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1 9 9 9 NZ Food: NZ People Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey ‘35 percent of energy came from...’ ‘Seventeen percent of the population were considered to...’ ‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy products’ ‘Contribution of energy to fat has...’ ‘The vegetable guideline was met by...’ NZ Food: NZ People Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey David Russell Winsome Parnell Noela Wilson and the principal investigators of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey: Otago University Jim Faed Elaine Ferguson Peter Herbison Caroline Horwath Ted Nye Papaarangi Reid Rob Walker Barry Wilson Auckland University Colin Tukuitonga Produced by the LINZ Activity & Health Research Unit University of Otago for the Ministry of Health. ® Published in August 1999 by the Ministry of Health PO Box 5013 Wellington, New Zealand © 1999 Ministry of Health ISBN 0-478-23572-0 (Document) ISBN 0-478-23573-9 (Internet) This document is available on the Ministry of Health’s Web site: http://www.moh.govt.nz Acknowledgements The National Nutrition Survey was funded by the Ministry of Health with ‘in kind’ support of the University of Otago who conducted the Survey through its LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit. This survey would not have been completed without the dedication of the project staff who worked long hours to meet the very tight deadlines, firstly for the development of the survey’s unique LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System (LEDDAS©), secondly in monitoring the quality of the survey data to provide timely feedback to field staff and thirdly, analysing the data and preparing this report. Throughout this demanding project our field staff consistently demonstrated their reliability and professionalism. The valuable assistance of our NZ Måori and Pacific people support staff is also gratefully acknowledged. The importance of the planning, development and ongoing input into this survey by the Ministry of Health and its National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC) is recognised. On technical matters, we are particularly grateful to our colleagues in Statistics New Zealand who conducted the associated 1996/97 Health Survey and to Crop & Food Research Ltd, Palmerston North who provided the nutrient database. Closer to home, the ongoing advice of our consultants was essential to the success of the survey as inevitable issues were resolved in a timely fashion. Special thanks are due to Dr George Beaton for his help with the nutrient analysis which has produced the first probability analysis to determine dietary inadequacy in a national population. Alicia Carriquiry and Kevin Dodd at the Iowa State University, Des Moines, also provided invaluable assistance with these nutrient analyses. However, our most important acknowledgment is reserved for the nearly 5,000 New Zealanders who welcomed us into their homes and made the 1997 National Nutrition Survey possible. Suggested citation Russell DG, Parnell WR, Wilson NC et al. 1999. NZ Food: NZ People. Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health: Wellington. Acknowledgements i Foreword This report and the results of the National Nutrition Survey mark the outcome of four years of development, field work and analysis, brought about by a successful collaboration between many Government and non-Government agencies. The report provides definitive information on the nutritional status of adult New Zealanders. For the first time, detailed food and nutrient information on the Måori population and indicative data for the Pacific people of New Zealand are presented. The use of certain methods and analyses presented in this report lead the world in their application to surveys of this kind. Examples include the fully computerised data entry system for collecting information from survey participants, and the probability analyses undertaken to determine nutrient inadequacy in the population. Up-to-date knowledge about the food and nutrient intakes and nutritional status of New Zealanders is critical in achieving the Government’s goal of improving the health of New Zealanders. The National Nutrition Survey represents a major investment in nutrition information, by the Government, at a time of rapid change in the food supply of New Zealand. Ultimately, this report will help achieve the medium-term health policy goals as set out in The Government’s Medium-Term Strategy for Health and Disability Support Services 1999. One of the 12 policy goals is to place a greater emphasis on population health approaches by, among other measures, promoting healthier lifestyles and diets. Hon. Tuariki Delamere Associate Minister of Health ii NZ Food: NZ People Contents Acknowledgements i Foreword ii List of Tables iv List of Figures vi Executive Summary 1 Introduction 4 Section A Nutrients 9 Section B Dietary Sources 59 Section C Dietary Supplements 79 Section D Eating Patterns 89 Section E Frequently Eaten Foods 125 Section F Health 163 Section G Have We Changed? 177 References 187 Explanatory Notes 189 Appendix A Survey Methodology 195 Appendix B Technical Notes 199 Appendix C Glossary of Terms 211 Appendix D Pacific People and Community Nutrient Intakes 215 Appendix E Questionnaires 232 Contents iii List of Tables Section A Nutrients A1 A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A3.1 A3.2 A3.3 A4 A5 A6.1 A6.2 A7.1 A7.2 A8.1 A8.2 A8.3 Energy and Protein Total Fat and Cholesterol Fatty Acids I Fatty Acids II Carbohydrate and Starch Sugars I Sugars II Fibre Alcohol Vitamin A Vitamins C and E B Vitamins I B Vitamins II Minerals I Minerals II Minerals III 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 Section B Dietary Sources B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 Energy Sources for New Zealand Population Total Fat Sources for New Zealand Population Available Carbohydrate Sources for New Zealand Population Protein Sources for New Zealand Population Dietary Fibre Sources for New Zealand Population Calcium Sources for New Zealand Population Iron Sources for New Zealand Population Folate Sources for New Zealand Population Alcohol Sources for New Zealand Population 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 Section C Dietary Supplements C1 C2 Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Use in the Last Year Other Dietary Supplement Use in the Last Year 84 86 Section D Eating Patterns D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6.1 D6.2 iv Type of Diet Dietary Changes Attempted Currently Direction of Current Dietary Changes Intended Dietary Changes Direction of Intended Dietary Changes Difficulties Involved in Eating More Fruits Difficulties Involved in Eating More Vegetables NZ Food: NZ People 104 106 108 110 112 113 114 D6.3 D6.4 D7.1 D7.2 D8 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Breads and Cereals Difficulties Involved in Eating Less High Fat Foods Food Preparation I Food Preparation II Household Food Security Over the Last Year 115 116 118 120 122 Section E Frequently Eaten Foods E1 E2.1 E2.2 E3.1 E3.2 E4.1 E4.2 E4.3 E5 E6 E7.1 E7.2 Dairy Foods Breads and Cereals I Breads and Cereals II Meat and Fish I Meat and Fish II Vegetables I Vegetables II Vegetables III Fruits Beverages Miscellaneous Food I Miscellaneous Food II 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 Section F Health F1 F2 F3 Body Size Blood Pressure Blood Analyses 170 172 174 Section G Have We Changed? G1.1 G1.2 G1.3 G2.1 G2.2 G2.3 Frequency of Choice of Type of Food Consumed Energy I Energy II Body Size I Body Size II Cholesterol 180 181 182 184 185 186 Explanatory Notes I II Number of Respondents Effect of Sample Size on Accuracy of Estimated Proportions 192 194 Appendix B I II III Analytical Techniques for Nutrients Food Groups Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis 202 204 207 Appendix D Pacific People and Communities D1 D2.1 D2.2 Unadjusted Energy and Protein Unadjusted Total Fat and Cholesterol Unadjusted Fatty Acids I 216 217 218 List of