSLINER, T. 1987. Nudibranchs of Southern Africa- A Guide to Opisthobranch Molluscs of Southern Africa. Sea Challengers, Monterey. 136pp. KAAS, P. and VAN BELLE, R.A. 1985-1991. Monograph of Living Chitons (in 4 volumes). E.J.Brill. KILBURN, R. and RIPPEY, E. 1982. Sea Shells of Southern Africa. Macmillan South Africa, Johannesburg. 249pp. (out of print0 LILTVED, W.R. 1989. Cowries and Their Relatives of Southern Africa. A Study of the Southern African Cypraeacean and Velutinacean Gastropod Fauna. Gordon Verhoef, Seacomber Publications. 208pp. NORMAN, M. 2000. Cephalopods- a World Guide. Conchbooks, Hackenheim. 318pp. ROELEVELD, M.A. 1972. A review of the Sepiidae (Cephalopoda) of southern Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 59:193-313. 136 Echinodermata BALINSKY, J.B. 1957. The Ophiuroidea of Inhaca Island. Ann. Natal Mus. 14:1-33. CLARK, A.M. and COURTMAN-STOCK, J. 1976. The Echinoderms of Southern Africa. British Museum (Natural History), London. 277pp. THANDAR, A.S. 1989. The sclerodactylid holothurians of southern Africa, with erection of one new subfamily and two new genera (Echinodermata:Holothuroidea). S. Afr. J. Zool. 24:290-304. THANDAR, A.S. 1990. The phyllophorid holothurians of southern Africa with the erection of a new genus. S. Afr. J. Zool. 25:207-223. Ascidiacea MONNIOT, C., MONNIOT, F., GRIFFITHS, C.L. and SCHLEYER, M. 2001. South African Ascidians. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 108:1-141. Fishes COMPAGNO, L.J.V., EBERT, D.A. and SMALE, M.J. 1989. Guide to the Sharks and Rays of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 160pp. SMITH, M.M. and HEEMSTRA, P.C. (Eds.) 1988. Smith’s Sea Fishes. Southern Book Publishers, Johannesburg. 1048pp. VAN DER ELST, R. 1988. A Guide to the Common Sea Fishes of Southern Africa (2nd ed). Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 398pp. VAN DER ELST, R. 1990. Everyone’s Guide to Sea Fishes of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 112pp. Birds GINN, P.J., McIlleron, W.G. and MILSTEIN, P. le S. 1989. The Complete Book of Southern African Birds. Struik Winchester, Cape Town. 760pp. NEWMAN, K. 2002. Newman’s Birds of Southern Africa. 8th Ed. Struik, Cape Town. 512pp. MACLEAN, G.L. 1993. Robert’s Birds of South Africa. 6th Ed. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town. 871pp. SINCLAIR, J.C., HOCKEY, P.A.R. and TARBOTON, W. 2002. Sasol Birds of Southern Africa. 3rd Ed. Struik, Cape Town. 447pp. Reptiles and Mammals BRANCH, W.R. 1998. Marine Reptiles. In: Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern Cape Coast. (Eds. R. Lubke and I. de Moor). University of Cape Town Press. pp.156-159. COCKCROFT, V.G. 1998. Marine Mammals. In: Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern Cape Coast. (Eds. R. Lubke and I. de Moor). University of Cape Town Press. pp.160-169. SKINNER, J.D. and SMITHERS, R.H.N. 1990. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria. 771pp. Seaweeds SEAGRIEF, S.C. 1967. The Seaweeds of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. National Parks Board, Pretoria. 147pp. SEAGRIEF, S.C. 1980. Seaweeds of Maputaland. In: Studies of the Ecology of Maputaland (eds. M.N.Bruton and K.H.Cooper), pp18-41. Wildlife Society of Southern Africa, Durban. SIMONS, R.H. 1976. Seaweeds of southern Africa: guidelines for their study and identification. Fish. Bull. S. Afr. 7:1-113. STEGENGA, H., BOLTON, J. and ANDERSON, R. 1997. Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Contrib. Bolus Herbarium 18:1-655. 137 National Report Marine biodiversity in Mozambique – the known and the unknown António Mubango Hoguane1 and Marcos A M Pereira2 Department of Physics, Eduardo Mondlane University, P.O. Box 257, Maputo, Mozambique 2 Centro Terra Viva - Estudos e Advocacia Ambiental, P.O. Box 2046, Maputo, Mozambique 1 Abstract The Mozambique coastline is about 2700 km long and is has relatively pristine and highly diverse ecosystems. The major ecosystems include mangroves, estuaries, seagrass beds, coral reefs and wetlands that support a diversity of species. Mozambique posses nine out of twenty-one sites of recognised ecologically importance in the Eastern Africa region, according to the WWF classification. The marine and coastal habitats of Mozambique hosts endangered species such as dugongs, marine turtles, marine mammals and migratory birds. The coastal and marine ecosystems sustain natural resources that underpin the economy of the country and are the means of subsistence for coastal communities. About 40% of the population of Mozambique live in coastal zone and obtain their living from natural resources. The major threats to the biological diversity in Mozambique are natural as well as anthropogenic in nature. Natural factors include extreme floods and draughts, cyclones and El-ñino events. Anthropogenic factors include the obstruction and alteration of natural river flow, overexploitation of the natural resources, destruction and modification of habitats due to inadequate land use planning and to use of inadequate harvesting techniques. Cyclones often cause the siltation of seagrasses and of corals. Extreme floods and droughts place stress on the estuarine and coastal ecosystems. The demand for alleviation of poverty, coupled with the population growth, increases pressure on natural resources and associated ecosystems, leading to a decline in biodiversity. The most overexploited resources are the fisheries and mangroves. 1. Introduction 1.1 Location and general description of coastal environment Mozambique is located on the southeastern coast of Africa between latitudes 10o20’S and 26o50’S (Figure 1). It has a total area of about 799 390 km2, of which about 4500 km2 is maritime area. The shelf area up to 200 m depth comprises 104 km2. The Mozambican coastline is about 2700 km in length and is characterised by a wide diversity of habitats including sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, mangroves and seagrass beds (Figure 2). The coastal zone from Ponta do Ouro in the south to latitude 16° S immediately north of Angoche is composed of unconsolidated Quaternary to recent sediments, mostly sand dunes and sandy plains, but interspersed with heavier textured soils (alluviums) at the larger river mouths. At latitude 16° S and at Macambo, Nacala and Memba bay areas, Tertiary basalt 138 occurs. From Angoche northwards heavily faulted Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments line the coast (Figure 2). Figure 1. Location map of Mozambique. The sedimentary deposits occupy two distinct basins separated by the large area of crystalline rocks of the Mozambique Belt (Precambrian). The southern basin, corresponding largely to the present wide Mozambique plain, extends from the Maputo River to just north of the Zambezi River. The Rovuma Basin occupies a narrow coastal belt of Nampula Province becoming larger northwards from the Lurio to Rovuma Rivers, in the Cabo Delgado Province. The NorthMozambique basin constitutes a mesa-Cenozoic sedimentary succession with an age ranging between the Lower Cretaceous and Mio-Pliocene (Kairu and Nyandwi, 1997). The morphology of the coastal area is characterised by lowlands, rising inland to an altitude of approximately 200 m above sea level. The coastline is characterised by beaches, recent dunes and inland lagoons in the south; by mangroves, swampy depressions and a series of low beach ridges in the center; and mangroves, small dunes alternating with cliffs in the north (Figure 2). The climate of Mozambique is tropical and humid, with two seasons: a dry winter season and wet summer season. The climate in the region north of the Zambezi river is under the influence of the equatorial low pressure zone with a NE monsoon prevailing during the warm season. The climate south of Zambezi river is influenced by the subtropical anti-cyclonic zone. North Sofala along the Zambezi river lies in a transitional zone with high rainfall (Sætre and Silva, 1979). 139 The winds in the northern part of Mozambique are influenced by the monsoon system, with NE winds prevailing during the southern summer and SW winds during the southern winter. Central and southern Mozambique are dominated by the SE trade winds. The average annual precipitation is about 1200 mm. The rainfall is mainly restricted to the warm season November to April. According to the classification of Köppen, the northern (Cabo Delgado, Niassa, Nampula and Zambezia) and coastal region have a tropical rain savannah climate. Ocean currents, particularly the warm Mozambique Current, may influence the rainfall. Mozambique has over 100 rivers, the major ones being the Rovuma, Lúrio and Zambezi in the north, Pungué, Buzi, Gorongosa and Save in the centre and Limpopo, Incomati and Maputo in the south. These rivers drain about 208 km3 of nutrient rich water into the coastal waters each year. About 80% of this water enters the ocean in the vicinity of the Sofala Banks, central Mozambique. The Zambezi river, the largest river in eastern Africa, contributes approximately 67% of the total river discharge from Mozambique (Sætre and Jorge da Silva, 1982). The tidal range is about 2 m in the south, 3.1 m in the north and about 6.4 in centre. The higher range in the centre is related to the effects of the narrowing Mozambique Channel in this region. Flood tides entering the Mozambique Channel from the south would, due to Coriolis, induce an increment in the tidal range on the adjacent Mozambican coast. 1.2 Demography The current population of Mozambique is estimated at more than 17.2 million. It is expected to grow at an annual rate of 2.5%. About two-thirds of the Mozambican population lives in the coastal zone, mainly as a result of the war when people migrated to safer areas (UNCED, 1992). Other reasons which attract people to the coastal zone are related to the easier access to food and employment. The average population density in the coastal area is about 120 people per km2, against overall population density of 2 people per km2. 1.3 Coastal and marine resources use Fisheries The fisheries resources are mostly located in two major shelf areas: the Sofala Bank in the center and Delagoa Bight in the south (and associated bays). The major resources include shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank, deep-water crustaceans on the slope, scad and mackerel on Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight, and demersal fish in the southern and northern regions. In the coastal region there are large artisanal fisheries that harvest both fish and molluscs and form the basis of subsistence for many local populations. The fisheries sector employs between 50,000 to 60,000 people, and its contribution to the economy is substantial, representing about 40% of the country’s total export earnings. The estimated potential of fish in Mozambique is about 310 000 tons. Recorded marine fish landings were about 80 000 tons in 1980 and about 120 000 tons in 1992. The artisanal and semi-industrial sectors contribute with more than 50% of the total fish catches. The most valuable fishery resource is the shallow water shrimp and its associated bycatch, deep-water shrimp, scad and mackerel (Table 1). These resources represented about 54% of total exports in 1993. The shallow water shrimp resource alone contributed by about US$20 million in 197980. 140 Figure 2. Coastal environments. Dashed line represents the 200 m depth. The current production of shallow water shrimp is about 7000 tons per year. Despite the restrictions placed on fishing effort, shallow water shrimps show signs of overexploitation, especially on the Sofala Bank where most of this resource is located. Environmental factors such as artificial restrictions on the Zambezi flow regime brought by the Cahora Bassa dam may be contributing to the reduction in the availability of shrimps on the Sofala Bank (Figure 3) (Hoguane, 1997). Other resources that are overexploited are those located in the Bays of Maputo and Inhambane. The government policy is to encourage the fishing of other resources outside the traditional fishing area. Scad and mackerel production stopped in 1990 due to the fall of the major fishing company jointly owned by Mozambique and former Soviet Union government. This means that the resource is underexploited and available for new fishing licenses to be issued. 141 Table 1. Fish catches (tons) according to type fishery type (Source: DAP, 1996). Fishery type 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total Shallow w. shrimp Deep water shrimp Demersal fish Deep water lobster By-catch (S. shrimp) By-catch (D. shrimp) Crabs Prawns Squid Octopus Tuna Marlin Sharks Rock lobster Other crustaceans SEMI-INDUSTRIAL FISHERIES 24951 7575 2412 12524 255 1689 21 381 46 49 25284 7513 2285 13416 136 1258 26 336 224 89 26735 7328 3726 13701 170 930 148 259 231 91 152 21585 5724 3154 10361 163 753 30 135 167 64 1033 23912 5957 2841 8276 237 780 190 207 57 5367 19050 7050 2350 7757 203 720 168 257 341 86 119 22701 6338 1652 5391 247 369 332 156 186 7338 19 12522 6698 1833 1756 292 741 260 309 443 140 51 17690 6321 2250 3341 294 603 262 328 261 36 3914 30 177217 7344 1770 2604 208 623 266 311 179 60 3347 29 312 165 16281 7043 1771 2503 7 1150 202 190 132 35 2461 36 358 21 194 178 Total Shallow w. shrimp Demersal fish By-catch (S. shrimp) Crabs Squid Fresh water fish Other fish ARTISANAL FISHERIES 381 48 223 110 385 58 223 104 342 94 155 93 164 44 105 16 239 74 111 55 941 179 448 313 1 1271 184 516 5 65 3 3 2834 275 1053 809 3 5 689 2405 222 892 361 1 4 925 4184 157 561 293 0 0 3137 7123 396 584 1 5574 568 13338 143 13195 10653 96 10557 5108 14 5093 5811 135 5676 8767 832 7436 231 198 2 68 5544 469 4900 5 133 20 5 12 3835 237 3447 30 84 29 3839 375 3300 20 95 42 0 5 2 3362 102 3205 13 15 16 11 3512 199 3044 40 103 82 6 38 11511 567 9987 130 374 329 54 57 13 32917 6863 2841 15822 468 835 389 207 59 68 5367 - 25535 7698 2350 13105 209 1033 168 390 341 106 5 12 119 - 27807 6760 1652 9354 278 1237 369 418 156 218 9 7338 19 19195 7347 1833 6108 313 1550 260 406 443 188 0 5 689 53 23456 6645 2250 7437 307 963 262 345 261 106 11 3914 925 30 INDUSTRIAL FISHERIES Total Shallow w. shrimp Demersal fish Lobsters Crabs Squid Holothuria Shell fish Octopus 9 ALL FISHERIES Total Shallow w. shrimp Deep water shrimp Demersal fish Lobsters By-catch (S. shrimp) By-catch (D. shrimp) Crabs Prawns Squid Holothuria Shell fish Tuna Freshwater fish Octopus 38670 7766 2412 25942 255 1799 21 381 46 49 36321 7667 2285 24196 136 1362 26 336 224 39 32185 7436 3726 18949 170 1023 148 259 231 91 27561 5903 3154 16142 163 769 30 135 167 64 1033 142 24913 7699 1770 6209 248 916 266 414 179 142 6 38 3347 3173 29 34915 8005 1771 12490 137 1734 202 364 132 366 54 57 2461 5574 49 Runoff Catch rates kg hr-1 2000 1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 1988 1986 1984 1982 1980 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1978 Runoff (m3 s-1) 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Catch rates Figure 3: Yields of shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank in relation to river flow records. Tourism Coastal tourism is well developed in the southern part of the country, south of Save River. This region is characterised by beautiful sand beaches and extensive subtidal rocky reefs colonized to a varying extent by coral communities. Coastal tourism expanded rapidly after the end of the civil war in 1992. Many areas in the southern Mozambique are now experiencing tourist pressure due, in part, to uncontrolled growth in this sector. Tourism activities include SCUBA diving and game fishing. Several fishing competitions occur each year at Bazaruto, Inhambane, Maputo and Ponta do Ouro. 2. The Known The number of marine species per taxonomic group is presented in Table 2. These figures are based on the species found in the literature and are believed to be an understimate given the difficulties in surveying and reporting. In general, Mozambique contains biologically diverse habitats and according to the WWF classification possesses 9 out of the 21 sites of highest biological importance in eastern Africa. Of these, 4 are of global, 2 are of regional and 3 are of national importance. The sites of global importances are the Quirimbas Archipelago, the Marromeu complex, the Bazaruto Archipelago and Maputo BayMachangulo Complex. The species included in these areas include marine plants (mangroves, seagrasses), coral reefs, sea birds, marine mammals (whales, dolphins, dugongs), marine reptiles (marine turtles), molluscs and numerous fish and crustacean species. 143 Table 2. Summary table of the number of species reported in Mozambique by taxonomic group. TAXA Marine plants Macroalgae Seagrass Mangroves Invertebrates Corals Hard corals Soft corals Echinoderms Sea cucumbers Sea urchins Sea stars Molluscs Gastropods Bivalves Cephalopods Crustaceans1 Ascidians Vertebrates Fish Reef-associated fishes Cartilaginous fishes Total marine fish Marine Reptiles Marine turtles Sea snakes Marine birds Marine mammals Dolphins and whales Dugong Seals 1 NUMBER OF SPECIES SOURCE 224 13 9 Critchley et al. (1994) Bandeira (2000); Bandeira et al. (2002) Barbosa et al. (2001); Bandeira et al. (2002) 151 30 Riegl (1996) Schleyer et al. (1999) 14 6 17 Fisher et al. (1990) NBUM (1996) Walenkamp (1990) 917 180 16 ~150 100 NBUM (1996) NBUM (1996) Fisher et al. (1990) Barnes (1997); Day (1974); Fisher et al. (1990); Richmond (2001) 800 92 1734 Pereira (2000) Fisher et al. (1990) Froese & Pauly (2003) 5 1 25 Fisher et al. (1990) Branch et al. (1995) C. Bento (2003, pers. comm.) 15 1 2 Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996) Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996) Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996) Crustaceans include the following groups: lobsters, shrimps, crabs and hermit crabs. 2.1 Marine plants Mangroves Mangroves predominate on the Sofala banks and in Maputo Bay. The common species are Rizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina, Ceriops tagal, Sonneratia alba and Xilocarpus granatum. Based on a survey conducted in 1992 Mozambique possesses about 396,000 ha of mangrove forest, which represented a reduction of about 3,9% in relation to the stands measured in 1972 (Saket and Matusse, 1994) (Table 3). The degradation of mangroves results from extensive use of mangrove trees as fuel wood and in building; and destruction of mangrove swamps for salt mining, aquaculture and other developments. 144 Table 3. Changes in mangrove area in Mozambique between 1972 and 1990 (Source: Saket and Matusse, 1994). . Province Mangrove area (ha) Degraded area (ha) New area (ha) Alteration (%) 1972 1990 15.2 211 2,217 12,599 14,605 Maputo 0 0 0 387 387 Gaza 1.2 0 246 19,848 20,094 Inhambane 4.9 1,654 6,334 125,317 129,997 Sofala 2.4 106 3,766 155,757 159,417 Zambézia 3.6 493 2,006 54,336 55,849 Nampula 0 106 0 27,836 27,730 C.Delgado TOTAL 408,079 396,080 14,569 2,570 3.9 Seagrasses and algae There are about 12 species of seagrasses in Mozambique. The common species is Thalassodendron ciliatum, which occurs mostly in the southern Mozambique intertidal zone (Bandeira, 1995). The main species found in the northern Mozambique, from Mecufi to Rovuma River, are Halophila stipulacea and Enhalus acoroides (Bandeira, 1995). Brown and green algae are common in the southern Mozambique (Sætre and Silva, 1979). The red algae, Euchema denticulatum, occur mostly in the northern part of the country (Bandeira, 1995). The main species are Padina boryana, Sargassum spp., Colpomenia sinuosa, Anadyomene wrightii, Gellidiela acerora, Haliptylon subulata, Hormophysa triquetra, Hypna spp. and Valonia macrophysa (Critchley et al, 1994). The potential harvesting of algae is estimated to be about 3000 tons per annum (Sætre and Silva, 1979). Corals The corals are prolific in the northern part of the country, extending over 700 km from the Rovuma river to Primeira and Segunda Islands (Quirimbas Archipelago). Coral reefs also occur around the Bazaruto Islands, Inhaca and Ponta de Ouro in southern Mozambique. There are about 181 species of both hard and soft corals in Mozambique (Riegl, 1996; Schleyer et al., 1999). The most common species belong to the families Acroporidae, Pocilloporidae and Favidae. 2.2 Crustacea Shallow water shrimp occur mostly along the coast and are associated with mangroves. The main areas of occurrence are the Sofala Bank and Maputo Bay (Brinca et al., 1984). The most abundant shallow water shrimps belong to the family Penaeidae. There are also carid shrimps but these are less abundant. The main species of penaeid in Mozambique are Penaeus indicus and Metapenaeus monoceros (Silva, 1989; Palha de Sousa et al., 1995). The annual potential of this resource is estimated to be about 19.1 tones (MAP, 1994). The rock lobster occurs in the Quirimbas Archipelago in the north and in the Bazaruto Archipelago, Inhassoro and Vilanculos in the south (Paula and Silva, 1984; Donato et al., 1991; Anon, 1995). The mangrove crab Scylla serrata is also an important crustacean and is closely associated with mangroves. The annual potential of this resource is estimated to be about 13.3 tones (MAP, 1994). 145 2.3 Molluscs Bivalves occur in shallow waters along the coast, including sandy beaches, rocks and mangrove areas. The main mussel species is Perna perna on the southern coast of Mozambique, mainly in Barra Falsa (22°55’S), Závora (24°30’S) and Xai-Xai (25°10’S) (Ribeiro, 1984). Holothurians occur mainly at Inhaca and Inhassoro. 2.4 Fishes The marine fish species of Mozambique include pelagic and demersal species (Table 5), coral and seagrass dependent species, and mangrove and estuarine associated species. Table 5. The main species of demersal and pelagic fishes found in Mozambique. Category Species Local common name Demersal fish species Decapterus spp Trachurus spp Rastrelliger Kanagurta Stolephorus spp Sphyraena spp Ariomma spp Alepes spp Carangoides spp Caranx spp Rastrelliger spp Scomber spp Dussumieria spp Etrumeus spp Hilsa kelee Pellona ditchela Sardinella spp Thryssa spp Stolephorus spp Cheimerius nufar Chrysoblephus puniceus Lutjanus bohar L. sanguineus L. gibbus Leiognathus equulus Secutor insidiator Katsowonus pelamis Auxis thazard Thunnus albacares Carapau Carapau Cavala Anchovetas Barracudas Peixe prata Xaréus Xaréus Xaréus Cavalas Cavalas Sardinhas Sardinhas Sardinhas Sardinhas Sardinhas Sardinhas Anchoveta Robalo Marreco Pargos Pargos Pargos Patanas Patanas Atum albacares Judeu Atum albacora Small pelagic species Large pelagic species The annual potential of demersal fish species (less than 200 m depth) is estimated to be about 51 000 tonnes (Sætre and Silva, 1979). The main families are Sparidae, with about 14 species that include Cheimerius nufar and Chrysoblephus puniceus. Chrysoblephus puniceus is an endemic species in the south, mainly in the Delagoa Bight. Cheimerius nufar occurs in 146 the south along the shelf in water depths less than 160 metres. The main species of Lutjanidae are Lutjanus bohar, L. sanguineus and L. gibbus, and occur off Angoche, Pebane and the southern Sofala Bank. The small pelagic species occur along the whole coast in water depths less than 200m. The main fisheries are located at the Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight between 20 and 100 metres depth. The main species are presented in Table 5 (Sætre and Silva, 1979). The main species are scad (Decapterus russelli) occurring in abundance between 20 and 90 metres depth; the anchovy (Stolephorus spp.) occurring between 20 and 60 metres depth on the Sofala Bank (Sætre and Silva, 1979); the sardines (Pellona ditchela and Thryssa vitrirostris) occurring mostly on the Sofala Bank at depth less than 20 metres. Etrumeus teres occurs off Beira, Hilsa kelee is captured by gillnets in the bays, mostly at Beira, Moma and Maputo. Leiognathus equulus and Secutor insidiator occur on the Sofala Bank, Save river, Beira, Pebane and Machese. Carangoides malabaricus occurs on the Sofala Bank between 10 and 100 metres depth. Ariomma indica also occurs on the Sofala Bank in depths greater than 50 metres. Large pelagic species are most abundant in southern Mozambique, mainly in the Bazaruto Archipelago, Vilanculos, Pomene, Inhambane, Závora and Inhaca, and also in the northern part of the country around the Quirimbas Archipelago. Katsowonus pelamis is observed along the whole coast with relatively higher concentrations in the Bazaruto area. Auxis thazard is a coastal species that occurs between Inhambane and the Bazaruto Archipelago, as well as north of Angoche. Thunnus albacares occurs both in coastal and offshore waters, as well as the bays of Maputo, Inhambane, Mocambo and Pemba (Rato, 1985, Simões, 1984 and 1985). 2.5 Marine reptiles A total of 5 marine turtle species, namely Caretta caretta, Dermochelys coriacea, Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepidochelys olivacea occur in Mozambique (Hughes, 1971). Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea breed along the beaches between Ponta do Ouro and the Bazaruto Archipelago. The main areas of occurrence of marine turtles are Ponta do Ouro, MaputoEspecial Reserve, Inhaca Island, Bazaruto Archipelago (Gove and Magane, 1996). Three species of marine turtles, namely Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepichelys olivacea occur in the northern part of the country (Hughes, 1971). The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) breeds on the Primeiras and Segundas Islands (Hughes, 1971). 2.6 Marine birds Mozambique has coastal wetlands and estuaries that support migratory birds. The Marromeu wetland, Bazaruto Archipelago and Maputo Bay are breeding sites of some threatened bird species. The main species include the white and pinkbacked pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus, P. ruescens), various species of storks and the Caspian tern (Sterna caspia) (Beilfuss and Bento, 1997). 2.7 Marine mammals Table 4 presents the 8 major marine mammals observed in Mozambique waters. Of these, 6 occur in the shelf areas (Guissamulo, 1996). The main species of dolphins in Mozambique are Turciops truncatus and Sousa chinensis and are found along the coast, mainly south of the Zambezi river, in areas such as the Bazaruto Archipelago, Inhaca Island and Machangulo 147 Peninsula (Best et al, 1991; Coopinger and Williams, 1990; Guissamulo, 1996; Sætre and Silva, 1979). Dugongs (Dugong dugon) are found in the southern and northern Mozambique. In the southern part of the country they occur in Maputo Bay (around Inhaca Island), in Inhambane Bay (near Linga-Linga) and in the Bazaruto Archipelago, where the largest population in Eastern Africa exists, about 130 individuals (Guissamulo, 1993). In the northern part of the country they are found in the Quirimbas Archipelago, mostly at Ibo, Quirimbas, Matemo and Quissanga (Guissamulo, 1996; Coopinger and Williams, 1990). Table 4. Major marine mammals observed off the Mozambique coast. Species Whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata Megaptera novaeangliae Eubalaena australis Dolphins Turciops truncatu Sousa chinensis Dugongs Dugong dugon 3. Threats The main threats to marine biodiversity may be grouped into two categories: (i) environmental or natural factors and (ii) anthropogenic or human induced factors. Natural factors include the adverse climate conditions such as extreme droughts and floods, cyclones and abnormal water temperature increases that cause coral bleaching. Human induced factors include obstruction of river watercourses and imposition of artificial river flows, overexploitation of natural resources, use of destructive harvesting practices, and the destruction and modification of habitats due to inadequate land use planning. Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world. It has a higher population density on the coast, and most of the people live in absolute poverty. Attempts to lift the country out of this critical economic situation often results in extreme pressures being applied to natural resources. Use of destructive fishing practices is primarily driven by the lack of means to acquire adequate fishing gears. Furthermore, the poor development of other sectors such as industry, agriculture and tourism leave fisheries as one of the few options for survival by the local communities, thus placing even more pressure on the fish resources. Major constraints limiting action to conserve resources is related to the lack of understanding of ecosystem structure and functioning, and to an inadequate institutional and legal framework to implement management decisions. Lack of qualified personnel is a key factor behind the limited knowledge of ecosystem functioning and how each factor interacts and contributes to the system as a whole. Institutional capacity problems arise from the lack of infrastructures for research and monitoring to the lack of co-ordination among different institutions dealing with marine issues. Lack of co-ordination often leads to duplication of actions with unnecessary waste of resources. Sustainable exploitation of resources requires thorough research and permanent monitoring, both of which are expenses that a developing country such as Mozambique find difficult to meet. In addition to these limitations, the country’s legislation 148 does not promote sustainable resource exploitation because of the priority of free access to all natural resources. 3.1 Maintenance of artificial river flow regimes Most Mozambican rivers are shared with neighbouring countries. Water is being obstructed upstream for irrigation, for urban and industry supply, and for the production of electricity. The consequences are a lack of freshwater entering Mozambique estuaries and artificial river runoff regimes that interfere negatively with coastal ecosystem dynamics. Catch rates of shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank is decreasing (Figure 3) despite the management measures based essentially on controlling the fishing effort applied (since 1987). The reason for this decrease in the abundance of shrimp is attributed to the damming of the Zambezi river (Gammelsrød, 1992a,b; Hoguane, 1997). The rationale for this argument lies in the fact that the fresh water stimulates shrimp recruitment and provides the necessary nutrients to the coastal waters. The penaeids spawn at sea and the larvae develop in sheltered areas of the mangrove swamps (Staples, 1985). The larvae enter the swamps during the dry season and move away from the swamps during the wet season. Naturally, the river runoff would be at a minimum during the dry season, enabling the successful inward migration of the larvae to the swamps, and it would be at a maximum during the wet season, stimulating the outward migration of juveniles from of the swamps. In the presence of artificial runoff that is characterized by a quasi-uniform flow throughout the year, the runoff would be too high in the dry season, thus prevent the inward movement of larvae, and too low in the wet season to stimulate the outward movement of the juveniles. 3.2 Loss and modification of habitats Mangroves Mangroves are depleted due to unsustainable harvesting of trees, particularly around the main cities, where mangrove trees are harvested for fuel wood, and for production of timber for building. Wood is the cheapest and most readily available source of energy, both for cooking and heating, for majority of people who cannot afford electricity. The second most important cause is the clearing of mangrove for the construction of saltpans, roads, urban and other developments. According to the last census, the growth rate in the urban population is 2.7 % (INE, 2000). While more land for housing is needed, industries will always develop close to the main urban centres. This is particularly important for salt production and the most important sites are located near the cities of Maputo, Beira and Nacala, where the main harbours are also located. Shrimp aquaculture is a developing industry in Mozambique, with initiatives having commenced in the vicinity of Quelimane and Beira. The shrimp ponds and tanks encroach on the mangrove forests that are located around these cities. Coral Reefs Corals represent a very important asset to the country’s economy. Local communities have an important dependency on corals – for fishing, lime production, curios and construction. In addition, tourism growth is highest around the most important coral spots in the country and diving is becoming an increasingly popular activity. However, corals have and are being destroyed at a very high rate, particularly during the last decade. 149 Corals are threatened by damaging fishing practices, pollution, tourism, siltation and extraction. However, one of the main reasons for the recent degradation of coral reefs is natural. A survey on coral bleaching (Schleyer et al., 1999) showed that the effects of El Nino on Mozambique were most extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to 99% coral mortality) and this diminished further south. However, in recent times serious bleaching (90%) was also encountered at Inhaca Island. Other causes of reef degradation include siltation as a result of human activities (soil erosion) on land. This includes incorrect agricultural and forestry practices, exploitation of the mangroves, removal of earth close to the coast, etc. The construction of commercial or recreational infrastructures on or close to the coral reefs also has an immediate negative physical impact. Corals were exported to several countries including Portugal, Italy, Spain, United States of America and Germany (Rodrigues and Motta, in prep.). The prices of corals in the international market depend on species. Using an average value of US$5 per piece of coral at point of export, and the official data on quantities being exported, it has been estimated that Mozambique exported approximately US$5 million worth of coral between 1994 and 1997. 3.3 Overexploitation of fish resources Overexploitation of fish resources has considerable environmental and socio-economic impacts. The environmental impacts are associated mostly with the destruction of the environment, harvesting of juveniles and of ‘keystone’ species, all which impact on the biological diversity of the sites concerned. The socio-economy impacts are mostly associated with the reduction in the income from the fisheries, reduction in employment and reduction in the subsistence capacity of the local environment. There are many factors that contribute direct or indirectly to the overexploitation of the fish resources. These factors can be clustered into three major categories: (i) direct or technical causes, (ii) sectoral pressures and (iii) root causes. In addition to the factors that contribute to overexploitation of the fish resources there are factors that tend to alleviate fishing pressures. The major technical causes of overexploitation of fish resources is increased effort and decreased level of recruitment, contributing to the issues by approximately 40% and 50%, respectively. The decrease in habitat or nursery grounds and shift in population distribution contributes about 5% each. Several studies on the state of the fisheries resources in Mozambique have been conducted and indicate a major increase in fishing effort and at the same time a significant reduction in the fishing yield. The shrimp fisheries, the most economic valued fishery, is the one that has suffered most. For instance, on Sofala Bank and prior to 1980, the shrimp fishing effort was low (approximately 100,000 hours) and catch rates were over 90 kg per hour of trawling. In the mid 1980’s the effort level increased to 180,000 hours and the catch rates declined to 4045 kg per trawling hour. This corresponded to an increase in fishing effort of about 80% and decrease in the shrimp yield of about 45-50% (Skagen et al., 1997). More recently the fishing effort has increased by a further 90% and catch rates have decreased by an additional 20% (Palha de Souza et al., 1995). Improved fishing technology In addition to the increase in fishing hours, the fishing vessels have also improved. There are three categories of shrimp fisheries; artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial. Until mid 1996, 150 almost all the semi-industrial vessels working on the Sofala Bank were stern trawlers, less than 20 meters long, without freezing capacity and preserving the catches with ice. Their available sea time was less than five days (de Sousa and Silva, unpublished). After June 1996, new semi-industrial vessels entered the fishery with different characteristics. These new vessels are mainly double outrigger trawlers, pull two or four nets simultaneously, are equipped with cold storage and quick freezers, and have the autonomy to stay at sea for more than 12 days if supplied with fuel, water and food by a mother vessel. These vessels trawl along the Sofala Bank and land their catches either directly or through the mother vessel (de Sousa and Silva, unpublished). Decrease in habitat/nursery areas This involves the loss and modification of habitats that sustain the fisheries resources. Some of the key factors associated with the decrease in natural habitats and nursery grounds are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 3.4 Depletion of mangroves - Mangroves are depleted mostly in the vicinity of the big cities due to urban development, building of tourist resorts, conversion into salt ponds, and development of shrimp farms. Mangrove poles are used for building houses, artisanal boats and as firewood and charcoal. Apart from these human actions, mangroves are also destroyed by the reduction in river runoff, leading to excessive salinities in the associated mangrove swamps, and by storms that cause siltation of mangrove creeks. Destruction of corals - Corals are mostly depleted by overexploitation for trading and for use in the building of houses. Some of the corals are destroyed by fishing methods such as trawling, dynamite and inexperienced divers. Corals are further destroyed by storms, siltation due to erosion of deforested dunes, and by the anomalous warm water events that cause coral bleaching. Destruction of seagrass beds - seagrass beds are mostly destroyed by siltation due to erosion of the deforested dunes and by trawls. Excessive reduction in river runoff - this action modifies the water quality of estuaries and mangrove swamps, resulting in adverse changes in these habitats. This has implications for fisheries, based on the fact that estuaries and mangrove swamps are nursery grounds for many coastal fish species and breeding grounds for others. Inadequate fishing practices Conflicts between semi-industrial and artisanal fishermen There are conflicts within small-scale fisheries, between this sector and offshore industrial shrimp fisheries, and between shrimp and fish fisheries. In Maputo Bay, where the artisanal fisherman and semi-industrial fleet have fisheries that overlap, disputes over territorial rights have emerged. On the Sofala Bank, the industrial and semi-industrial fleet often operates within 5 nm from the coast, damaging the coastal/beach habitats, causing massive fish deaths and forcing artisanal fishermen into shallow nursery areas where juveniles are then harvested. Conflicts between industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries may partly reflect weakness of existing fishing laws. This is no clear delimition of fishing areas for each type of vessel. In addition, there is weak institutional, financial and human resources capacity in the fisheries sector to implement any legislation, especially along the entire coastline of 151 Mozambique. Artisanal fishermen should be informed about fishing regulations, as they are key players in the sustainable development of coastal fish resources. Conflicts also exist between industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries around the fishing licence system. Licences for industrial and semi-industrial fisheries are issued by the National Directorate for Fisheries (DNP) whereas the licence for artisanal fisheries is issued by the Maritime Administration. Catch statistics for all type of fleets are controlled by the DNP. Destructive fishing practices The most damaging fishing gears and practices used in Mozambique are as follows: • • • Use of mosquito nets in the code end of the trawling nets Trawling in the corals and seagrass beds Use of fish poisons and dynamite fishing Mosquito nets are widely used by artisanal fisherman in beach seines, traps and hand trawling in the estuaries, mangrove swamps and other coastal waters. These areas are often spawning or/and nursery grounds. The consequences of using these nets to the fish resources are enormous because these nets also catch fish larvae and eggs. No research has been conducted to assess the impact of these nets on the fish stocks but it is believed to be high. Trawling seems to be a fishing activity that yields higher catches than other fishing practices and is thus the preferred method of fishing. Indeed most of the fishing in Mozambique, in particularly the semi-industrial and industrial fisheries, operates using bottom trawling. The problem rises when trawling is made in inappropriate areas such as seagrass beds and coral reefs. Trawling results in the destruction of these habitats and hence the fish resources supported by these ecosystems. Semi-industrial and industrial fishing vessels have also been reported to entering shallow waters, with a main focus on estuaries and mangrove creeks, mainly targeting the juveniles in the process of being recruited to the fishery ground. Such activities have a negative impact on other non-target species that occupy these nursery areas. 152 References Anon. 1995. 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Boletim de divulgação, 5:30 pp. Maputo, IIP. Skagen, D. W., Palha de Sousa, L. and Pacule, H. 1997. The industrial shallow water fishery at Sofala Bank 1996-97. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira, Maputo. Internal report. Staples D. J. 1985. Modelling of the recruitment processes of the banana prawn, Penaeus merguiensis, in the southeastern Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. In Second Australian National prawn seminar (Rothlisberg, P. C., Hill, B. J., eds.). Fishing News Books. Surrey. pp. 259-267. UNCED. 1992. Mozambique country report for UNCED’92. Walenkamp, J. H. C. 1990. Systematics and zoogeography of Asteroidea (Echinodermata) from Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Zoologische Verhandelingen, 261: 1-33. 