Tables v D2.3 D3.1 D3.2 D3.3 D4 D5 D6.1 D6.2 D7.1 D7.2 D8.1 D8.2 D8.3 Unadjusted Fatty Acids II Unadjusted Carbohydrate and Starch Unadjusted Sugars I Unadjusted Sugars II Unadjusted Fibre Unadjusted Alcohol Unadjusted Vitamin A Unadjusted Vitamins C and E Unadjusted B Vitamins I Unadjusted B Vitamins II Unadjusted Minerals I Unadjusted Minerals II Unadjusted Minerals III 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 List of Figures Section A Nutrients A1 Fig A. Fig B. A2 Fig A. Fig B. A3 Fig A. Fig B. A4 Fig A. Fig B. A5 Fig A. Fig B. A6 Fig A. Fig B. A7 Fig A. Fig B. A8 Fig A. Fig B. Usual daily median energy intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median protein intake: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fat guideline (≤ 33 percent): by age group and sex Mean percent contribution of fat type to energy: by sex Mean percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who met the carbohydrate guideline (≥ 50 percent): by age group and sex Usual daily median dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median non-starch polysaccharide intakes: by type and sex Daily mean alcohol intake: by age group and sex Mean percent contribution of alcohol to energy: by age group and sex Usual daily median ß-carotene intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median vitamin C intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median thiamin intake: by ethnic group and sex Usual daily median vitamin B12 intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median calcium intake: by age group and sex Usual daily median zinc intake: by age group and sex 11 11 12 12 14 14 16 16 17 17 18 18 20 20 22 22 Section B Dietary Sources B1 Fig A. Fig B. B2 Fig A. Fig B. B3 Fig A. Fig B. B4 Fig A. Fig B. vi Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to energy intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of fruits to energy intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of butter and margarine to total fat intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to total fat intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to carbohydrate intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to carbohydrate intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution to protein intake: by food groups and sex Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to protein intake: by age group and sex NZ Food: NZ People 61 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 B5 Fig A. Fig B. B6 Fig A. Fig B. B7 Fig A. Fig B. B8 Fig A. Fig B. B9 Fig A. Fig B. Percent contribution to dietary fibre intake: by food groups and sex Percent contribution of fruits to dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution to calcium intake: by food groups and sex Percent contribution of milk to calcium intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution to iron intake: by food groups and sex Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to iron intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution to folate intake: by food groups and sex Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to folate intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of wine to alcohol intake: by age group and sex Percent contribution of beer to alcohol intake: by age group and sex 65 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 Section C Dietary Supplements C1 Fig A. Fig B. C2 Fig A. Fig B. Proportion of population who were regular users of vitamin/mineral supplements: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed vitamin C supplements: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who were regular users of other dietary supplements: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed other dietary supplements: by type of supplement and sex 80 80 82 82 Section D Eating Patterns D1 Fig A. Fig B. D2 Fig A. Fig B. D3 Fig A. Fig B. D4 Fig A. Fig B. D5 Fig A. Fig B. D6 Fig A. Fig B. D7 Fig A. Fig B. D8 Fig A. Fig B. Proportion of population who ate a regular diet: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of population who avoided meats except chicken: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change: by type of change and sex Proportion of New Zealand population attempting current dietary change and the direction of change: by type and sex Proportion of New Zealand population attempting change to fat type eaten Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future: by type and sex Proportion of New Zealand population intending to make dietary change and the direction of change: by type and sex Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change type of fat eaten Proportion of New Zealand population who had difficulties with eating more fruits: by type and sex Proportion of New Zealand population happy with fat intake: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who cooked meat or chicken in fat or oil: by age group and sex Proportion of population who always or often removed chicken skin: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who can afford to eat properly only sometimes: by NZDep96 quartile and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who use food grants/banks sometimes: by NZDep96 quartile and sex List of Figures 91 91 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 96 98 98 100 100 vii Section E Frequently Eaten Foods E1 Fig A. Fig B. E2 Fig A. Fig B. E3 Fig A. Fig B. E4 Fig A. Fig B. E5 Fig A. Fig B. E6 Fig A. Fig B. E7 Fig A. Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed yoghurt at least once per week: by age group and sex Proportion of population who usually chose standard milk: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who met the breads and cereals guideline (6+ servings per day): by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed cooked porridge at least once per week: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed luncheon meat at least once per week: by age group and sex Proportion of population who consumed shellfish at least once per week: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who met the vegetables guideline (3+ servings per day): by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed hot chips at least once per week: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fruits guideline (2+ servings per day): by age group and sex Proportion of population who consumed kiwifruit at least once per week: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tea at least three times per week: by age group and sex Proportion of population who consumed white wine at least once per week: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tomato sauce at least once per week: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed chocolate at least once per week: by age group and sex 127 127 128 128 130 130 131 131 133 133 134 134 136 136 Section F Health F1 Fig A. Fig B. F2 Fig A. Fig B. F3 Fig A. Fig B. Mean body weight: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population with a waist:hip ratio excess: by age group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population with hypertension: by age group and sex Proportion of population with high blood pressure: by ethnic group and sex Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L: by age group and sex Proportion of population who met the National Heart Foundation lipid guideline: by ethnic group and sex 164 164 166 166 167 167 Section G Have We Changed? G1 Fig A. Fig B. G2 Fig A. Fig B. viii Mean contribution of fat to energy: by sex and survey Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed selected food at least once per week: by survey Proportion of New Zealand population who were obese: by sex and survey Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L: by sex and survey NZ Food: NZ People 179 179 183 183 Executive Summary Overview This report represents an overview of the 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97). This survey provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and nutrition-related clinical measures of New Zealanders. NNS97 was based on a nationally representative sample of 4,636 New Zealanders living in selected households and aged 15 years or above. The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents and included: a 24 hour diet recall; a self-administered qualitative food frequency questionnaire which estimated the frequency of intake of foods over the preceding 12 months and included questions on food preparation habits; questions on dietary supplements, barriers to dietary change and self assessment of household food security; physical measurements including weight, height, three circumferences, two skinfolds and elbow breadth; blood pressure; and a blood sample for determining of cholesterol and iron status. Key Results Nutrients • The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females. • Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for percent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females. • Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in both males and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in males and females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes. • Males 45–64 years were the least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent). • The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991). • For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g). • Dietary intakes of thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin E for the New Zealand adult population, appear to be satisfactory. • Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) are at a greater risk of inadequate intake of vitamin A, riboflavin and folate than those in less deprived areas. • Younger females compared to older females (45+ years) are more likely to have inadequate intakes of riboflavin and folate. • Dietary intakes of phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese and copper appear to be satisfactory. • Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietary intake and biochemical iron status. • Estimates of inadequate intake of dietary calcium among females varied across age groups from 21 percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent. Executive Summary 1 Dietary sources • Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the adult New Zealand diet. • Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults 15–24 years. • Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the adult New Zealand diet. • Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the dietary fibre intake for adult New Zealanders. • Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the adult New Zealand population. • Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the adult New Zealand diet was estimated to be the highly bioavailable haem iron. • Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed about 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate in the adult New Zealand diet. Dietary supplements • Half the adult New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week. • Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements (other than vitamins and/or minerals) over the previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17 percent at least once a week. Eating patterns • Ninety-four percent of the adult New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous) diet. • One-third of adult New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more females (39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change. • Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22 percent) in the adult New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of fruits eaten (14 percent). • Over one-fifth of the adult New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the next six months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas for changes. • Almost one-half of the adult New Zealand population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and 32 percent felt it would be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good. • Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat, while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often. • Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (least deprived). 2 NZ Food: NZ People Frequently eaten foods • Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males. • Only about one in five of the New Zealand adult population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day. • About two-thirds of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day. • Almost half of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day. • Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day. • Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drank white wine at least once a week. Health • Seventeen percent of the adult New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females) were considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males, 30 percent females). • About 22 percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure ≥ 95 mmHg). • The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three percent of the adult New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L. • Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2 percent of females, respectively. Have we changed? (1989 to 1997) • Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent to 35 percent. • Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg. Associated with this increase was an increase in obesity levels from 11 percent to 17 percent. • Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L. This was reflected in the proportion of the adult New Zealand population with a serum cholesterol greater than 6.5 mmol/L, decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent. Executive Summary 3 Introduction Background The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97) was a voluntary cross-sectional population survey which provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and nutrition-related clinical measures on a representative sample of 4,636 New Zealanders living in selected households and aged 15 years or above. Data were collected over the 12-month period December 1996 to November 1997. NNS97 is the most comprehensive food and nutrition survey ever undertaken on the New Zealand population. It is possible to link NNS97 data with 1996/97 Health Survey data (Ministry of Health 1999) to provide information on health status, factors affecting health status and health services utilisation as respondents in the NNS97 had completed the 1996/97 Health Survey, although these analyses do not form part of this report. Survey Objectives As determined by the Ministry of Health, the objectives of the National Nutrition Survey were to: 1. ensure participation of NZ Måori at all levels through appropriate consultation, resource allocation and the development of culturally appropriate practices for collection and dissemination of data; 2. monitor food and nutrient intakes against the Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy New Zealanders, compare nutrient intakes with the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) and assist in future revision of RDIs; 3. provide baseline data on the nutritional status and food security of the population, which would become a basis for comparisons with future surveys; 4. assess changes over time in dietary habits and provide a basis of comparison with future regular surveys; 5. assist with the ongoing development of, and monitor the impact of New Zealand’s nutrition policy; monitor health goals and targets for nutrition and diet-related diseases; assist in the revision of future health goals and targets; 6. assist in the development of food policy and regulations related to food composition and safety; assist in the provision of information related to food production, manufacture and sales; 7. provide data on nutrient and food intakes, that are suitable for risk assessment required for setting and reviewing national and international regulatory food policies (such as fortification and contaminant monitoring); 8. provide information on the inter-relationship of health, social, economic and nutrition variables in selected population subgroups for policy development, including health promotion; 9. provide a basis for nutrition education and other strategies to improve nutrition, and to provide a means of measurement for existing nutrition programmes; 10. facilitate the development of nutritional status and dietary intake indicators which could be used for more regular surveillance; 11. provide this much needed information to external users such as dietitians, nutritionists, the food industry and NZ Måori health providers. 