155 National Report Marine biodiversity in Tanzania – the known and the unknown Yunus D. Mgaya, Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania INTRODUCTION Tanzania is a United Republic made up of two sovereign states formerly known as Tanganyika (now Tanzania Mainland) and the People’s Republic of Zanzibar (now Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar). The two former republics formed a political union on 26 April 1964. The coastal plains of Tanzania Mainland are traversed by permanent and seasonal rivers, as well as by numerous creeks. The rivers, including Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji, Matandu, Mbwemkuru, Lukuledi and Ruvuma, flow to the Indian Ocean, influencing the coastal environment through creation of productive brackish water environments in estuaries, maintenance of deltas, tidal flats and shorelines, as well as nourishment of mangroves and seagrass beds. Tanzania has 1,434 km of coastline. The coastal zone is characterized by a wide diversity of habitats including sandy beaches, rock outcrops, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, seagrass beds, extensive mangrove stands and coastal forests. The diversity of coastal and marine habitats supports a wide variety of natural resources. The intertidal zone is mainly of sandy-muddy flats or rocky reef platforms, while the sublittoral zone consists of extensive seagrass beds and coral reefs. The continental shelf is generally narrow, dropping sharply below the 60 m depth contour. The 200 m depth contour is about 2 km from the coast at the narrowest point (latitude 9º30’S) and 80 km at the widest point (latitude 6º25’S). The continental shelf is widest in the Zanzibar and Mafia Channels and off the Rufiji Delta (Francis et al., 2001). The climate of Tanzania is controlled mainly by two major factors: (i) its geographical location within 1ºS-12ºS latitude, which creates a truly equatorial setting, with high temperatures, high humidity (60 to 80%), low wind speeds and absence of a cold season, and (ii) its position on the eastern edge of Africa, exposed to the large seasonal changes brought about by the general circulation of air over the Indian Ocean (Francis et al., 2001). The monsoons have the dominant influence on wind direction and strength, temperature and rainfall, among others. There are two monsoon seasons, namely the Northeast monsoon that prevails from November to February and is characterized by higher air temperatures (>30ºC) and weaker winds, and the Southeast monsoon, which lasts from April to September and is marked by lower air temperature (approximately 25ºC) as well as stronger winds. The months of March/April and October/November are the inter-monsoon periods and usually are the calmest (McClanahan, 1988). The entire coastal area, which rises from sea level to about 200 m, has a mean annual rainfall ranging from 900 to 2000 mm. Rainfall increases northwards and it is highest on the islands. A bimodal type of rainfall regime composed of a long rainy season (March-May) and a short one (November-December) prevails along most coastal areas. Ocean currents and tides are important features that strongly influence the distribution of marine organisms and the availability of nutrients. The dominant major currents prevailing 156 in the coastal waters of Tanzania are the South Equatorial Current, which flows westwards at around 12º S and the northward-flowing East African Coastal Current (EACC). The EACC is strongest in the southern monsoon (April-October) with an average speed of about 2 m/s and occasionally reaching 3.5 m/s and weaker during the northern monsoon (NovemberMarch), with an average speed of less than 0.5 m/s (McClanahan, 1988). The tides along the Tanzanian coast are of semi-diurnal type, characterized by two occurrences of both high and low waters within a day. These are the mean spring tide of about 3.5 m and mean neap tide of about 2.5 m. Tides not only influence ecological processes in the coastal waters but also play an important role in socioeconomic activities of the coastal communities. In most of the coastal communities, tides determine amongst other things, the fishing period, type of fishing gears to be used and market time. The sea surface temperature of the coastal waters of Tanzania averages at 27º C but may reach 25º C during July to September and rise to 28 to 29º C in shallow areas during January to March. The depth of the upper mixed layer varies from 20 m (March and November) to 100 m (June/July), due to the seasonal variations in wind speed and direction. Temperature variations, particularly offshore, are mainly diurnal as they are controlled by day heating (solar radiation) and night cooling. In the nearshore waters, the temperatures are semidiurnal due to effect of the tides. Salinity values are lower during May following the peak freshwater outflow and highest in November. The salinity values start to decrease in February before the beginning of the rainy season. This is attributed to the advection of lower salinity water from the south. In the open ocean, salinity values normally range from 34.0 to 35.5‰. However, the salinity is low nearer the coast due to freshwater runoff. As is generally the case with the Indian Ocean, the chlorophyll productivity in Tanzanian waters is very low when compared with other areas of the tropics. Biomass as measured in terms of chlorophyll-a, ranges from 0.04 to 1.4 mg/m3 (Francis et al., 2001). Chlorophyll concentrations in the coastal waters of Tanzania are generally higher during the northern monsoon and lower during the southern monsoon. The higher concentration during the northern monsoon is attributed mainly to less mixing to depths of below optimal light intensity, greater residence time in neritic conditions because of the slower coastal current, greater runoff and nutrient input from rivers and greater availability of biologically assimilable nitrogen. Consequently, phytoplankton biomass and fish catch and reproduction are higher during this period (McClanahan, 1988). A large portion of coastal people of Tanzania relies on the resources obtained from a variety of productive marine biotopes. The fishery is typically small scale applying a variety of fishing techniques targeting a large number of species. A large number of fishers (>20,000) coupled with weak enforcement of fisheries regulations have led to overexploitation of majority of these resources (JICA/MNRT, 2002). This report examines the known and unknown in the context of marine biodiversity in Tanzanian coastal waters and western Indian Ocean region in general. THE KNOWN Angel (1993) has observed that most marine species diversity is benthic rather than pelagic. The pelagic province has an enormous volume compared with the inhabitable part of the benthic province, yet there are only 3,500-4,500 species of phytoplankton (Sournia and Chretiennot157 Dinet, 1991). Over 265 species of phytoplanktonic algae have been reported in Tanzanian coastal waters (Bryceson, 1977). The work of various authors put the estimate of the marine macro-taxa occurring in the intertidal and shallow seas of the western Indian Ocean at a minimum of 10,992 species (Richmond, 2002 and references cited therein). Table 1 illustrates a summary of the estimated number of species for major macroflora (including phytoplankton) and macrofauna taxa from littoral and shallow sublittoral waters of the western Indian Ocean. It can be seen that the Mollusca and the Pisces represent about half of the entire known marine biodiversity of this region, with a clear domination by mollusks. A closer look at the Mollusca reveals that the class Prosobranchia is the most species-rich taxon. However, it should be stated that for many taxa the figures could be largely regarded as conservative estimates of the true diversity of species for the WIO region. Mangroves Mangroves are most luxuriant around the mouths of large rivers and in sheltered bays. Mangrove forests of Tanzania cover about 115,500 ha and those in Zanzibar cover 18,000 (Unguja Island 6,000 ha and Pemba Island 12,000 ha) (Semesi, 1991). There are nine species of mangrove trees in Tanzania, though not all are found in every forest. The species include Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Xylocarpus granatum, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Heritiera littoralis, Ceriops tagal, and Lumnitzera racemosa. X. molluccensis is very rare but Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal are abundant. Seagrasses Seagrasses grow best in the quiet, protected waters of healthy estuaries and lagoons, often in beds, or meadows that are easily delineated for classification as critical habitat areas. The seagrass beds normally extend shoreward to the point where wave action prevents them from rooting. In Tanzania, seagrass beds are widely distributed from high intertidal to shallow subtidal areas. Twelve types of seagrass have been identified in the country (Richmond, 2001) including Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea sp., Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Halophila minor, Halophila ovata, Halophila stipulacea, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii and Thallassodendron ciliatum. Seaweeds Seaweeds or algae grow attached to rocks or other stable objects at various depths in the sea. Traditionally, seaweeds include only macroscopic, multicellular marine red, green and brown algae, which are also referred to as macroalgae. In Tanzania there are over 300 species of red, green and brown intertidal seaweeds. The species diversity of red seaweeds is higher than the other two groups but the brown algae dominate in terms of biomass. Very little can be said at present about the species diversity of macroalgae, given the lack of comparative studies; however work in this field is ongoing. For example, Coppejans et al. (2001) mentions a list of 91 records for the Indian Ocean region, of which 18 are new for the Indian Ocean, 26 are new for the East African coast and 47 are new for either Kenya (23) or Tanzania (24). 158 Table 1. Summary of the estimated number of species for major macroflora and macrofauna taxa from littoral and shallow sublittoral waters of the western Indian Ocean. Data from Richmond (2001, 2002). Taxa Microalgae1 Mangroves Seagrasses Macroalgae Porifera Ctenophora Scyphozoa Hydrozoa Octocorallia Ceriantharia Actiniaria Corallimorpharia Zoanthidea Scleractinia Antipatharia Platyhelminthes Echiura Sipuncula Polychaeta Oligochaeta Cirripedia Nemertea Amphipoda Isopoda Stomatopoda Dendrobranchiata Total 1 Bryceson (1977). Minimum number of species 265 10 12 1011 200 20 30 100 300 20 30 10 5 200 10 100 22 50 300 10 30 59 300 100 30 10 Taxa Caridea Palinura Thalassinidea Anomura Brachyura Scaphopoda Polyplacophora Prosobranchia Opisthobranchia Pulmonata Bivalvia Cephalopoda Echinoidea Holothuroidea Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Crinoidea Phoronida Brachiopoda Bryozoa Hemichordata Chaetognatha Thaliacea Ascidiacea Pisces Minimum number of species 150 20 20 50 465 10 39 2550 400 20 667 20 62 148 58 132 19 5 5 500 20 50 30 100 2000 11,257 Porifera Marine sponges are poorly studied, consequently current accurate estimates for the diversity of the Porifera in the western Indian Ocean are not available. An estimate of 683 species including those from the Red Sea and Arabian Sea were described by van Soest (1994). Much research is needed before the true diversity of sponges in this region is established. Cnidaria Hydrozoans have not been well studied throughout the western Indian Ocean though a number of localized investigations have been conducted (Branch et al., 1994). The diversity of Scyphozoans (jellyfishes) has been estimated at 30 species collected from the region (Cornelius, 2002). Within the class Anthozoa, the order Scleractinia (hard corals) has received perhaps the greatest attention. Sheppard (1987) reports 439 species of scleractinian corals from the entire Indian Ocean with about 150 species reported in Tanzanian reefs. 159 Polychaeta Polychaetes are important members of the soft bottom communities (Guerreiro et al., 1996), yet very little taxonomic work has been conducted on this group in Tanzania. Crustacea Larger decapod crustacean groups, including lobsters, shrimps and crabs are well known when compared to smaller groups such as ostracods, tanaids, mysids, cumaceans and amphipods. Crustaceans are generally widely distributed due to their extended larval life and there is little evidence for regional endemism. Hartnoll (1975) examined the Grapsidae and Ocypodidae from Tanzania and Madagascar and concluded that there was a very limited level of endemism, with the majority of the species at the two sites also found in the MalayIndonesia. Mollusca Richmond (1999) put together a checklist of molluscs in the western Indian Ocean region that comprised a minimum of 2550 species of gastropod prosobranchs from 75 families; 39 species of polyplacophorans representing 6 families, and a minimum of 667 species of bivalves from 49 families. Echinodermata Richmond (1999) reported a total of 419 echinoderm species for the western Indian Ocean region, with over 100 species (25%) considered to be endemic. The monograph of Clark and Rowe (1971) is still the most comprehensive echinoderm publication to date. However, some 156 new species have been documented since the publication of the monograph. Little research is currently being conducted on echinoderms in the WIO region. Bryozoa Bryozoans are poorly known in the western Indian Ocean region. The work by Hayward and Yonow (2002) put the estimate of bryozoans at a minimum of 500 species in the WIO region. Ascidiacea Ascidians (sea squirts) contribute to the marine diversity of shallow and deep seas, but have been ignored by taxonomists. Pisces Fish are well studied in the western Indian Ocean region and most species are widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Over 2,000 species of fish, from 150 families, occur in the WIO region. However, much remains to be learnt about the fish of Tanzania. Further taxonomic work could increase species checklists and reveal many new species, especially from deeper water. Fish identification is aided by Smith and Heemstra (1995) together with the identification guides for commercial fish and shellfish produced by the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (Fischer and Bianchi, 1984; Bianchi 1985). Marine turtles Five species of marine turtles are found in the waters of Tanzania: green turtle, Chelonia mydas; hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea; olive Ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea and loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta. The most common turtle in Tanzanian waters is the green turtle followed by hawksbill and less common loggerhead and leatherback turtles. The olive Ridley is very rare in Tanzanian waters. 160 Sea snakes There are more than 50 species from 14 genera of sea snakes, most of which occur in the Australasian region. One species, Pelamis platurus (Yellow-bellied Sea Snake) has been reported in East African coastal waters (Howell, 2002). Coastal birds There is a great diversity of birds that occur along virtually the whole coast of mainland East Africa. For convenience these species can be grouped into three descriptive categories: shoreline predators (such as herons and birds of prey), the true seabirds (such as gulls, terns, boobies and gannets) and wading birds (plovers and sandpipers) (Bennun et al., 2002). Latham Island is an important breeding site for birds, such as the sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), noddy tern (Anous stolidus), crested tern (Sterna bergii) and masked booby (Sula dactylatra). Fairy tern, frigate birds and gannets are commonly found along the coast. Marine mammals Whales, dolphins and porpoises are sighted as they frequent Tanzanian coastal waters. Several species of dolphins have been reported in the waters of Tanzania and these include rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), bottlenose and spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) and Indo-Pacific humpback. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeanglia) also frequent Tanzanian waters. Dugong (Dugong dugon) have also been sighted in Tanzania although quite rare. Watson (1981) mapped cetacean distributions based on sightings at sea as well as specimens, and provided an important reference in the form of a field identification guide. Watson (1981) lists 26 species recorded from eastern Africa. These species belong to the following families: Balaenopteridae (6 species), Ziphidae (4 species), Physeteridae (4 species), Globicephalidae (5 species), Delphinidae (7 species). THE UNKNOWN The seagrasses, mangroves, macroalgae, scleractinian corals, prosobranch mollusks and some of the bivalves, most decapod crustaceans, echinoderms and fish are reasonably well known (Richmond, 2002). These account for about 75% of the total estimate of shallowwater taxa in the western Indian Ocean region (see Table 1). Taxonomic and biogeographical studies are required for the lesser-known taxa so that new species/genera and new records are revealed and taxonomic ambiguities are resolved. According to Sheppard (1998), the taxonomy of Indian Ocean corals still requires considerable revision despite recent improvements, a recommendation that may also apply to many other groups in the Indian Ocean. CURRENT THREATS Reviews of threats to coastal systems have been published by various authors (e.g., Fluharty, 1994; Lundin and Linden, 1993; Suchanek, 1994; Sebens, 1994) who have identified threats such as habitat loss, global climate change, over-exploitation, pollution (including direct and indirect effects of inorganic and organic chemicals), eutrophication and related problems such as pathogenic bacteria and algal toxins, species introductions/invasions, water-shed alteration and physical alterations of coasts, tourism and marine litter. Policy deficiencies and inadequate planning have also been cited as threats to aquatic biodiversity (Shumway, 1999). More often than not, the threats are interlinked. Habitat loss is considered by all the reviews to be the most critical threat. Specific threats are described hereunder for various taxa. 161 Mangroves Threats: In recent years, the rate and variety of human influences have increased to the point where a large proportion of the mangrove resource is threatened with destruction. Mangroves severely affected are either close to urban centres, large villages, or have been converted to aquaculture ponds or saltpans. Activities that are destructive include: • Clearance for agriculture and aquaculture: Clearing of mangroves for rice farms has taken place in some riverine mangroves such as Rufiji Delta. Shrimp farms are major contributors to the destruction of mangroves in Southeast Asia and Latin America. Developers are now moving to Eastern Africa although the environmental and social problems related to shrimp farming are well known. • Clearance for salt production: Some solar saltpans are located on the saline bare areas behind mangroves, but others have been constructed on mangrove areas. In Tanzania, saltpans cover about 3093 ha. • Clearance for urban and industrial development: Only the mangroves found near large towns such as Dar es Salaam are being filled in for house construction or for other activities. Near towns, mangroves are also used as dumping places by neighbouring residents and also receive untreated wastes. Small mangrove stands near large towns are also being killed as a result of oil pollution, e.g. Dar es Salaam. Others are cleared to provide a good view of the sea and this is causing beach erosion as can be seen in Nunge, Bagamoyo. • Diversion of freshwater due to dam construction. • Overexploitation for firewood, pole and charcoal production: For example, 60% of the mangroves at Kunduchi have been cleared. Seagrasses and Seaweeds Threats: Since seagrass beds are mainly found in shallow water close to shore and human activities, they are very vulnerable to pressure from those activities. Major threats to the survival of seagrass beds come from excessive sedimentation of coastal waters resulting from different activities. Increased turbidity tends to cut down light penetration. Inshore shrimp trawling and seine nets also destroy seagrass beds. Coral reefs Threats: Major threats to coral reefs include destruction by fishing with explosives, anchor damage, destruction for construction material (coral mining), vessel grounding, trampling, destruction of linked habitats such as mangroves and over-harvesting of fish, octopus, sea cucumbers and shells. Others include sediment mainly brought in by rivers, sewage discharges and chemical pollution, poison fishing and dredging. Abnormal nutrient enrichment (eutrophication), particularly from sewage disposal, can alter the structure of coral reef ecosystems through the overgrowth of algae and shade from increased algal production. Molluscs Threats: Shell trade involving the most popular and colourful gastropods e.g. cowries (Cypraeidae), helmet shells (Cassidae), cones (Conidae), volutes (Volutidae), and spider shells and conch (Strombidae), has resulted in considerable conservation and environmental concern. Since mollusks are collected live, it is feared that they are being over-collected and their habitats damaged by shell collectors (Mgaya et al., 1999). Pisces Threats: The threat to fish diversity in Tanzania include over-fishing and the use of illegal fishing gear (e.g. use of poison, small mesh size nets, and dynamite). One of the most destructive fishing techniques is dynamiting. This practice has contributed to the degradation 162 of habitats and fisheries productivity. Other destructive techniques include beach seine fishing and the use of dragnets as well as the use of sticks and spears. The use of poison affects marine organisms indiscriminately, including larvae and juveniles. The most commonly used poison is an extract from a plant locally known as “Utupa” (Derris sp.). Trawling, though legal, is a highly unselective fishing technique. The trawlers may not only damage the seabed, but large numbers of fish are caught along with targeted species and discarded as by-catch. Marine turtles Threats: Turtle populations in Tanzania have declined, probably due to loss of nesting sites. Development of hotels along beaches is one of the reasons for the decline. Turtles are exploited for their meat and eggs and the hawksbill for the carapace, which is used for ornamental purposes. Fishermen using gill nets for fishing also catch the turtles incidentally. Coastal birds Threats: (1) The major threat to both resident and migrant species of the western Indian Ocean is the destruction of habitats on which they depend. Some of the problems include cutting of mangrove forests, and development of the smaller offshore islands. (2) Pollution is another threat facing seabirds. The type of pollutants include sewage from domestic sources and from ships, petroleum and tar residues from ships; industrial wastes such as metals, acids, paints, pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), dyes, strong alkalies and organic wastes from breweries. The effects of chemical pollutants may include thinning of eggshells, lower reproductive success, etc. Oil spills from ships, pumping stations or wrecked oil tankers and other vessels have disastrous effects on seabirds. (3) Human exploitation and in particular egg collection on islands remains an important threat to seabirds in eastern Africa (Howell, 1988). Marine mammals Threats: Because of its limited distribution and movements along the coast, the dugong is especially vulnerable to both direct exploitation by man and to any change in water or habitat quality, which might affect it or its food supply, such as pollution or siltation. Dugong populations in Tanzania have almost been eliminated. They are killed for their flesh and oil. Success of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) There are two marine parks in Tanzania, namely Mafia Island Marine Park and Mnazi Bay – Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park. Other marine protected areas include Chumbe Island Coral Park (privately-run) and Menai Bay Conservation Area, both located in Zanzibar. Resource exploitation in these marine protected areas is fairly well regulated. A study of 22 sites along the coastline of Kenya and Tanzania found that the abundance and species richness of commercially important triggerfish, surgeonfish, and parrotfish were higher in protected areas compared to fished areas (McClanahan and Arthur, 2000). However, the effectiveness of MPAs in countering threats to marine biodiversity and the sustainability to fisheries is still debatable. The absence of baseline data from surveys undertaken prior to protection of the area makes comparisons with adjacent unprotected areas difficult. One could argue that the high diversity and productivity of protected areas compared to unprotected areas is attributed to the fact that the most diverse and productive areas were chosen for protection in the first place (Francis et al., 2002). 163 CAPACITY Human Capacity 1. Dr. Marten Mtolera Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Seagrasses and Seaweeds) 2. Ms. Amelia Buryo Department of Botany University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Seaweeds, particularly Rhodophyta) 3. Dr. Charles Lugomela Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology University of Dar es Salaam (Microalgae, particularly Cyanophyta) 4. Dr. Jude Shunula Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar (Mangroves) 5. Ms. Blandina Lugendo Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Fishes) 6. Dr. Narriman Jiddawi Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar (Fishes) 7. Dr. Simon Ndaro Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Meiofauna) 8. Dr. Christopher Muhando Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar (Hard Corals) 9. Dr. Abdillah Chande 164 Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute P.O. Box 9750 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Portunid crabs) Institutional Capacity 1. Department of Zoology and Marine Biology University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish. Card catalogue 2. Department of Botany University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Holds mangroves, seagrasses and seaweeds. Card catalogue/Herbarium records 3. National Museums of Tanzania Marine Biology Section P.O. Box 511, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish. Card catalogue 4. Institute of Marine Sciences 5. Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology University of Dar es Salaam University of Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish. Card catalogue Other regional organizations, which are active in marine biodiversity research, are listed in Richmond (2002). Biodiversity Resources The extensive Bibliography by Richmond (2002) is relevant for this section and should be consulted. CD-ROM on Biodiversity and Taxonomy of the Indian Ocean for the following taxa: (1) Mangroves and Seagrasses, (2) Corals, (3) Echinoderms, and (4) Crabs. The CDs are an interactive tool for identification and distribution of the various taxa. Sida has produced them in association with The University of Warwick, Stockholm University and Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA). 165 REFERENCES Angel, M.V., 1993. Biodiversity of the pelagic ocean. Conserv. Biol. 7: 760-772. Bianchi, G., 1985. FAO Species Identification Sheets for fishery Purposes. Field Guide to the Commercial Marine and Brackishwater Species of Tanzania. Prepared and published with the support of TCP/URT/4406 and FAO (FIRM) Regular Programme. FAO, Rome. 199 pp. Bennun, L., Knott, H., and Richmond, M.D., 2002. Class Aves. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 386-397. Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L. and Beckley, L.E., 1994. Two Oceans: A Guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa. D. Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg. 360 pp. Bryceson, I., 1977. An ecological study of the phytoplankton off the coastal waters of Dar es Salaam. PhD thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. 560 pp. Clark, A.M. and Rowe, F.W.E., 1971. Monograph of Shallow-water IndoWest Pacific Echinoderms. The British Museum (Natural History), London. 234 pp. Coppejans, E., De Clerk, O., Leliaert, F., and Dargent, O., 2001. Progress of the taxonomic research on macroalgae (Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta) along the east African coast. In: Richmond, M.D. and Francis, J. (Editors), Marine Science Development in Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Conference on Advances in Marine Science in Tanzania. 28 June – 1 July 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA, pp. 401-418. Cornelius, P., 2002. Class Scyphozoa. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 132134. Fischer, W. and Bianchi, G. (Editors), 1984. FAO Species Identification Sheets for fishery Purposes. Western Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 51). DANIDA/FAO, Rome. Vols. 1-6. Fluharty, D.L., 1994. Coastal management: New global concern. Forum Appl. Res. Public Policy 9: 53-58. Francis, J., Mahongo, S., and Semesi, A., 2001. The coastal environment. In: Eastern Africa Atlas of Coastal Resources: Tanzania. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 9-47. Francis, J., Nilsson, A. and Waruinge, D., 2002. Marine protected areas in the Eastern African region: How successful are they? Ambio 31: 503-511. Guerreiro, J., Freitas, S., Pereira, P., and Paula, J., 1996. Sediment macrobenthos of mangrove flats at Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Cah. Biol. Mar. 37: 309-327. Hartnoll, R.G., 1975. The Grapsidae and Ocypodidae (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Tanzania. J. Zool. Lond. 177: 305-328. Hayward, P. and Yonow, N., 2002. Miscellaneous phyla. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 332-335. Howell, K.M., 1988. The conservation of the coastal waterbirds of Tanzania. In: Mainoya, J.R. (Editor), Proceedings of Workshop on Ecology and Bioproductivity of the Marine Coastal Waters of Eastern Africa. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 18-20 January 1988. Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam, pp. 162-173. Howell, K.M., 2002. Class Reptilia. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. 166 Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 380385. JICA/MNRT, 2002. The Master Plan Study on Fisheries Development in the United Republic of Tanzania. Main Report. Japan International Cooperation Agency and Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam. Lundin, C.G. and Linden, O., 1993. Coastal ecosystem: Attempts to manage a threatened resource. Ambio 22: 468-473. McClanahan, T.R., 1988. Seasonality in East Africa’s coastal waters. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 44: 191-199. McClanahan, T.R. and Arthur, R., 2000. The effects of marine reserves and habitat on populations of East African coral reef fishes. Ecol. Applic. 11: 559-569. Mgaya, Y.D., Muruke, M.H.S. and Semesi, A.K., 1999. The sea cucumber and mollusc fisheries in Bagamoyo. In: K.M. Howell and A.K. Semesi (Editors), Coastal Resources of Bagamoyo District Tanzania. Proceedings of a Workshop on Coastal Resources of Bagamoyo, 18–19 December 1997, Bagamoyo. Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam, pp. 65-71. Richmond, M.D., 1999. The biodiversity and biogeography of shallow-water flora and fauna of the western Indian Ocean with special reference to the Polychaeta, Mollusca and Echinodermata. PhD thesis. University of Wales – Bangor, School of Ocean Sciences. 235 pp. Richmond, M.D., 2001. The marine biodiversity of the western Indian Ocean and its biogeography: How much do we know? In: Richmond, M.D. and Francis, J. (Editors), Marine Science Development in Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Conference on Advances in Marine Science in Tanzania. 28 June – 1 July 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA, pp. 241-261. Richmond, M.D. (Editor), 2002. A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 461 pp. Sebens, K.P., 1994. Biodiversity of coral reefs: What are we losing and why? Amer. Zool. 34: 115-133. Semesi, A.K., 1991. Management Plan for the Mangrove Ecosystem of Mainland Tanzania: Vol. 11. Mangrove Management Plan of all Coastal Districts (Part 1: An Overview of Mangroves and Strategies and Approaches Essential for the Implementation of the Plan). Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania and NORAD. Sheppard, C.R.C., 1987. Coral species of the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas: A synonymised compilation and some regional distribution patterns. Atoll Res. Bull. 307: 1-32. Sheppard, C.R.C., 1998. Biodiversity patterns in Indian Ocean corals, and effects of taxonomic error in data. Biodiv. Conserv. 7: 22 pp. Shumway, C.A., 1999. Forgotten Waters: Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems in Africa. Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development. Boston University, USA. 167 pp. Smith M.M. and Heemstra, P.C. (Editors), 1995. Smith’s Sea Fishes. Southern Book Publishers, Johannesburg. 1047 pp. Sournia, A. and Chretiennot-Dinet, G., 1991. Marine phytoplankton: How many species in the world ocean? J. Plank. Res. 13: 1093-1099. Suchanek, T.H., 1994. Temperate coastal marine communities: Biodiversity and threats. Amer. Zool. 34: 100-114. 167 van Soest, R.W.M., 1994. Demosponge distribution patterns. In: van Soest, R.W.M., van Kempen, Th. M.G., and Braekman, J.C. (Editors), Sponges in Time and Space. Balkema, Rotterdam. Watson, L., 1981. Sea Guide to Whales of the World. Hutchinson, London. 168 National Report Marine biodiversity in Kenya – the known and the unknown Esther Fondo, Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, GPO 80100, Mombasa, Kenya INTRODUCTION The Kenyan coastline is about 600 km in length and forms part of the western border of the Indian Ocean. It has an almost continuous fringing coral reef usually running parallel to the coast. Kenya’s territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone extend 12 nm and 200 nm respectively, with the total area of EEZ being 118 km2. The Kenyan coast runs in a southwesterly direction from the Somalian border in the north 1o41’S to 4o40’S at the border with Tanzania. Climate and weather systems on the Kenyan coast are dominated by the two distinct monsoon periods. From November to March, the north-east monsoon dominates and is comparatively dry. End of March to September the south-east monsoon dominates bringing heavy rains. Mean annual total rainfall ranges from 508 mm to1016 mm. Relative humidity is comparatively high all year round reaching its peak during the wet months of April and July. Living coral reefs occur all along the length of the Kenyan coast. A fringing reef colonizes the shallow parts of the continental shelf along most of the Kenyan coastline to a depth of around 45 km and at a distance of between 500 m to 2 km offshore, except where river systems create conditions of low salinity and high turbidity which limit coral growth. The estimated continental shelf area is about 19,210 km2. Two main rivers drain into the Indian Ocean: the Tana River (850 km) and Sabaki River (650 km). The Tana River enters the sea at Ungwana Bay and discharges 3 million tonnes of sediment per year, while the Sabaki River enters the Indian Ocean north of Malindi and discharges about 2 million tonnes of sediment per year. The sea surface temperature ranges from 24oC to 29oC depending on the monsoon season. Salinities vary from a minimum of 34.5 ppt to a maximum of 35.4 ppt. Coastal Ecosystems and Resources Marine beaches and dunes: These are lightly vegetated by highly specialized colonizing plants. There are approximately 27,000 ha of beach and dunes in Kenya. Estuaries and other wetlands: These systems are sheltered from high energy waves and colonized by mangrove trees and associated plants. The Sabaki Estuary contains an important flood plain. Subsistence fisheries for cichlid fish and freshwater prawns are found in coastal wetlands. Mangroves: There are 9 species of mangrove trees and shrubs found along the Kenyan coast. The mangrove swamps along the Kenyan coast cover 53,000 ha with the largest stands occurring in the Lamu area (460 km2). Kenyans have traditionally exploited the rich natural products of the mangrove swamp as well as various parts of the trees themselves. Mangrove vegetation has also been cleared for solar salt works and prawn farms. Mangroves are nursery grounds for fish and prawns and support diverse flora and fauna. 169 Figure 1: Map of Kenya showing the coastal resources and MPAs (source KeNODC) Seagrasses and seaweeds: A total of 12 species of seagrasses have been recorded in Kenya, none of which is endemic. Seagrass beds support variety of commercially important fish species, and act as feeding grounds for turtles and dugong. There are more species of red seaweeds than browns and greens combined. A survey of Kenyan coastal waters has shown that there are no sites with significant stands of commercially important seaweeds. Only two commercially important genera are found in Kenya: Gracilaria and Euchema. 170 Corals: Approximately 183 species of corals belonging to 59 genera have been recorded. The total area of coral reef is approximately 50,000 ha; one of the best known reefs being located at Malindi-Watamu. Corals support a variety of fauna and attract tourists. Fisheries: Only 7.4% of the national total annual fishery production comes from marine waters. Landings by about 5,000 coastal fishermen have remained consistent between 5,000 and 8,000 tonnes. Commercial prawn trawling also is also important.(Eastern Africa Atlas,1998) THE KNOWN Both local and visiting researchers have conducted research on the marine biota of Kenya. However, a lot still needs to be done. Among the taxa that have been adequately researched include the marine plants under the following classes: Anthophyta, Rhodophycota, Chlorophycota and Phaeophycota. Phyla from the animal kingdom that have been adequately researched include Pisces, Crustacea, Mollusca, Aves, Cnidaria, Echinodermata and Mammalia. The diversity of marine animals in Kenya is considerably more than this and a lot more research needs to be undertaken. Coverage of the three major ecosystems (mangroves, corals and seagrass beds) has been adequate, but studies on other habitats (such as the benthic habitats) have been minimal. The total biodiversity in Kenya is unknown, as are the levels of endemicity. Estimates of marine species documented from Kenya, as recorded in databases that include Fishbase (1998) and Marine Species Diversity of Eastern Africa (MASDEA), are listed below: Plants Approximately 56 families (over 204 species) of marine plants are known, under the following Classes: Anthophyta 15 Chlorophycota 62 Cyanophycota 3 Magnoliophycota 1 Phaeophycota 32 Rhodophycota 82 Mangroves 9 Animals About 345 families (over 1808 species) have been documented, under the following Classes: Annelida 10 Arthropoda (Crustacea) 343 Pisces 662 Aves 173 Mammalia 25 Reptalia 3 Cnidaria 183 Echinodermata 93 Mollusca 297 Platyhelminthes 17 171 Porifera 2 Species list for Kenyan finfish are known to be incomplete. Only one biotope, the mangrove swamps, has been studied in any detail. Studies in the Gazi mangrove creek identified 109 finfish species belonging to 44 families. Over 80 species of gastropods and bivalves find their way into curio shops and fish markets. A total of 450 species of birds are found on the coast and adjacent interior (Eastern Africa Atlas, 1998). Twelve coastal and marine species are known to be endemic to Kenya: Mammals 6 Birds 4 Fish 1 Plant 1 Endemic to Kenya and Tanzania: Birds 6 Birds 2 (and Mozambique) The coastal zone appears to be the habitat for the majority of Kenya’s Internationally IUCN threatened species. Of the 159 species of threatened trees and shrubs, 38% come from the coast; of the 71 threatened bird species 27% inhabit the coast, while of the 9 threatened mammal species 55% are located on the coast (Eastern Africa Atlas, 1998). Endangered marine species Vulnerable Rare Commercially threatened Green and Hawksbill turtles Loggerhead turtle and dugong 3 bird species and a mollusc 2 molluscs and spiny lobster The gaps identified in the information on marine biodiversity in the Eastern African region led to the development of MASDEA, a taxonomic/geographical database on marine species of the region. Data entry was started in1996 by Dr E. Van den Berghe at the Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute and was supported by the RECOSCIX-WIO Project (Regional Cooperation for Scientific Information Exchange). The database is accessible on http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/Masdea/about.htm and is hosted by the Flanders Marine Institute, Belgium. In spite of the existence of a number of taxonomic databases, there is still a lack of this important information specific for this region. Furthermore, these databases cover mainly terrestrial species or are based on specific groups. Consequently the database was developed with the following objectives: 1. Collect all available literature on the marine species of the region. 2. Enter data on the species into the database. 3. Seek the support of taxonomic experts (of different groups) of the region. 4. Search for more literature to be entered in the database. 5. Eventually make the database available to scientists in the region and beyond. The database is useful in conservation in that it gives knowledge on the diversity of the species in the region. One can keep track of extinct species and also keep track of old information and literature. Current and valid names as well as synonyms of species are clearly indicated as well as the authority (author who described the species) thereby avoiding confusion. The database also includes accounts for newly discovered species. The database has entries for 21 countries and regions within the Western Indian Ocean. 172 THE UNKNOWN The coastal and marine environments of Kenya are very rich in biotic resources, yet they are the least studied of Kenyan natural environments and there are a number of significant gaps in baseline information. Considerable research work on the Kenyan coast has been carried out by visiting scientists. Local scientists are limited by financial support and lack of appropriate facilities. Expertise is restricted to mostly the environmental and ecological fields, with taxonomy poorly represented. This has led to limited taxonomical information on the marine biota of Kenya. Taxa that have been neglected include Annelida and Porifera. Even among the adequately covered classes (Crustacea, Cnidaria) some taxa have been poorly studied, e.g. Mysidacea, Amphipoda, Ostracoda, Cirripedia and Pycnogonida. In addition, the Nudibranchia, Bryozoa, Nemertea and Tunicata have also been largely ignored. Adequate taxonomic keys are a major limitation. Among the seagrass beds and corals, smaller fauna utilising these habitats and have been poorly researched. Benthic habitats have received little attention despite their importance in the marine ecosystems. 173 CURRENT THREATS Increased demands for marine resources have resulted in significant changes along the Kenyan coast. These changes were brought about because of a number of threats that include: • • • • • • Overexploitation of marine resources: overfishing has resulted in declining fish resources and disappearance of some species e.g. holothurians. Destruction of habitats through cutting of mangroves and destructive fishing methods such as seine nets and poisons as well as commercial trawling. Careless collection methods in the corals are on the increase. Conversion of mangrove areas to prawn farms, e.g. Ngomeni area. Pollution: land and marine based pollutants, domestic effluents, chemicals and eutrophication. Sedimentation, resulting from the erosion of agricultural land. This has been on the increase resulting in one of the major rivers (Sabaki) changing its course. Urbanization and unplanned development. Natural threats such as El Nino, and localised changes in sea temperatures have impacted on the corals and mangroves. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN KENYA Kenya led Africa with the establishment of the continent’s first marine protected areas in 1968. These areas were primarily designed to conserve Kenya’s coral reefs and which form biodiversity hot spots. There are five MPAs in Kenya and they are managed by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). Malindi Marine National Park The Malindi Marine National Reserve encloses Watamu and Malindi Marine National Parks. These were set up in 1968. The area also includes several coral islets, notably Whale Island at the entrance to Mida Creek in the Watamu Marine National Park. The reserve is 213 km2 forming a complex of marine and tidal habitats on Kenya’s North Coast. It extends 5 km into the sea and stretches 30 km along the coast from Malindi town to beyond the entrance to Mida Creek. Habitats include intertidal rock, sand and mud; fringing reefs and coral gardens; beds of sea grass; coral cliffs, platforms and islets; sandy beaches and mangrove forests. Mida Creek is a large, almost land locked expanse of saline water, mangrove forest and intertidal mud protected in the Watamu Marine Reserve. Watamu Marine National Park Watamu National Park is part of a complex of marine and tidal habitats on Kenya’s North coast stretching from Malindi town to beyond the entrance to Mida Creek. It is enclosed by the Malindi Marine National Reserve that also encloses Malindi Marine National Park. Habitats include intertidal rock, sand and mud; fringing reefs and coral gardens; beds of sea grass; coral cliffs, platforms and islets; sandy beaches and Mida Creek mangrove forest. The park was designated as a Biosphere reserve in 1979. 174 Mombasa Marine National Park & Reserve The park is 10 km2 while the reserve is 200 km2. These were established in 1986. Both the park and reserve are the most highly utilised among marine protected areas. Their coastline is heavily developed with tourist facilities. The Coral gardens and the beach are the major attractions. Kiunga Marine National Reserve Kiunga Marine National Reserve (set up in 1979) incorporates a chain of about 50 calcareous offshore islands and coral reefs in the Lamu Archipelago, running for some 60km parallel to the coastline off the northern most coast of Kenya and adjacent to Dodori and Boni National Reserves on the mainland. Composed of old, eroded coral, the islands mainly lie inland around 2km offshore and inshore of the fringing reef. They vary in size from a few hundred square metres to 100 ha or more. Their walls rise sheer from the surrounding seabed and are usually deeply undercut on the landward side. The small outer islands provide nest sites for migratory seabirds. The reserve conserves valuable coral reefs, sea grass meadows and extensive mangrove forests, with their attendant biodiversity and is also a refuge for sea turtles and dugongs. Kisite Marine Park & Mpunguti Reserve Kisite and Mpunguti Marine Parks (gazetted in 1973 and 1978 respectively) are located on the south coast off Shimoni and south of Wasini Island in Kwale District on the south Kenyan coast near the Tanzanian border. Kisite Park covers 11 km2 while Mpunguti reserve covers 28 km2. The complex covers a marine area with four small islands surrounded by coral reef. Two more protected areas have been proposed: The Tana River Delta Wetland Reserve and the Diani Chale Marine Reserve. The World Wildlife Fund has made efforts to set up the Eastern African Marine Ecoregion (EAME), which is part of the larger Western Indian Ocean Region. The ecoregion approach recognises that the protection of biodiversity is an integral component of protecting resources and the economies and social fabrics that depend on them. In Kenya the following areas rich in biodiversity are included in the EAME: Lamu Archipelago, Mida CreekMalindi, Tana River Delta, Msambweni-Tanga, Tanzania (EAME Proceedings, 2001). Kenya has made a number of International commitments to the protection of the coastal and marine environment and its resources. Some of these include: • Convention on the Continental Shelf, Geneva, 1958. Kenya ratified this convention on 20 September 1969. • Convention on the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other matters, London, 1972. Kenya ratified this convention on 17 January 1976. • Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979). • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973). • Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) • Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine Environment and the coastal areas of the East African Region (1996). • RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl habitat (1971). 175 The Kenyan government has the responsibility of creating national legislation that ensures the implementation of these agreements. CAPACITY Human Capacity (Taxonomists and Conservationists) Kenyans Name Enoch Wakwabi James Kairo Agnes Muthumbi David Olendo Joseph Wakibia Nyawira Muthiga David Obura Melckzedeck Osore James Mwaluma Renison Ruwa Julius Okondo Gerald Mwatha Gladys Moragwa Esther Fondo Edward Kimani Jacqueline Uku Peter Wawiye Helida Oyieke Elizabeth Akinyi Dalmas Oyugi George Gatere Paul Webala Alfred Owino Collins Handa Nathan Gichuki Patrick Gwada Stephen Mwangi Expertise Prawns Mangroves Nematodes Turtles Algae Corals, Echinoderms Corals Copepods Copepods Decapods Benthos Fish Turtles Decapods Oysters Seagrasses Phytoplankton/algae Sea weeds Fresh water fishes Marine fishes Fresh water diatoms Mammals Water birds Marine Snails Water birds Mangroves, seagrass Microbiology Contact [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Visiting scientists A number of visiting scientists have been active workers on the marine biota of Kenya and the Western Indian Ocean region. Some of these scientists are listed below. Name Tim Mc Clanahan Jan Mees Tim Deprez Tris Wooldridge Didier V. Spiegel Michel Jangoux Yves Samyn Claude Massin Expertise Corals Mysids Mysids Mysids Ophiuroidea Asteroidea Echinoderms Echinoderms Contact [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] 176 Ahmed Thandar Eric Coppejans Marco Vannini S. Cannicci F. Dahdouh-Guebas Leon Bennun Charles Sheppard Nest Schockaert Yehuda Benayahu Echinoderms Algae Decapods Decapods Mangroves Birds Corals Flatworms Corals [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Warwick University [email protected] Institutional Capacity The National Museums of Kenya keeps all specimen collections. Visiting scientists and cruises also have collections and some of the holdings in other Institutions are shown in the table below. Institution Collections University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge The Natural History Museum of London Swedish Museum of Natural History Zoological Museum University of Copenhagen National Museum of Scotland Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History Invertebrates (9) Fish (3) Zoological Museum Documentation Status Preparing electronic catalogue Contact person Algae Others Database Ms. Jenny Bryant [email protected] Molluscs Oligochaetes (4) Not catalogued e-database Anders Waren [email protected] Rotifers Mounted Martin Sorensen [email protected] Ray Symonds [email protected] Molluscs Card catalogue Other invertebrates Sankurie Pye [email protected] 512 marine All online* species: Coelentrata Arthropoda Echinodermata Mollusca Sarcomastigophora Porifera Chordata Annelida Platyhelminthes Nematoda Sipuncula Crustacea e-catalogue in Others preparation Chad Walter [email protected] 177 Cheryl Bright [email protected] Bjarne Bisballe [email protected] Denmark Puglia Museum of Zoology, Italy Rome Museum of Zoology Australian Museum Oxford University Museum of Natural History Australian Museum Zoology Museum Tel Aviv University Hungary Museum of Natural History Zoological Museum, University of Florence, Italy Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences Molluscs Card catalogue Crustacea (8) e-database Crustacea Not identified Fish (8) e-database Soft Corals Benthic invertebrates Sponges Tunicates Molluscs e-database A. Zilli [email protected] Penny Berents [email protected] Sammy De Graves [email protected] McGrouther [email protected] Prof. Hudi Benayahu [email protected] e-database Zoltan Feher [email protected] Echinoderms Cephalopods Molluscs Crustacea Card catalogue Cecilia Volpi [email protected] Echinoderms Molluscs e-database Claude Massin [email protected] * http://goode.si.edu/mcs/iz/Query.php http://www.mnh.si.edu/rc/db/colldb.html List of institutions/organisations active in marine biodiversity research and conservation Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institution Kenya Wildlife Service National Museums of Kenya Fisheries Department Forestry Department National Environment Management Authority Coast Development Authority Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean 178 Coral Reef Conservation Project World Conservation Union (IUCN- East Africa Regional Office) World Wildlife Fund for Nature Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee East African Wild Life Society Nature Kenya (East African Natural History Society) PACT Kenya National Oil Spills Response Committee Beach Management Units (by local communities along the Kenyan coast) United Nations Environment Programme 179 BIODIVERSITY REFERENCES References from MASDEA Author(s): Abbott, R.T. Dance Aleem, A.A. & Year: Reference: S.P. 1986 Compendium of sea shells. American Malacologists, Inc:Melbourne, Florida 1984 Distribution and Ecology of Seagrass communities in the Western Indian Ocean. Deep Sea Research 31: 919-933 Al-Ghais S.M. & R.T. 1996 Brachyura (Grapsidae, Ocypodidae, Portunidae, Xantidae and Leucosiidae) of Cooper Umm Al Quwain mangal, United Arab Emirates. Tropical Zoology 9: 409-430 Anderson, D.T. 1994 Barnacles: Structure, function, development and evolution. Chapman & Hall Baker, A.N. & L.M. 1976 The rediscovery of Halityle regularis Fisher (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Re. Marsh West. Aust. Mus. 4(2): 107-116 Bakus, G.J. 1973 The Biology and Ecology of Tropical Holothurians. Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. 2: 325 - 367. Bandel, K. & D. 1982 Western Atlantic Species of Nodolittorina (Gastropda: Prosobranchia): Kadolsky comparative morphology and its functional, ecological, phylogenetic and taxonomic implications. Veliger 25 (1): 1-42. Barnard, K. H. 1925 A Revision of the Family Anthuridae (Crustacea Isopoda), with Remarks on certain Morphological Peculiarities. Journ. Limn. Soc (London) (Zool.) 36: 109160. Barnard, K.H. 1950 Descriptive catalogue of South African decapod Crustacea. Ann. S. Afr. Mus 38: 1-837 Barnard, K.H. 1955 Additions to the fauna list of South African Crustacea and Pycnogonida. Annals of the South African Museum 43 (1): 1-107. Bell, F.J. 1884 Echinodermata. In: R.W. Coppinger (ed): Report on the Zoological Collections made in the indo-pacific Ocean during the voyage of HMS Alert, 1881-2. London. Berry, L.E. 1954 Africa's rarest cowries. JEANHS XXII (95): 82-85. Best, W. G., G. Faure & 1980 Contribution to the knowledge of the stony corals from the Seychelles and M. Pichon Eastern Africa. Rev. Zool. Afr. 94,3: 600 - 627. Bhaud, M. 1977 Note sur quelques representants du genre Phyllochaetopterus (Annelides polychetes) et observations au microscope a balayage des soies specialisees. Vie-Milieu A Biol. Mar. 27(1): 11-33. Bock, K.R. 1975 Preliminary checklist of the fishes of the south bank, Kilifi Creek, Kenya. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum 148. Böhlke & McCosker 1982 Monopenchelys, a new eel genus, and a redescription of the type species, Uropterygius acutus Parr (Pisces: Muraenidae). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sce Philadelphia 134: 127-134. Boileau, E.K. 1918 The game fish of Mombasa. JEANHS 6(12): 240-246. Boileau, E.K. 1916 The Game fish of Mombasa and Malindi. JEANHS 5(10): 65-70. Brown, L.H., E.K. Urban 1982 The birds of Africa Volume I. Academic Press, London. & K. Newman Bruce, A.J. 1967 Notes on some indo-pacific Pontoniinae III-IX. Descriptions of some new genera and species from the Western Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. Zoologische Verhandelingen 87. Bruce, A.J. 1993 The occurrence of the semi-terrestrial shrimps Merguia oligodon (De Man 1888) and M. rhizophorae (Rathbun 1900)(Crustacea Decapoda Hippolitidae) in Africa. Tropical Biology 6: 179-187. Bruce, A.J. 1974 A synopsis of the pontoniid shrimp fauna of Central East Africa. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 16(2): 462-490 Bruce, A.J. 1994 Periclimenes gonioporae sp., nov., a new pontoniinid shrimp from Kenya. African Journal of Tropical Hydrobiology and Fisheries 5(I): 45 - 49. Bruce, A.J. 1974 Abbreviated larval development in the alpheid shrimp Racilius compressus 180 Author(s): Year: Reference: Paulson. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum 147, 1-8 Bruce, A.J. 1971 Onycocaris zanzibarica sp. nov., a new pontoniid shrimp from East Africa. J. Nat. Hist. 5: 293-298 Bruce, A.J. 1973 Notes on some Indo-Pacific Pontoniinae, XXIII. Tectopontonia maziwiae gen. nov., sp. nov., a new coral associate from Tanganyika (Decapoda, Palaemonidae). Crustaceana 24 (2): 169-180. Bruce, A.J. & R. Serene 1972 The rediscovery of Notopodoides latus Henderson in the western Indian Ocean. Afr. J. trop. Hydrobiol Fish. 2 (1): 76-81. 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The total land area amounts to 2 040 km2 whilst the marine exclusive economic zone covers an area of about 1.9 million km2 extending from latitude10 o S to 20 o S and from longitude 55 o E to 75 o E (Figure 1). Figure 1: The Indian Ocean showing the EEZ of Mauritius and the islands forming the Republic of Mauritius The island of Mauritius is 1 865 km2 in area, volcanic in origin and consists of a central plateau (mean elevation: 350 m) surrounded by mountain ranges and plains (Figure 2). 188 Figure 2: Map of Mauritius showing the relief Mauritius enjoys a mild maritime climate with summer extending from October - April and winter from May - September. Trade winds are prevalent throughout the year but are stronger in winter when strong anticyclones pass to the south of the island. In summer, the trade winds are weaker but the island is also under the threats of tropical depressions, which can build up in cyclones. On average one cyclone passes within 100 km of Mauritius each year. Mauritius receives an average of 2 100 mm annual rain with 70% of it occurring in summer. Tropical depressions and cyclones bring abundant rainfall spread over a number of days. Mean maximum temperature reaches 310 C in the coastal areas during the peak 189 summer months of January and February whilst the mean minimum temperature on the central plateau reaches 140 C in July and August. (Ministry of Environment, 2002) The coastline of the island of Mauritius is 322 km long and is almost completely surrounded by fringing coral reefs enclosing a lagoon area totaling 243 km. The volcanic nature of the island's origin, the existence of coral reefs and the access to the lagoons of more than 50 rivers and rivulets, determine the diversity of the coastal habitats, flora and fauna. The island has several sandy beaches, protected bays and calm lagoons - factors that have favoured a prosperous tourism industry. Economically, the coastal zone is by far the most valuable segment of the Mauritian territory. Located here are the tourist facilities, secondary residences, ports, fisheries infrastructure and public beaches. Figure 3 gives the changes in coastal land distribution from 1990 - 2000. In this zone billions of rupees are being invested in the form of hotels, infrastructure, water sport facilities, biodiversity conservation, coastal protection and coastal developments in general. Environmental problems which affect the coastal zone are therefore of a very high priority. (Ministry of Environment, 2002) DISTRIBUTON OF COASTAL AREA 4% 8% 3% 5% 3% 8% 3% 5% 6% 13% 3% 3% Yr 1990 5% 9% 13% Cliffs/grazing Yr 1996 Cliffs Coastal road Under vegetation 16% 25% 25% Yr 2000 33% 16% Grazing Agriculture Other activities Building sites 16% 8% Campement sites Hotel sites 5% 7% 9% 8% 8% Public beaches 5% 4% 6% 4% 5% 9% Figure 3: Changes in coastal land distribution from 1990 to 2000. The shoreline varies in extent, shape and regime. Dune and ridge complex characterize most of the beaches around Mauritius and the beach width varies from a few metres in the Eastern and Southern regions to about 25 m in the north. In general the sediments are coralline except at mouth of rivers, where they are muddy with a large component of silt and clay. In many places and in particular in the southern regions there are scattered low-lying basaltic rocks on the shoreline. 190 Mangroves covered a large part of the coastline in the past, but its area has decreased markedly with the development over the last three decades. Nowadays they are to be found at mouth of rivers and estuaries. The two species occuring in Mauritius- Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora mucronata are not exploited. A replanting programme is now in progress in the areas where mangroves were thriving in the past. There are some scattered pockets of coastal wetlands all around the island but most particularly in the north, north-east and north-west regions. These ecologically important ecosystems are under the constant threats of coastal developments. Much of this precious natural filtration system has been reclaimed in the north of the island. Coastal activities Fishing, tourism, sand mining and recreation/sports are the main activities along the coastal zone. The coastal fish catch has remained more or less constant with small annual variations (Table 1) Table 1: Coastal Fish Catch from 1993 to 2002 Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 Coastal 2 533 2 613 2 393 2 566 Fish Catch (tones) Source: Central Statistical Office, 2003 1997 2 196 1998 2 179 1999 2 175 2000 2 310 2001 2 025 2002 2252 On the other hand tourism activities have increased significantly. The number of tourists arriving in Mauritius in 2002 reached 681 600 with a room capacity of 9 623. (Table 2).It is expected to increase further this year. Table 2: Tourist arrival for Mauritius from 1993 to 2002 Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Tourist Arrivals 374630 400526 422463 486867 536125 558195 578085 656453 660318 681600 Source: Central Statistical Office, 2003 Sand mining has been going on in the lagoons for years. About 800 000 t of sand are removed from the lagoon annually to be used in construction work. Twenty-five cooperative associations using 310 boats and employing nearly 1 000 people run this business with a turnover of US$8 million. Owing to the devastating effects of this practice to the lagoon ecosystem, the government has banned sand mining with effect from 1st October 2001. The workers of this sector are being financially compensated and alternative jobs including training facilities are being offered to them. Mauritius has witnessed a very rapid industrial and tourism development in the last two decades. This development has increased the pressures on natural resources and negatively impacted on the environment, especially the coastal zone. The problem is further aggravated by the scarcity of land and the unplanned development of prime coastal land in environmentally sensitive areas. Because of the size of Mauritius and the proximity of any land point from the sea, the entire island can be considered as coastal zone. As such most 191 land-based activities have a direct or indirect impact on the marine environment. Some of the activities directly affecting the marine environment include fishing, beach hotel activities, wetland loss, tourism, sand mining, untreated sewage discharges and agrochemicals. The 1992 report on the State of the Environment in Mauritius clearly identifies major environmental problems in the marine environment as: 1. Deterioration of the water quality (fouling of the seas with industrial and domestic effluents and agricultural run-off), 2. Disappearance of mangroves and sedimentation, 3. Destruction of coral reefs, 4. Erosion of shores, 5. Decrease in fish productivity and 6. Contamination of beaches and seafood. Though much has been done to control and in some cases reverse the deterioration process, the coastal zone is still under intense pressure from both sea based activities (fisheries and water sports) and land based ones (construction, sewage, industry and agriculture). The rapid increase in the number of hotels and the haphazard development against the shoreline has exacerbated erosion of the beachfront due to the construction of inappropriate protection structures and jetties. In many cases when land on the coastal strip was leased out, no special provision was made to allow access of the public to the sea. In places where there are hotels or extensive bungalow developments, people have to walk long distances to find an access to the beach. Priority issues The priority issues identified in the National Environment Strategies (NES 1999) can be summarised as: • Beach erosion and overdevelopment resulting in a loss of quality of the coastal zone and a threat to existing commercial interests; • Poor lagoon water quality as a result of contamination from land, coastal and marine sources; and • Loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of wetlands, mangroves and corals. (WSSD) The Known The first formal compilation of marine organisms was recently done as a requirement for the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. The marine organisms described from Mauritius are given in Table 3. Table 3: Marine animals and plants from Mauritius GROUP Mammals Reptiles FAMILY Balaenopteridae Delphinidae Physeteridae Zyphiidae Chelonidae SPECIES 5 8 1 2 2 192 Bony Fishes Laticaudidae Acanthuridae Albulidae Ambassidae Anguillidae Antennariidae Apogonidae Atherinidae Aulostomidae Balistidae Belonidae Berycidae Blennidae Bothidae Bramidae Branchiostegidae Caesionidae Caracanthidae Carangidae Chaetodontidae Chanidae Chirocentridae Cirrhidae Cirrhitidae Clinidae Clupeidae Congridae Coryphaenidae Cynoglossidae Dactylopterigae Diodontidae Echeneidae Eleotridae Elopidae Engraulidae Exocoetidae Fistulanidae Gempylidae Gerreidae Gobiidae Grammistidae Haemolidae Hemiramphidae Holocentridae Istiophoridae Kuhliidae Kyphosidae Labridae Lactariidae Leiognathidae 1 29 1 2 5 6 12 3 1 14 6 2 21 2 3 1 6 2 30 25 1 1 2 9 1 10 1 2 2 1 3 3 8 3 6 5 1 4 3 7 3 10 4 24 4 3 2 91 1 8 193 Lethrinidae Lutjanidae Malacanthidae Megapolidae Menidae Microdesmidae Molidae Monacanthidae Monocentridae Monodactylidae Moringuidae Mugiloididae Mullidae Muraensoadae Muraenidae Nemipteridae Nomeidae Ophichthidae Ophidiidae Oplichthidae Pampheridae Pegasidae Platacidae Platycephalidae Plesiopidae Polymixidae Polynemidae Pomacentridae Pomadasyidae Pomatomidae Priacanthidae Psettodidae Psedochromidae Scaridae Scombridae Scorpaenidae Serranidae Siganidae Soleidae Soleidae Solenostomidae Sparidae Sphyraenidae Sphyrnidae Syngnathidae Synodontidae Tetraodontidae Theraponidae Triacanthidae Triachnoidea 11 28 2 1 1 6 3 20 1 1 7 3 12 2 27 3 2 2 1 8 2 4 1 2 3 1 5 36 1 1 5 1 1 26 13 20 51 6 5 5 2 7 2 3 13 8 19 2 1 1 194 Cartilaginous Fishes Crustaceans (Shrimps) Crustaceans (Lobsters) Crustaceans (Crabs) Molluscs Trichiuridae Triodontidae Zanclidae Carcharhinidae Ginglymostomatidae Lamnidae Rhiniodontidae Sphyrnidae Stegostomatidae Triglidae Xiphiidae Palaemonidae 1 1 1 14 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 7 Penaeidae Palinuridae 5 4 Scyllaridae Synaxidae Portunidae Xanthidae Aceridae Actaeonidea Aplysiidae Architectonicidae Arcidae Atyidae Buccinidae Bullidae Bursidae Calyptridae Cancellariidae Capulidae Cardiidae Carditidae Cassidae Caphalopodes Cerithidae Chamidae Collummbellidae Conidae Coralliophilidae Crytophthalmidae Cymatidae Cypracea Cypracidae Donacidae Epitoniidae Eulimidae Fasciolariidae Fissurellidae 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 7 1 2 29 2 1 11 6 8 1 1 2 7 1 195 Echinoderms Haliotidae Harpidae Hipponycidae Hydatinidae Isogomontidae Lanthinidae Limidae Littorinidae Lucinidae Magilidae Mitridae Modulidae Muricidae Mytilidae Nassariidae Naticidae Neritidae Neritoptidae Octopodidae Olividae Ostreidae Ovulidae Pateliidae Pectinidae Pectunculudae Phasianellidae Pinnidae Planaxidae Pleurobranchidae Psammobiidae Pteriidae Pyramidellidae Spondylidae Stiliferidae Strombidae Tellinidae Terebridae Tonnodae Trapeziidae Tridacnidae Trochidae Turbinidae Turridae Umbraculidae Vanikorida Vasidae Veneriidae Xenophoridae Acanthasteridae Archasteridae 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 4 2 2 24 1 12 4 8 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 8 2 6 4 1 2 2 2 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 196 Corals Mangroves Seagrass Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Astriclypeidae Cidaridae Diadematidae Echinasteridae Holothuriidae Laganidae Ophiocomidae Ophiuridae Oreasteridae Stichopidae Stomopneustidae Synaptidae Toxopneustidae Acroporidae Agariciidae Dendrophy Faviidae Fungiidae Helioporidae Merulinidae Milleporidae Mussidae Oculinidae Pectiniidae PocilIoporidae Poritidae Siderastreidae Rhizophoraceae Hydrocharitacae Alismatacea Potomogetonacae Ruppiaceae Zannichelliaceae Anadyomenaceae Boodlaceae Bryopsidaceae Caulerpaceae Chaetophoraceae Cladophoraceae Codiaceae Cyanophyceae Dasvcladaceae Diatomaceae Prasciolaceae Siphonocladaceae Ulvaceae VaIoniaceae Chordariaceae Cornyophloeaceae Dictyotaceae 1 1 4 8 6 1 6 2 1 2 1 2 2 29 5 2 29 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 6 8 3 3 4 1 3 1 4 5 7 4 16 5 24 25 5 6 2 1 4 10 4 1 1 19 197 Rhodophyceae Ectocarpaceae Encoliaceae Sargassaceae Spennatochnacea Sphacelariaceae Bangiaceae Bonnemalsoniaceae Ceramiaceae Chaetangiaceae Chantransiaceae Chondrieae Corallinaceae Dasyaceae Delesseriaceae Gelidiaceae Gracilariaceae Grateloupiaceae Helminthocladiaceae Hypnaceae Kallymeniaceae Mychodeaceae Nemastomaceae Phyllophoraceae Plomiaceae Porphyridiaceae Rhizophyllidaceae Rhodomdelaceae Rhodopbyllidaceae Rhodymeniaceae Sarcodiaceae Solieriaceae Spbaerococcaceae Squamariaceae 8 6 22 2 5 3 1 33 21 5 11 22 4 4 8 16 3 19 15 2 1 6 2 4 2 2 39 4 4 4 15 3 2 Acanthuridae Apogonidae Balistidae Bleniidae Brancbiostegidae Callionynidae Chaetodontidae Chaetodotidae Cirrhitidae Eleotridae Gobiidae Labridae Malacanthidae Microdesmidae Monacanthidae Monocentridae 198 Muraenidae Nemipteridae Ostraciidae Platacidae Pomacanthidae Scorpaenidae Serranidae Tetraontidae The Unknown The literature search for the compilation of marine organisms of Mauritius appears to be inadequate and several genera or entire families or phyla are not included. Also no references to first descriptions are given. Most of the organisms described are coastal ones and very few descriptions of open ocean and benthic species are listed. Current Threats • Several coastal constructions are very close to the waterline and they interfere with the normal feeding habits and habitat of coastal organisms • Fishermen looking for bait cause a lot of damage to seagrass meadows by digging and overturning the beds. • Species which have been introduced for aquaculture have accidentally found their way in natural water bodies and their impacts have yet to be determined • Trampling of corals by visitors and fishermen is a major problem especially in the island of Rodrigues. • Anchor damage to corals by fishermen is also a major issue. • Bird egg collection on islets, although prohibited, is of concern. • Mangrove clearing for golf course creations and hotel construction is localized but need to be better managed. • Impact of invasive species through ballast waters has not yet been determined Conservation measures • There is now a total ban on lagoonal sand mining • Government has been able to control dynamite fishing by making it illegal for anybody to handle or import dynamite apart from the police. • The use of underwater spear guns is illegal 199 • • • • • • • • • No trawling allowed in the waters of Mauritius There is a closed season for large net fishery during the spawning season of fishes. There is a mesh size limitation for nets There is control of fishing effort by the issue of licenses for fishing nets and when the effort needed to be reduced further recently, a buy-back policy of fishing licenses was introduced. There is limit on the minimum size of certain fishes which can be caught. A mangrove re-afforestation programme has been initiated Two Marine Protected Areas (MPA) were declared in 1997, the Blue Bay MPA of 353 ha and the Balaclava MPA of 485 ha One estuary (Terre Rouge) has been declared a Ramsar site Five fishing reserves covering 60 km2 were declared in the forties Marine Biodiversity Information Source Atchia M. 1990 - Sea Fishes of Mauritius and the South-west Indian Ocean. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, 188p. Baissac de J. (1990) SWIOP Document 10SO April 1990 Checklist of the Marine Fishes of Mauritius, 42p. Cornic A (1987) Possons de l'ne Maurice Edition de l'Ocean Indien, Ile Maurice, 335p. . Government of Mauritius. (1995) Annual Report 1995 - Albion Fisheries Research Centre, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, 57p. Government of Mauritius. (1996) Annual Report 1996, Fisheries, Ministry of Cooperatives, Fisheries & Marine Resource Development, 68p. Goorah D. and Naidoo D., 1987 - Aquaculture Development and Prospects in Mauritius, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & N.R, 6p. Government of Mauritius. (1996) Mauritius Economic Review 1992-1995, Ministry of Economic Planning & Development, 258p. Parameswaran S. & Goorah D. (1981). Occurrence of the striped murrel, Channa striatus (BLOCH), 1793 in Mauritius. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de 1"Ile Maurice,60, 117-124p. Parameswaran S., Jehangeer M.I. and J.D. Ardill (1977) - Introduction of Indian and Chinese Carps and Preliminary Observations on Polyculture in Mauritius. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de Maurice, 56, 124-140p. 18. Government of Mauritius. (1991) State of the Environment in Mauritius, Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life, 403p. Mauritius Sugar Industry research Institute (1984). Flore des Mascareignes (May 1984), 200p. 200 OFCF (1994) Survey Report on the Outer Lagoon Fisheries Development Project in Mauritius Island, 93p. Government of Mauritius. (1995) The Fisheries and Marine Sectors of Mauritius - An Overview (1995), Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, 47p. MMCF & MWAF (1991) Whales and Dolphins of Mauritius, An Identification Guide. A Publication of the Mauritius Marine Conservation Society and the Mauritius Wildlife Appeal Fund. Bameul,-F. (1986)The Hydrophiloidea (Coleoptera) of the Mascarene Islands. Les Hydrophiloidea des iles Mascareignes (Coleoptera) -Bat. B, Esc. 4, Les Jardins d'Olibet, 45 rue Eugene-Olibet, F-33400 Talence, France-REV.-SUISSE-ZOOL. 1986. vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 875-910 Gall,-J.-Y.-le; Beague,-E. (1986)Introduction of the giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Caridea, Palaemonidae) to Reunion (Indian Ocean). Introduction du camaron Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Caridea, Palaemonidae) a l'Ile de la Reunion (Ocean Indien) -IFREMER, Station de la Reunion, B.P. 60, 97420 Le Port, Reunion -AQUACULTURE. 1986. vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 303-305 Allen,-G.R.; Emery,-A.R.(1985)A review of the pomacentrid fishes of the genus Stegastes from the Indo-Pacific, with descriptions of two new species. -Western Australian Mus., Perth, W.A. 6000, Australia -INDO-PAC.-FISH. 1985. no. 3, 31 pp Fisheries Research and Development Div. (Mauritius)(1983)Mauritius fisheries baseline study. -SWIOP-DOC.-DOC.-OISO. VICTORIA-SEYCHELLES-FAO-UNDP 1983. 32 pp -FAO/UNDP RAF/79/065/WP/11/83. Randall,-J.E.; Bauchot,-M.-L.; Desoutter,-M. (1985)The status of the Indo-Pacific serranid fish Variola punctulatus (Lacepede). -Bernice Pauahi Bishop Mus., Box 1900-A, Honolulu, HI 96817, USA -BULL.-MUS.-NATL.-HIST.-NAT.-FRANCE-4E-SER.-A-ZOOL.-BIOL.ECOL.-ANIM.. 1985. vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 475-478 Moosa,-M.K. (1984 )Notes on stomatopod Crustacea from La Reunion and Mauritius. -Natl. Inst. Oceanol., Indonesian Inst. Sci., P.O. Box 580 Dak, Jakarta, Indonesia -MARINEBIOLOGY.-RESULTS-FROM-OCEANOGRAPHICAL-CRUISES-OF-THE-M.S.MARION-DUFRESNE-AND-FROM-LITTORAL-INVESTIGATIONS-OF-THEJAPONAISE-.BIOLOGIE-MARINE.-RESULTATS-DE-CAMPAGNESOCEANOGRAPHIQUES-DE-M.S.-MARION-DUFRESNE-ET-DE-PROSPECTIONSLITTORALES-DE-LA-VEDETTE-JAPONAISE-.Comite-National-Francais-desRecherches-Antarctiques,-Paris-France1984. no. 55 pp. 37-40 Comite National Francais des Recherches Antarctiques, Paris (France) (1984)(Marine biology. Results from oceanographical cruises of the M.S. Marion Dufresne and from littoral investigations of the "Japonaise".). Biologie marine. 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His.), Cromwell Rd., London SW7 5BD, UK American Malacological Union Symposium Proceedings. 2. International Symposium on Molluscan Genetics, New Orleans, LA (USA), 20-22 Jul 1982 -MALACOLOGIA. 1984. vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 447-463 Coste,-M.; Ricard,-M. (1982 )(Contribution to the study of freshwater diatoms from the Seychelles and the Mauritius islands.). Contribution a l'etude des diatomees d'eau douce des Seychelles et de l'ile Maurice -Bordeaux l'Univ., Lab. Bot., Av. des Facultes, 33405 Talence, France -CRYPTOGAMIE:-ALGOLOGIE. 1982. vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 279-313 Morse,-J.C. (1984 )Evolution and historical biogeography of Leptocerina and Axiocerina (Leptoceridae, Leptocerinae, Athripsodini). -Dep. Entomol., Fish. and Wildl., Clemson Univ., Clemson, SC 29631, USA. International Symposium on Trichoptera, Clemson, SC (USA), 11-16 Jul 1983 -PROCEEDINGS-OF-THE-4th-INTERNATIONAL-SYMPOSIUMON-TRICHOPTERA,-CLEMSON,-SOUTH-CAROLINA,-11-16-JULY-1983. 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Lab., Pivers Island, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA -PROC.-BIOL.-SOC.WASH. 1980. vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 781-796 Serene,R.- (1980)Remarks on some badly known species and description of a new species of Crustacea Brachyura mainly from Mauritius and deposited in the collections of the Museum d'Histoire naturelle of Geneva. Notes sur quelques crustaces Brachyoures provenant principalement de l'ile Maurice et conserves au Museum d'Histoire naturelle de Geneve. Description d'Etisus zehntneri- sp. nov. Hautes-Etud.,-61,-rue-de-Buffon,-75005,-Paris,-France) -Rev.-Suisse-Zool., 1980 87(3), 711-722 Brown,D.S. 1980)New and little known gastropod species of fresh and brackish waters in Africa, Madagascar and Mauritius. Dep.,-British-Mus.-(Nat.-Hist.),-London-SW7-5BD,UK) -J.-Mollusc.-Stud., 1980 46(2), 208-223 Allen,G.R.; Randall,J.E.(1977)Review of the sharpnose pufferfishes Canthigasterinae) of the Indo-Pacific. -Rec.-Aust.-Mus., 1977 30(17), 475-517 Randall,-J.E.(1976)Ostracion trachys, a new Mauritius(Ostraciontidae). -Matsya, 1976 (no.1), 59-62 species of (subfamily trunkfish from Nesis,-K.N. (1993)Cephalopods of Saya de Malha Bank, Indian Ocean. Golovonogie mollyuski banki Saya-de-Mal'ya, Indijskij okean -BIOLOGY-OF-OCEANIC-FISHESAND-SQUIDS.-BIOLOGIYA-OKEANICHESKIKH-RYB-I-KAL'-MAROV MOSKVARUSSIA A-SYSTEMA-VARKHAZAR 1993 vol. 128 pp. 26-39 ST: TR.-INST.OKEANOL.-TRANS.-INST.-OKEANOL. vol. 128 -Incl. bibliogr.: ca. 50 ref. Ross,-A.; Newman,-W.A. (1996)A new sessile barnacle symbiotic with bryozoans from Madagascar and Mauritius (Cirripedia: Balanomorpha): A unique case of co-evolution? Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA -INVERTEBR.-BIOL. 1996 vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 150-161 Ballesteros,-E. (1994 (1994))New records of benthic marine algae from Mauritius (Indian Ocean) -Cent. Estud. Ave. Blanes, CSIC, 17300 Blanes, Girona, Spain -BOT.-MAR. 1994 vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 537-546 204 Murray,-J.W. (1994)Larger foraminifera from the Chagos Archipelago: Their significance for Indian Ocean biogeography -Dep. Geol., Univ. Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK -MAR.-MICROPALEONTOL. 1994 vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 43-45 Ingole,-B.S.; Ansari,-Z.A.; Parulekar,-A.H. (1992)Benthic fauna around Mauritius Island, Southwest Indian Ocean. -NIO, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India -INDIAN-J.-MAR.-SCI. 1992. vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 268-273 Sanders,-M.J. (1987)The crustacean resources and fisheries of the Southwest Indian Ocean. FAO, Via Terme Caracalle, 00100 Rome, Italy FAO/UNDP Reg. Proj. for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the Southwest Indian Ocean, Victoria (Seychelles).Crustacean Management Workshop, (np) (Mauritius), 1-11 Oct 1985 PROCEEDINGS-OF-THE-CRUSTACEAN-MANAGEMENT-WORKSHOP. 1987. no. 34 pp. 2-41 ST: SWIOP-DOC.-DOC.-OISO. no. 34 -FAO/UNDP RAF/79/065/WP/34/87. Devassy,-V.P.; Goes,-J.I. (1991)Phytoplankton assemblages and pigments in the Exclusive Economic Zone of Mauritius (Indian Ocean). -NIO, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India INDIAN-J.-MAR.-SCI. 1991. vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 163-168 King,-M. (1991)Mauritius. Research programme for snapper and shrimp stocks. Report prepared for the project Development of Advanced Artisanal Fishery for Deepwater Shrimp and Snappers. FAO, Rome (Italy) -1991. 21 pp -FAO FI/DP/MAR/88/004-field-document. Baissac,-J.-de-B. (1990)Checklist of the marine fishes of Mauritius. -De Chazal Lane, Vacoas, Mauritius FAO/UNDP Reg. Proj. for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the Southwest Indian Ocean, Victoria (Seychelles) -SWIOP-DOC.-DOC.-OISO. VICTORIA-SEYCHELLES-FAO-UNDP 1990. no. 54, 42 pp -FAO/UNDP RAF/87/008/WP/54/90. Manning,-R.B. (1990)Mortensenenus minus , a new genus and species of coronidid stomatopod from Mauritius. -Dep. Invertebr. Zool., NHB-163, Natl. Mus. Nat. Hist., Smithsonian Inst., Washington, DC 20560, USA -J.-CRUST.-BIOL. 1990. vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 162-164 205 National Report Marine biodiversity in the Seychelles archipelago – the known and the unknown 1 Bijoux, J.P1*, Adam, P-A2., Alcindor, R2. Bristol, R.3, Decommarmond, A.4, Mortimer, J.A.2, Robinson, J.5, Rosine, G.2, Rowat, D.6, Talma, E.S6., Wendling, B2. and Zialor, V.2, 1 Seychelles Centre for Marine Research and Technology - Marine Parks Authority, P.O. Box 1240, Victoria, Seychelles. 2 Conservation Section, Ministry of Environment. P.O. Box 445, Victoria, Seychelles 3 Nature Seychelles. P. O. Box 1310, Victoria, Seychelles 4 Coastal & Hydrographic Unit, Division of Policy, Planning and Services. Ministry of Environment. P.O. Box 1145. Victoria, Seychelles 5 Seychelles Fishing Authority. P.O. Box 449, Victoria, Seychelles. 6 Marine Conservation Society, Seychelles. P.O. Box 384, Victoria, Seychelles. INTRODUCTION The Seychelles archipelago consists of 115 small granitic and coralline islands, occupying a terrestrial area of 445 km2 within an Exclusive Economic Zone of 1.3 million km2 in the South Western Indian Ocean. The population was calculated at 81,177 in the last national census in 2002 and the per capita GDP for that same year was estimated at US$ 9,100. The economy of the country is based on tourism and fisheries. The management of natural biodiversity in the Seychelles is governed by the Seychelles National Biodiversity and Action Plan (NBSAP) of 1997. This document identifies the country’s vision for biodiversity and its objectives as well as gaps and needs, and tools and processes required to fill in the gaps. This document is the centre of Seychelles’ effort to fulfil its obligations to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), being the second country to ratify this convention. According to the CBD, the Seychelles pledges itself to conserve biological diversity, and use biodiversity components sustainably and equitably share benefits derived from genetic resources. It is clearly recognised that biodiversity loss and degradation can also lead to a wide range of costs both in bio-diversity dependent activities, such as SCUBA diving and as knock-on effects and externalities in other sectors (Shah et al., 1997). As the country’s economy is heavily dependant on tourism and sustainable use of marine resources it thus highly values the protection of biological diversity. As a result of the small terrestrial areas of the islands making up the Seychelles, the whole country could be considered as a coastal zone as many adverse effects from land affects the marine environment (Gabriel et al., 2000). Tourism and fisheries being the main source of foreign earning of the country exerts certain amount of pressure on the government to adequately preserve the marine environment so that it could be as productive as possible. The country continues to be an active participant in the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) and * Corresponding author Email address: [email protected] 206 Conference of the Parties (COPs) of the CBD. As party to the convention Seychelles submit reports on the implementation of the convention on a yearly basis. Collection and classification of specimens from Seychelles is recorded in reports dating back to the 1800s. However, many of the documents are not available locally and very little work has been done (apart from the NBSAP) to bring together and review available information on Seychelles marine biodiversity. Much of the information known about Seychelles marine biodiversity was collected by the Dutch Expedition Programme of 1994. The Known Plant Kingdom: Mangroves Out of the 10 species of mangrove known from the East African region (Semesi, 1997), 8 occur naturally in the Seychelles and occupy a total area of 29 km2 (Spalding et al., 2001). The 8 species are Rhizophora mucronata, Bruiguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Sonneratia alba, Lumnitzera racemosa, Avecenia marina, Xylocarpus granatum and Xylocarpus mulocuensis. Though all 8 species are fairly common on most of the Seychelles granitic islands, there is only one location (Port Launay, Mahe) where all 8 species are found together. Mangroves once covered many shores of the granitic islands, especially close to river mouths and marshland (Shah et al., 1997). Since men first settled in the Seychelles in the late 1700s mangrove forests have been cleared to make way for coastal construction. However, there is presently a proliferation of mangrove in the Seychelles. This is clearly visible on the east coast of Mahe in the lagoons created by recent coastal reclamation and in places such as Anse Souillac in the Port Launay Marine National Park, where the forest is slowly extending seawards. Avecenia marina is often the most common species in new mangrove areas with more mature mangrove forest being dominated by the Red mangrove, Rhizophora mucronata. The most extensive mangrove habitats in the Seychelles are found in the lagoons of Aldabra, Cosmoledo and Astove Island groups, where they provide important seabird nesting and resting habitats for a variety of seabird species in particular Boobies (Sula sula) and Fregate birds (Fregata minor) (Shah et al., 1997) and nursery ground for fish. These 3 atolls are the most outlying of the Seychelles archipelago and human presence there is minimal, thus providing full protection to these important habitats. Mangroves are no longer used for wood in the Seychelles and are not harvested in any way. There is therefore no immediate threat to mangrove apart from a small degree of coastal reclamation that still goes on in mangrove areas in the Granitic islands. Seagrasses There are 8 species of seagrasses in the Seychelles (Spalding et al., 2001). The species are Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila ovalis, Thalassodendron ciliatum, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule uninervis and Syringodium isoetifolium and Zostera capensis. Most of the outer islands have extensive seagrass beds, but these are more noticeable in the shallow lagoons of Aldabra, Cosmoledo and Astove. One of the most extensive seagrass bed is found on the Providence-Cerf Bank. Major threat to seagrass beds 207 in the inner island remains sedimentation, which may have originated from the extensive land reclamation on the east coast of Mahe. Macroalgae The first inventory of macroalgae from the Seychelles was conducted in 1899-1900 by the Sealark Expedition, in which a total of 120 macroalgal species were collected. There are presently 316 known species of macroalgae from the Seychelles in 3 divisions, Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta, from the Seychelles (Kalugina-Gutnik et al., 1992) cited in Coppejans et al. (1994). Coppejans et al. (1994) collected a total of 209 species from a total of 18 orders and 49 families on the 1992/93 Dutch expedition to the Seychelles. The two major expeditions have together sampled around most of the Seychelles islands with that of Kalugina-Gutnik et al. (1992) sampling mostly from the islands south of the Amirantes group and that of Coppejans et al. (1994) sampling mostly from the Amirantes, the granitic islands and the 2 coralline islands (Bird and Denis island) north of the granitics. The best known of the macroalgae remain the Rhodophyta with a recorded total of 107 species from 23 families and 9 orders followed by the Chlorophyta with a recorded 75 species from 13 families and 4 orders. Twenty-five species of Phaeophyta from 6 families and 5 orders are also known. In the Seychelles, the Phaeophyta are the more noticeable of the macroalgae, with the large and conspicuous Sargassum sp. and Turbinaria sp. often occupying large areas of the reef flats. Coralline algae No specific study on the coralline algae from the Seychelles has been undertaken. However, these algae are common on reefs exposed to high wave action and low sedimentation. Knowledge on coralline algae from the Seychelles is urgently required. Phytoplankton The phytoplanktons from the Seychelles have been little studied and knowledge is clearly lacking. The largest phytoplankton bloom recorded in the Seychelles occurred in August 2003 and was visible at a 15 minutes flying distance from its main concentration in the Bay of Beau Vallon on the north-western coast of the main island of Mahe. The large bloom caused extensive deaths of fish and macrobenthos. A single species (Noctiluca scintillans) appeared to be responsible for the bloom. Animal Kingdom: Zooplankton Knowledge on zooplankton from the coastal waters of the Seychelles is relatively good. This is the result of a Darwin Initiative sponsored project, aimed at establishing a long-term zooplankton sampling programme that has been underway since October 2000. There are 129 species/groups that can be easily identified by a trained local taxonomist, including both meroplankton and holoplankton. There are 78 identified species of copepod, of which 45 are calanoids, 5 cyclopods, 5 harpaticoids, 22 poicillomastoids and 1 monstrilloid. Also identifiable are 17 other crustacean groups, 5 polychaetes, 1 turbellarian, 1 echinoderm, 9 molluscs, 4 chaetognaths, 1 bryozoan, 8 coelenterates, 4 urochordates and 1 208 cephalochordate. The Zuza cruise of 2001 sampled zooplankton between Seychelles and Mauritius and found that most of the species collected were the same as those found in the coastal waters of Mahe. However, the cruise path followed the Mascarene Ridge and data on oceanic zooplankton are still lacking. Sponges The phylum Porifera has been relatively well studied in the Seychelles (Thomas, 1973, 1981; van Soest, 1994). The last known extensive sponge survey was by van Soest (1994). The present known number of species is 351. All four known classes are represented but the majority of the known species are from the larger class of Desmospongiae with a recorded 342 species. There are 7 known species from the Calcarea and 1 species from each the Hexactinellida and Sclerospongiae. In his analysis of specimens collected in the early 1970s Thomas (1973, 1981) found a total of 9 completely new species. Collection has however targeted the inner granitic islands and islands of the Amirantes group. No collections have been undertaken from the three southerly island groups of Providence, Farquhuar and Aldabra. A total of 109 new sponge records were established after the Dutch expedition of 1992/93 (van Soest, 1994) and an estimated 11% of the total known species appear to be endemic to the region. Many species have not been identified beyond the generic level, and it is believed that the number of endemics will greatly increase once these identifications have been completed (van Soest, 1994). An estimated 18% of sponges known to occur in the Seychelles are regional endemics with 10% also found in around the Indian coast. An interesting observation from the Seychelles is that fact that phototropic sponges are common around carbonate islands but absent from the high granitic islands. These sponges are also known to favour oligotrophic waters. They live in symbiosis with cyanobacteria in much the same way as corals live with zooxanthellae. Knowledge of deep-water sponges remains incidental as very little sampling has been done in the vast expanse of deep sea around the Seychelles. It is now well known that the inner granitic islands are more diverse that the Amirantes, with 135 species occurring in the inner island but missing from the Amirantes and 95 species are occurring in the Amirantes and not the inner islands. This has been attributed by van Soest (1994) to the geological base of the inner island having both carbonate and granitic reefs as opposed to the Amirantes, which has exclusively carbonate reefs. Cnidaria Of the Cnidarian, only the Scleractinian and Octocorallians have been relatively well studied. More than 300 species of Scleractinian corals from 66 genera have been recorded in Seychelles waters, a diversity which could be described as impressive as coral diversity decreases westward from the Coral Triangle region and suddenly increase around the Seychelles. Nevertheless, in recent years, coral reefs around the inner granitic islands of the Seychelles have suffered significant reductions in live cover as a result of localised crownof-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) outbreaks as well as the most severe mass coral bleaching event on record in 1998 (Engelhardt, 2001; Wilkinson et al., 1999). The 1998 mass coral bleaching event affected all coral reefs of the inner granitic islands. Many reef suffered mortality in excess of 90% due to excessively high seawater temperatures that exceeded 33°C for a period of several weeks. Two other minor bleaching events occurred in April 2002, and March 2003 (Wendling et al., 2003). Presently, the most common hard coral 209 genera are the Pocillopora, Acropora and Porites. A large scale coral reef monitoring programme that has been undergoing since 2001 has brought to light a number of factors affecting coral reef recovery (Engelhardt, 2001, 2003) which will need to be taken into account when managing coral reef environment. There are a recorded 71 species of Octocorallians and 55 species of sea anemones identified from the Seychelles (Shah et al., 1997). Worms Marine worms from the Seychelles have been poorly studied and knowledge on their biodiversity and distribution is still lacking. To date 50 species of serpulids and 21 species of tuberllaria have been recorded from the Seychelles (Shah et al., 1997). Crustacea The most widely studied crustacean order in Seychelles waters are the caridean shrimp with a recorded 165 different species (Bruce, 1984). It is however thought that the actual number of species to be found is closer to 200 as many well known tropical Indo-West Pacific species of wide distribution are yet to be reported from the Seychelles. Much information is also available on Brachyuran decapod crustacea (Garth, 1984) but more time is necessary for the compilation of a list and calculation of number of known species. There are a recorded 22 species of sea spiders (Pycnogonida) and 2 types of lobsters (Spiny lobsters (Palinuridae) and Slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae)). There is a local aquaculture business involved in the cultivation of the Panaeid prawn (Panaeus monodon). In 2002, 218 Mega tons of prawns were produced; aimed mostly at the international market. Molluscs To date there has not been any in depth study on most of the molluscan phylum from the Seychelles. Much of what is known are about species harvested for consumption or the curio trade and are limited to the larger more conspicuous species. There has lately been an intense survey on the bivalve molluscs from the Seychelles as part of the Shoals of Capricorn Programme (Oliver, 2001). Current list of bivalve molluscs from the Seychelles represents mainly larger species from the reef, intertidal and lagoonal environments and number around 200 species (Oliver, 2001). It has been argued that the bivalve fauna of the Seychelles are under represented. It is apparently much less than numbers found in the Red Sea (420 species) and East Arabian Sea (430 species) (Oliver, 2001). The survey was done in intertidal, lagoonal, reef and offshore environments to depths of 100m. The near shore sampling confirmed the majority of larger species cited by Taylor (1968) and Jarrett (2000). A number of unusual smaller species were also found along with an oyster that was found only on other oysters, which is believed to be undiscribed (Oliver, 2001). Offshore sampling off Le Constant Bank at 100m identified 55 bivalve species of which 26 were new to the Seychelles and 10 were new to science (Oliver, 2001). Samples at Le Constant Bank were dominated by a new species of Limopsis. New species from the genera Elliptotellina, Ervilia, Dimya, Limea, Cadella have also been recognised. The major indication from this survey is that Seychelles bivalve fauna have been underestimated through a lack of comprehensive survey. 210 In the greater Mascarene Ridge region it has been found that the composition of the bivalve fauna is usually uniform but taxonomic richness at individual island is highly variable. The cause of variation is not well understood but it is believed that size of the island and variability of habitats are important and that neither geological age nor latitude is significant. Only preliminary data about the work undertaken by Oliver (2001) has been published to date. The Natural History Museum holds the most extensive collection of Gastropod mollusc from the Seychelles with a total of 376 specimens. An interesting observation is the diversity of cone shells and cowries with a recorded 53 species of cowries and 58 species of cones. The 53 cowrie species are all from the genus Cyprea with the other 15 genera not represented. Some common species such as Erosaria annulus fails to appear in the list. This indicates to a large gap in our knowledge on Gastropod mollusc from the Seychelles. Information in field guides such as Debelius (2001) approximate range distribution of particular species and as such cannot be used in compilation of a national species list. Echinoderms The most comprehensive document on echinoderms in the Seychelles is that of Clark (1984). More than 150 echinoderms have been positively identified from Seychelles waters (Clark, 1984; NBSAP, 1997). However most of these species come from depth of less than 20 m, with greater depths relatively unexplored. Many of the samples that have been collected come from the vicinity of Mahe and Aldabra, with the reefs of the Amirantes and Providence group relatively unexplored. The Dutch Expedition of 1992/3 collected exhaustively in the Amirantes group; however there was no echinoderm specialist on the trip and hence no data on this phylum were collected. Many of the common species known from East Africa, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands are currently unknown from the Seychelles but are likely to be recorded as more samples from diverse localities are collected. It is doubtful whether any species are endemic to the Seychelles (Clark, 1984). The Echinoidea are often the first class to be observed in the inner islands as a result of population explosions by Diadema sp. and Echinotrix sp. (Engelhart, 2001). Echinocyamus grandis is believed to be endemic to the Seychelles. Recent studies have shown that these sea urchins play an important role in the rate of recovery of degraded reefs. High numbers increase the grazing pressure and, since sea urchins graze indiscriminately, they have adverse effect on coral spats. However, in very low numbers they also have adverse ecological effect, as they then fail to keep the algal population in check and thus allow the reef to become overpopulated with algae. The Holothuroidea are usually very abundant on reef flats, seagrass beds and shallow sand flat. A total of 35 species were recorded from the Seychelles more than a decade ago and new species might have been recently discovered. The most popular species is Holothuria atra, which is found in the sand close to beaches. Recently, a fishery for holothurians has commenced, with 6 species (Holothuria nobilis, Holothuria scabra, Holothuria fuscogilva, Thelonta annas, Actinopyga mauritiana and Actinopyga lecanora) being exploited. However, the exploitation is being regulated by new quotas imposed by the Seychelles Fishing Authority. A total of 32 species of Asteroidea have been recorded from the Seychelles. The most conspicuous taxa in the Seychelles are the Linckia sp. with their bright colours. Unlike the holothurians, the distribution of Asteroidea is patchy (Clark, 1984). In 1998 there was an explosion in the crown of thorns (Acanthaster planci) starfish population but this situation 211 returned to normal some months later. Crown of thorn starfish have not been observed around the inner granitic islands but a few individuals were observed around the atoll of Aldabra and Cosmoledo in 2002 (Richmond, pers. comm.). In low abundance, Acanthaster planci forms a natural part of the reef ecosystem and has no adverse effect on the reef. Forty-four species in the class Ophiuroidea are known from the Seychelles (Clark, 1984). In the Seychelles, as with the rest of the Indo-Pacific, the family Ophicomidae is the most dominant. Nine out of the twelve Indo-Pacific species of Ophiocoma, one of the three Ophiarthrum, and the single species of Ophiocomella, but only three of the fourteen of Ophiomastix, have been recorded and most of them are common in their chosen habitat (Clarck, 1984). Most Ophiuroidea of the Seychelles live under blocks on sand, most particularly in seagrass beds (Clark, 1984). When compared to other classes in this phylum, the Crinoidea are poorly represented in Seychelles waters with only 9 recorded species. This is a relatively small class with only 625 species known globally (Barnes et al., 1993). The nocturnal feeding habits of the crinoids make them difficult to see during the day as they are often hiding in cracks and crevices. These habits may contribute to the lack of discovery of these species. Reef fishes Numerous ichthyological collections have been undertaken over the last 150 years (Playfair, 1867; Smith & Smith, 1969; Polunin & Lubbock, 1977; Polunin, 1984; Randall and van Egmond; 1994) with close to 1000 species having been recorded from Seychelles, some 400 of which are reef associated (Jennings et al., 1999). However, collections were largely from shallow water habitats and deepwater fish faunas (> 100 m) have not been adequately studied or described, such that current estimates may underestimate biodiversity considerably. Endemism amongst the fish fauna is low and stands around 1 – 2% (Shah et al., 1997) of which examples are the Seychelles clown fish (Amphiprion fuscocaudatus) and the controversial Seychelles bamboo shark (Hemiscyllium ocellatum). However, since 1969 there has been much revision of Indo-Pacific fishes and there are many misidentification and duplication of names in the list of Smith and Smith (1969) of which (van Egmond and Randall, 1994) attributed to sexual dichromatism that Smith and Smith (1969) were not aware of, resulting in overestimation of the fish population. Only around 300 species of fish were recorded in the Seychelles prior to 1954, the year in which the Smith’s started work in the Seychelles. In the Dutch expedition to the Seychelles in 1992/3, 100 new records were made (Randall and van Egmond, 1994). Community-level diversity is high in Seychelles with variation often ascribed to differences in habitat and fishing effort (Jennings et al., 1995; Jennings et al., 1996). This level of biodiversity also manifests itself across the large latitudinal gradient (3° 41' to 10° 17' South) that encompasses the varied archipelago (MRAG, 1996). Genetic structuring at the population level is also an important component of local biodiversity that is currently being researched, with increasing evidence of a major break in population structure between the Pacific/east Indian Ocean and the Western Indian Ocean, which in some cases suggests that it may be necessary to partition a number of widespread species into different taxa (J.H.Choat, pers.comm.). The large diversity of commercially exploited fishes in Seychelles and the effects of fishing on multispecies communities have important implications for fisheries management and 212 ecosystem approaches are increasingly viewed as the most appropriate tools to ensure sustainability. Eighteen toothed sharks are known from the Seychelles and it is estimated that there is between 50,000 and 56,000 Mega tons of shark biomass on the Mahe Plateau with an additional 34,000 Mega tons on the other banks (Shah et al., 1997). Recent longline trials on the slopes (300 – 1000 m) around the Mahé Plateau yielded a possible new deepwater shark species and first records for other cartilaginous and teleost groups (Boullé, 2002). The whale shark is also common in Seychelles waters. The earliest report of whale sharks, Rhincodon typus, in Seychelles dates back to 1868, some 40 years after the species was first described by Dr Andrew Smith from a specimen caught in Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. E. Perceval Wright is quoted as having described the sharks as being common in Seychelles and was able to dissect two sharks while on the islands. Unfortunately, Wright did not publish all of his findings and the preserved specimens he sent to Dublin, Ireland, for analysis were never recovered. The presence of whale sharks, known locally as ‘Sagren’, in the coastal waters of Seychelles was therefore well known but little research has been done on their population dynamics or life history. In view of this, a pilot project was set up in November 1996 to tag and monitor whale sharks in Seychelles. Mostly juveniles have been observed around the Seychelles, using the area as a feeding ground. To date more than 100 whale sharks have been tagged. Sea Turtles Four species of sea turtles forage in Seychelles waters. Two of these, the hawksbill (Eremochelys imbricata) and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacaea) are listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN (Baillie & Groombridge, 1996), while the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) are listed as Endangered. Of the 4, only the hawksbill and green turtle nest in Seychelles. Hawksbills nest mainly in the inner islands, and green turtles mainly in the outer islands. Seychelles hosts one of the largest remaining nesting populations of hawksbill in the world (Meylan & Donnelly, 1999) and also significant nesting populations of green turtles (Seminoff, 2002). Recent research however indicates a continuing and alarming decline in the numbers of nesting females at many of the most important rookeries in Seychelles despite turtles having been fully protected by law since 1994. Factors behind this ongoing decline include: increased coastal development and the resulting destruction of nesting habitat; the impact of historical exploitation upon current population demographics; on-going poaching at some sites and accidental mortality from various sources, possibly including fishery by-catch. Hawksbill populations are particularly vulnerable. The numbers of nesting female hawksbill turtles in Seychelles may have declined by as much as 50% during the past 20 years and are expected to decline significantly more in the next five years (Mortimer, 1984). (Data analyses in progress under the GEF SEYMEMP project will yield more precise estimates of population size (Mortimer, in prep.).) Observed and predicted population declines are attributed to intense over-harvesting for shell of nesting females during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. This intense harvest effectively prevented successful reproduction at most hawksbill nesting sites throughout the Seychelles. The Government of Seychelles has effectively stopped all domestic trade in hawksbill shell (Mortimer, 2000), and currently, hawksbills are well protected in almost all of the Seychelles nature reserves. But, poaching to produce meat for domestic consumption and shell for the international black market continues at some other sites in both the inner and outer islands. 213 The Marine National Parks of Ste. Anne and Curieuse, the two Special Reserves of Cousin and Aride, and the islands of Cousine and Bird remain among the most important hawksbill nesting sites in Seychelles. A number of interesting nesting trends have been observed with respect to the hawksbills. Those sites in Seychelles with a long history of excellent protection show increased nesting activity. Relatively stable levels of nesting activity have been recorded at sites where some degree of long term protection has been afforded. But, sites where exploitation has been heavy during most of the past three decades (e.g. Mahe, Praslin, and La Digue) have suffered serious recent declines in nesting activity. Aldabra atoll is both a Special Reserve and a UNESCO World Heritage site and hosts the largest population of nesting green turtles in the Seychelles. Numbers of green turtles nesting at Aldabra were drastically reduced during the last century by intense harvesting in the vicinity of Aldabra. From an estimated 6,000-8,000 females nesting annually in the early 1900s (Mortimer, 1988) the Aldabra population declined to fewer than 1,000 in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Hirth & Carr, 1970; Frazier 1976, 1984; Gibson, 1979). Fortunately, turtles have been completely protected at Aldabra since 1968. In an apparent response to the protection afforded them, nesting activity at Aldabra has increased significantly--more than doubling during the past 35 years (Mortimer, 1988; Mortimer et al., in press). It is of interest that this apparent increase in numbers of nesting turtles has occurred despite the fact that some Aldabra turtles are harvested at distant feeding grounds located in other countries, mainly on the East African coast (as evidenced by the return of flipper tags by fishermen) (Mortimer, 2001). These data demonstrate that key to conservation of sea turtle populations is to protect turtles in the vicinity of their nesting beaches. Sea Birds and Waders An important feature contributing to the high ornithological profile of Seychelles is its vast numbers of breeding seabirds. Some colonies host regularly more than one million birds and are among the largest in the Indian Ocean and the world for some species (e.g. Frigate spp.). It is likely that prior to the arrival of man, seabird populations were more limited by the availability of nesting sites than by the availability of food. Seabird conservation is essential to the maintenance of both national and international biodiversity. Historically 20 species bred but since human settlement in 1768 seabird numbers have undergone huge declines, and 2 species have become locally extinct. The very rare Abbot’s booby, Sula abbotti, used to breed on Assumption and a Pink-backed pelican Pelicanus rufescens population has been lost from St Joseph Atoll. Historical declines have been attributed to habitat loss from land use changes and guano harvesting, introduction of alien predators and large scale human exploitation for food. A more recent and, as yet, unquantified threat is the massive expansion of the commercial fishery within the Seychelles EEZ. Seychelles is not situated along any important migratory route, however many migratory species, especially waders, occur regularly. Some of these migratory waders show site-fidelity to Seychelles as wintering or stopover grounds e.g. Arenaria interpres (Ruddy turnstone). Very few species of waders occur in concentrations of international importance, except for Arenaria interpres and Dromas ardeola (Crab plover). The granitic islands and the outer islands may be considered as two distinct biogeographical regions. Granitic islands Among waterbirds, the presence of Ixobrychus sinensis (Yellow bittern) on Mahé, Praslin, La Digue and Curieuse is of particular interest. The Seychelles islands are the only place in the African and Western Indian Ocean regions where this Asian species can be found. Two 214 subspecies of waterbirds, Butorides striatus degens (Green-backed heron) and Bubulcus ibis sechellarum (Cattle egret) have been described in the granitics. Seabird colonies of regional or global importance are found in the granitic islands on Aride, Cousin, Cousine and Bird Island: Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed shearwater)(c. 60,000 pairs between Cousin, Aride, and Cousine which holds the largest colony), Puffinus lherminieri nicolae (Audubon’s shearwater) (c. 60,000 pairs, mainly on Aride), Anous tenuirostris (Lesser noddy)(300,000 pairs in total on Aride, Cousin and Cousine), Anous stolidus (Brown noddy)(> 15 000 pairs between the four islands, mainly Bird), Gygis alba monte (White tern) (11,000-15,000 pairs mainly in the four islands but also at low densities in the other granitics), Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed tropicbird)(minimum 2,500 pairs between Cousin, Cousine and Aride, but also at low density in other granitics), Sterna fuscata (Sooty tern)(c.700,000 pairs on Bird, and c. 300,000 pairs on Aride), Sterna anaethetus (Bridled terns)(4,000 pairs, mainly on Recif) and Sterna dougallii (Roseate terns)(1,255 pairs on Aride). Outer islands Among the waterbirds, the Near-Globally Threatened Ardeola idae (Madagascar pond heron) found in Madagascar is also present at Aldabra in small numbers (probably 20-50 pairs only). Egretta dimorpha (Dimorphic egret), which is restricted to the western Indian Ocean, is common on Aldabra (possibly several thousands of pairs). There is also a small population of 25-50 Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Greater flamingo). Important heron colonies of Ardea cinerea (Grey heron) are found at Providence (> 1,000 pairs in total). The subspecies Butorides striatus crawfordii is endemic to the outer islands. Important non-breeding concentrations of Arenaria interpres (up to 700 birds) and Dromas ardeola (up to 1,500 birds) are observed regularly at Cosmoledo, Aldabra, and St François. The outer islands host apparently a significant proportion of the world population of the latter for which the breeding range is restricted to islands off the northern coasts of the western Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Seabird species of interest include Puffinus lherminieri on Aldabra (50-100 pairs), Puffinus pacificus (thousands of pairs on Desnoeufs and Boudeuse), Sula sula (Red-footed booby)(minimum 24,000 pairs between Cosmoledo and Aldabra), Sula dactylatra (Masked booby)(8,000-11,000 pairs between Cosmoledo and Boudeuse), the rare and endangered Sula leucogaster (Brown booby)(c. 60 pairs on Cosmoledo), Fregata minor (greater frigatebird) (4,000 pairs on Aldabra; plus 10-20 pairs on Cosmoledo), Fregata ariel (Lesser frigatebird)(6,000 pairs on Aldabra), Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed tropicbird)(2,000 pairs between Aldabra and Cosmoledo), Phaethon lepturus (mainly Aldabra, 2,500 pairs), Sterna caspia (Caspian tern)(4-8 pairs on Aldabra), the rare Sterna sumatrana (Black-naped tern)(max. 500 pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Cosmoledo, Farquhar and Providence), Gygis alba (several thousands of pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Marie-Louise, Providence), Sterna dougallii (180-280 pairs between Etoile and African Banks), Sterna fuscata (c. 2.000.000 pairs in total, mainly on Cosmoledo, Desnoeufs and Farquhar, with smaller numbers on African Banks and Etoile), Sterna albifrons (Little tern) (max. 800 pairs on Aldabra), Sterna bergii (Greater crested tern) (260-700 pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Cosmoledo and Providence), and Anous stolidus (7,000-15,000, mainly on Aldabra, D’Arros, Desnoeufs, Marie-Louise and Boudeuse). Marine Mammals 215 Two orders of marine mammals occur in the waters around the Seychelles: Sirenians (dugongs) and Cetaceans, which include odontocetes or toothed species (dolphins, beaked whales and sperm whales) and mysticetes or baleen whales. Seychelles waters harbour an abundance of cetaceans. Over 26 species have been observed to date: 7 dolphin species of which 4 are common 19 whale species of which examples are fin whales, sperm whales, beaked whales, and small toothed whales. Some of these are regularly sighted while others are rarer. Some have not yet been identified with certainty. Dugongs (Dugong dugong) have been reported around Aldabra but they have not been studied and therefore little is known about their status despite the fact that they are an endangered species worldwide and probably close to extinction in this area. Dugongs were previously extinct from the Seychelles and it is believed that those found on Aldabra originates from Madagascar or the Comoros. This remains enigmatic as dugongs are not known to do oceanic migrations. The Unknown Plant Kingdom: In this Kingdom much is known in relation to the mangrove forests and seagrass beds. However, there is a need to fully explore the infaunal mangrove communities and the diversity of fungi that the mangrove plants host, especially more so now that there has been the immergence of fungal diseases in 2 major woody plants in the country which is being spread around by an insect vector (e.g. Hill et al., 2003). Nobody knows what type of fungi mangrove plants are susceptible to or what will be the effect of large scale death of mangrove trees. With respect to the seagrasses much is known about the species found in Seychelles waters however only their distribution around the inner islands is known. There is a need to map these important habitats around the outer islands and to fully understand there role in maintaining marine biodiversity and in fisheries. It is believed that there are still large gaps in our knowledge of macroalgae from the Seychelles as only species of the 3 main divisions are known. There is a need to record and describe species from other algal divisions including phytoplanktons that can severely impact tourism and fisheries as a result of blooms. A manual of phytoplankton from the region would be of great help to marine biologist and local taxonomists. Animal Kingdom: Zooplankton: The coastal zooplanktons of the Seychelles are relatively well known however very little data has been gathered on oceanic and deep sea species. It is believed that evidence of climate change in marine communities will first appear in the zooplankton with respect to species range and population. Hence, there is a need to closely follow species diversity in the zooplankton as it may have repercussion on fisheries and on many other marine habitats. Sponges: Extensive collection of sponges from the Seychelles has been carried out by a number of expeditions, however most of the collection has been made around the granitic islands and the Amirantes group with very little collection undertaken in the other island 216 groups. The sponges of the other island groups south of the Amirantes remain relatively unstudied to date including deep sea species that have been only opportunistically studied. Cnidarians: Marine Cnidarians of the Seychelles remains relatively unknown apart from the Scleractinian and Octocorallians. Cnidarians appears to be very susceptible to increase in water temperature and there is a need to fully explore their diversity in Seychelles waters before any possible climate change related extinction occurs. Crustacea: Much of what is known on Crustacea from the Seychelles is on those organisms from the class Malacostraca and Copepoda. Information is still lacking on many of the other crustacean classes. As for the Branchiopoda, many organisms are caught in the zooplankton programme, as has been previously described, and there is a need to better identify these animals. Very little information is also available on organisms from the class Ostracoda and Thecostraca. Despite the fact that much is known on the class Malacostraca, knowledge is limited to a few families and there is a need to expend the knowledge on other families from this class. Mollusc: Knowledge on mollusc from the Seychelles is limited to only a few species which are commercially harvested for consumption or the curio trade and what is available from the Natural History Museum. There is a need to carry out extensive surveys on the other classes (Gastropoda, Scaphopoda and Polyplacophora.) as have been undertaken by Oliver (2001) on the bivalves. Echinoderms: The phylum Echinodermata is probably the best known marine macro-benthic phylum in the Seychelles, mostly due to the large size of organisms belonging to it and extensive surveys that have been undertaken with respect to these animals. There is however a need to keep on updating the species list as more organisms are discovered and study the cause that cause some organisms in this phylum to explode. As with most other phylum, information on deep sea species is still lacking. Fish: It is possible that many cryptic reef fishes are yet undiscovered in Seychelles waters. Recent exploration has targeted deep sea species (Boullé, 2002) adding new species to the Seychelles list. There is a need to continue with these deep sea explorations so that we could have a more thorough knowledge on the deep sea environment. Information is lacking on most elasmobranches species apart from pelagic and reef sharks species. There is a need to fully explore and record the elasmobranches from the Seychelles. Migratory behaviour of large species such as the whale shark is only presently being researched. Increase knowledge on migratory behaviour will help us to better preserve these highly vulnerable animals. Sea turtles: Baseline surveys of sea turtle nesting and foraging populations have been conducted in the vicinity of most of the islands of Seychelles (Mortimer 1984, 1998), and long term monitoring has been underway at some sites for more than two decades (Mortimer, 2003). Overall, however, a better understanding is needed of developmental migrations and habitat utilization of all sea turtle species at each of the various stages in their life cycles throughout the western Indian Ocean. There is evidence that sea turtles play significant ecological roles in maintaining the health of coral reef and sea grass ecosystems (Jackson et al., 2001; Leon & Bjorndal, 2002). It follows that effective long-term management of these valuable ecosystems, may depend, at least in part, on a better 217 understanding of the ecological roles of sea turtles in them. How the hawksbill, a species usually associated with coral reefs, will be affected in the long term by the reef degradation brought about by increasing occurrences of coral bleaching events is yet unknown. Sea birds and waders: The status of knowledge of seabirds and waders for the granitic islands is generally very good, but for the outer islands, due to remoteness and difficulty of access, the quality of data is much lower and in many cases out of date. Seabirds are potential indicators of fish stocks and several species feed on the same fish as commercially important fish species and they are increasingly being advocated as potential and cost effective monitors fish stocks. Trans-disciplinary research with fishing authorities could aid with fish stock prediction and management. A priority must also be to conduct a complete seabird and wader census of all the outer islands to gain accurate baseline information on seabird and wader populations Marine mammals: Little is known on marine mammals from the Seychelles apart from which species have been observed. There is no detailed information on population size or what the animals are doing in the Seychelles. Many dolphin schools appear to be territorial and are spotted recurrently in the same area. As for the dugongs seen in the lagoon of Aldabra atoll, there is only speculation on where they originate from. Genetic tests are required to resolve this. Threats to Marine Biodiversity The most severe coral bleaching event in recorded history occurred in 1998. Since then, there have been 2 minor bleaching events, one in April 2002, and the other in March 2003. This reduced live coral cover to less than 5% on many shallow reefs (Wilkinson et al., 1999) as well as reef biodiversity as a whole. The reefs are now slowly recovering from the effects (Engelhardt, 2003). Reef degradation brought about by coral bleaching, which is caused by warm water event resulting from climate change, is thus the principal threats to marine biodiversity in the Seychelles. Reef degradation is already impacting certain species such as fish by reducing the 3-dimensional complexity of reefs and thus limiting the amount of suitable micro-habitats. As many other animals are often associated with particular corals (e.g. Garth, 1984) and other zooxanthellate animals, low coral cover and overall reef health are having large impacts on coral associated fauna. As the reef structure breaks down in many places it is expected that there will be significant reduction in the amount of stable substrates for the meio-benthos and seaweeds to attach to. This may have major repercussion on some icon species such as the hawksbill turtle that are often associated with and grazes on coral reefs. Chronic sedimentation off the East coast of the main island of Mahe since the 1960s has had major negative impacts on coral reefs and associated ecosystems such as seagrass beds off the Mahe east coast and the Ste. Anne Marine National Park. Sedimentation has been found to cause partial mortality in many coral species and to reduce recruitment rate (Robinson et al., 2001). Diseases in corals and coral reef associated fish have been lately observed (U. Engelhardt, pers. comm.). Outbreaks of sea stars (e.g. Culcita sp. and Acanthaster sp.) for example the Crown-ofthorns outbreak in 1998, which caused the death of large colonies of hard corals in the inner granitics remains a possible threat to marine biodiversity, especially now when most reefs are slowly recovering. High sedimentation levels have been hypothesized to provide suitable environment for the settling of crown-of–thorn larvae. The outbreak of 1998 was in 218 relation to the El Nino effects and once the food source was exhausted the population numbers dropped drastically (B. Wendling, pers. comm.). Tourism related activities such as snorkeling, diving, coral picking could also be considered as a threat, despite the fact that their impact may not be as disastrous or immediate as other previously mentioned factors. Coral picking on the other hand is a major concern since no corals are protected under Seychelles legislation in areas outside marine parks. Recent studies show that there are a few sites outside Marine Protected Areas which are important for reef restoration as well as sites high in species richness (Engelhardt, 2003). However, the export of some coral species is regulated by CITES which to some extent controls the amount of coral picking. Anchor damage has been a major concern for some time. A Dutch Trust Fund sponsored programme is now remedying the situation with the placement of mooring buoys in marine protected areas and other sensitive areas that are frequently used by boaters. A certain degree of fish poaching still occurs in marine protected area, reducing the ability of these areas to fully attain their role in marine biodiversity conservation. Turtles and dolphins are to some extent still taken despite the fact that these species are fully protected by Seychelles’ law. The youths are educated and do not support such acts. Educating older members of the community is one avenue, which should be pursued as it has great potential for success. Poaching of brown noddy’s (Anous stolidus) and sooty tern’s (Sterna fuscata) eggs on some islands during nesting season remain a problem which could prove disastrous to seabird populations, most particularly in the inner islands as it is not known how much is being taken. Commercial fishery has been previously suggested to have possible impacts on sea bird populations as many commercially exploited fish feeds on the same fish species as the sea birds. Unwise land use practices have also been documented (Gabriel et al., 2000) to have severely impacted reefs in the vicinity of the main island of Mahe by allowing large quantities of red earth to be washed away by the rain. Improper use and handling of pesticide has in the past also been linked to deaths of marine organisms (Shah, 1995). Little is known about the effects of chemical pollution (petroleum, heavy metals) on the metabolism of marine organisms. However, it is known that mangroves are sensitive to massive hydrocarbon pollution (oil Spills), which usually kills them. Large scale oil spills are one of the increasing potential threats that the Seychelles is facing as a result of the increasing number of oil tankers that are docking in Victoria harbour. Measures are being taken by the Ministry of Environment to devise a protocol in case of oil spills. Lately natural occurrences of large scale plankton blooms has received much attention as a result of a large bloom that occurred in the middle of 2003 causing death in fish and macrobenthos. Such large scale blooms are natural phenomenon that may become more common as a result of climate change and changes in local oceanic circulation. Shark fin fishery has been growing in the Seychelles in the last 5 years. The fishery is only making use of the shark’s fins and discarding the rest of the animals. The Ministry of Environment is presently working with the Seychelles Fishing Authority to ban shark fisheries, which only make use of the fins. The sea cucumber fishery is one that has increased significantly since the 1990s as a result of high value (up to US$6 equivalent per piece) in the South East Asian market that increased 219 the catch and posed a threat with uncontrolled