4 NZ Food: NZ People Personnel NNS97 was funded by the Ministry of Health and conducted by the University of Otago through its LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit. Project Director Professor David Russell, University of Otago Project Coordinator Dr Noela Wilson, University of Otago Nutrition Manager Mrs Winsome Parnell July 1996 – December 1996, June 1998 – August 1999 Ms Sarah Zino January 1997 – May 1998 Principal Investigators Dr Jim Faed, Pathology, University of Otago Dr Elaine Ferguson, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Mr Peter Herbison, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of Otago Dr Caroline Horwath, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Dr Ted Nye, Medicine, University of Otago Mrs Winsome Parnell, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Dr Papaarangi Reid, Wellington School of Medicine, and Director of the Te Ropu Rangahau Hauora a Eru Pomare Dr Colin Tukuitonga, Måori & Pacific Health, University of Auckland Associate Professor Rob Walker, Medicine, University of Otago Dr Barry Wilson, Physical Education, University of Otago Consultants Mr Len Cook, Government Statistician, Statistics New Zealand Professor Rosalind Gibson, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Ms Penny Field, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Professor David Skegg, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of Otago Professor Murray Tilyard, General Practice, University of Otago Dr Wayne Sutherland, Medicine, University of Otago Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare League Professor Mason Durie, Måori Studies, Massey University Dr Michael Marfell-Jones, Tai Poutini Polytechnic Dr Ian Morison, Biochemistry, University of Otago, and Southern Community Laboratories Dr Murray Skeaff, Human Nutrition, University of Otago Project Office Charles Blakey, Computer Scientist Rachel Bolch, Food Composition Nutritionist Maureen Foster, LINZ® Secretary Sonya Gowans, Research Nutritionist Michelle Hurdle, Field Secretary Ianthe Jones, Coding Nutritionist Louise Mainvil, Senior Nutritionist Joanne McKenzie, Biostatistician Carol Murdoch, Research Assistant Antony O’Hagan, Computing Assistant Frances Okey, Project Secretary Joanne Swanson, Research Assistant Introduction 5 Field Staff Glennys Adams Wendy Aitken Birnie Allen Adrienne Bell Joanne Blackman George Blake Josephine Bray Diana Brooks Bobbi Campbell Diana Clear Maureen Clifford Jennifer Coleman Nicole Coupe Ruth Edwards Eseta Finau Gavin Foulsham Karen Fukofuka Patricia Gould Jean Grace Rochelle Gredig Vera Greiner Melissa Hackell Rita Harder Erika Harman Rosalind Herbison Rebecca Herder Judith Jack Darron Jayet Jan Jenkinson Kathryn Jolly Dineke Kleyn Dorin Kumar Deidre Latell Christina Macfarlane Maetel Marshall Carol Murdoch Jane Owers Elaine Prakash Mary Reid Jacqueline Roy Susan Schwartfeger Vivienne Shepherd Wendy Slatter Susan Smith Sharyn Stilwell Joanne Swanson Mele Talamahina Kathryn Taylor Amanda Tomlinson Lara Turner Julia West Julie West Karin Wilkinson Maori Support Ms Leah Couch, Wellington Mrs Inez Kingi, Rotorua Mrs Makuini McKerchar, Invercargill Mrs Hiki Pihema, Gisborne Mr Kaio Rivers, Auckland Mrs Maisie Taylor, Northland Mrs Makere Wano, New Plymouth Mr Tom Webb, Gisborne Pacific People Support Dr Sitaleki Finau, Auckland Dr Debbie Ryan, Auckland Mrs Metua Faasisila, Auckland Mr Henry Tuia, Wellington National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC) The Ministry of Health received advice on the planning and development of the survey from this Committee: Members Professor Jim Mann (Chair) Dr Barry Borman Professor Rosalind Gibson Dr Hunaara Kaa Judith Ka’ai Makuini McKerchar Winsome Parnell Dr Robert Scragg Susan Sharpe Dr Murray Skeaff Dr Boyd Swinburn Patsy Watson Mark Clements Lib Coubrough Jill Coulson Michele Grigg Jane McLennan Dr Arbutus Mitikulena Gail Powell Jenny Reid Tim Rochford Michelle Vanderlanh Smith Carolyn Watts Heather Wilson Ministry of Health Officials Helen Wyn (Manager) Robert Quigley (Coordinator) Dr Gillian Durham Elizabeth Aitken Donnell Alexander Maraea Bellamy 6 NZ Food: NZ People This Report This report provides a ‘snapshot’ of the nutritional and health status of New Zealanders in 1997. Its purpose is to show the range of data available from NNS97 and to highlight the most significant findings. Only a limited number of independent variables have been selected for analysis for example, age group, sex, ethnicity etc. No account has been taken of the possible interaction between these variables for example, the relationship between age and NZDep96 quartile. It is acknowledged that these interactions may exist and, further, may be important for definitive interpretation of the data. This report provides preliminary results only and further analyses may explore these and other more complex issues. The seven sections covered by this report are subdivided into topics. Each topic is presented as a brief description of the major findings. This information encapsulates the tabulated data on the topic which appears at the end of each section. The tables provide demographically related findings for each topic. The seven sections are: A Nutrients B Dietary Sources C Dietary Supplements D Eating Patterns E Frequently Eaten Foods F Health G Have We Changed? A brief description of the methodology is provided in Appendix A. This publication can be downloaded from the Ministry of Health Web Site: http://www.moh.govt.nz Further Information The objectives of this report are to provide both an introduction to, and a systematic overview of the data; to answer basic questions; and to illustrate the potential for exploring more complex questions. Further analyses by the principal investigators are ongoing. Details of these analyses will be published in professional and scholarly journals in the fields of public health, medicine, nutrition, dietetics and epidemiology. Details of the methodologies are included in the publication Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). Food Comes First may be downloaded from the Ministry of Health’s Web Site at http://www.moh.govt.nz Further enquiries about the availability of data should be made to the LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit at the University of Otago or the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health has also made the unit record data available to other major New Zealand universities and Måori Health Research Units on CD-ROM for the purpose of research on nutritional matters. Following guidance from Statistics New Zealand these universities and Måori Health Research Units must meet strict conditions to protect the confidentiality of respondents. Other applicants requesting access to the unit record data may contact the Ministry of Health. Introduction 7 8 NZ Food: NZ People Section A Nutrients Introduction New Zealanders obtain the energy and nutrients they require from a wide variety of foods and beverages, and less frequently, from dietary supplements. The adequacy of energy and nutrient intake is important in examining the wider issue of nutritional status. (Nutritional status of a group or individual also requires an assessment of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters.) The intake of energy and 40 nutrients from food and beverages only is presented here, by sex, age, ethnicity, NZDep96 quartile and place of residence. Further, the adequacy of intake of some nutrients is presented in