fishing. The Seychelles Fishing Authority is presently managing the fishery on a precautionary approach as a result of a lack of capacity and knowledge to develop management and monitoring plan for this fishery. Knowledge on exploited species spatial abundance in relation to exploitation is critical. Possible introduction of alien invasive species to the Seychelles in ballast water is a threat which is yet to be quantified. It is possible that there are invasive alien species that has already been introduced but as yet negative impacts are unknown. The effects of the introduction of alien invasive has been quantified in some parts of the world (Bax et al., 2003) and in many cases have been found to replace native species and affect many commercial enterprises. The Seychelles Port Authority in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment keeps a close look at what ships are discharging. If there is any de-ballasting to be done, ships are advised to do it outside the 12-mile limit designated by the local authorities. Marine Protected Areas of the Seychelles and roles in biodiversity conservation. There is a total of 9 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Seychelles covering an area of 412.75 km2. Seychelles’ MPAs are managed by a number of actors, namely the government, NGO, quasi-NGO and until recently International NGO. Out of the 9 MPAs 6 (total area of 61.77 km2, ~15% of the total national MPA area) are Marine National Parks managed by the Seychelles Centre for Marine Research and Technology – Marine Parks Authority (SCMRTMPA) which is a parastatal company of the Government of Seychelles. The MNPs are IUCN category II protected areas and are extensively used for recreation as well as conservation of biological diversity. The 3 other MPAs are designated as Special Nature Reserve (SNR) with primary objective for the conservation of nature and natural biodiversity. The Special Nature Reserves are all managed by NGOs of some form. The island of Aride SNR (0.7 km2) was until recently managed by the Royal Society for Nature Conservation (RSNC). It is now managed by the Island Conservation Society (ICS) a locally registered NGO. Cousin Island SNR (0.28 km2) is managed by Nature Seychelles another locally registered NGO. Large colonies of seabirds, some of which are of global significance, nest on the island of Aride and Cousin. Aldabra SNR (350 km2, ~85% of national MPA area) has been a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site since 1982 and is the largest MPA in the Seychelles. It is a raised atoll and has an extensive lagoon lined with thick mangrove forest, extensive areas of seagrass beds and shallow coral reefs. Its boundaries extends 1 Km all round the atoll. Aldabra has one of the richest and most diverse marine community in the South Western Indian Ocean region with high coral cover, large population of fish and seabirds. Management of the Special Nature Reserves is good. With respect to the Marine National Park management has been difficult due to their close proximity to centres of population and “openness” which has resulted in numerous conflicts. A certain degree of fish poaching still goes on but compliance is gradually improving. Museums and specimen collection In the Seychelles the Natural History Museum has a small collection of 429 marine specimens or parts thereof which is mainly comprised of Gastropod Mollusc as a result of them having hard shells which helps in the collection. The Natural History Museum (NHM) 220 is at the moment focussing only on display and not the collection site. There is a lack of space and trained personnel for the museum to venture into the collection of specimens (MM.Tirant, pers. comm.). Researchers collecting specimens in the Seychelles are now encouraged to collect specimens to be deposited at the NHM. There is a need to expend the NHM and move into the collection side of specimen and to train marine taxonomist. Apart from the collections at the NHM the SCMRT-MPA has a small collection of hermatypic corals and jointly with the Marine Conservation Society of Seychelles (MCSS) has zooplankton samples which have been extensively collected on a weekly basis since 2000. Capacity assessment Capacity to undertake marine biodiversity study is relatively low in the Seychelles. However, a good thing is that people are tending to specialise in certain fields. The Seychelles Fishing Authority has a total of 6 biologists at BSc and MSc level and mostly deals with fisheries management and fisheries research. The Ministry of Environment currently has 2 units that deal with certain marine issues. The Marine Unit of the Conservation Section in the Ministry of Environment mainly focuses on reef related issues whilst the Wetland Unit mainly focuses on mangroves and other wetland areas. The Conservation Section has 4 staffs with BSc’s and 1 with MSC in environment related field, but not necessarily marine. The Wetland Unit has one PhD and a staff of around 4 technicians. The SCMRT-MPA has only one graduate staff working in marine research with a group of bout 25 marine parks rangers. A number of NGOs are also involved in marine issues. There is Nature Seychelles and Island Conservation Society, which manages the Special Nature Reserve of Cousin and Aride respectively and has a number of graduate staff and technicians that are mostly involved with seabirds’ conservation. The Marine Conservation Society (established in 1997) is the only non-governmental agency in Seychelles that focuses purely on marine research and management. MCSS currently employs 2 graduate staff, with input from various associate members who are experts in their fields and a network of local and international volunteers. The MCSS conduct research on whale sharks and sea turtles and they are the local expert in the installation and management of Environmental Mooring Buoys. The Natural History Museum has one graduate staff and number of technicians. Conclusion and Recommendations Clear gaps in knowledge have been found to exist in marine biodiversity of the Seychelles. As a small developing state this is expected as knowledge of our local marine biodiversity is often dependent on international researchers and taxonomists that choose to work here. Marine macro-fauna such as birds, turtles, whales and echinoderms are better known as a result of their larger size and clearer inter-species distinguishing features. There is a need to explore the meio-benthos as it is there that the major knowledge gaps exist. Marine biodiversity assessments should be undertaken in the near future as the climate is slowly changing and this alone could lead to possible local extinction by creating unfavourable conditions for certain species. This manuscript has been the beginning of a process to compile available biodiversity information for the Seychelles. A recurrent problem encountered during the compilation of this report is that many documents on marine biodiversity in the Seychelles were not 221 available locally. There is a need to construct a national species database that is to be updated as new information becomes available. Much information and specimens are now held in various museums and institutions across America, Africa and Europe. Efforts should be made to bring all of the known information together and construct an up to date species list. Museums should be encouraged to diversify their activities and start curating a more diverse set of specimens. There is presently great interest to do this. Funds should be identified to train marine taxonomists so that we will be able to rely less on external expertise. Regional Biodiversity workshop as the one held in Rodrigues in 2001 is a good way of training a larger number of people. As the country develops it is expected that there will be more pressure on the marine environment. Increased measures should be taken at an early stage to reduce present and potential threats to the marine environment and thus biodiversity. Management of the marine environment should be flexible and be multi-layered to deal with ecosystem as well as species and genetic issues. It is important to educate the population on the need of having a healthy and diverse marine environment and what are its benefits and potential. 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A., Rosine G., Alcindor R., Zialor V. and Louange A. (2003). A renewed coral bleaching event in the inner granitic islands of Seychelles (April – June 2002), impacts on recent hard coral recruits. 226 Wilkinson, C., Linden, O., Cesar, H., Hodgson, G., Rubens, J. and Strong, A. E. (1999). Ecological and Socioeconnomic Impacts of the 1998 Coral Mortality in the Indian Ocean: An ENSO Impact and Warning of Future Change? Ambio. 28 (2), 188-196. 227 Thematic reports 228 Related initiatives Seaweed diversity patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa John J Bolton1, Olivier De Clerck2 & David M John3 1 Botany Department, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa: [email protected] 2 Ghent University, Research Group Phycology, Biology Department, Krijgslaan 281 S8, 9000 Ghent, Belgium: [email protected] 3 Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK. [email protected] Note: Names of the authors of this paper are in alphabetical order Abstract A proper understanding of inshore marine ecosystems cannot be obtained without a thorough knowledge of marine vegetation. This paper summarises our knowledge of species diversity patterns of marine macroalgae in Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting gaps. In Tropical East Africa the seaweed floras of Somalia and Mozambique are not well known. In Tropical West Africa, only a small number of countries are well-collected, although recent advances, including web-based systems, are ensuring that the information which is available can be more easily accessed. South Africa and Namibia have quite well documented seaweed floras, although detailed collections, especially in the subtidal, or detailed studies of taxa, particularly using molecular methods, anywhere in the region are likely to bring up new records and lead to the discovery of species new to science. South Africa has a very rich seaweed flora (ca. 850 species), due to the presence of species from three of the four major biogeographic regions in sub-Saharan Africa occurring within its borders. Figures for reasonably well-studied countries in Tropical East Africa are more than 400 species, whereas much of Tropical West Africa has lower numbers (e.g. 200 species in well-studied Ghana). Factors which may account for these major differences in seaweed diversity patterns are discussed. Training workshops in Africa are necessary to recruit a body of local scientists able to identify and work with seaweeds, and to make the wealth of information in the international literature available to African marine scientists. A network of national herbaria should contain a collection of correctly identified seaweed species. Introduction Seaweeds are particularly useful organisms for studying diversity patterns and planning the conservation and sustainable use of inshore marine resources, and are also useful as indicators of climatic change (see John & Lawson, 1997; Van der Strate et al. 2002; Bolton et al. in press). They are relatively easy to collect, fixed to the substratum, often form relatively stable assemblages, and have relatively similar species numbers in richer temperate and tropical regions. There are four major seaweed floras represented in subSaharan Africa. The distinctive but depauperate Tropical West African flora is separated from the species-rich North African temperate flora by a transitional zone extending from about Cap Vert in Senegal to Cap Blanc in Mauritania. South of the equator the West African Flora is very depauperate and only abruptly changes to a temperate flora in northern Namibia (John & Lawson, 1991). The Tropical East Africa flora is more species-rich, and represents only a portion of the much larger flora of the Indo-West Pacific. The latter 229 represents the largest marine biogeographical region on earth, with the greatest diversity of inshore benthic organisms. At the southern tip of the continent are two distinct temperate regions. The west coast of South Africa and the entire coastline of Namibia represent the ‘Benguela Marine Province’, described as cool-temperate by recent authors (Bolton & Anderson 1997; Stegenga et al. 1997). A distinct and species-rich ‘Agulhas Marine Province’ is confined to the south coast of South Africa, and has warm temperate affinities. For the purpose of this review, ‘seaweeds’ comprise macroscopic marine algae belonging to the Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae) and Rhodophyta (red algae). These phyla are not separated here, although throughout the region around two-thirds of species are red algae, with brown and green algae in relatively similar amounts (although there is a relative increase in green algae going from temperate to tropical South Africa, Bolton et al., in press). Species diversity patterns will be described in three sections: Tropical East Africa, Tropical West Africa, and South Africa/Namibia. Species numbers are collated on a country basis, as well as on a regional basis within South Africa. The status of our knowledge is summarized, and gaps highlighted. Tropical East Africa Documentation For this review, this comprises the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique, with the extreme north of South Africa also having a predominantly tropical flora (see later). The documentation of our knowledge of the seaweeds of this coast received an enormous boost with publication of a comprehensive catalogue of the benthic marine algae of the Indian Ocean (Silva et al 1996, also accessible online http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/rlmoe/tioc/ioctoc.html). This remarkable document is not entirely tropical in its coverage, since it includes the temperate floras of western Australia and the south coast of South Africa. Reasonable lists of the recorded seaweeds in any country in this enormous region can be extracted. One should, however, always keep in mind that although nomenclaturally and systematically sound (i.e. in each and every case the nomenclaturally correct name of a taxon is used following the most recent systematic opinions at the time of publication), the catalogue is based solely on literature data. Hence, mistakes due to misidentifications are not omitted from the catalogue. This is demonstrated for the brown algal genus Dictyota, of which 41 taxa were listed in Silva et al. (1996). In a recent taxonomic revision of the genus by De Clerck (2003) only 23 species are recognized, two of which are new to science and an additional two are reported for the first time for the Indian Ocean. This enormous discrepancy can be attributed to several factors, of which misapplied names resulting from misidentification is the most important one. Other factors include recently proposed synonymies, whereas differing taxonomic opinions are only of minor importance. The problems relating to misapplied names and synonymies are partly related to the enormous size of the Indo-Pacific biogeographical region. As a direct consequence, taxonomists and more floristically-based researchers along the East African coast have to consider research from countries as far as the Hawaiian Archipelago (ca. 15 000 km to the east). Several taxa described from the central Pacific have recently been reported for the western Indian Ocean (e.g. Dictyota hamifera Setchell, Gibsmithia hawaiiensis Doty, and Reticulocaulis mucosissimus Abbott). The vastness of the Indo-Pacific biogeographic region also hampers efforts to produce of a flora covering the East African coast. 230 A recent bibliometric survey (Erftemijer et al. 2001) analysed a total of 97 publications on seaweeds of the region, that appeared between 1950 and 2000. Tanzania is by far the most important player, whereas several countries contributed not a single publication (Somalia, Reunion, Comores). Applied research made up 43% of all publications (extractable chemical compounds, anti-microbial characteristics, farming, economic potential), whereas 16% was based on experimental work (physiology: particularly from the SAREC Programme SwedenTanzania: photosynthesis, pH tolerance, oxidative stress, etc.). A further 19% concerned floristics and distribution of seaweeds, often in relation to exploitation and cultivation, with 8 % taxonomic research and nothing on ecosystem relationships (e.g. nutrient cycling, hydrology, impacts on associated fauna). When broadened to Eastern African marine botanical research as a whole (including mangroves, seagrasses and phytoplankton reseach) the same pattern is evident, with 77% of all research in East Africa being classified as descriptive. Broader Diversity Patterns Total seaweed diversity in the region (based on Silva et al. 1996, plus recent additions) is in Table 1. Table 1. Seaweed diversity by country in Tropical East Africa Somalia: Kenya: Tanzania: Mozambique: 211 species 403 species 428 species 243 species Total for these four countries from Silva et al. (1996) = 678 taxa (species and subspecific taxa). It is likely that in reality these countries have similar species diversity. Differences in total species number are mainly due to sampling effort. The diversity of Somalia and Mozambique is seriously underestimated (see Bandeira 1998; Carvalho & Bandeira 2003). As these countries form part of the same large Marine Province, there are great similarities in their marine floras. A comparison of seaweed genera between countries in the Indo-Pacific is presented in Table 1. 231 Table 2. Percentage similarities (based on Euclidean distance values) between the seaweed genera in selected countries of the tropical Indian Ocean. AUS AUSTRALIA INDIA INDONESIA KENYA MOZAMBIQUE SOMALIA SOUTH AFRICA SRI LANKA TANZANIA INDIA INDO KEN 83.7 83.4 83.8 83.8 83.5 84.0 84.1 84.0 88.2 88.6 87.6 87.9 85.6 89.8 89.0 90.1 89.2 90.1 85.2 90.0 89.5 MOZ 90.6 91.5 85.5 91.5 92.8 90.5 85.8 89.5 90.5 SOM 84.7 90.4 91.0 RSA 85.7 85.4 SRI 90.6 Only South Africa and Australia have slightly lower similarity coefficients compared to the other countries included. This difference can be attributed to the significantly lower sea surface temperatures near the southern borders of the Indian Ocean. The homogeneous sea surface temperature’s in the main body of the tropical Indian Ocean, together with a continuous coastline, ensure wide dispersal of marine macroalgae, resulting in a rather homogenous Indian Ocean marine benthic flora. Flora’s become radically different with different temperature regimes. South Africa’s east coast (Kwazulu-Natal Province) represents a transition region between a tropical Indian Ocean flora and a warm temperate South Coast flora (Bolton et al., in press, see later). Western Australia represents a similar example. Detailed Diversity Patterns The seaweeds of Somalia are poorly studied, and potentially very interesting. On parts of the coast of Somalia and the Southern Arabian Peninsula there is monsoon induced upwelling of cold nutrient rich water, with sea surface temperatures <20°C during the SW monsoon. These cooler water temperatures are reflected in the biogeography of many algae in the Southern Arabian Peninsula (Schils & Coppejans 2003). A common biogeographic pattern includes presence in South Africa, Oman and Australia and absence in the tropical Indian Ocean. Species with this distribution include Ecklonia radiata, Dictyopteris macrocarpa, Halimeda tuna, Chauviniella spp., Padina boergesenii, Neurymenia nigricans etc. Although hardly studied, the Somali flora may exhibit the same features. Studies in these regions, as in most others in Africa, generally are based on collections of larger seaweeds. Many intertidal and subtidal regions are dominated not by these larger seaweeds, but by ‘turfs’ of smaller species. The latter are ecologically very important, as they may represent a considerable amount of primary production in tropical regions (e.g. Adey & Goertemiller 1987; Larkum et al. 2003 and references therein). A study of these turf communities on the tropical coast of South Africa (Anderson, McKune, Bolton & De Clerck, unpubl.) was carried out by carefully analysing 25 quadrats (25x25cm) at 5 depths at Sodwana. The total sampled area was 1.56 m2 And 105 species of seaweeds were identified, more than the recorded seaweed floras of many countries in West Africa! (see below). 232 Tropical West Africa Documentation It was only possible to begin to analyse algal diversity patterns in West Africa once all the published data had been critically assessed. This mammoth task began in the 1960’s, and the first part of a critical assessment of the seaweeds of tropical West Africa was published by Lawson & Price (1969). Other parts appeared at irregular intervals (Price et al. 1978, 1986, 1988, 1992; John et al. 1979, 1994; Lawson et al. 1995) until the series was completed with publication of the last on the red algal genera (Woelkerling et al. 1998). Underway is a project to update these critical assessments and make the data available early in 2004 as a searchable database on websites at The Natural History Museum, London and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden. The searchable database will cover the whole mainland coastline from the northern boundary of Western Sahara southwards to the southern boundary of Namibia, the oceanic islands from Madeira and the Salvage Islands southwards to Ascension and St Helena, and all other islands close to the African mainland coast. The web sites will include a complete bibliography of references to West African algae, compiled by George Lawson. Lawson and John published, in1982, a book on the coastal environment and marine algae of tropical West Africa with a second edition appearing 5 years later (1987). A more userfriendly identification guide ‘The Marine Algae of the Tropical West African Sub-region' is to be published in October 2003 (John et al., 2003). A version was released in 2001 as one of the four reports arising from the project 'Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West African Sub-region', sponsored by the UK Darwin Initiative. Broader Diversity Patterns For the purpose of this review, the northernmost limit of sub-Saharan Africa is taken to be Mauritania. The algal floras of the coasts of Mauritania and Senegal are considered transitional between the Temperate West African Flora to the north and the Tropical West African Flora that extends from Gambia southwards to Angola. The diversity of the distinctive West African Flora is significantly lower to the south of the Equator and remains low along the entire length of the Angola coast (Lawson & John, 1991). An abrupt change to a temperate flora takes place in northern Namibia where many cooler water algae are at the northernmost limit of their range. The distribution of the West African Marine Flora bears little relationship to mere latitude but is governed by the movement and cooler water current along the coast. The cooler Canary and Benguela currents run along the western coast of Africa from the north and south respectively thus restricting the occurrence of truly warmwater algae to a relatively narrow band. Even within this narrow tropical band there is local upwelling of cooler and nutrient-rich subsurface water that leads to the surface water falling to as low as 19º C between July and September. The tropical West African Flora is very impoverished in striking contrast to the richness of the Caribbean region of the eastern Atlantic or the tropical coast of east Africa. Like the western shores of other continents, coral reefs are absent and consequently so is the rich and varied life associated with these structures. As a result of the absence of protecting coral reefs or shallow offshore shoals, much of the West African coast is very wave exposed. Seagrass meadows are not present except in more sheltered parts of the Mauritania coast and the shallow tidal inlets south of Luanda in Angola. Seasonal upwelling, seasonal inflow of turbid, silt-laden water, seasonally lowered inshore salinity, absence of suitable shallow 233 water substrata, low habitat diversity and heterogeneity are all factors contributing to the absence of coral reefs and the low species diversity of algae n tropical West Africa. An especially important cause of the low diversity is likely to be a historical one. There is now much evidence to show that during the Pleistocene glaciations the 20º C winter isotherm moved laterally during winter about 15-20 degrees of latitude towards the Equator thus eliminating the tropical zone. Since that time, the West African region would have become recolonized by species from the tropical eastern Atlantic that remained unaffected during the Pleistocene. The recolonization of tropical West Africa would explain its poverty, low endemism and floristic similarity to the eastern Atlantic. Detailed Diversity Patterns The figures for algal species diversity for each of the countries and inshore islands in the West African region (Table 3) are based on the web-site database, prepared by John, Prud’homme van Reine, Lawson, Price and Kostermanns. Table 3. Seaweed species diversity for the West Africa Sub-region including the Gulf of Guinea islands as well as St. Helena and Ascension (based on data compiled by John, Prud’homme van Reine, Lawson, Price and Kostermanns). Western Sahara Mauritania North Sénégal Gambia South Sénégal Guinea -Bissau Guinée Sierra-Leone Liberia Côte d’Ivoire Ghana Togo Benin Nigeria Cameroun Bioko Principe São Tomé Equatorial Guinea Gabon Republic of Congo Cabinda Zaire Angola Namibia Ascension St. Helena Annobon 81 212 274 62 33 12 21 112 88 86 200 37 16 49 86 31 25 95 0 83 18 2 9 117 196 65 47 37 234 Species totals: Angola to Gambia (includes Gulf of Guinea islands) = 382 species Angola to Mauritania = 583 species Many reasons account for the considerable variation in species diversity within tropical West Africa. One of the more obvious is intensity of collecting. The algal lists for many countries are based on collecting visits of less than one week (often by Lawson and John). One of the coastal regions for which there is no modern data is that of 'Loango', the name used especially by 19th century collectors for what is known as the Republic of Congo, Zaire as well as Cabinda. There are little data for adjacent Gabon and Cameroun with the most recent collecting visits made by Lawson and John who just spent a few days in each country in 1974. Angola has been relatively well covered thanks to a 5 weeks collecting visit by John, Lawson and Price; they surveyed its coast in January and February 1974. In November 1975 Lawson and John spent 5 days collecting algae in both Gambia and Liberia although three years earlier John had spent a day in southern Liberia and several days collecting along the coast of Côte d'Ivoire. Islands in the Gulf of Guinea have rocky shores and remain undercollected. Lawson spent a week collecting in Bioko, and in the 1950s several collections were made along the coasts of São Tomé and Principe, including during a visit by the research vessel 'Calypso' in 1956. The countries with the highest algal diversities ('hot spots') tend to be those most intensively investigated and these include Sénégal, Ghana and Sierra Leone. There have been almost 40 research publications dealing with the algal of these three countries, whereas the large majority of countries in the region have less than 3 publications mentioning their algae (John & Lawson 1997). Sampling intensity and the competence of those identifying the material are factors accounting for West African algal diversity patterns (Table 3). There is no doubt that Sénégal, Ghana and Sierra Leone represent 'hot spots' of algal diversity and have often attracted attention only because rocky shores suitable for attached algae are present. There are many other countries where the coast is characterized by long sandy beaches, and extensive mangrove areas fringing deltas, estuaries and lagoons dominate. Not unexpectedly the diversity of algae is low in such countries, and they represent 'cold spots' of algal diversity. Further collecting, however intensive, is unlikely to significantly increase the low numbers of recorded algal species. . The absence of suitable shores probably accounts in large part for the low algal diversity of countries such as Nigeria, Guinea Bissau, Guinée, Togo and Benin. Often the only significant algal development in these countries is on manmade structures (e.g. breakwaters, oil rigs). Subtidal algae are also under-represented with the only SCUBA-diving collecting having taken place in Ghana, Angola and, possibly, during the visit of the 'Calypso' to the Gulf of Guinea islands in 1950’s. The importance of subtidal collecting has been demonstrated by John & Lawson. (1997) who found that 60% of the algae collected in Ghana were predominantly intertidal, and the remainder subtidal. This clearly demonstrates the need to SCUBA-dive in order to obtain a meaningful picture of marine algal diversity. Otherwise for many countries the only subtidal records of algae are based specimens cast up on the beach or dredged. Future Priorities A future priority is to conduct further basic shore survey work in order to fill the many gaps that exist in our knowledge of marine diversity patterns in tropical West Africa. The focus of 235 future work should be on those countries known to have rocky shores, which have been under-collected in the past. Seasonality has to be taken into account with visits taking place during the ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ seasons, as well as during any period of upwelling. SCUBAdiving is crucial, since remote sampling of submarine rocks frequently gives a misleading impression of marine algal diversity. Of paramount importance is the accurate identification of the algal samples. This is a very real problem in West Africa, despite the availability of a new user-friendly identication guide covering at least part of tropical West Africa (John et al. 2001). In the virtual absence of any indigenous expertise in algal taxonomy there is an urgent need to run training courses. These courses in algal identification should be given by competent algal taxonomists, and based in Africa. All such courses would need to include training in sampling, preservation of material, as well as curation and databasing of specimens, since material collected during shore surveys needs to be deposited in national herbaria for future reference and study. The setting up and/or strengthening national herbaria should be another regional priority. . Namibia/South Africa Documentation Namibia and South Africa can logically be discussed together as ‘temperate southern Africa’. The seaweeds of these two countries are becoming increasingly well documented in the last few years. South African west coast seaweeds were documented in detail in Stegenga et al. (1997). Recently there have been two Ph.D. theses on the seaweeds of Namibia (Engeldow 1998; Rull Lluch 1999), the former mostly ecological and biogeographic (e.g. Engeldow & Bolton 2003), and the latter primarily taxonomic. The thesis of Rull Lluch (including some additional information from the thesis of Engledow) has been published recently in English, as a Flora of the seaweeds of Namibia (Rull Lluch 2002). The known seaweed diversity of South Africa has increased from 547 species in 1984 to around 850 today, making it one of the richest regions globally for seaweed species. Detailed studies of the distribution patterns of South African seaweeds are under way (Bolton & Stegenga 2002). Broader diversity patterns These two countries can be divided into a number of biogeographical regions, with differing seaweed floras (Bolton & Anderson 1997; Bolton et al. in press). The West Coast (or Benguela Marine Province) includes the entire coast of Namibia, and the west coast of South Africa as far south as the Cape Peninsula. This region is dominated by upwelling of cool water (often around 10ºC) from the Benguela current. The west coast flora is relatively species poor in comparison with other temperate floras, and with the south and east coast floras of South Africa (see Table 4). Thus Namibia, with almost 200 species recorded, is a fairly rich flora in the context of West Africa, but this is a low number in relation to the rest of southern Africa. 236 Table 4 Seaweed species numbers in various regions of temperate southern Africa Namibia (Lluch 2002) 196 spp, South Africa (total) 850 spp. South African regions: West coast (Orange River to Cape Peninsula) West coast plus West/South coast overlap (Orange River to Cape Agulhas) South coast (Cape Agulhas to Port Edward) East Coast (Port Edward to Kosi Bay) 213 spp. 421 spp. 471 spp. 507 spp. The known seaweed flora of South Africa has risen from 547 species in 1984, to around 850 today, following a number of detailed collections and taxonomic studies by Richard Norris on the east coast, Stegenga, Bolton & Anderson on the west and south coasts, and a recent collaboration on the east coast between Bolton & Anderson and a group from the University of Ghent, Belgium (Coppejans, De Clerck and colleagues) (Bolton 1999; Bolton et al. 2001). It is now known to be one of the world’s richest seaweed floras. The richness of the South African seaweed flora arises from the fact that it inhabits a large section of predominantly rocky coastline where three distinct biogeographical regions overlap. Both the west and south coast floras have high levels of endemism, with 327 seaweed species present in South Africa being endemic to South Africa and Namibia (38.5% of the South African flora). Local diversity patterns The distribution of South Africa seaweeds is being analysed in detailed in a series of 58 x 50 km coastal sections (see Bolton & Stegenga 2002). The number of species present in each coastal section is around 150 on the west coast, but 250-300 species per section on the south and east coasts. This diversity pattern is also shown in Table 4 (calculated from the same data set), with a total of 213 species on the west coast proper, but 471 species on the south coast, and 507 species on the east coast. While percentage endemism is similar at any point on the west and south coasts, most endemic species occur in the richer south coast flora. A 50km coastal section on the south coast can contain up to 300 species of which around 125 species are endemic to temperate southern Africa. The east coast of South Africa (KwazuluNatal Province) consists, from the seaweed data, of a gradual overlap between the south coast flora and the tropical East African flora. In a recent study (Bolton et al. in press) is has been shown that the region of most rapid change is in the extreme east of the South African coastline. The flora of the two easternmost 50km coastal sections (containing Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay) is predominantly tropical. The next section, moving southwest (St. Lucia/ Cape Vidal), has relatively equal numbers of temperate south coast and tropical species. Thus the extreme easternmost portion of the South African coast is considered the limit of the tropical Indian Ocean flora. 237 Concluding comments As mentioned in the Introduction, a proper knowledge of seaweed diversity is essential for an understanding of the ecological functioning of inshore marine systems. In addition, seaweeds have both current and potential direct economic benefits. A large coastal industry is based on the aquaculture of Eucheuma/Kappaphycus (material originally introduced from the Philippines) for carrageenan in Tanzania, more recently Mozambique, and with a pilot project in Kenya. Other significant seaweed industries exist in South Africa and Namibia (Gracilaria and Gelidium for agar; kelp, Ecklonia and Laminaria, for alginate, abalone feed, etc.) (Anderson et al. 2003). As well as these traditional industries, there is a large literature on the potential uses of seaweeds, much of it concentrating on a wide array of chemicals which seaweeds produce. For example, of the 357 seaweed genera, which have been recorded in South Africa, no less than 127 (36%) occur in the literature as containing documented bioactive compounds (AJ Smit, unpublished). A good basis for the study of the seaweeds of Sub-Saharan Africa exists. There is clearly a great need for efforts to make this information available in many of the countries in subSaharan Africa. Seaweeds are difficult to identify correctly without a compound microscope, and a body of trained personnel is required in each region for this purpose. While websites are very useful at disseminating information, they seldom include the required information to identify species – many consist of lists, sometimes with a photograph. Funding agencies have not, in the recent past, generally supported the detailed documentation of taxonomic diversity, and because of this the numbers of trained seaweed (or indeed algal) taxonomists in the region are very few. 238 References Adey WH & Goertemiller T 1987. Coral reef algal turfs: master producers in nutrient poor seas. Phycologia 26: 374-386. Anderson RJ, Bolton JJ, Molloy FJ & Rotmann KWG 2003. Commercial seaweed production and research in southern Africa. Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium. Oxford University Press. 1-12. Bandeira, SO 1998. Seaweed resources of Mozambique. In: The Seaweed Resources of the World (Critchley AT & Ohno M, eds). Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 403408. Bolton JJ 1999. Seaweed systematics and diversity in South Africa: an historical account. J. Roy. Soc. South Africa 54(1): 166-177. Bolton JJ & Anderson RJ 1997. "Marine vegetation". In: Vegetation of Southern Africa (Cowling, R.M. and Richardson, D.M. & S.M. Pierce, Eds). Cambridge University Press. 348-375. Bolton JJ, Coppejans E, Anderson RJ, De Clerck O, Samyn Y, Leliaert F & Thandar AS 2001. Biodiversity of seaweeds and echinoderms in the western Indian Ocean; workshop report. S. Afr. J. Sci. 97: 453-454. Bolton JJ & Stegenga H 2002. Seaweed biodiversity in South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science. 24: 9-18. Bolton JJ, Leliaert F, De Clerck O, Anderson RJ, Engledow HE & Coppejans E (in press).Where is the western limit of the tropical Indian Ocean seaweed flora? An analysis of intertidal seaweed biogeography on the east coast of South Africa. Marine Biology. Carvalho MA & Bandeira SO 2003. Seaweed flora of the Quirimbas archipelago, northern Mozambique. Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium, Oxford University Press. 319-324. De Clerck O. 2003. The genus Dictyota in the Indian Ocean. Opera Botanica Belgica 13: 205 pp. Engeldow HE 1998. The biogeography and biodiversity of the seaweed flora of the Namibian intertidal seaweed flora. PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, South Africa. Engledow HE & Bolton JJ 2003. Factors affecting seaweed biogeographical and ecological trends along the Namibian coast. Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium. Oxford University Press. 285-291. Erftemeijer PLA, Semesi AK & Ochieng CA 2001. Challenges for marine botanical research in East Africa: results of a bibliometric survey. South African Journal of Botany 67: 411419. John DM & Lawson GW 1991. Littoral ecosystems of tropical western Africa. In: Mathieson, A.C. & Nienhuis, P.H. (eds) Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems. Ecosystems of the World 24 : 297-322. 239 John DM & Lawson GW 1997. Seaweed biodiversity in West Africa: a criterion for designating marine protected areas. In: Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. & Armah, A.K. (eds) The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. 111-123. Pershaw Press, Sunderland. John DM, Lawson GW. & Ameka G 2001. A Field Guide to the Seaweeds of the Tropical West African Sub-region. Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West Afriacn Subregion Core Report 4. 213 pp. (includes CD photo catalogue). John, DM, Lawson GW & Ameka G. 2003. The Marine Macroalgae of the Tropical West Africa Sub-region. Beihefte Nova Hedwigia 125 (in press). John DM, Prud'homme van Reine WF, Lawson GW, Price JH & Kostermanns LBT Seaweeds of the Western Coast of Tropical Africa and Adjacent Islands (web site, in preparation). John DM, Price JH, Maggs C & Lawson GW 1979. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. III. Rhodophyta (Bangiophyceae). Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 7: 69-82. John DM, Lawson GW, Price JH, Prudhomme van Reine WF & Woelkerling WJ 1994. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 4. Genera L-O. Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Lond., Bot., 24: 49-90. Larkum AWD, Koch E-M & Kühl M 2003. Diffusive boundary layers and photosynthesis of the epilithic algal community of coral reefs. Marine Biology 142: 1073-1082. Lawson GW & John DM 1982. The marine algae and coastal environment of Tropical West Africa. Beih. Nova Hedwigia, 27: 1- 455. Lawson GW & John DM 1987. The marine algae and coastal environment of Tropical West Africa (second edition). Beih. Nova Hedwigia, 93: 1-415. Lawson GW & Price JH 1969. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent Islands: a critical assessement. I. Chlorophyta and Xanthophyta. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 62: 279-346. Lawson GW, Woelkerling WJ, Price JH, Prud’homme van Reine WF & John DM 1995. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 5. Genera P. Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Lond., Bot., 25: 49-122. Price JH, John DM & Lawson GW 1978. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment II. Phaeophyta. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 6: 87182. Price JH, John DM & Lawson GW 1986. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 1. Genera A-F. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 15: 1-122. Price JH, John DM & Lawson GW 1988. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 2. Genera G. Bull. 240 Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 18: 195-273. Price JH, John DM & Lawson GW 1992. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 3. Genera H-K. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 22: 123-146. Price JH, John DM, Maggs C & Lawson GW 1979. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent islands: a critical assessment. III. Rhodophyta (Bangiophyceae). Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot., 7: 69-82. Rull Lluch JR 1999. Algues benthõniques marines de Namibia. Ph.D. thesis, University of Barcelona, Spain. Rull Lluch JR 2002. Marine benthic algae of Namibia. Scientia Marina 66 (suppl. 3): 5-256. Schils T & Coppejans E 2003. Phytogeography of upwelling areas in the Arabian Sea. Journal of Biogeography 30: 1339-1356 Silva PC, Basson PW & Moe RL 1996.Catalogue of the benthic marine algae of the Indian Ocean. University of California Publications in Botany 79: 1259pp. Stegenga H, Bolton JJ & Anderson RJ 1997. "Seaweeds of the South African west coast”. Contributions from the Bolus Herbarium 18: 655pp. Van der Strate HJ, Boele-Bos SA, Olsen JL, van de Zande L, Stam WT 2002. Phylogeographic studies in the tropical seaweed Cladophoropsis membranacea (Chlorophyta, Ulvophyceae) reveal a cryptic species complex. Journal of Phycology 38: 572-582. Woelkerling, WJ, Lawson GW, Price JH, John DM & Prud’homme van Reine WF 1998. Seaweeds of the western coast of tropical Africa and adjacent Islands: a critical assessment. IV. Rhodophyta (Florideae) 6. Genera [Q] R-Z, and an update of current names for nongeniculate Corallinales. Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Lond., Bot., 28: 115-150. 241 Thematic report Fish diversity in sub-Saharan African estuaries – a preliminary analysis A.K. Whitfield South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa. [email protected] A preliminary biogeographic grouping of sub-Saharan African estuaries, based primarily on available coastal and estuarine water temperatures, was undertaken. Four broad categories were recognised for the purposes of this assessment; namely tropical, subtropical, warmtemperate and cool-temperate regions. The only cool-temperate estuarine region was that in southwestern Africa between 25oS and 35oS. There were two warm-temperate regions, one in southern Africa between 32oS and 35oS, the other on the southwestern coast between 20oS and 25oS. This latter region has no estuaries and the coastal interior comprises the Namib Desert. There are two sub-Saharan subtropical regions, one located on the southwestern coastline between 10o and 20oS, the other in the southeastern region extending from 25o to 32oS. Whilst the former region is associated with a mainly arid interior and contains few estuaries, the latter contains numerous estuarine systems, ranging in size from <1 ha to >30 km2. The eastern and western African tropical regions are also well endowed with a wide variety of estuaries and are bounded by latitudes 15oN-25oS on the east coast to 15oN-10oS on the west coast. Indigenous fish species lists from each biogeographic region were compiled from both published and unpublished data. Comparisons are made at the species and family level between the fish assemblages recorded in the different biogeographic regions. These results showed that both species and family diversity declined between tropical and temperate subSaharan estuaries (Figure 1). Eastern and western tropical estuaries have similar numbers of species and families. The ratio of species to families increased as one moves from temperate to tropical systems. In terms of the top three most diverse families, Mugilidae and Gobiidae featured in all biogeographic regions (Table 1). Comparisons in both species and family composition between the different biogeographic regions were undertaken using the Bray-Curtis (BC) similarity coefficient. Results indicated that although family similarities between the different biogeographic regions were generally high, this was often not the case at the species level, e.g. family similarities between the tropical east and west coasts of Africa were considerable but species composition between the two regions were very different (Table 2). Temperate regions along the southern and southwestern coast of Africa probably prevent mixing of east and west coast tropical fish species, thus causing the low species similarities between the ichthyofauna in the two regions. Fish species sampled in cool temperate, warm temperate, subtropical and tropical African estuaries were divided into guilds based upon their life histories and degree of association with estuarine environments (Table 3). For some of the species there is detailed life-history information available and placing them in a particular guild was relatively easy. However, there were also a large number of species whose allocated guild may change once further biological and ecological information on those taxa becomes available. Preliminary results show that marine taxa (marine immigrants and marine stragglers) provided between 67% and 242 75% of the fish species diversity recorded in sub-Saharan estuaries. Estuarine taxa (estuarine residents and estuarine migrants) accounted for between 10% and 30% of the fish species recorded. Freshwater taxa (freshwater immigrants and freshwater stragglers) comprised <7% of fish diversity on the east and south coasts of Africa compared to 20% in the west. 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total families Tropical western Tropical eastern Subtropical southeastern Warmtemperate southern Total species Cooltemperate southwestern Number Fish diversity in sub-Saharan African estuaries Biogeographic regions Figure 1. Total numbers of fish families and species recorded in estuaries in the different sub-Saharan biogeographic regions. Table 1. The five most diverse families in each of the African biogeographic regions (numbers in brackets refer to the number of species in each of the families). Southwestern Southeastern warmcooltemperate temperate Southeastern Eastern tropical subtropical Western tropical Sparidae (6) Mugilidae (11) Gobiidae (21) Gobiidae (21) Mugilidae (4) Sparidae (10) Gobiidae (3) Gobiidae (8) Mugilidae (13) Sparidae (10) Carangidae (13) Mugilidae (7) Clinidae (2) Carangidae (5) Soleidae (2) Syngnathidae (4) Carangidae (8) Gerreidae (5) 243 Mugilidae (12) Carangidae (8) Syngnathidae (8) Haemulidae (7) Gobiidae (7) Sciaenidae (7) Cichlidae (7) Table 2. Bray-Curtis similarity coefficients between estuarine fish assemblages (family figures above diagonal line; species figures below diagonal line) based on presence/absence data from the different biogeographic regions of sub-Saharan Africa. Family Species Southwestern Southeastern warmcooltemperate temperate Southwestern cool-temperate 0.59 Southeastern Eastern subtropical tropical Western tropical 0.41 0.31 0.34 0.73 0.65 0.55 0.81 0.66 Southeastern warmtemperate 0.45 Southeastern subtropical 0.23 0.59 Eastern tropical 0.05 0.34 0.71 Western tropical 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.70 0.05 Table 3. Categorization of the major fish groups (guilds) utilizing sub-Saharan African estuaries. Categories Description of categories Marine immigrants Marine fish species that usually breed at sea with the juveniles and/or adults making extensive use of the estuarine environment. The juveniles of many of these species show varying degrees of dependence on estuaries as nursery areas. Marine fish species that breed at sea with only a small proportion of the overall population ever entering or making use of estuaries. Most marine stragglers are confined to the lower estuarine reaches where they occur in low numbers. Fish species, usually of marine origin, that breed and are able to conduct their entire life cycle within the estuarine environment. Some estuarine species may also have marine or freshwater breeding populations. Fish species, usually of marine origin, that breed in estuaries but have a marine or freshwater aspect to their life cycle. Estuarine migrants often have marine or freshwater breeding populations. Freshwater fish species that are often recorded in estuaries, retreating into catchment rivers when conditions become unfavourable. Some of these species may also breed in estuaries when conditions are suitable. Freshwater fish species that sometimes enter estuaries when conditions are favourable. Freshwater stragglers are usually confined to the upper Marine stragglers Estuarine residents Estuarine migrants Freshwater immigrants Freshwater stragglers 244 Catadromous migrants estuarine reaches where they occur in low numbers. Species that spawn at sea but use freshwater catchment areas during the juvenile and subadult life stages. Semi-catadromous migrants are those taxa that can successfully occupy estuaries during these life stages when riverine areas are inaccessible. 245 Thematic report Western Indian Ocean Programmes, the Coelacanth as an icon for marine biodiversity and conservation Dr A. J. Ribbink South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa. [email protected] There are several active Western Indian Ocean and East African Marine Programmes. Important amongst them are the East African Ecoregion Programme supported by WWF and the revision of the fishes of the area, being produced by more than 50 experts. This revision is being edited by Dr P Heemstra. A number of other programmes are in the planning stage; namely the South Western Indian Ocean Fisheries Programme (SWIOFP) and Large Marine Ecosystem (LME). This paper focuses on a recently initiated programme, which might develop productive synergies with the above-mentioned programmes and others. It also seems fairly closely aligned to the objectives of the Census of Marine Life (CoML). The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme (ACEP) was launched in April 2002 following the discovery of a coelacanth population in the relatively shallow head of a canyon in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park (GSLWP), South Africa. Given the prohibitive costs of offshore, deep reef work in the ocean, an immediate decision was made to use the coelacanth as an icon for an integrated, biophysical approach to conservation of biodiversity. It was anticipated that the high profile of the coelacanth would attract international attention and encourage sponsorship that might build on the core supplied by African countries. The coelacanth was to become an aquatic Panda, and the programme was billed as a ‘Flagship Programme’ by Minister Dr B. Ngubane, South African Ministry of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology. The programme has also been aligned to the NEPAD initiative and partnerships have been developed with Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar and the Comoros. Kenya, Seychelles, Mauritius and Reunion have also expressed interest in the programme, but the costs of getting the research to those countries has been out of range in the first two years of activity. In the following text the word “national” refers to activities within any particular country, and “regional” refers to the region, including Comoros, Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania. This paper discusses the manner in which ACEP is contributing to focus areas of the CoML. Known and unknown No one questions the fact that the marine environment is poorly understood and inadequately researched. In comparison to the moon and the nearest planets it is often argued that we know more about the surface of these bodies than we do about the floor of the ocean (with less than 1% of the ocean floor being properly mapped), but perhaps the latest coelacanth discovery can be used as a wake-up call to emphasise the point. The South African coelacanths were discovered in a national park, which is a World Heritage site and no one knew that they were protecting these big fish. So, if we did not even know that we were protecting coelacanths in our park at only 100m depth, we have to question what other treasures, of possible great value to humans, are there? The need for a Census of Marine Life is intense. The deeper we go, the costlier it becomes and the less we know Marine research is expensive. Most work has been done in the inter-tidal zone and to a depth of about 3 m because this is the most accessible and hence most affordable zone. The 246 inter-tidal area is, of course, fascinating scientifically and rich in diversity. It is also most accessible to communities who live along the shores and has been harvested for thousands of years. Recently, however, harvesting pressures have increased inordinately, more than justifying the need to research this zone. The next zone, to about 30 m, is considerably more expensive, usually requiring boats, SCUBA and specialised equipment. Use of ships and oceanographic equipment to work beyond the depth to which SCUBA divers can conveniently and safely operate may be several orders of magnitude more costly, depending upon the nature of the research. The prohibitive costs of deep water research have retarded work on the eastern seaboard of the African continent until the world’s second largest coelacanth was discovered in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park (GSLWP). The high international profile and the charisma of the coelacanth offered an opportunity to fund offshore research associated with the coelacanth. However, so much of great relevance in terms of understanding offshore ecosystems remains untouched that it was apparent from the outset that the programme should build itself around the coelacanth, but focus on biophysical interactions and processes while exploring the coasts and oceans of the South Western Indian Ocean. The focal area in South Africa is the GSLWP, which ACEP is developing as a model for which the programme would promote a conservation strategy and develop environmental education and public awareness programmes. This model might then be useful for the existing and proposed protected areas for the partner countries. Parks and other protected areas are the focal areas of ACEP, but the focus is not be restricted exclusively to parks, given that some of the most obvious monitoring sites for oceanographic processes would be outside of parks. Initially the programme was called the South African Coelacanth Conservation and Genome Resource Programme, indicating the South African origin and the focus on the coelacanth, conservation research and the opportunity to probe an ancient genome to seek answers to the questions regarding the possibility of coelacanths having given rise to tetrapods. However, at the official launch of the programme, Minister Ben Ngubane, reiterated his desire to see the programme become more closely aligned to NEPAD. As the partnerships developed, the need arose to change the name to reflect the multinational African initiative and the ecosystem approach. The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme has a catch phrase: ‘A window to the past, a door to the future’. The window to the past captures the exceedingly important aspect of probing the past, as directed by the genome resource group. The door to the future reflects the opportunities for the partner countries to use the high profile of the coelacanth to not only learn about coelacanths, but also to better understand their overall offshore ecosystems and the processes that drive them. Determining conservation status of coelacanths and finding clues to their apparent evolutionary stasis depends upon a thorough appreciation of the biophysical habitat. Accordingly, there was a necessity to define their structural habitat and their dependence on the topographic environment. Data from the Comoros suggested that coelacanths are particularly sensitive to aspects of the watery medium in which they live, especially an avoidance of currents and a narrow temperature tolerance range. Accordingly, oceanographic data were required.. Coelacanths live with a variety of other organisms and these communities are dependent upon communities in shallower and deeper water. Such communities needed to be defined and their relationships, particularly with respect to processes, need to be recorded. 247 The relationship of the South African population to those elsewhere needs to be established through population genetics. All the data are geo-referenced and placed on different layers of the GIS to integrate the relational databases and provide tools for scientific modelling and environmental education. Funding Initial funding was from the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, which assumed responsibility for the science and some running costs on the ship (primarily fuel). The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, through its Marine and Coastal Management Branch, provided the FRS Algoa, which it modified to a) be able to deploy and retrieve the German manned submersible, Jago and b) for work in the tropics. The costs of the Jago, and the team led by Prof. Hans Fricke, were met by the German Government under the German-South Africa collaboration agreement in Science and Technology. Corporate sponsors also provided support; the Anglo-American Chairman’s Fund in particular gave considerable support to the Environmental Education sub-programme. Other generous sponsorship partners during the first 18 months of the programme were: AFROX, AVIS, Dimension Data, Dynasty Marine, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Grahamstown Side Bar, National Ports Authority, NRF, Royal Society of Southern Africa, SAIAB, Sasol SciFest, Triton Diver Charters and WWF-SA. Strategy The strategy for the programme was to conduct five successful expeditions, develop the international NEPAD partners and then attract major sponsors on the basis of a track record of success. The initial five expeditions have been completed, partnerships have been developed between the Comoros, Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania and some encouraging progress with respect to international funding has been made. International funding,, however, is dependent upon the assurance that the core funding and facilities are provided by the African nations. Geosurveys The first expedition of the programme was to map the canyons in which coelacanths were found in the GSLWP. More than 30 canyons were mapped using a multibeam echosounder. These maps provided the GIS base on which to build the biophysical data. The maps were prerequisites to defining coelacanth topographic habitats and for guiding the submersible in the search for coelacanths. The submersible, in turn, provided detail for the maps and assisted in honing interpretation of the acoustic bathymetry. Though the coelacanth is the focal animal for the studies, it should be clear that maps of bottom habitat are important indicators for biodiversity, giving a preliminary evaluation of diversity and population size (species area relationships and habitat type and complexity relationships). Such data are of value to conservation planning and fisheries management. The entire Mozambique Channel, from South Africa to Tanzania, and including Madagascar, has also been digitised to provide accurate electronic charts in order to determine likely sites for coelacanths within the region, and to provide a GIS base upon which to place all biophysical data from surveys in the region. Oceanography The oceanographic component is measuring the physical parameters of the region (e.g. currents, temperature, salinity, oxygen concentration, light extinction) and biological parameters, including primary productivity, plankton and nutrients. 248 Data from the first studies indicate that despite strong surface currents over the canyons, coelacanths within the canyons are sheltered because currents in canyons are of very low energy and velocity. Often, the areas inhabited by coelacanths had no detectable currents. Coelacanths are usually intolerant of temperatures higher than 20oC, but the caves in which they live at the GSLWP are just below the 20oC isobath, suggesting that global warming might force the South African coelacanths into depths where caves do not occur. Such a change could threaten the continued existence of this population. The oceanographic studies in the Mozambique Channel and Tanzania have revealed currents of exceptional velocity. At this early stage it seems that the Mozambique Current does not flow consistently down the Channel to then become the Agulhas Current, as previously believed. Rather, massive gyres in the Channel appear to exist. Although the primary questions regarding the oceanographic studies are directed at probing enigmas related to coelacanths, it should be clear that they also provide information of considerable value to fisheries management, conservation, marine protected areas and global warming. Marine Ecology Given that the programme is process orientated and ecosystem based, the presence, population size and structure of all organisms and their roles in the ecosystem were studied both locally and in terms of the biogeography of the region. These topics are summarised below. a) Coelacanth ecology: Most ecological and behavioural data on coelacanths stem from research conducted in the Comoros. Those data indicate that coelacanths have a narrow habitat tolerance range and are likely to be vulnerable to change. They live in caves during the day, but hunt out of the caves at night. In the Comoros the caves occupied by coelacanths are at 200-300 m depth. The temperature range occupied by coelacanths is 14-20oC, with far greater sensitivity to the higher temperatures. At night coelacanths swim into deeper water to feed. In South Africa, coelacanths occupy caves at 95-148m, in temperatures that correspond to those of the Comoros (14-20oC). Evidence from a single tagged individual suggest that coelacanths in South Africa feed in the area where caves are found or in slightly shallower water. b) Fishes: The distribution of fish which might be prey to coelacanths within the study area, from South Africa to Tanzania, Comoros and Madagascar, and their association with fish communities in shallower, deeper and open waters are being investigated with respect to species composition, relative abundance, ecological role and trophic relationships. c) Invertebrates and plants: Demersal and open water invertebrates and plants are being catalogued and their ecological communities investigated throughout the study areas to determine variation with respect to habitat and geographic distribution. d) Taxonomy: The study area is spectacularly rich in species. However, taxonomy of many groups proved to be challenging, suggesting that there is considerable scope for taxonomic work on virtually every group. e) Lodging voucher specimens: Museum specimens are being collected for each country so that voucher specimens are lodged. It is deemed essential that vouchers are lodged to enable verification of the science and to provide each country with museum samples of their taxa. Several of the countries are facing 249 difficulties in finding the resources to adequately curate their collections. A longterm sustainable solution is required to ensure adequate curation. f) Critical mass of taxonomists: It is apparent that the partner countries involved in the programme do not have thecollective taxonomic expertise to accurately identify the specimens collected in each phylum. Even the fishes, particularly the deep mid-water species, proved to be challenging. To develop a critical mass of regional taxonomists, ACEP is planning to hold training courses to be led by international experts. Such courses will be spread over the next few years, each focusing on a particular group of animals or plants. g) Stable isotopes: In order to determine the primary source of energy to coelacanths, particularly if it is dependent upon pelagic planktonic sources, as might be the case in the Comoros, or more strictly demersal detritic sources, as might be the case in South Africa, a stable isotope analysis of the trophic food web has been initiated. The programme is collecting samples from the plankton, the bottom habitats (using SCUBA in shallow water and a manned submersible and demersal trawls in deeper habitats), and mid-waters (mid-water trawls). Such data will ultimately contribute to an understanding of the trophic relationships (web) within the Mozambique Channel and help define the relationships between shallow and deep demersal communities and the open water communities. h) Data management and Geographic Information System (GIS): All data are georeferenced and are entered into relational databases for incorporation into the GIS framework for the programme. The foundations for this work have been laid by both the accurate mapping of the canyons and other aspects of the bottom in the GSLWP using swath bathymetry (as a model for other parks in the area). Similarly, the digitisation of the Mozambique Channel, including Tanzania and the north eastern areas of South Africa, provides the foundation for incorporation of regional biophysical data into the GIS. Genetics Coelacanths: Tissue samples are collected from coelacanths in a non-intrusive manner to determine the relationship of South African coelacanths to those in other parts of Africa. An intriguing question related to the small localised population in South Africa is whether this is an isolated founder population, perhaps derived from a single pregnant female. Genetic fingerprinting to probe kin relationships and genetic variability will provide answers to this and related questions. Such analyses will also provide an indication of the conservation status of the population; a broad variability will indicate a robust healthy population, probably with gene flow between it and other populations; a homozygous population will suggest inbreeding and vulnerability. Other organisms: Expertise in genetics is not strong in every partner country, so the capacity to answer questions of fundamental importance, such as whether the prawns of Tanzania and Mozambique are the same or different stocks, or questions related to taxonomy and phylogentics is limited. In partnership with Germany, ACEP is moving towards developing the required capacity. Genome Can the astounding window to the past provided by coelacanths really give us an indication whether coelacanths gave rise to tetrapods, and hence dinosaurs and humans? Alternatively, can the genome provide an insight to coelacanth and other ancient aspects of DNA and RNA? Such questions are being investigated by the genome resource group on ACEP. 250 Technology and tools Ships: The programme has used two ships: the Ocean Mariner for the acoustic bathymetry necessary to map the bottom (expedition 1), and the FRS Algoa, for the diving expeditions using the manned submersible (expeditions 2 and 4) and the NEPAD expeditions (expeditions 3 and 5) up the Mozambique Channel to Mozambique, Tanzania, Comoros and Madagascar. The FRS Algoa was modified to accommodate the manned submersible Jago, and fitted with a six-tonne crane to launch and retrieve Jago. She was also modified for tropical work, including the installation of a water distillation plant for when at sea for protracted periods, and to take more researchers, given that five countries are now represented on the programme. The Ocean Mariner is privately owned and was hired for the work. The FRS Algoa belongs to Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, strong supporters and primary partners of ACEP. Submersible: The German manned submersible Jago was used for the diving expeditions and proved to be very successful. The international management committee of ACEP have initiated a feasibility study into the viability of a regionally owned submersible so that the countries of the Western Indian Ocean will not always be dependent upon foreign support and equipment. Scale collection and specimen collection: Genetic, genome and stable isotope collections from coelacanths were effected by shooting a small dart into scales of coelacanths. These darts have prongs that penetrate the scales, but not the flesh of coelacanths. Coelacanths grow replacement scales fairly quickly. Video transects: Video records of much of what happens underwater are made from the submersible and by SUCBA divers in the shallows. To provide baselines for comparative purposes and to develop accurate numerical data, video transects are employed. Biophysical monitoring stations: Long-term biophysical monitoring stations have been or are being established along the coast and on islands around the entire study area. At present the minimum that these stations have are temperature probes at 18 m depth. Most also have marked out biological transects and a few have current meters (ADCPs). Ideally, all stations should have temperature probes, ADCPs and biological transects. The monitoring stations are primarily within MPAs, where they can serve the parks and be serviced by the parks’ managers. In addition, they are placed at points which are likely to provide critically important oceanographic and/or biological data. Tags and listening devices: ACEP has implanted an acoustic tag into one coelacanth and made some interesting discoveries from tracking the tagged fish. However, a great deal more could be discovered if the long-lasting tags were monitored by listening devices placed strategically in the canyons. Such behavioural information could then be correlated with changes in the physical environment (temperature, currents, salinities). ACEP is working towards these objectives. ROVs: Consideration is being given to extending the operational efficiency of ACEP by using ROVs operated from submersibles and/or from a surface vessel. Such ROVs will increase the data acquisition and enable activities that cannot be performed by submersibles (e.g. enter small caves to place recording equipment, such as CTDs, in them to measure the conditions in caves used by coelacanths and caves not used by them). Streaming for science and education: Endeavours to stream data either live, from fixed cameras on the bottom, or from films recorded from the submersible are likely to find support in the near future. The streaming will be to meet scientific, educational and public awareness objectives. 251 Capacity Building, Environmental Education, Public Awareness Fewer people in Africa enter the sciences than are required to meet the needs of most countries. Then there are difficulties in retaining trained personnel and to sustain them in their chosen careers. There is a clear need to encourage entry into the sciences, recruiting people for training, and then once trained they need to have career opportunities that have sustainability. If the goal is to have a functional critical mass of highly skilled professionals employed securely in their scientific capacity, then all aspects of capacity building are required: train young learners, build the institutional and infrastructural capacity to offer them careers in their chosen disciplines and ensure secure long-term financial capacity to sustain the highly skilled professionals required by each country. ACEP is endeavouring to meet at least some of the challenges as follows: 1. Encouraging entry into science and technology. At each port the ship is opened to school teachers and their scholars. They are given instructional packages, shown films and taken on tours of the ship to meet scientists and see what happens on a research ship. The objective is to use the excitement of ships, submersibles and exploration to inspire the youth to consider scientific careers. 2. Promoting public awareness so that careers in the marine sciences are options that become desirable to the broader community and so that conservation of marine resources becomes better understood. To achieve these objectives the ACEP is taken to the public through the media (printed, radio, TV), public lectures and exhibitions, for example at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, SciFest, South African Parliament and travelling displays. 3. Taking science to the children in schools. Printed material, videos and CDs are taken to those children who are in schools that are too remote to enable them to visit the ship. The GIS has also been structured so that children and teachers can interact with it, by, for example, flying through canyons in a virtual submersible to find coelacanths and the animals and plants with which they live. 4. Offering training opportunities to students who register under the umbrella of the programme, and offering special opportunities to researchers from each of the partner countries to work onboard the ship or attend special courses onshore (shore-based courses are still in the planning stage). 5. Recognising that in each country the number of people employed in offshore research is low, therefore develop a regional team – a critical mass-- that can work effectively together to achieve national and regional objectives. Conclusion The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme is only in its second year, so it is perhaps premature to draw firm conclusions. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Western Indian Ocean and the countries associated with it are in a spectacularly beautiful part of the world. It is a region of amazingly rich marine, freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity. The staggering marine diversity and richness of species is not matched by the biomass to provide the fisheries-based economic benefits that accrue, for example, to the south western coast of Africa. The prawn fishery and the tuna fisheries (exploited to a large degree by foreign vessels) are the most lucrative and are on a scale that affects the national economies. The smaller scale fisheries are of great value to communities that depend upon them, but many may not be sustainable. Given the beauty and species richness of the region, perhaps nonconsumptive use of natural resources through eco-tourism holds greater potential for sustained economic security. A Census of Marine Life offers an opportunity to explore this promise, and ACEP offers a vehicle for offshore studies to the Western Indian Ocean region. 252 Thematic report Coastal and marine avian biodiversity in the Afrotropics and associated islands Philip A.R. Hockey & Jane V. Hamblin Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa 7701. [email protected] The purposes of this study were 1) to summarise information about the status of coastal and marine birds in the Afrotropics and associated satellite islands; 2) to develop a simple Biodiversity Index that allows comparisons of the avifaunas of different countries and 3) to compare the current distribution of Important Bird Areas and protected areas in the region and assess their spatial relationship with avian biodiversity. Data compilation A list of 136 coast-dependent (C) and pelagic (P) bird species present in one or more coastal African countries and Afrotropical islands was compiled from Sinclair et al. (2003) (Appendix 1). National coast lengths (km) were obtained from The Central Intelligence Agency (1995), Cheke (1987) (Rodrigues) and Porter et al. (1996) (Socotra). Each species was assigned a conservation status score (BirdLife International 2000); 5 = Critically endangered, 4 = Endangered, 3 = Vulnerable, 2 = Near-threatened, 1 = Not threatened. Each species was also placed in one of five endemism categories. 5 = Localised subSaharan endemic, 4 = regional sub-Saharan endemic (i.e. w, e or s Africa), 3 = widespread sub-Saharan endemic, 2 = near sub-Saharan African endemic, 1 = non-endemic. Each species in each country was further assigned a ranking according to its abundance and breeding status (Br = breeding, N-Br = non-breeding, see below). Code 5 4 3 2 1 0 Status Breeding status Br Common Uncommon Rare 253 N-Br Br N-Br Br N-Br For each country, sites identified as being of national or international importance for coastal birds (Important Bird Areas), and the number and area (km2) of these that are protected, were extracted from Fishpool & Evans (2001); with additional information for Socotra from Evans (1994). Data analyses A biodiversity index (BI) was calculated for each country. BI = Ylog10Z, where Y = (5X1)+(4X2)……, Xn = the number of species per status category (5-0) per country, and Z = coast length (km). SYNOPSIS OF FINDINGS • Species richness (SR) per mainland country was positively and significantly correlated with coastline length (CL): SR = 0.0126CL + 64.01; r = 0.66, P <0.001. • Pelagic and coastal species diversity, as well as national Biodiversity Indices for both categories peaked in regions influenced by upwelling systems, viz. the Canaries Current (Mauritania, Senegambia), Benguela Current (Angola, Namibia, South Africa), and Somali Current (Kenya, Somalia) (Table 1, Figs 1a, 1b). • Red Data species are concentrated in southern Africa (Angola, Namibia and South Africa), and to a lesser degree, in Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Somalia (Table 1). • Endemics show a similar pattern, with endemism concentrated in southern Africa (Angola to Mozambique), and in Gabon, Madagascar, Kenya and Somalia (Table 1). • The number of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) per country is generally a reflection of ornithological knowledge. Seven mainland countries and two islands have no coastal IBAs (Table 1). Of the 23 countries/islands that do have coastal IBAs, 16 (70%) have one or more of these at least partially protected (Table 1). In general, the countries with highest species richness and Biodiversity Indices have the most IBAs and the largest areas protected (Table 1). 254 Table 1: Summary of avian biodiversity and coastal conservation attributes of coastal African countries and associated satellite islands. Shaded blocks indicate the countries with the 5 highest scores in each category. Coast Area # end- # IBAs f # spp BI c length Prot. RDS d e g emics (#prot.) (km) P a C b P (km²) C MAINLAND Mauritania 754 23 36 52 337 1 2 4 (2) 12 860 Senegambia 611 29 39 89 354 2 4 11 (8) 2131 Guinea-Bissau 350 14 34 25 280 0 3 5 (4) 4650 Guinea 320 15 33 30 248 0 2 6 (0) Sierra Leone 402 20 31 39 190 0 2 2 (0) Liberia 579 24 31 44 152 2 3 0 Ivory Coast 515 17 37 27 206 2 4 1 (1) 194 Ghana 539 17 34 16 210 1 3 6 (1) 95 Togo 56 11 32 3 126 2 3 0 Benin 121 7 19 8 110 2 3 0 Nigeria 853 15 32 6 214 1 3 1 (0) Cameroon 402 9 30 10 201 3 5 0 Equatorial Guinea 296 8 21 10 119 1 3 0 Gabon 885 15 41 6 239 4 7 2 (0) Congo 169 7 28 4 136 4 4 0 Democratic Republic of 37 no data 0 Congo 34 103 269 11 7 2 (1) 9960 Angola 1600 25 Namibia 1572 32 40 246 390 14 8 9 (7) 185 South Africa 2798 47 47 276 441 14 9 18 (13) 2002 Mozambique 2470 25 38 17 309 8 6 3 (2) 900 Tanzania (incl. Zanzibar 1424 9 35 47 315 2 4 8 (2) 1870 & Pemba) Kenya 536 25 45 60 347 4 5 5 (3) 511 Somalia 3025 25 46 99 360 5 5 7 (0) TOTAL 20 314 90 (44) 35 358 ISLANDS Cape Verde Islands Sao Tome & Principe Madagascar Mauritius (incl. Rodrigues) Reunion Comores Mayotte Seychelles Socotra TOTAL 965 209 4828 244 23 23 33 23 25 134 18 86 32 129 21 100 113 102 350 122 1 2 7 7 2 4 6 3 6 (4) 0 17 (2) 7 (6) 201 14 340 8 185.2 5 491 25 260 7 7723.2 15 76 21 38 22 18 31 172 26 36 32 91 91 180 99 4 0 0 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 10 (5) 0 1 (0) 13 (7) 2 (0) 56 (24) a 21 975 8 67 343 1414 pelagic, b coastal, c biodiversity index (see methods), d RDS = International Red Data Book species (BirdLife International 2000), e local or regional, f Important Bird Areas (Evans 1994, Fishpool & Evans 2001), g 'prot.' = protected 255 Data Sources: Altenburg & van der Kemp 1992, Altenburg et al. 1982, Ash & Miskell 1983, Ash & Miskell 1998, Barlow et al. 1997, Barre et al. 1996, BirdLife International 2000, Borrow & Demey 2001, Bregnballe et al. 1990, Central Intelligence Agency 1995, Cheke 1987, Cheke & Walsh 1996, Christy & Clarke 1998, Christy & Vande weghe 1999, Clancey 1971, Dean 2000, Elgood 1981, Elgood et al. 1994, Evans 1994, Fishpool & Evans 2001, Gatter 1997, Grimes 1987, Harrison et al. 1997, Hazavoet 1995, Jensen & Kirkeby 1980, Kirwan et al. 1996, Landrand 1990, Louette 1988, Maclean 1993, Morel & Morel 1990, Morris & Hawkins 1998, Parker 1999, Porter et al. 1996, Rand 1951, Schepers & Marteijn 1993, Sinclair & Landrand 1998, Sinclair et al. 2003, Skerrett et al. 2001, Staub 1976, Thiollay 1985, Williams & Arlott 1980, Wolff & Smit 1990, Zimmerman et al. 1996. 256 a) Pelagic Species (BI) > 88 16-60 < 11 Upwelling Fig 1: Mainland avian diversity hotspots for a) pelagic species and b) coastal species; b) Coastal Species (BI) > 308 < 281 Upwelling Plover White-fronted species detailed in Appendix 1. 257 REFERENCES Altenburg, W. & van der Kamp, J. 1992. Faunistical notes. Pp 85-95 in: Altenburg, W., Wymenga, E. & Zwarts, L. (eds.). Ornithological Importance of the Coastal Wetlands of Guinea-Bissau. WIWO-report nr. 26. Zeist. Altenburg, W., Engelmoer, M., Mes, R. & Piersma, T. 1982. Wintering Waders on the Banc D’Arguin, Mauritania. Comm. No. 6, Wadden Sea Working Group. Ash, J.S. & Miskell, J.E. 1983. Birds of Somalia: their Habitat, Status and Distribution. Ornithological Sub-committee, EANHS, Nairobi. Ash, J.S. & Miskell, J.E.1998. Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Sussex. Barlow, C., Wacher, T. & Disley, T. 1997. A Field Guide to the Birds of The Gambia and Senegal. Pica Press, Sussex. Barre, N., Barau, A. & Jouanin, C. 1996. Oiseaux de la Réunion. Les Editions Du Pacifique, Paris. BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions & BirdLife International, Barcelona & Cambridge. Borrow, N. & Demey, R. 2001. Birds of Western Africa. Christopher Helm, London. Bregnballe, T., Halberg, K., Hansen, L.N., Petersen, I.K. & Thorup, O. 1990. Ornithological Winter Surveys on the Coast of Tanzania 1988-89. ICBP Study Report No. 43, ICBP, Denmark. Central Intelligence Agency. 1995. The World Factbook 1995-96. Brassey’s, Washington. Cheke, A.S.1987. Observations on the surviving endemic birds of Rodrigues. Pp 364-402 in: Diamond, A.W. (ed.) Studies of Mascarene Island Birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cheke, R.A. & Walsh, J.F. 1996. The Birds of Togo. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring. Christy, P. & Clarke, W.V. 1998. Guide des Oiseaux de São Tomé et Príncipe. Ecofac, Libreville. Christy, P. & Vande weghe, J.P. 1999. Les Oiseaux d’Afrique Centrale: Liste Faunistique. ADIE, Libreville. Clancey, P.A. 1971. A Handlist of the Birds of Southern Mozambique. Instituo de Investigação Científica de Moçambique, Lourenço Marques. Dean, W.R.J. 2000. The Birds of Angola. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring. Elgood, J.H. 1981. The Birds of Nigeria. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Elgood, J.H., Heigham, J.B., Moore, A.M., Nason, A.M., Sharland, R.E. & Skinner, N.J. 1994. The Birds of Nigeria. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring. 258 Evans, M.I. 1994. Important Bird Areas of the Middle East. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 2. BirdLife International, Cambridge. Fishpool, L.D.C. & Evans, M.I. (eds.). 2001. Important Bird Areas in Africa and Associated Islands: Priority Sites for Conservation. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 11. Pices Publications & BirdLife International, Newbury & Cambridge. Gatter, W. 1997. Birds of Liberia. Pica Press, Sussex. Grimes, L.G. 1987. The Birds of Ghana. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Harrison, J.A., Allen, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V. & Brown, C.J. (eds.). 1997. The Atlas of Southern African Birds. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. Hazavoet, C.J. 1995. The Birds of the Cape Verde Islands. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring. Jensen, J.V. & Kirkeby, J. 1980. The Birds of The Gambia. Aros Nature Guides, Århus. Kirwan, G.M., Martins, R.P., Morton, K.M. & Showler, D.A. 1996. The status of birds in Socotra and 'Abd Al-Kuri and the records of the OSME survey in spring 1993. Sandgrouse 17: 83-101. Landrand, O. 1990. Guide to the Birds of Madagascar. Yale University Press, London & New Haven. Louette, M. 1988. Les Oiseaux des Comores. Musée Royal de L'Afrique Centrale Tervuren, Belgique. Maclean, G.L. 1993. Roberts’ Birds of Southern Africa, 6th ed. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town. Morel, G.J. & Morel, M.Y. 1990. Les Oiseaux de Sénégambie. L’Orstrom, Paris. Morris, P. & Hawkins, F. 1998. Birds of Madagascar: A Photographic Guide. Pica Press, Sussex. Parker, V. 1999. The Atlas of the Birds of Sul do Save, Southern Mozambique. Avian Demographic Unit & Endangered Wildlife Trust, Cape Town & Johannesburg Porter, R.F., Martims, R.P. & Stone, F. 1996. The Ornithological Society of the Middle East’s survey of southern Yemen and Socotra, March-May 1993: an introduction. Sandgrouse 17: 5-14. Rand, A.L. 1951. Birds from Liberia. Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago. Schepers, F.J. & Marteijn, E.C.L. (eds.) 1993. Coastal Waterbirds in Gabon, Winter 1992. WIWO-report nr. 41. Zeist. Sinclair, I. & Landrand, O. 1998. Birds of the Indian Ocean Islands. Struik, Cape Town. 259 Sinclair, I, Ryan PG, Hockey PAR, Christy, P. 2003. Birds of Africa South of the Sahara. Struik, Cape Town. Skerrett, A., Bullock, I. & Disley, T. 2001. Birds of the Seychelles. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London. Staub, F. 1976. Birds of the Mascarenes & Saint Brandon. Organisation Normale des Entreprises Ltée, Mauritius. Thiollay, J.M. 1985. The birds of Ivory Coast: status and distribution. Malimbus 7: 1-59. Williams, J.G. & Arlott, N. 1980. A Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa. Collins, London. Wolff, W.J. & Smit, C.J. 1990. The Banc D’Arguin, Mauritania, as an environment for coastal birds. Ardea 78:17-38. Zimmerman, D.A., Turner, D.A. & Pearson, D.J. 1996. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Russel Friedman Books, Halfway House. 260 Appendix 1: List of all pelagic (P) and coast-dependent (C) bird species included in the analyses. P Diomedea exulans Wandering Albatross P Sula dactylatra Masked Booby P Diomedea sanfordi Northern Royal Albatross P Sula leucogaster Brown Booby P Thalassarche cauta Shy Albatross P Sula sula Red-footed Booby P Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross P Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked (Northern) Phalarope Grey-headed Albatross P Phalaropus fulicarius Red (Grey) Phalarope P Thalassarche chrysostoma P Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross P Catharacta antarctica Subantarctic (Brown) Skua P Thalassarche carteri Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross P Catharacta skua Great Skua P Macronectes giganteus Southern Giant-Petrel P Catharacta maccormicki South Polar Skua Stercorarius pomarinus Pomarine Jaeger (Skua) P Macronectes halli Northern Giant-Petrel P P Daption capense Pintado Petrel P Stercorarius parasiticus Parasitic Jaeger (Arctic Skua) P Fulmarus glacialoides Antarctic Fulmar P Stercorarius longicaudus Long-tailed Jaeger (Skua) P Pterodroma macroptera Great-winged Petrel P Larus sabini Sabine's Gull Sterna paradisaea Arctic Tern P Pterodroma mollis Soft-plumaged Petrel P P Pterodroma feae Fea's Petrel P Sterna sumatrana Black-naped Tern P Pterodroma baraui Barau's Petrel P Sterna fuscata Sooty Tern P Pterodroma arminjoniana Trinidade Petrel P Gygis alba White Tern Anous stolidus Brown (Common) Noddy P Pterodroma aterrima Reunion Petrel P P Pachyptila desolata Antarctic Prion P Anous minutus Black Noddy P Pachyptila belcheri Slender-billed Prion P Anous tenuirostris Lesser Noddy P Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel C Podiceps nigricollis Black-necked Grebe Spheniscus demersus African Penguin P Procellaria conspicillata Spectacled Petrel C P Puffinus griseus Sooty Shearwater C Morus capensis Cape Gannet P Puffinus carneipes Flesh-footed Shearwater C Phalacrocorax neglectus Bank Cormorant P Puffinus pacificus Wedge-tailed Shearwater C Phalacrocorax capensis Cape Cormorant P Calonectris diomedea Cory's Shearwater C Phalacrocorax coronatus Crowned Cormorant P Calonectris edwardsii Cape Verde Shearwater C Phalacrocorax nigrogularis Socotra Cormorant P Puffinus gravis Great Shearwater C Egretta gularis Western Reef Heron P Puffinus puffinus Manx Shearwater C Egretta dimorpha Dimorphic (Mascarene) Egret P Puffinus lherminieri Audubon's Shearwater C Ardea humbloti Humblot's Heron P Puffinus assimilis Little Shearwater C Phoenicopterus ruber Greater Flamingo P Bulweria bulwerii Bulwer's Petrel C Threskiornis bernieri Madagascar Sacred Ibis P Bulweria fallax Jouanin's Petrel C Ciconia episcopus Wooly-necked Stork P Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm-Petrel C Pandion haliaetus Osprey P Fregetta tropica Black-bellied Storm-Petrel C Haliaeetus vociferoides Madagascar Fish-Eagle P Fregetta grallaria White-bellied Storm-Petrel C Dromas ardeola Crab Plover P Oceanites oceanicus Wilson's Storm-Petrel C Haematopus moquini African Black Oystercatcher P Hydrobates pelagicus European Storm-Petrel C Haematopus ostralegus Eurasian Oystercatcher P Oceanodroma leucorhoa Glareola ocularis Madagascar Pratincole Oceanodroma castro Leach's Storm-Petrel Band-rumped (Madeiran) StormPetrel Red-tailed Tropicbird C P C Charadrius mongolus Mongolian Plover C Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover C Charadrius alexandrinus Kentish Plover C Charadrius marginatus White-fronted Plover C Charadrius hiaticula Common Ringed Plover C Charadrius pallidus Chestnut-banded Plover C Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden Plover C Pluvialis squatarola Grey (Black-bellied) Plover C Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit P P Phaethon rubricauda Phaethon lepturus White-tailed Tropicbird P Phaethon aethereus Red-billed Tropicbird P Fregata magnificens Magnificent Frigatebird P P Fregata aquila Fregata minor Ascension Frigatebird Greater Frigatebird P Fregata ariel Lesser Frigatebird P Morus bassanus Northern Gannet 261 C Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew C Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel C Tringa totanus Common Redshank C Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank C Xenus cinerea Terek Sandpiper C Calidris canutus Red Knot C Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper C Calidris alpina Dunlin C Calidris minuta Little Stint C Calidris alba Sanderling C Limicola falcinellus Broad-billed Sandpiper C Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone C Larus dominicanus Kelp Gull C Larus heuglini Heuglin's Gull C Larus fuscus Lesser Black-backed Gull C Larus cachinnans Yellow-legged Gull C Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed Gull C Larus hartlaubii Hartlaub's Gull C Larus ridibundus Common Black-headed Gull C Larus genei Slender-billed Gull C Sterna caspia Caspian Tern C Sterna maxima Royal Tern C Sterna bengalensis Lesser Crested Tern C Sterna bergii Swift (Greater Crested) Tern C Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich Tern C Sterna dougallii Roseate Tern C Sterna hirundo Common Tern C Sterna vittata Antarctic Tern C Sterna repressa White-cheeked Tern C Sterna albifrons Little Tern C Sterna saundersi Saunders' Tern C Sterna balaenarum Damara Tern C Sterna anaethetus Bridled Tern C Chlidonias niger Black Tern C Alcedo thomensis São Tomé Kingfisher C Alcedo nais Prìncipé Kingfisher C Halcyon senegaloides Mangrove Kingfisher C Mirafra ashi Ash's Lark C Anthus melindae Malindi Pipit C Cisticola haematocephala Coastal Cisticola C Anthreptes gabonicus Mangrove (Brown) Sunbird C Ploceus subpersonatus Loango Weaver 262 Related initiatives Related initiatives Census of Marine Life – CoML Indian Ocean Dr M. Wafar National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, P.O. Goa 403 004. India. [email protected] The Indian Ocean accounts for 29% of the spread, 13% of the marine organic carbon synthesis, 10% of the capture fisheries, 90% of the culture fisheries, 30% of coral reefs and 10% of the mangroves of the global ocean. It also has 246 estuaries draining hinterlands greater than 2000 km2 and a large number of minor estuaries, besides coastal lagoons and backwaters. Bering landlocked in the north, and with its largest portion lying in the tropics, the Indian Ocean is also a region of high biological diversity. It is also a region of developing countries and has the greatest concentration of the world’s population (30%) living within 100 km of the coast. Notwithstanding this importance, our knowledge of the coastal and marine biodiversity of the Indian Ocean is still scattered in temporal, spatial and taxonomical scales. On the temporal scale, since the International Indian Ocean Expedition in 1960s, there have been no major international efforts to collect and analyze biodiversity. On spatial scales, relatively more comprehensive datasets are available only for some countries. On taxonomical scales, inventories of biodiversity are relatively more detailed with respect to commercially exploited groups and larger organisms than with the minor phyla or microorganisms. Considered in the context of the spread, ecosystem diversity, economic potentials –current and perceived – and the threat perceptions of the loss, and in comparison with what is known elsewhere in the world, what we know of the marine biodiversity of the Indian Ocean is much less than what should have been. The CoML Indian Ocean initiative is the first attempt to evaluate what is actually known of the marine biodiversity, what remains to be known and what would potentially remain unknown in the region. This will bring together scientists and experts from major countries of the region in a workshop in December 2003 at Goa (India). The workshop has the following objectives: 1. To compile and consolidate existing information on the biodiversity of various habitats and regions of the Indian Ocean (including both coastal and open-ocean) and to make that information available in a collection of peer-reviewed publications. 2. To identify regional priorities for biodiversity studies and develop research initiatives around these priorities. 264 3. To develop ways and means of improving data archival and management of existing information on marine biodiversity in the Indian Ocean, with a view to preventing their loss, and improving access to existing data. 4. To create a regional network of scientists interested in marine biodiversity of the Indian Ocean region, to facilitate exchange of information and data, and to coordinate scientific efforts. 5. To establish links with CoML initiatives in other regions. The participants, in particular, shall try to: • Synthesize our current knowledge of the coastal and marine biodiversity of the region and identify the gaps; • Suggest strategies to fill up these gaps – including augmented surveys, linking to other CoML activities, developing new technologies and tools, and through training, education and building public awareness; • Propose methods to increase accessibility to, and protection of, existing information through improved data management and distribution strategies; and • Speculate on the evolution of the drivers of change on how best they could be managed. • Propose a strategy for long term monitoring of coastal and ocean marine biodiversity for the Indian Ocean region. 265 Related initiatives Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) Dennis Gordon Aquatic Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Water & Atmosphere Research, PO Box 14-901 Kilbirnie, Wellington, New Zealand. [email protected] OBIS is a web-based provider of global georeferenced information on accurately identified marine species. OBIS contains or links with expert species-level and habitatlevel databases and provide a variety of spatial query tools for visualising relationships among species and their environment. OBIS strives to assess and integrate biological, physical, and chemical oceanographic data from multiple sources. Users of OBIS, including researchers, students, and environmental managers, will gain a dynamic view of the multi-dimensional oceanic world. New synoptic datasets from environmental-sensing technologies and new techniques for identifying and describing marine species are likely to result in a quantum increase in knowledge about the distribution and abundance of life in the oceans over the next ten years. The opportunity for new scientific breakthroughs, and heightened concern about the health and persistence of life in the oceans, are the stimulus for the Census of Marine Life (CoML), an international research program to assess and explain the diversity, distribution, and abundance of marine organisms throughout the world's oceans. OBIS is a major component of CoML, as is the History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP), whose mission is to gather, restore, and analyse historical marine population data from the past 500 years, before human impacts on the ocean became significant. OBIS and HMAP provide the temporal context, charting fluctuations of species' distributions past and present. This context is necessary for the third major element of CoML, the Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP), which provides a basis for modeling and prediction of future oceanic communities. CoML will benefit from related programs such as the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), which will be providing continuous streams of observations to challenge existing capabilities for data access, analysis, and presentation. OBIS will play a role in making component biological data accessible and interpretable to a variety of end-users including maritime industries, environmental managers, scientists, teachers, and the general public. 266 Related initiatives The global invasive species programme and marine biodiversity Dr. Lynn F. Jackson Programme Coordinator: GISP, c/o NBI, Private Bag X7, Claremont 7735, Cape Town. ABSTRACT: Invasive alien species are now recognized as a major threat to biodiversity, including that of the marine environment. Responses to this threat include the establishment, by a range of international organizations, of the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP), and, in relation to the marine environment, a Ballast Water Working Group under the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and the Globallast Programme. GISP has recently established a Secretariat in South Africa and offers information, technical support and capacity building/ training. 1. INTRODUCTION Invasive species are now widely recognized as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity generally and one of the four biggest threats to the marine environment, the others being habitat destruction, overexploitation of living resources, and land-based sources of pollution. Their impacts can be direct, for example, where they compete with and displace indigenous species, even leading to the loss of rare species. Or they can be indirect as a result of habitat alteration or disruption of ecosystem functioning and community structure. They also affect the ability of the environment to deliver goods and services leading to the loss of products harvested from indigenous populations and loss of amenities. Examples of invasives in the marine environment, amongst many others, include the Chinese mitten crab, the comb jelly and species with health implications such as cholera and toxic dinoflagellates. Apart from health impacts, marine invasives can have serious ecological and economic consequences. The majority of marine species have a planktonic stage in their life cycle, with the result that they can have a very wide natural dispersion, depending on waves and currents. This can lead to an expansion of their ranges and is thought to be exacerbated by climate change. Many other human activities also contribute to this phenomenon, and marine invasives can be introduced intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional introductions are primarily for purposes of mariculture, while unintentional introductions can be a consequence of canal developments, the growth in marine debris, deliberate or accidental releases from aquaria, and shipping. 267 Ship-related vectors include hull fouling, bilge water, sediments around the anchor chains, and ballast water. Ballast water has received the greatest attention at the international level, with the establishment of a Ballast Water Working Group under the International Maritime Organisation. This group initially drafted a set of Voluntary Guidelines for Ballast Water Management, and has recently completed a draft International Convention. Linked to this has been Globallast, a GEF-funded programme aimed at assisting developing countries with the implementation of the relevant regulations. 2. THE GLOBAL INVASIVE SPECIES PROGRAMME (GISP). Concern at the international level over the threat posed by invasive species led, amongst other things to the establishment of GISP. 2.1Brief history 2.1.1 In 1996 the Norway/UN Conference on Alien Species recognized IAS as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity and recommended the development of a global strategy and action plan to address the problem. 2.1.2 This led to the development of an MoU between IUCN, CABI and SCOPE to establish GISP, which happened in 1997 with financial support from UNEP, GEF, UNESCO and a range of other organizations. 2.1.3 GISP also entered into a MoU with the CBD to act as the Focal Point for IAS under the Clearing House Mechanism of the Convention. 2.2 Institutional Structures Phase I: 1997 – 2000 The initial phase of GISP was managed out of Stanford University under the leadership of Prof. Hal Mooney. There was only 1 staff member, with the rest of the work being undertaken by volunteers – largely experts in the field from partner organizations and associated institutions. It culminated in a Synthesis Conference held in Cape Town in late 2000. Phase II: 2000 – 2006 The Synthesis Conference recommended the establishment of a more substantial Secretariat to support the voluntary efforts and to oversee the execution of a Phase II Implementation Plan. An initial office was set up in Washington DC and in June, 2003 a Secretariat was established in Kirstenbosch Gardens, Cape Town, with core funding from the World Bank. One of the first activities of Phase II was to run 7 Regional Workshops in developing regions, with a view to assessing their needs and 268 priorities. Reports of these workshops will be published soon, and will inform future priority projects and actions of GISP. GISP consists of an Executive Board, an Advisory Panel, a number of Working Groups and the Secretariat. The staff of the latter comprises a CEO, a Programme Coordinator, Communications Officer, Working Group Coordinators and Administrative Officers. The WG Coordinator Posts are yet to be filled. The Working Groups as listed are each chaired by a Board member, and include a wide range of experts in their membership. GISP is currently investigating options with a view to registering as an independent legal entity. 2.3 Mission GISP’s mission is: “To conserve biodiversity and sustain human livelihoods by minimizing the spread and impact of invasive alien species”. 2.4 Objectives - To promote implementation of Article 8 (h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity To improve the scientific basis for decision-making To examine and strengthen legal and institutional frameworks To reduce economic impacts To develop capacity for the management of invasive species To promote awareness of invasive species issues at all levels to promote access to information on invasive species. 3. WHAT GISP OFFERS GISP aims to achieve its objectives by offering the following: - Information - Technical support - Capacity building/training 3.1 Information During Phase I, GISP produced a number of publications, many of which have been widely distributed. One of those products, Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices, is now being actively promoted for use in demonstration projects. It includes case studies on all steps of IAS management and is 269 being translated into a number of other languages (initially French and Spanish). The English version is now available on the GISP website.2 The Secretariat is currently in the process of commissioning the preparation of a number of other documents including: - Manuals on best prevention practices, early warning of invasions, inland waters and wetlands, and islands - An assessment of the socio-economic costs of IAS - A manual on best practices for funding agencies and aid organizations. GISP will promote access to information through a Global Directory Service which will include an updated website, distribution of information on CD’s, and a regular newsletter. To date, GISP has focused to a large extent on the terrestrial and freshwater environments. The intention is, however, to place more emphasis on marine invasives in the future. 4.2 Technical support GISP, through the expertise resident in its Working Groups and partner organizations can provide technical support to collaborative projects and programmes around the world. Existing partners include CABI, IUCN, SCOPE and the CBD, while partnerships are currently under discussion with TNC, IMO, UNEP – Regional Seas Programmes, CI, RAMSAR and others. GISP is already involved in projects in Africa, the South Pacific, India, China and the Galapagos. 4.3 Capacity building/ training There is clearly a need for enhancing the capacity of all countries, but particularly developing countries, to manage invasive species. GISP therefore intends to promote the development of appropriate training and educational materials and to assist in the delivery of training courses – including courses aimed at managers of protected areas. The GISP Secretariat welcomes all interested parties to contact us for further information on our planned activities. Contact information for GISP Secretariat Programme Coordinator: + 27 – 21 – 799 8837 e-mail: [email protected] Communications Officer: + 27 – 21 – 799 8839 e-mail: [email protected] Fax: + 27 – 21 – 797 1561 2 The current web address is: http://globalecology.stanford.edu/DGE/Gisp. However, arrangements are currently being made to transfer the website to South Africa. 270 Related initiatives The marine programme of WWF South Africa Dr Deon Nel WWF South Africa, Millenium Park, 16 Stellantia Avenue, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa. [email protected] WWF-SA's Vision: To inspire collective custodianship of our natural heritage with passion, integrity and enthusiasm WWF's Target Driven Programmes: WWF-SA focuses on the prevention of degradation of the South African natural environment, the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of natural resources. WWF-SA plays a key role in facilitating the implementation of activities that contribute to achieving these objectives by actively engaging with a wide variety of partners and networks through project development, financing and programme management. As a global network, WWF has adopted a target driven approach to conservation and will endeavour to invest 80% of its resources towards six global target driven programmes (TDPs) and the 200 ecoregions identified by the network as being of global importance. WWF-SA has moved towards a closer alignment of its conservation activities with these international approaches and has identified ten relevant programmes within the TDP's and Ecoregion Action Programmes, which contribute towards South African priority conservation needs. These programmes will be proactively developed with strategic partners and address national, regional and international priorities. The five full programmes are: Marine; Freshwater; Fynbos; Grasslands and Conservation Education. The five sub-programmes are: Climate Change; Toxics; Forests; Species of Special Concern and Succulent Karoo. The Marine Programme: The oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface and act as a significant life support system for the world. Globally, the marine environment is a transport route, playground, source of resources, means of livelihood and store of biodiversity. South Africa's national 271 responsibility is the conservation of coastal systems, the Benguela and Agulhas current ecoregions and waters within the Southern Oceans. The WWF-SA Marine Programme will encompass the development and management of a cohesive and effective marine and coastal conservation support programme, which is relevant to the marine conservation needs of South Africa and is aligned with international programmes and protocols. The modus operandi of the programme will be to consult with marine conservation partners to develop a strategic focus and plan for priority activities, to assist with the development of projects and to secure resources for their implementation. The geographical focus of the programme will be the inshore marine waters of South Africa, the Southern Ocean waters within the jurisdiction of South Africa as well as linked interventions up the western and eastern coasts of southern Africa. Vision: Government Departments, communities, environmentalists, industries and other interest groups in South Africa work closely together to keep and restore the treasures of the sea. People use oceans and coasts wisely for the benefit of current and future generations. Due to a common understanding and value of natural richness and beauty, humans respect the idea that all marine life has a right to be and the space to survive. Marine Programme Targets: • • • • • • Identify priority habitats, species and marine systems requiring special conservation attention. Establishment and implementation of a network of effectively managed, ecologically representative Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) covering at least 20 % of South Africa's coastline. Number of fish stocks that are currently categorised as over-exploited or depleted, are halved and the status of sustainably exploited fish stocks maintained. At least three South African fisheries certified by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) as sustainably managed. Security and management for Southern Ocean illegal, unreported and unmonitored fishery activities achieved. By-catch of endemic or threatened seabirds and sea mammals reduced to acceptable levels. 272 Related initiatives MASDEA - Marine Species Database for Eastern Africa Dr Edward Vanden Berghe Flanders Marine Data and Information Centre, Flanders Marine Institute, Vismijn, Pakhuizen 45-52, B-8400 Ostend, Belgium. [email protected] In spite of the importance of standard species lists for taxonomic nomenclature, no such lists presently exist for the Western Indian Ocean/Eastern African region. Several global initiatives exist to inventorise all published taxonomic names, such as ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System) or Species 2000. Some groups are covered adequately globally (FishBase, FishNet, CephBase, Hexacorallians of the World), or in single continents (European Marine Molluscs, Marine Molluscs of the Indo-Pacific). Late 1996, we started developing a database application at the RECOSCIX-WIO project (Regional Cooperation in Scientific Information Exchange - Western Indian Ocean) to fill this gap. MASDEA consists of taxonomic records, and distribution records, mostly at the country level, for these taxa. In the database, no attempt was made to convert synonymous names in their currently valid name; valid names would be a separate taxonomic record, with synonymous names linking to the valid one. Since 1996, the database has been permanently maintained and added to; today it lists just under 20,000 taxa on the genus or species level, and contains 50,000 distribution records, some extracted from other databases, but mostly extracted from primary literature. We are now actively looking for partners in this project, like taxonomists with knowledge of the flora and fauna of the region. Also, we are looking for collaboration with other databasing projects; data managers are invited to contact us to discuss modalities for collaboration. In part, this project was inspired by the fact that some data had been collected during a project funded by UNESCO/ROSTA, for which no follow-up funding was provided. This project was formally endorsed by the region during the Fourth Session of the IOCINCWIO. Objectives of the database The main objectives of the database are to provide biodiversity researchers in the region with a standard, well-documented and properly researched list of taxonomic names. Also taxonomic names no longer considered valid are included. Together with the extensive list of references, which forms integral part of the database, this will form a guide to the biodiversity literature of the region. Based on the database, country lists of biodiversity can be created. Another possible application is gap analysis, both in terms of areas/taxa inadequately researched, as in terms of predicting species presence from (apparent) discontinuous distributions. 273 The database covers all countries that were involved in the RECOSCIX-WIO project: Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion (France). South Africa was included later. Also records for Somalia, Djibouti, Chagos Archipelago and the Comoros were logged. Most distribution records were logged at a geographical resolution of country. Guiding principles for development The software for the database is developed in Access. A short summary of the structure is presented below. A number of guiding principles were observed while developing the structure and the user interface: Importance of keeping wrong and outdated information Very often, while scanning the literature, one comes across taxonomic name changes, or a statement that an earlier distribution observation was based on a misidentification. Very often, such wrong species distribution records are propagated through literature, with the result that many species lists are inflated, containing distribution records based on these misidentifications. Also, very often a taxon is included several times: once under the currently valid name, and under one or more invalid synonyms: hence the need to store information on synonymy, and to keep the distribution record linked with the name under which it was originally published. Importance of leaving an ‘audit trail’ All sources where the information is taken from are documented in the database. Both taxonomy records and distribution records have a field to include a literature reference, so that anyone who wishes can check the contents of the database against the primary sources. The ultimate goal of this exercise is to provide biologists with a reference tool; while the database is being developed, and its contents validated, it can serve as a roadmap to the literature available on biogeography of the Western Indian Ocean. Don’t force an extra layer of codes on the users Taxonomic nomenclature is, in itself, a coding system with very elaborate rules and regulations, and well understood by trained biologists. These rules are internationally accepted, and documented in the ‘Code for Zoological Nomenclature’ and the one for Botanical nomenclature. There is no need to develop an extra set of codes, which only carries information that is already contained in the taxonomic names. Chances are that these latter codes will be specific to a given databasing exercise, and create unnecessary confusion. There are, obviously, codes that link records in the relational structure of the database, but these are internal to the system and could be completely hidden from the user. Keep it simple Only those fields have been created that were essential to capture the biogeographical information. For all additional information, memo fields are provided. This way, the user is only presented with, and forced to fill, those fields he/she is really interested in. There is also the added advantage of ease of development, and the performance gain of the completed system. 274 Structure of the Database The database consists of a synonymised list, with distribution records referring to the taxon name with which the distribution information was originally published. Each distribution record (in principle presence in one of the countries of the region) is referenced to the literature. It is also possible to keep track of records of which it is known that they are false or doubtful. This feature, together with the way synonyms are treated, should ensure that false records or records with invalid names are only entered once, and appropriately flagged. As illustrated in the diagram, four tables form the core of the structure: ‘Countries’, ‘Records’, ‘Literature’, and ‘Taxonomy’. Records table links country and taxonomy, plus a reference to the literature, making it possible to keep track of sources of information on the level of occurrence of taxon in a country. A separate table gives information on the higher taxonomy; book-keeping of the flow of information into the system is possible through the table with Log session information. Figure 1: structure of the database. Progress so far So far, about 1000 published sources have been consulted, resulting in approximately 20,000 taxonomic records and 50,000 distribution records. Information for some taxonomic groups has been extracted from other databases. Fish taxonomy and distribution has been completed using FishBase, Seaweeds, apart from being adequately covered from the publications of Coppejans and his team, have been augmented using 275 Silva’s catalogue of Indo-Pacific algae. A systematic attempt at tracing all echinoderm literature has resulted in a (what we hope) fairly complete picture for this phylum. Coverage for other phyla remains incomplete or even fragmentary. 276 Related initiatives Species 2000: New Zealand, OR, How to achieve a national inventory of biodiversity Dennis Gordon Aquatic Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Water & Atmosphere Research, PO Box 14-901 Kilbirnie, Wellington, New Zealand. [email protected] Species 2000: New Zealand is a four-stage activity with multiple goals. The four stages are: 1) a millennial symposium reviewing the entire New Zealand biota (completed); 2) published volumes of kingdom/phylum-by-phylum reviews of all taxa, with end-chapter checklists of all known species; 3) electronic checklists of species and hierarchical classification available on the worldwide web; 4) web enhancement, with the addition of synonyms, common names, and other information. The goals of the New Zealand activity include: 1) consciousness-raising among New Zealand taxonomists about Species 2000 and Global Species Databases (GSDs); 2) consciousness-raising among New Zealand government departments and ministries about the crucial role of biosystematics in biotechnology, biosecurity, human and animal health, sustainable ecosystem management, resource identification and use, and conservation; 3) promotion of the concept of a National Biosystematics Strategy, to be aligned with the existing New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy; and 4) New Zealand contributions to GSDs that conform to the core data standards of Species 2000. Lessons learned from the activity so far include: 1) the value of using the media to promote such aims; 2) the need for detailed long-term planning and commitment; and 3) how RSDs (regional) may contribute to GSDs. 277 Related initiatives SeaweedAfrica: African seaweeds online Martin Cocks International Ocean Institute Southern Africa, c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X 17, Bellville 7535, South Africa. [email protected] Seaweeds species have significant economic potential and information about their present and potential uses is becoming increasingly necessary for the development of a seaweed industry on the African continent. This industry has the potential to bring much-needed economic opportunities to local communities and small businesses. The industry also requires other information to be available to potential farmers and harvesters, for example taxonomic information for the accurate identification of seaweed species and information about a species’ ecology, distribution, harvesting methods and aquacultural practices. Information on the legal framework that governs the industry in different African countries will also be invaluable. SeaweedAfrica is a multi-national project that plans to fill this information gap by expanding AlgaeBase – a biodiversity database of seaweed information to include additional information for the seaweed species of the African continent. It is a three-year project which started in November 2001 and is funded by the European Union under the INCO-DEV section of the Fifth Framework Programme. The project is coordinated by the Martin Ryan Institute of the National University of Ireland, Galway and includes scientists from South Africa, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Portugal, Sweden and Brazil. The collaborating scientist will redesign the already existing AlgaeBase database and populate it with information. They will start with useful and potentially useful African seaweeds adding the following information; 278 1. General ecological information about how seaweed species grow in the natural environment, 2. How the seaweed species is used or could be potentially be used anywhere the world 3. How the seaweed species is harvested and its potential yields, 4. How the seaweed species is grown commercially, 5. The legal requirements for growing or harvesting seaweed in various African countries. A website (www.seaweedAfrica.org) has been established which serves the project in two ways. Firstly it is where users of the database will be able to search for information. These users will include the following groups; 1. Business people interested in harvesting seaweed species or growing them in aquiculture or expanding their seaweed businesses, 2. Scientist involved in seaweed research, particularly on useful or potential useful species, 3. Government officials involved in the management and regulation of the seaweed industry – aquiculture or harvesting, 4. Students, 5. Interested members of the public. At the website these users will be able to do more complex searches of the information in the database than simply searching for a particular species and its associated information. They will be able to search on other fields in the database, for example which species contain a particular compound and grow under particular conditions. The second group of users is the scientists who are collaborating on this project to build the database and populate it with information. They will use the website to capture the information about the seaweed species. This group of users needs to be able to communicate closely with each other about the project, although they are spaced physically far apart. Thus they have to rely on the Internet as their main means of communication – they form a virtual team. The web-portal has been provided with 279 various tools to help with this process such as an online discussion forum to foster more open and frank discussion about the project, a document management system and project management system. 280 Related initiatives Networking for Integrated Waste Management in Africa: experiences from the SEAWASTE Network Neil Griffin IOI Southern Africa, c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa. [email protected] The SEAWaste network is presented here to show an example of a set of communication tools used to link a network of widely distributed experts. The SEAWaste network has the objective of promoting communication, information exchange and cooperation on pollution and water quality issues that impact on all aquatic environments in Southern and Eastern Africa. It provides a clearing-house of information for waste management professionals in the region, and also a forum for interaction between professionals around particular focal points (for example: capacity building for dealing with waste management, disaster and contingency management, national and regional waste management policy, the ratification of international conventions, and funding sources for dealing within aquatic pollution). The network was developed after contacting relevant people in government departments, environmental NGOs, tertiary institutions and research groups, asking whether they would be interested in joining the network, and asking them to recommend others that might be approached. This process resulted in the compilation of list of experts interested in joining the network. Currently, there are 68 members in the network. The network’s website (http://seawaste.uwc.ac.za) offers a number of facilities to the general public; however, the facilities available on the website are primarily for members of the network. The members’ area contains a searchable database of members, profiles on countries that make up the network, archives of resources and images, and communication tools such as an email system, a within-site instant messenger, and archived discussion fora. New members can register on the website. Work areas are an important component of the members’ area. These are focused around areas of interest to members, and contain communication tools, calendars, resource archives, and facilities for uploading documents and images to the work area for the use of all work area members. Work areas are managed by network members with a particular interest or expertise in the subject of the work area. An email newsletter was added as a tool to send information of interest to the network to members who were not able to regularly visit the website. Content for the newsletter is 281 supplied by the members, and the newsletter is compiled by the project coordinator and sent to all members every three months. The network has been running for more than a year now. It relies heavily on a number of very interested members. These are the people that contribute news to the network, facilitate information sharing between countries, recruit new members, and act as work area coordinators. When the network started, there was little content in place, and relatively few members, and so little incentive for people to visit the website or join the network. This delayed the network reaching a critical mass of active members, and it has relied heavily on very interested members during this period. It is important to identify and involve the interested members, as they add considerable value to the network. The email newsletter has proved a great success, as information reaches all members regardless of whether they have logged in to the website recently (if they can), and shows continual activity within the network. The newsletter may also be forwarded by members to other potential members. Personal contact between members in, for example, regional workshops has been invaluable in improving the network and developing interaction between members. Finally, not all members have functional web access, and some do not even have email access. We are looking at producing print versions of the newsletter for those members without internet access. 