the light of published standards or recommended levels of intake. Respondents were asked about their food consumption during the previous day only; this will not reflect what they ‘usually’ eat. Thus, on any given day an individual may have an unusually low or unusually high intake of a particular nutrient. Therefore, the nutrient intakes presented in this section have been adjusted to account for the effect of day-to-day variation in food intake. Under-reporting food, and consequently nutrient intake, is widespread in dietary studies. These problems are not unique to the 24 hour diet recall methodology. This limitation should be recognised when interpreting the nutrient data. For further discussion of under-reporting refer to Appendix B. The day to day variation in nutrient intake was estimated by repeating the 24 hour diet recall on a sub-sample and adjusting the nutrient intakes reported using the C-SIDE programme to estimate the distribution of ‘usual’ intakes in the population. While other national surveys of a similar nature such as NHANES III (Briefel et al 1995) and the Australian Nutrition Survey (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998) have conducted repeat recalls, the data were not adjusted to estimate ‘usual’ intake using the C-SIDE programme. The data for the NNS97 are the first national survey data adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE to be published. Nutrient ratios (for example, percent energy from fat) presented in this section were not adjusted for intra-individual variation as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. The bases for determination of adequate intakes were: a. Recommended levels of nutrient intakes from food formulated by the United Kingdom Panel on Dietary Reference Values (UK DRV) of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (UK Department of Health 1991); b. Targets/guidelines from the report of the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (Department of Health 1991). Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by formal probability analyses as the UK DRV does not provide suitable estimates of mean requirements for these nutrients. For some, it is possible to offer qualitative judgments about whether there is likely to be a problem of inadequate intakes that might be a cause of public health concern. Intakes of thiamin, riboflavin and vitamin B6 were not evaluated by probability analysis since requirements are expressed as a ratio to energy or, in the case of B6, to protein intake. C-SIDE could not be applied to ratios in the estimation of usual intakes and it was decided to defer these analyses pending further development of C-SIDE. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was small. This meant a reliable estimate of usual intake using the C-SIDE programme was unable to be made for either. Intakes for these two groups, which were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, are included in Appendix D. Nutrients 9 Key Points Energy and Protein • The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females. • Sixteen percent of energy for females and 15 percent for males was obtained from protein. Fats • Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for percent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females. • Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in both males and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in males and females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes. Carbohydrates • Carbohydrate provided 45 percent of energy for males and 47 percent for females. • Males 45–64 years were least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent). • Sucrose was the predominant sugar for both males (62 g/day) and females (45 g/day). Dietary fibre • The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991). Alcohol • For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g). Vitamins • Retinol provided just under half the daily median vitamin A intake with the remainder coming from carotenoids. The prevalence of estimated inadequate vitamin A intake for the New Zealand population was low (1.9 percent). • Usual daily median vitamin E intakes were 11.2 mg in males and 8.6 mg in females. B-vitamins • Some females may have an inadequate intake of riboflavin. In particular, females 15-18 years, NZ Måori females and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas. • Vitamin B12 intake appeared adequate for the New Zealand population. Minerals • Estimates of inadequate intake of calcium among females varied across age groups from 21 percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent. • Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietary intake and biochemical iron status. • Intakes of zinc appeared adequate for most groups of the New Zealand population. 10 NZ Food: NZ People A1 Energy and Protein Table A1 Energy The usual daily median energy intake for males (11,631 kJ) was higher than for females (7,701 kJ). Those aged 19–24 years reported the highest energy intake for both sexes (males 13,037 kJ, females 8,783 kJ) thereafter decreasing gradually with age (Figure A). Given that males on average have a greater proportion of lean body mass and greater average body weight than females, as a group they consume more food to maintain their bodies and meet their requirements for exercise. Thus, not only is their daily mean energy intake above females, but most nutrients will be taken in greater amounts: both the nutrients supplying energy (macronutrients) and vitamins and minerals. No clear trend in energy intake between the NZDep96 quartiles was evident although females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas showed a wider variation in energy intake (lower at the 10th and higher at the 90th percentile) than females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas may have both higher and lower energy intakes, or there may be greater intra-subject variation. In females 15–24 years, NZ Måori had higher median energy intakes (9,789 kJ) than NZ European & Others (8,426 kJ). Protein The usual daily median protein intake for males was 105 g and 71 g for females. Both males and females 65+ years had the lowest intakes (Figure B). However, the percent energy from protein in the diet was similar for both sexes (15 percent males, 16 percent females) and did not vary markedly with age or NZDep96 quartile. Given that the dietary intakes observed were almost double the Reference Nutrient Intake (from the UK DRV) for both males and females it can be concluded that the dietary protein intakes from food of New Zealanders are high. Mean percent energy from protein increased in females with age (14 percent 15–18 years, 17 percent 65+ years), but did not vary with NZDep96 quartiles. Figure A Figure B Usual daily energy intake male female 14 Usual daily protein intake 110 12 Median (g) 100 10 8 90 80 70 6 Age group (years) 10 0 65 + 45 –6 4 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 65 + 45 –6 4 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 60 0 Median (kJx103) male female 120 Age group (years) Nutrients 11 A2 Fats Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3 Total fat The usual daily median fat intake was 110 g for males and 72 g for females. As with protein, the lowest intake was among males and females 65+ years. Fat contributed the same amount to energy intake of both males and females (median 35 percent). There was little variation among age groups and NZDep96 quartiles for mean percent energy from fat. However, in females, NZ Måori had a higher mean percent energy from fat (36 percent) compared to NZ European & Others females (34 percent) and the trend was similar, although not significant, for males (37 percent, 35 percent respectively). More females (43 percent) than males (37 percent) met the 1991 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce guideline for contribution of total fat to energy 1. Males 15–18 years were the least likely (31 percent) to meet this guideline across age and sex groups (Figure A). It should be noted that the percent of energy from fat has not been adjusted for intra-individual variation. Thus, the percent of those meeting the guideline may have been overestimated as these data will include some low percentages of energy from fat which have not been adjusted to reflect the proportion of energy ‘usually’ contributed by dietary fat. Cholesterol The usual daily median cholesterol intake, which reflects total fat intake, was 359 mg for males and 243 mg for females. The highest consumption was for males 25–44 years (395 mg). Intake was similar across all NZDep96 quartiles. In females 25–44 years, NZ Måori had higher dietary cholesterol intakes (315 mg) than NZ European & Others (255 mg). Types of Fat 2 In the New Zealand population saturated fat was the major contributor to the usual daily median fat intake at 38 g, compared to 30 g of monounsaturated fat and 12 g of polyunsaturated fat. Figure A Figure B Met fat guideline (≤33%) male female 50% Fat type 16% 14% Contribution to energy 46% NZ population 42% 38% 34% 30% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0 Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated 10 + 65 4 –6 45 4 –4 25 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0% 0 male female Category Age group (years) 1 ≤ 33 percent energy from fat. 2 Note: Total fat values do not equal the sum of the fatty acid subtotals because total fat is the sum of many lipid fractions, whereas the subtotals represent only the sum of fatty acids (Quigley et al 1995). 12 NZ Food: NZ People For the three types of fat, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated, intake for males was higher than for females: 47 g vs 30 g, 37 g vs 24 g and 15 g vs 10 g respectively. This reflects the higher total fat intakes among males. However, the percent contribution to energy from these three fat types was similar across age and sex. Mean percent energy from saturated fat was 15 percent (males and females) from monounsaturated fat (12 percent for males and 11 percent for females) and for polyunsaturated fat 5 percent (males and females) (Figure B). For all groups, the percent energy from polyunsaturated fat is below the level recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of 6-10 percent. Neither the usual daily median intakes of the three fat types nor the mean percent contribution to energy from the fat categories appear to be related to the NZDep96 quartile. Saturated and monounsaturated fat intake was higher for NZ Måori females (36 g, 28 g) compared to NZ European & Others (30 g, 23 g). Nutrients 13 A3 Carbohydrates Tables A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 Carbohydrate For the New Zealand population the usual daily median intake of carbohydrate was over 40 percent higher for males (305 g) than females (214 g). For both sexes the intake of carbohydrate was greatest in the younger groups (15–24 years) and decreased with age, reflecting the pattern of energy intake with age. The mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate was higher in females (47 percent) than in males (45 percent). There was variation across age groups but no consistent pattern emerged. Among males, NZ Måori had a lower mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate (42 percent) than NZ European & Others (45 percent) (Figure A). Overall, 36 percent of New Zealanders met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for carbohydrate intake 3 (females 40 percent, males 31 percent). Males 45–64 years were least likely (24 percent) and females 15–18 years (63 percent) were most likely of all New Zealanders to meet the guideline (Figure B). The amount of carbohydrate consumed and the mean percent contribution to energy intake showed little variability across NZDep96 quartiles (45 percent – 48 percent). However, males living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were least likely (26 percent) to meet the guideline for percentage energy from carbohydrate compared to those living in quartile IV areas (36 percent). In males 45+ years, NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to meet the guideline for carbohydrate intake (14 percent, 29 percent). Starch Starch was the largest single contributor to carbohydrate intake, contributing just over half the usual daily median intake. Intake was higher for males (172 g) than females (112 g), paralleling carbohydrate intake. Among males it was lowest in the 65+ years group (138 g) and lower for females 45+ years (100 g and 104 g). Sugars Total sugar intake, from all sources (usual daily median intake) was 114 g (131 g males, 99 g females). For both sexes, intake declined with age but was not affected by NZDep96 quartile. The Figure A Figure B Percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy Met carbohydrate guideline (≥50%) male female 48% 55% NZ population 46% 44% 42% 45% 35% Age group (years) 3 ≥ 50 percent energy from carbohydrate. 14 NZ Food: NZ People 0 10 + 65 4 –6 45 4 –4 NZ European & Others Ethnic group 25 NZ Maori 15 – 19 18 –2 4 25% 0 Mean male female 65% most significant sugar contributing to intake was sucrose (62 g males, 45 g females), followed by fructose, glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose intake, in parallel with total sugar, dropped for males and females in the groups 25 years and over but particularly for females. Fructose and glucose intakes declined with age in a similar way but to a lesser extent. Males from NZDep96 quartile IV areas had a lower intake of glucose and fructose compared with the other quartiles, accounting for their lower total sugar intake. Nutrients 15 A4 Dietary Fibre Table A4 The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre in the New Zealand population was 20 g, with 11 g insoluble non-starch polysaccharides and 10 g soluble non-starch polysaccharides. Dietary fibre intakes were higher for males than for females across all age groups largely because of their higher energy intake (Figure A). This was evident for both insoluble and soluble non-starch polysaccharides (Figure B). Across age groups dietary fibre intake was similar. However, females 65+ years had higher insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.4 g) than females 15–18 years (8.2 g). Males 15–18 years compared to males 65+ years had higher soluble non-starch polysaccharides (12.0 g, 10.0 g). Dietary fibre intake for both sexes was higher for individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (males 24.4 g, females 18.6 g) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 21.7 g, females 16.6 g). This difference was most pronounced in insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (males 12.6 g, 10.9 g; females 9.9 g, 8.6 g). There were no ethnic differences in dietary fibre intake, however NZ Måori males had lower insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.8 g) than NZ European & Others (12.3 g). For males the usual daily median intake of dietary fibre (23 g) was closer to the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline 4 than the intake for females (18 g). For both sexes, soluble fibre comprised more than the ‘approximately one-quarter of total dietary fibre’ recommended by the Taskforce. Figure A Figure B Usual daily dietary fibre intake male female 26 Usual daily non-starch polysaccharide intakes 12 10 Median (g) Median (g) 22 20 18 16 6 Age group (years) 4 25-30 g per day. NZ Food: NZ People 0 10 + 65 4 –6 45 25 –4 4 2 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 8 4 14 16 male female 14 24 0 Insoluble Soluble Non-starch polysaccharides A5 Alcohol Table A5 Alcohol was consumed by only some individuals on the day of recall. Therefore, the median intakes of alcohol (0 g) do not provide information which is useful. The levels of 90th percentiles of intake and mean intakes do provide useful information on the alcohol intakes of New Zealanders. Unlike other nutrients, the intake data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation since on any particular day zero consumption would not be uncommon. In addition, because of the extreme non-normality of the