282 Related initiatives Notes No abstract received for the following talks Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme International Ocean Institute (IOI) 283 SUMMARY OF THE WORKSHOP ALAN WHITFIELD Summary of the first two days of the workshop Dr whitfield presented a summary of the first two days of the workshop in the form of a strengths, weaknesses and opportunities analysis. General introduction Africa is bathed by three oceans, and covers the widest latitudinal gradient of any continent, thus providing a tremendous opportunity to contribute to global marine biodiversity initiatives. Africa has a rich biodiversity, although this remains relatively poorly known, and is under threat from major human pressures. Strengths • rich diversity of marine life appreciated and beginning to be explored • small core of dedicated scientists available to form the catalyst for future work • problems associated with potential biodiversity loss have been identified, including habitat loss, over-exploitation, pollution, and invasive organisms • lessons in marine biodiversity conservation • online biodiversity databases are already up and running Weaknesses • limited capacity – human, infrastructure, financial • biodiversity research not coordinated on a national or continental scale • habitat destruction and over-exploitation already far advanced in many countries • where laws are present to sustain biodiversity these are seldom enforced • large dams have been built without reference to the consequences on marine productivity and biodiversity • invasive biota appear to be on the increase despite legislation • limited museums housing national biodiversity collections • conversion of estuaries and lagoons into salt pans or shrimp farms before biodiversity and other options fully explored • fisheries catches declining, and the impact on biodiversity is unknown • little detailed information on the impacts of global warming on marine biodiversity Opportunities • new technologies available, including observation, data management and communication technologies • value of biodiversity (and the processes that they support) needs to be promoted to all, especially politicians • convert ‘bits and pieces’ research into coordinated national and international programmes with defined goals • need to identify marine biogeographic regions and link these to biodiversity 284 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • obtain greater sponsorship for biodiversity research from foreign fishing and oil companies? ensure training of taxonomists at the highest level identify the many species that have only been keyed out to generic or family levels initiate research on neglected groups and regions more aquaria around africa to increase public awareness of marine biodiversity elimination of destructive and non-selective fishing methods quantify impact of invasive species on african marine biodiversity reduce fishery by-catches to the benefit of biodiversity initiate mangrove reforestation where possible to increase coastal productivity and biodiversity establish national museums to curate african biodiversity collections balance offshore and inshore biodiversity efforts peace has brought opportunities for research in countries previously affected by conflict link physico-chemical and biological information to define marine biogeographic regions pay more attention to endemic species at national, regional, biogeographic and continental levels examine how natural system variability affects marine biodiversity identify threatened species and the cause(s) of their endangered status how do large dams affect marine biodiversity? encourage overseas taxonomists to become more involved in africa via collaborative projects identify ‘hotspots’ for marine biodiversity in same was as the ornithologists have done for birds create marine protected areas that are effective at sustaining african biodiversity ideal opportunity to conduct focused research on the impact of global warming on marine biodiversity need t use technology to refine taxonomy, create and update electronic databases link information gathering, communication and management need to create training opportunities and ensure that trained students are not lost there needs to be focused research on threatened habitats before these systems disappear scientists and non-scientists alike must make more use of online biodiversity websites etc. 285 INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP DISCUSSIONS The workshop helped to identify what is known regarding marine biodiversity in subSaharan Africa, and to highlight what remains unknown. Working session discussions were held in order to use this information to develop a coordinated programme of action to further the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity on the African continent. These working session discussions were centered around the three themes of exploring mechanisms for information dissemination and communication, identifying and addressing key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa, and developing appropriate capacity for furthering knowledge on Africa’s marine biodiversity. In addition to these, a plenary discussion was held to explore future directions of the programme. In all cases, guidelines were prepared in order to assist participants to have meaningful discussions around the themes. General guidelines to be considered in all working session discussions were as follows: • Try to think holistically and programmatically rather than project-wise (although some projects will undoubtedly be identified during the discussions). • Try to think continent-wise rather than nationally (although national perspectives will be invaluable in this process) • Where possible, consider all aspects of marine biodiversity, including research, conservation, exploitation, etc. • Discussions should be based on needs identified through this workshop and other processes such as the African Process, WSSD, GIWA, national processes, etc. • It is important to keep a focus on the current regional political climate, in particular NEPAD 286 WORKING SESSION A EXPLORATION OF MECHANISMS FOR INFORMATION DISSEMINATION AND COMMUNICATION Chair: Dr Dennis Gordon (OBIS) Rapporteur: Mr Faghrie Mitchell (IOI-SA) Guidelines The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should have identified the following: • A need for dissemination of marine biodiversity information and communication within sub-Saharan Africa • What mechanisms currently exist for such information dissemination and communication in the region (and elsewhere) • Some examples of how information dissemination and communication can be achieved With this base, we are now ready to: • Identify what is needed in terms of information dissemination and communication mechanisms related to marine biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa • Discuss what form such mechanisms should take Identification of needs A number of needs were identified regarding dissemination of biodiversity information and communication between researchers. These included: • There is a strong need for dissemination of biodiversity information in a number of forms, including electronic databases, regional taxonomic guides, etc. • There is a need to raise awareness of existing online and hard-copy resources • There is a need to harmonize existing online databases, and to draw on existing material • Online databases require linking with oceanographic and ecological data • Africa-specific databases should be developed • Communication and networking between researchers working on African marine biodiversity needs to be improved. A vision for marine biodiversity information dissemination and communication in Africa in the year 2020 The participants formulated the following considerations for marine biodiversity communication in Africa: • Every country has infrastructure for biodiversity information retrieval, access, and delivery, with shared information for all • Have enough researchers working in taxonomy – trained personnel, funding (sustainable), technology (communications) • Efficient communication and networking between researchers active in the field of marine biodiversity in Africa • Buy-in from national governments at all levels for biodiversity appreciation and awareness, national ownership of biodiversity 287 • • • Appropriate, adequate and accessible databases which are integrated, and which aid the proper management of the biodiversity resources i.e. collected, archived, properly managed and accessible Link with other databases and initiatives Make use of existing infrastructure, for example the ODINAfrica. Actions necessary to achieve the vision The following actions were suggested in order to achieve the vision: • Establish appropriate links between databases at all levels • Implement technology to integrate and analyze biodiversity data • Ensure human resources and infrastructure capacity for communication • Establish a network for marine biodiversity research in Africa • Establish national and/or regional hubs as clearing houses for biodiversity data • Establish a program for training taxonomists, sourcing funding and enhancing infrastructure • Crucial to align these goals and actions with CBD strategies • Needs assessments and setting of priorities within different countries • Ensure sustainability of database systems and data • Improved data management. Some considerations in establishing marine biodiversity databases for Africa As a first step in the collaboration, it is suggested to use ODINAfrica to create biogeographical databases in those countries where they do not yet exist. It is important that existing databases are drawn into the system, and that there is a minimal set of fields common to all of theses. This minimal set should be equal to, or greater than, the OBIS minimum set of data. Specifically, information on voucher specimens is seen as important. To ensure that information is exchangeable, not only at the technical level, but also on the content level, a standard species list can be built. MASDEA, Species 2000 and other resources can be used to build this list. Participants to the network are invited to contribute their expertise (on a region or on a taxon) to this database. ODINAfrica, Oceanographic Data and Information Network for Africa, is a UNESCO/IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission)-led programme, funded by the Flemish Government, now entering its third phase. Emphasis in the first two phases was mainly on capacity building, both human resources, IT and connectivity, to facilitate up-to-date management of oceanographic/marine data and information. Capacity has been built to handle data streams, manage information resources, build and host web sites, and make databases available through these web sites. In the 20 countries participating to the ODINAfrica II project, there is now a functional National Oceanographic Data Centre, forming part of the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange programme (IODE) of the IOC. For the third phase of ODINAfrica, the capacity built in earlier phases of the project will be used to generate and manage data streams. The emphasis will still be on physical 288 oceanography. There is, however, also a wish to deal with biological data, mainly related to fisheries and biodiversity. This creates an opportunity for collaboration with OBIS activities in Africa. Biological expertise from the African countries can be combined with the infrastructure and knowhow built up in ODINAfrica, to make a contribution to the global OBIS programme in a relatively short time. Resources available within the ODINAfrica project can be made available to a possible OBISAfrica network. The library and information resources of ODINAfrica can make a substantial contribution to the future network. There are some financial resources available to forge links between the two networks. 289 WORKING SESSION B IDENTIFYING AND ADDRESSING KEY GAPS IN MARINE BIODIVERSITY KNOWLEDGE IN AFRICA Chairs: Prof. Charles Griffiths & Dr Larry Hutchings (University of Cape Town Zoology Department & South Africa’s Marine and Coastal Management respectively) Rapporteur: Dr Ceri Lewis (IOI-SA) Guidelines The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should have identified the following: • The current state of knowledge of marine biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa • Areas where gaps exist in our current knowledge in geographical, taxonomic and genetic contexts • Which of these knowledge gaps are of high priority and can be considered ‘key’ gaps (in terms of geographical, taxonomic and genetic contexts) With this base, we are now ready to: • Formally identify the key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in the region • Identify what is needed to improve the state of knowledge surrounding these key gaps • Discuss what form such intervention(s) should take Identification of key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa Knowledge gaps in African marine biodiversity can be categorized as being in three areas: • Taxonomic information • Geographic regions • Ecosystem/ biotope Two different possible approaches to address these gaps in biodiversity knowledge were identified: • Examine existing threats on a region by region basis and analyze habitat types and key taxonomic groups for that region. This becomes more difficult where taxonomic information is limiting • Examine patterns amongst known ‘proxy’ groups of organisms and identify regional knowledge gaps where there is little existing knowledge on any group of organism. Well studied groups that could be used as ‘proxy’ organisms to look for geographical biodiversity patterns might be; fish, seaweeds, birds, shallow water echinoderms, large crustaceans, molluscs and mammals. Whilst there are many groups where detailed information is missing and must be studied, it will take a long time before enough is learnt about such groups for them to be useful in identifying patterns in biodiversity. It was recognized that an opportunity exists in Africa to contribute to global biodiversity knowledge through the vast latitudinal gradient along the coast and presence of 6 290 biogeographical zones (2 tropical, 2 sub tropical, and 2 temperate). Some of these zones are well studied while very little information is currently available for others. Knowledge gaps were examined in more detail for each of the six zones. Tropical East Coast The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • Most estuaries on the tropical east coast (particularly benthos) have never been surveyed • Very little info exists for the entire regions of Somalia, the Comoros and northern Mozambique, representing major geographical gaps • The offshore benthos is not well known (shallower zones are far better known than deeper areas) • Fauna and flora associated with seagrass beds • Small crustaceans, polychaetes and meiofauna in general • Planktonic systems in general poorly known • Phytoplankton • Soft corals Sub-tropical East Coast (Southern Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal) The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • No surveys of offshore benthos beyond 140m depth, which is a soft bottomed trawled area • Meiofauna (especially deeper than 140m) not known • hydroids, bryozoans, octocorals of deeper waters Warm Temperate East Coast The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • Offshore beyond 30m has been surveyed and so is well known relative to the rest of Africa but there are still no systematics studies for this area and little taxonomic information • The deep benthos is poorly understood • There are deep water coral beds on the edge of the Agulhas bank which are poorly understood but which form an important fish refuge and there are known to be destructive fishing trawling taking place there. Cool Temperate (Benguela) West Coast The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • This was identified as the most-studied and hence best known of all African marine biogeographic regions • There has been little benthic sampling in offshore regions and these areas can be considered knowledge gaps 291 • • Deep water areas (>30m) of hard substratum are also not well known The slope biota, now supporting an important fishery, is poorly known. Warm Temperate and Sub tropical West Coast The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • This was identified as a transition zone where the regional hydrodynamics and biogeographical boundaries are poorly understood, so is in itself a knowledge gap • Estuaries in Angola were identified as being key areas where little is known, together with inshore and even inter-tidal areas • All taxa in the region poorly known though some work has been done. The information is, however, dispersed and has not been collated • Mangroves were identified as being key gaps in biodiversity knowledge. Tropical West Coast The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this biogeographic region: • Estuaries and deltas • Lagoons (some information exists for open lagoons, none for closed lagoons) • Mangroves and seagrasses • Taxonomic information is poor for deep offshore and pelagic regions and is particularly poor for benthos in all areas. Deep-sea fish and offshore fish are also poorly studied • A census project has done some sampling in shelf areas off Angola so some data do exist for this region. General gaps in knowledge across the whole continent: • Deep-sea benthos (beyond 30m in all areas except in areas where the Coelacanth Project has collected data extending to 140m depth). • Knowledge of benthic meiofauna is poor in the majority of regions • Bryozoans were identified as a very poorly studied group across the whole of Africa • It was identified that reference collections in Africa were often missing with collections/type specimens being overseas and not readily available • Some knowledge gaps are due to human resource gaps. Knowledge sharing is vitally important in reducing these • Coralline algae were also determined to be a group about which little is known. General comments Transition zones should be prioritized as a whole. These are key areas of limited species and are also zones which are likely to move over a period of years. Further, more detailed gap analysis for each region is required. Data collation of all previous studies is required since data often exists but is not readily available to be used together to give the ‘whole picture’ for a region. 292 Priorities and opportunities Threats exist where there are high populations or extraction procedures taking place. In order to be able to prioritize threats in a meaningful way a full knowledge of all threats along the coast needs to be compiled into a ‘coastal sensitivity atlas of Africa’ ie a synthesis of all existing information into one all-encompassing document. This would detail all threats (as defined below) in association with habitat analysis for those areas. A destructive process occurring in a biodiversity ‘hotspot’ would then become a high priority. Threats can be classified as: • Population density and migration to the coast • Extraction industries • Pollution • Development resulting in habitat modification • Dam construction and modification of freshwater flow regimes • Invasive alien species • Climate change – increased frequency and/or intensity of extreme events • Lack of political will, and shortcomings in enforcement ability • Poverty (lack of alternatives) • Trading in marine species, including aquarium fish, shells, hard corals, seahorses (CITES list), Muti trade, etc. Some recommendations for filling the gaps 1. Identify experts who can work on the knowledge gaps and/or taxomonic groups which are poorly known and pool knowledge between regions 2. Encourage overseas experts to become involved in collaborative research and training, and in particular to train African scientists so that knowledge remains on the continent and does not leave with the visiting scientist 3. Individual reference collections are important for data quality in biodiversity studies and on-the-ground training (rather than relying on overseas museum collections which are not readily available) 4. Funding for museums to enable proper curation of collections. Possible institution twining with overseas experts and institutions should be investigated. Countries can aid each other through biodiversity legislation to implement capacity building 5. Training core staff in both taxonomy and curation 6. Most countries have signed biodiversity legislation but implementing it requires funding which is a problem in Africa 7. A full and complete census of current Marine Protected Areas is required (allowing these to become reference areas) 8. A coastal sensitivity atlas reflecting both the biodiversity and existing threats is essential. The data already exist for the most part, but must be collated to be of used in identifying biodiversity ‘hotspots’. 9. Web-based identification guides can be established as a way of sharing taxonomic knowledge. Identification resources need to be available to all. The knowledge 293 often exists but not in a form widely available and in a regional format. Proper taxonomic information is vital for biodiversity studies. 10. Icon species e.g. dugongs, turtles, mammals, birds, sharks can be highlighted when canvassing for public support for biodiversity projects. 294 WORKING SESSION C DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE CAPACITY FOR FURTHERING KNOWLEDGE OF AFRICA’S MARINE BIODIVERSITY Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka (IOI-SA) Rapporteur: Ms Jocelyn Collins (IOI-SA) Guidelines The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should have identified the following: • What human, institutional and infrastructural capacity exists in sub-Saharan Africa for furthering the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity • Where such capacity is lacking in geographical, taxonomic and genetic contexts With this base, we are now ready to: • Identify key gaps in capacity for furthering knowledge of marine biodiversity in Africa • Identify whether these gaps are in the context of geography, taxonomy, genetics or a particular aspect of capacity (human, institutional or infrastructural) • Identify what human, institutional and infrastructural capacity is needed to efficiently address shortcomings in marine biodiversity knowledge in subSaharan Africa • Discuss how this might be achieved Key capacity limitations The following were identified as key shortcomings in existing capacity for marine biodiversity research on the African continent: • Insufficient biodiversity researchers • Very little capacity for research on genetic aspects of biodiversity • Shortage of museums • Existing museum capacity highly underdeveloped in terms of human capacity (scientists, curators and collections managers), infrastructure (facilities and equipment) and financial resources • Inadequate facilities and equipment (e.g. Ships, sampling equipment, genetic labs etc.) • Institutions suffer from resource problems (people, facilities, equipment, financial resources). This is linked to issues surrounding political will and priorities within government and institutions, as well as poorly defined institutional objectives • There is a need to develop capacity for project development • It was identified that capacity varies geographically. In relative terms the southwest has adequate capacity, some capacity exists in the east, and very little in the west, the south east (Mozambique) and the Indian Ocean islands. • From a taxonomic perspective, capacity biases are based on the size of organisms (larger species are better known than smaller species), their accessibility, commercial importance, depth, attractiveness and availability of literature resources. 295 Human capacity for biodiversity research There was a strongly identified need for additional biodiversity researchers and museum staff in Africa. The following points were identified as policy-level considerations: • Human capacity development efforts should be in line with identified taxonomic and geographic priorities • Capacity development should maximize the use of existing expertise by utilize a blend of African and outside expertise • Capacity development should take place physically on the African continent • Development of human capacity requires back-up from other fields of biology • A wider perspective of biodiversity should be promoted (e.g. ecosystem effects, effects of climate change, etc.) Some practical considerations include: • Encouragement of students through a coordinated, marketed project • More information is required regarding what is available in terms of training of museum staff • Develop a field course. Such a course would bring in experts from both Africa and abroad in order to train young biodiversity researchers. The field course could be mobile, focussing on the priorities of the country in which it is being run. This will have the double benefit of not only providing biodiversity training but also of utilizing the collective experience of the participating experts to contribute towards biodiversity knowledge in that country • The development of Centres of Excellence should be encouraged. The rationale behind this is to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort and to establish centres that maintain a “critical mass” of researchers with a common interest. Such Centres of Excellence could be developed around taxonomic, ecosystem or geographical themes. It is important to note that unattractive salaries are a stumbling block to any capacity building efforts. This presents a significant challenge to the development of marine biodiversity capacity. Institutional capacity for biodiversity research The following recommendations emerged surrounding further development of institutional capacity for biodiversity research: • Each country should develop a national collection/museum irrespective of current research capacity. The rationale for this is to at least be able to build up biological collections irrespective of current taxonomic capacity. Once taxonomic capacity becomes available, the country will then be in a favourable position. • It is important to develop an institutional network based around marine biodiversity. Such a network would include Universities, museums, research institutions, etc. 296 Infrastructural capacity for biodiversity research The following points were highlighted in the discussions: • Existing opportunities should be utilized (e.g. fishing vessels etc.) • Links should be established with other programmes, projects and industries in the region • Infrastructural capacity development should dovetail with human capacity development • An audit of existing infrastructure should be performed. Such an audit would compile an inventory of existing infrastructure and further identify opportunities for sharing infrastructure, for upgrading infrastructure and ensuring its adequacy • There is a strong need to develop and improve museum infrastructure • There is a strong need to develop and improve genetic laboratory facilities • It is critical to ensure that IT infrastructure is in line with current trends Genetic diversity The concept of a regional centre for genetic diversity research was discussed. The following points regarding such a centre were proposed: • The centre need not be a traditional centre, but can be a virtual centre of linked organizations/institutions • The centre would provide a focus for training activities • Ongoing support to genetic diversity researchers could be provided through such a facility • Such a centre would provide a focus for developing ‘critical mass’ of marine genetic diversity researchers • A centre for genetic diversity would facilitate the sharing of resources within and between countries • Such a centre would require external funding and a funding committee would be required • The centre would need to create links with other initiatives, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, etc. 297 The Way Forward Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka Rapporteur: Dr Ceri Lewis Workshop oversights Workshop participants were asked whether they felt that anything of importance had become lost due to the way the workshop was organized. A few salient points arose: • The area of genetic diversity was largely unexplored during the workshop • There is a need for greater understanding of the ecological processes which support biodiversity • Biomass/abundance indicators are also important factors to consider when dealing with biodiversity • The Antarctic and sub-Antarctic were not dealt with in the workshop Towards an african marine biodiversity programme The workshop and discussion sessions identified a number of needs for improving the state of marine biodiversity knowledge on the African continent, and a number of actions aimed at filling these needs. The workshop participants then engaged in a discussion aimed at developing a means to take this process further, and to ensure that the identified actions are implemented. Workshop participants agreed that it was desirable that the process started during this workshop should be continued. It was further agreed to form a regional coordinating body that would work towards achieving the desired goals established in the three working sessions. Such a body would give marine biodiversity researchers a collective voice, and could thus be used as a strategic entity. This body would seek the political support necessary to ensure the continuation of the ongoing programme. The programme would not have to wait on this political support before moving forward. One of the most pressing tasks that this body would be charged with is to further investigate the feasibility of establishing an OBIS node for Africa, and to take advantage of funding that is currently available for this. Such a node should be developed as a portal through which access to national and other databases can be accessed. With these considerations in mind, it was agreed to establish a Steering Committee to take the process of developing a marine biodiversity programme for Africa forward. It was decided that the Steering Committee should, at least initially, be made of up of a minimum of five individuals representing each of five major geographical regions (east, west, southwest, south, and Indian Ocean islands) and one person with experience in databases. These individuals would represent their region and network with people in their region. A process of nomination resulted in the following six people being offered positions on the Steering Committee. All have accepted, with the exception of the representative from Angola, who is awaiting official clearance. 298 Region Indian Ocean Islands East Africa Southern Africa West Africa Southwest Africa Databases Individual Mr Jude Bijoux Prof. Yunus Mgaya Prof. Charles Griffiths Mr AK Armah (Ms Maria Sardinha) Mr Edward van den Berghe Country Seychelles Tanzania South Africa Ghana Angola (MASDEA, ODINAfrica) At the closure, the meeting was urged to draft a resolution, listing countries that attended the meeting, and to seek support for this resolution through e-mail. 299 RESOLUTION ESTABLISHING AN AFRICAN MARINE BIODIVERSITY PROGRAMME We, the participants of the African Marine Biodiversity Workshop: - realizing Africa’s important role as a steward of a rich and largely endemic marine biota, - recognizing the potential of this marine biodiversity to contribute to the sustainable development of the African continent and the upliftment of its people, - acknowledging that the marine biodiversity of Africa is relatively poorly known, and - cognizant of the fact that numerous human activities present serious threats to marine biodiversity in the waters surrounding the African continent, hereby support the development of an African Marine Biodiversity Programme, the objectives of which are to: - develop a research programme aimed at addressing key gaps in our knowledge of marine biodiversity in Africa through the identification and implementation of research projects - establish national and/or regional online databases, accessible via a common portal, for the exchange and sharing of marine biodiversity information across the continent - establish a communications and information-sharing network to link those with an interest in marine biodiversity on the African continent - establish a programme to develop human, institutional and infrastructural capacity in Africa in support of these aims. We further support the establishment of an interim Steering Committee of the following representatives to take the development of the African Marine Biodiversity Programme forward: Region Indian Ocean Islands East Africa Southern Africa West Africa Southwest Africa Databases Individual Mr Jude Bijoux Prof. Yunus Mgaya Prof. Charles Griffiths Mr AK Armah Ms Maria Sardinha Mr Edward van den Berghe 300 Country of residence Seychelles Tanzania South Africa Ghana Angola (MASDEA, ODINAfrica) Appendix 301 African marine biodiversity: the known and the unknown Cape Town 23-26 September 2003 Programme Tuesday 23 September 2003 18:00-20:00 Registration and Reception (incl. Tour of Aquarium) Venue: Two Oceans Aquarium Wednesday 24 September 2003 08:50-09:00 Welcome Chairperson: Prof. Charles Griffiths 09:00-09:30 Background to the Census of Marine Life (CoML) 09:30-10:00 National report: Liberia & Cote d’Ivoire 10:00-10:30 National report: Ghana, Togo & Benin Tea break Chairperson: Dr. Anthony Ribbink 11:00-11:30 National report: Nigeria 11:30-12:00 National report: Cameroon, Sao Tome & Principe 12:00-12:30 National report: Gabon 12:30-13:00 National report: Angola Lunch break Chairperson: Dr. Alan Whitfield 14:00-14:30 National report: Namibia, 14:30-15:00 National report: South Africa 15:00-15:30 National report: Moçambique Tea break 16:00-16:30 National report: Tanzania 16:30-17:00 National report: Kenya Prof. Charles Griffiths Dr Cynthia Decker Dr Yacoube Sankare Mr A.K. Armah Mrs. C.E. Isebor Mr Charles Gabche Miss Carole Ogandagas Mr. Nkosi Luyeye Ms Lizette Voges Prof. Charles Griffiths Dr Antonio Hoguane Prof. Yunus Mgaya Ms Ester Fondo Thursday 25 September 2003 Chairperson: Dr. Cynthia Decker 09:00-09:30 National report: Mauritius & Reunion 09:30-10:00 National report: Seychelles Tea break Chairperson: Dr. Larry Hutchings 10:30-11:00 Thematic report: Macroalgae 11:00-11:20 Thematic report: Biogeography of estuarine fishes in Africa 11:20-11:40 Thematic report: Western Indian Ocean Project on marine biodiversity 11:40-12:10 Thematic report: Coastal and seabirds Lunch break Chairperson: Dr. Jean Harris 302 Dr. Mitrasen Bhikajee Mr. Jude Bijoux Prof. John Bolton Dr. Alan Whitfield Dr. Anthony Ribbink Prof. Phil Hockey 13:10-13:30 13:30-13:50 13:50-14:05 14:05-14:15 14:15-14:30 14:30-15:00 Tea break 15:30-15:50 15:50-16:10 16:10-16:30 16:30-17:00 Related initiatives: Census of Marine Life (CoML) Indian Ocean Related initiatives: Ocean Biogeographic Information Systems (OBIS) Related initiatives: Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) Related initiatives: International Ocean Institute (IOI) Related initiatives: World Wide Fund For Nature in South Africa (WWF-SA) Related initiatives: Marine Species Database for Eastern Africa (MASDEA) and Ocean Data and Information Network for Africa (ODINAfrica) Dr. Mohideen Wafar Related initiatives: How to achieve a national biodiversity review and inventory Related initiatives: SeaweedAfrica Database Related initiatives: Seawaste Network Related initiatives: Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme (BCLME) Dr. Dennis Gordon Dr. Dennis Gordon Dr. Lynn Jackson Dr. Kim Prochazka Dr. Deon Nel Dr. Edward Vanden Berghe Mr. Martin Cocks Mr. Neil Griffin Ms Maria Sardinha Friday 26 September 2003 08:30-09:00 09:00-10:30 Summary of Days 1&2 – Dr. Alan Whitfield Working session B Working session A Chair: Prof. Charles Chair: Dr. Dennis Griffiths Gordon Rapporteur: Mr. Faghrie Rapporteur: Ms Ceri Lewis Mitchell Identifying and Exploration of addressing key gaps in mechanisms for marine biodiversity information knowledge in Africa dissemination and communication Tea break Chairperson: Dr. Kim Prochazka 11:00-12:30 Working session A continued… 12:30-13:00 Lunch break 14:00-14:30 14:30-15:00 15:00-15:30 Tea break 16:00-16:40 16:40-17:00 17:00 Preparation of Working session report Working session C Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka Rapporteur: Ms Jocelyn Collins Developing appropriate capacity for furthering knowledge of Africa’s marine biodiversity Working session B continued… Working session C continued… Preparation of Working session report Preparation of Working session report Report-back: Working session A – Session Chair & Rapporteur Report-back: Working session B – Session Chair & Rapporteur Report-back: Working session C – Session Chair & Rapporteur The way forward Adoption of meeting report and resolutions Meeting closure 303 Delegates attending the African Marine Biodiversity Workshop Mr A.K. Armah University of Ghana Department of Fisheries and Oceanography Ph: 233-21-514614 Fax: 233-21-513976 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Mitrasen Bhikajee Department of Biological Sciences Faculty of Science University of Mauritius Reduit, Mauritius Ph: 230 4541041 Fax: 230 4656928 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Jude Bijoux Seychelles Centre for Marine Research & Technology-Marine Parks P. O. Box 656 Victoria, Mahe Ph: Fax: E-mail: [email protected] Prof. John Bolton Botany Department University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7701 South Africa Ph: 27 21 6502447 Fax: 27 21 6504041 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Dylan Clarke Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9592314 Fax: +27 21 9591237 E-mail: [email protected] Ms Jocelyn Collins International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa Mr Martin Cocks International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9593412 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Cynthia Decker Oceanographer of the Navy 304 c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9592566 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Wayne Florence Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 South Africa Ph: +27 21 9592314 Fax: +27 21 9591237 E-mail: [email protected] Mr Charles Emene Gabche MINREST-IRAD Research Station for Fisheries and Oceanography PMB 77 Limbe Ph: 237 3332071 Fax: 237 3332025 E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Mr. Neil Griffin International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 U.S. Naval Observatory Bldg 1 3450 Massachusetts Ave., NW Washington, DC 20392-5421 Ph: 1 202-762-0272 Fax: 1 202-762-0956 E-mail: [email protected] Ms Esther Fondo Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute P.O. Box 81651 Mombasa, Kenya 00-254-41-475153/4 00-254-41-475157 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Dennis Gordon Aquatic Biodiversity & Biosecurity National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research P.O. Box 14-901 Kilbirnie Wellington, New Zealand Ph: 64 4 386 0388 Fax: 64 4 386 2153 E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Charlie Griffiths Zoology Department University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 South Africa 305 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9593412 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Ph: +27 21 650-3610 Fax: +27 21 650-3301 E-mail: [email protected] Or [email protected] Dr. Jean Harris Ph: Fax: E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Martin Hendricks Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 South Africa Ph: +27 21 9592041 Fax: +27 21 9591237 E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Phil Hockey Percy Fitz Patrick Institute of African Ornithology University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 South Africa Ph: +27 21 650 3293 Fax: +27 21 650 3295 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Antonio Hoguane Dr Larry Hutchings Marine and Coastal Management Private Bag X2 Rogge Bay, 8012 Ph: +27 21 402 3109 Fax: +27 21 402 7416 E-mail: [email protected] Eduardo Mondlane University Chair of marine Sciences and Oceanography Faculty of Sciences P.O.Box 257, Maputo - Mozambique Ph: 258 1 493102 Fax: 258 1 493049 E-mail: [email protected] Mrs. Catherine E. Isebor Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research Victoria Island P.M.B. 12729 Lagos, Nigeria Ph: 234-618118 Fax: 234-619517 E-mail: [email protected] 306 Lynn Jackson Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) c/o National Botanical Institute Ph: +27 21 799 8837 Fax: +27 21 797 1561 E-mail: [email protected] Ashley Johnson Physical Oceanography & Atmospheric Science Marine and Coastal Management Private Bag X2 Rogge Bay, 8012 Ph: +27 21 402 32 81 Fax: +27 21 425 6976 E-mail: [email protected] Cloverley Lawrence KwaZulu Natal Wildlife South Africa Ph: +27 31 - 274 1167 Fax: +27 31 - 205 1547 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Ceri Lewis International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9592566 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Nksoi Luyeye Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme (BCLME) Marine Research Institute Ilha do Cabo P. O. Box 2601 Luanda Ph: 092 508201/309077 Fax: 244-2-309731 E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Yunus D. Mgaya Mr. Faghrie Mitchell International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 University of Dar es Salaam Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology P. O. Box 35064 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Ph: 255-22-2410462 or 255 741 237774 Fax: 255-22-2410078 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Deon Nel WWF South Africa Millennia Park, 16 Stellentia Avenue, Stellenbosch, 7600 Private Bag X2, Die Boord, 7613 307 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9593408 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Ph: +27 21 888 2800 Fax: +27 21 888 2888 Miss Carole Ogandagas Direction Generale de Peches et de l'Aquaculture/Gabon BP 7119 Libreville Ph: 241 232472 or 241 762503 Fax: 241 720770 E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Dr. Kim Prochazka E-mail: [email protected] International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9593088 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Miss Lantoasinoro Ranivoarivelo Institut Halieutique et des Sciences Marines University of Toliara P. O. Box 141 Route du Port-Tulear CP 601 Madagascar Ph: Fax: E-mail: [email protected] Ms Carmen Ras International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9592075 Fax: +27 21 9591213 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Anthony Ribbink South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity Private Bag 1015 Grahamstown 6140 Ph: 046 6035830 Fax: 046 6222403 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Toufiek Samaai School of Biology Faculty of Science and Engineering University of Durban-Westville P/B X54001 Durban 4000 South Africa 308 Ph: +27 31 204 4580 Fax: +27 31 204 4790 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Yacouba Sankare Centre de Recherches Oceanologiques 29 Rue des Pecheurs BPV 18 Abidjan Cote d'Ivoire Ph: 225 21 35 50 14 or 225 21 35 58 80 Fax: 225 21 35 11 55 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Maria Sardinha Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme (BCLM BEH&P Activity Centre c/o IIM, Namibia P. O. Box 2601 Ilha do Cabo Luanda Ph: 244 92508200 Fax: 244 309330 E-mail: [email protected] Robyn Scott University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 South Africa Ph: +27 21 6503610 Fax: +27 21 6503301 E-mail: [email protected] Mrs. Rashieda Toefy Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17 Bellville, 7535 Ph: +27 21 9592314 Fax: +27 21 9591237 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Edward Vanden Berghe Flanders Marine Data and Information Centre Flanders Marine Institute Vismijn, Pakhuizen 45-52, B-8400 Ostend, Belgium Ph: +32 59 342130 Fax: +32 59 342131 E-mail: [email protected] Ms Lizette Voges Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Coordinator National Biodiversity program Namibia P.O. Box 3098 Vineta, Namibia 9000 Tel + 264 64 4101151 Fax + 264 64 404385 E-mail: [email protected] 309 Dr. Mohideen Wafar Biological Oceanography Division, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona-Paula, India Goa 403 004 Ph: 91 (0) 832-2450252 Fax: 91(0)832-2450602 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Alan Whitfield South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity Private Bag 1015 Grahamstown 6140 Ph:+27 (0) 46 6365829 Fax:+27 (0) 46 6222403 E-mail: [email protected] 310