data no statistical tests were undertaken. For the population as a whole the daily mean intake was 14 g. Intake was higher for males (20 g) than females (8 g). For males, mean intake peaked for the 45–64 years group (26 g) and dropped by half in the 65+ years group (13 g) (Figure A). A different pattern was seen for females, where the group 19–24 years had the highest mean intake (13 g) and thereafter intake fell with increasing age (75+ years, 4 g). NZ Måori males had higher intakes mean (25 g) than NZ European & Others (19 g). Among females, NZ Måori and NZ European & Others had similar intakes (8 g, 9 g respectively). There appeared to be a trend for daily mean alcohol intake to be higher for individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 23 g, 17 g; females 9 g, 6 g). The mean proportion of energy from alcohol in the New Zealand population (4 percent) ranged from 1 percent for males and females 15–18 years to 6 percent for males 45–64 years (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Daily alcohol intake male female 30 Percent contribution of alcohol to energy 6% 25 5% Mean 20 15 10 4% 3% Age group (years) 10 0 + 75 4 65 –7 64 45 – 4 25 –4 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10 0 + 75 4 65 –7 64 45 – 25 –4 4 0% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 1% 0 0 2% 5 0 Mean (g) male female 7% Age group (years) Nutrients 17 A6 Vitamins Tables A6.1, A6.2 Vitamin A The usual daily median intake of vitamin A equivalents for the New Zealand population was 939 µg retinol equivalents (RE), 400 µg of which was from retinol and the remainder from carotenoids. As β-carotene and retinol are concentrated in a few foods, estimates (even after adjusting for intraindividual variations) have very wide confidence intervals. The intake from both sources was higher for males (1,076 µg RE) than females (842 µg RE). There was major variation among age groups for β-carotene (plant sources of vitamin A) compared to a more constant intake from retinol. For males, the usual daily median intake of β-carotene in the 65+ years group (4,510 µg) was twice that of the 19–24 years group (2,267 µg) (Figure A). For females, the highest reported intake was again for the 65+ years group (3,363 µg) and lowest in the 19–24 years group (2,014 µg). This impacted on the overall lower vitamin A equivalents intake of males 19-24 years and females 15– 24 years. Patterns of intake were similar for NZ Måori and NZ European & Others. The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A for the New Zealand population was 1.9 percent (2.1 percent males, 1.6 percent females). Higher prevalances were seen in males and females 19–24 years (8.3 percent, 6.1 percent respectively) compared to older groups. These differences were not statistically significant. Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (males 8.3 percent, females 5.8 percent) than those from quartile I and II areas (males 0 percent, females 0 percent – 0.3 percent). As the requirement for vitamin A is established to cover functional needs and maintain stores, it is unlikely that intake is of concern in the New Zealand population as a whole. However, it is possible that there are sub-groups of the population, particularly the socioeconomically disadvantaged and young adults, whose dietary intake of vitamin A is of concern. Figure B 130 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 10 0 65 + 25 – 45 –6 4 90 44 2000 15 – 19 18 –2 4 100 65 + 110 2500 Age group (years) 18 120 45 –6 4 3000 44 Median (mg) 140 4000 3500 male female 150 4500 0 Median (µg) 5000 Usual daily vitamin C intake 25 – male female 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Usual daily β-carotene intake 0 Figure A Vitamin C The usual daily median intake of vitamin C for the New Zealand population was 102 mg (males 111 mg, females 95 mg). The highest intakes were reported by males and females 15–18 years (141 mg, 109 mg respectively) most likely reflecting their beverage choices (see Section E). Intakes were constant across other age groups of females and fell slightly with age for males (Figure B). Intakes were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori. Overall, the estimated prevalence of inadequate intakes for the New Zealand population was less than one percent. The prevalence was marginally higher in the groups 25–44 years of the New Zealand population (males and females) and among NZ Måori females 15–24 years. However, no appreciable risk of inadequate intake is evident in any group assessed within the New Zealand population, particularly given that the estimated average requirement from the UK DRV is in excess of the amount needed to prevent scurvy. Vitamin E The usual daily median intake of vitamin E for the New Zealand population was 9.7 mg (males 11.2 mg, females 8.6 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age, NZDep96 quartile or ethnicity for males or females. Because vitamin E requirements depend on polyunsaturated fatty acid intake (and this can vary widely) the UK DRV do not specify a level of intake. Foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acids usually, but not always, contain high amounts of vitamin E. The UK DRV panel concludes ‘Daily intakes of 4 mg and 3 mg α-tocopherol equivalents can be adequate for men and women respectively’ (UK Department of Health 1991, p 129). Given that the 10th percentile of usual daily intakes in this study are 7.4 mg for males and 5.6 mg for females, it would appear that the vitamin E intakes of the New Zealand population are entirely satisfactory. Nutrients 19 A7 B-Vitamins Tables A7.1, A7.2 Thiamin The usual daily median intake of thiamin for New Zealanders was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake for males or females, with NZDep96 quartiles or between NZ Måori and NZ European & Others (Figure A). Males 65+ years had the lowest intake (1.4 mg) compared with other age groups (1.6 mg – 1.8 mg). This may be related to their lower total energy intake compared with other age groups. Thiamin requirement is closely related to energy metabolism and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel state that absolute intake should not fall below 0.4 mg/day in people on very low energy diets. Given the 10th percentile of usual intakes in this study (males 1.1 mg, females 0.8 mg) it would appear that the intake of thiamin in the New Zealand population is satisfactory. Riboflavin The usual daily median intake of riboflavin for the New Zealand population was 1.8 mg (males 2.0 mg, females 1.5 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age or NZDep96 quartile for either males or females. While the estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 3.4 percent, it was higher for females 15–18 years (13.9 percent) compared with females 45+ years (4.0 percent – 4.7 percent). Similarly, females living in quartile IV areas had higher levels of inadequate intake (11.6 percent) compared with those from quartile I and II areas (1.8 percent, 2.2 percent) and for NZ Måori females (10.5 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (2.9 percent). This may reflect both the type and amounts of particular foods chosen by females, especially young females. As the requirement is based on the intake needed to maintain tissue saturation, it is unlikely that intakes not meeting this requirement would be associated with any functional impairment. However, biochemical data would be necessary to support this conclusion. Niacin equivalents The usual daily median intake of niacin equivalents (NE) for the New Zealand population was 35 mg (males 43 mg, females 29 mg). The higher level for males reflected both their higher energy and their higher protein intake and therefore higher intakes of niacin from tryptophan. Intakes Figure A Figure B Usual daily thiamin intake male female 2.0 Usual daily vitamin B12 intake male female 7 6 5 Median (µg) Median (mg) 1.5 1.0 4 3 2 0.5 1 Age group (years) 20 NZ Food: NZ People 0 10 + 65 4 –6 –4 4 45 Ethnic group 25 NZ European & Others 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 NZ Maori 0 0 were lower for individuals 65+ years (males 33 mg, females 25 mg) compared with those 19–64 years (males 42 mg – 46 mg, females 29 mg – 30 mg). There were no discernible intake trends with NZDep96 quartile. Intakes were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori. Niacin requirement is related to energy expenditure and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel has set a Reference Nutrient Intake of 6.6 mg NE per 1,000 kcal (4,200 kJ) for males and females. As the usual daily median intakes for males are approximately 15.5 mg NE per 4,200 kJ and for females 15.8 mg NE per 4,200 kJ, the intakes of New Zealanders appear to be entirely adequate. Vitamin B6 The usual daily median intake of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). Males 15–24 years have higher intakes (1.8 mg) than males 65+ years (1.4 mg). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles. These values are close to the Reference Nutrient Intake from the UK DRV of 1.4 – 1.5 mg/day for males and 1.2 mg/day for females. These values have assumed a protein intake similar to New Zealand intakes which is significant because vitamin B6 requirement is related to protein metabolism. Some vitamin B6 from vegetables is unavailable but intestinal flora synthesise some absorbable vitamin B6. On balance, it appears that intakes of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population are more than adequate. Vitamin B12 The usual daily median intake of vitamin B12 for the New Zealand population was 4 mg (males 5 mg, females 3 mg). Males 19–44 years have higher intakes (5.4 mg – 6.1 mg) than males 65+ years (4.0 mg) (Figure B). Levels varied little across NZDep96 quartiles. The overall estimated prevalence of inadequate intake was 0.4 percent i.e. negligible risk of deficiency. Since the average requirement has been calculated at a level to maintain liver stores, this indicates that the vitamin B12 intakes observed in the population are sufficient to withstand periods of zero intake. Folate The usual daily median intake of folate from food for the New Zealand population was 242 µg (males 278 µg, females 212 µg). Intakes varied little across age group. Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas had higher levels of intake (227 µg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (201 µg). While the overall estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 7.1 percent, the prevalence was consistently higher among females than males (regardless of age). Among females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas there was a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (18.6 percent) compared to those living in quartile I areas (7.6 percent). Also, NZ Måori females had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (23 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (11.5 percent). Females 15–24 years had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (21.2 percent – 22.2 percent) compared with females 45+ years (9.2 percent – 9.8 percent). Interpretation of folate data must take account of the following. Firstly, the requirement estimates have been set to maintain liver stores, thus intakes below these requirements will not necessarily be associated with any functional impairment (this is not the level recommended for peri-conceptual females to reduce the risk of neural tube defects). Secondly, as determining folate levels in foods is inherently difficult, it is likely that the folate food composition data used in this survey may lead to an underestimate of folate intakes. In light of this, the prevalence of inadequate intake is likely to be overestimated. Nutrients 21 A8 Minerals Tables A8.1, A8.2, A8.3 Calcium The usual daily median intake of calcium, from food for New Zealanders was 766 mg (males 857 mg, females 691 mg). Intake was lowest for males and females 65+ years (751 mg, 636 mg respectively) (Figure A). Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 781 mg, females 632 mg) had lower intakes compared with those from quartile I and II areas (males 885 mg, 922 mg; females 733 mg, 710 mg). NZ Måori males (761 mg) had lower intakes than NZ European & Others (885 mg). The estimated average requirements from the UK DRV for calcium have been set acknowledging the difficulty in establishing true population requirements, largely because of the diversity of functions of calcium in the body. For the New Zealand population the estimated prevalence of inadequate intake has been assessed as 20 percent. Higher prevalences were observed among females (25 percent) compared to males (14 percent). The youngest group (15–18 years) has the highest prevalence of inadequate intake (males 33 percent, females 37 percent). NZ Måori had higher prevalences of inadequate intake (males 24 percent, females 34 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (males 11 percent, females 22 percent). Phosphorus The usual daily median intake of phosphorus for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was 1,477 mg (males 1,761 mg, females 1,247 mg). The highest intakes were among the 19–44 years groups (males 1,848 mg, 1,891 mg; females 1,305 mg, 1,295 mg), and the lowest intakes in the 65+ years group (males 1,428 mg, females 1,112 mg). Intakes were higher in females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (1,303 mg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (1,188 mg). These phosphorus intakes are relatively high and the calcium phosphorus (Ca:P) ratio is close to 1:2. Neither the intake nor the ratio are in the ranges believed to alter calcium metabolism (P intakes 1.0-1.6 g/day and Ca:P molar ratio 1:3). It is extremely unlikely that there could be any problem of inadequate phosphorous intakes in New Zealand. Figure A Figure B Usual daily calcium intake male female 950 Usual daily zinc intake male female 18 900 16 Median (mg) Median (mg) 850 800 750 700 14 12 10 650 22 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 + 65 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10 0 65 + 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 Age group (years) 0 8 600 Magnesium The usual daily median intake of magnesium for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was 309 mg (males 365 mg, females 265 mg). Intakes were similar across age groups, NZDep96 quartiles and ethnic groups. These values are close to the Reference Nutrient Intake, based on the UK DRV estimated average requirement of 3.4 mg/kg/day, and appear to be adequate. Iron The usual daily median intake of iron from all food sources for the New Zealand population was 12.0 mg (males 14.6 mg, females 9.9 mg). For both sexes, the lowest intakes were for those 65+ years. NZ Måori males and females had higher intakes of iron than NZ European & Others by 1.2 mg and 0.6 mg respectively. The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for males in the New Zealand population was low (1 percent), but higher for females at 26 percent. Females 45+ years included those both menstruating and non-menstruating and hence with quite different iron requirements. Prevalence of inadequate intake of this group has been calculated assuming that all were not menstruating and this is reflected in the lower prevalences of inadequacy. The highest prevalence of inadequacy (39 percent – 45 percent) was in females 15–44 years (all assumed to be menstruating). Among males and non-menstruating females estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intake are similar to those with low iron stores assessed by biochemical indicators (0 percent males, 6 percent females) (see Table F3). However, for menstruating females low iron stores range between four and seven percent, considerably below the estimated prevalences of inadequate intake. This anomaly might be explained by one or more of: estimates of blood loss in menstruation inappropriate for New Zealand females (hence an inappropriately high Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)); the possibility that food intake is under-reported; a higher percent of dietary iron is absorbed in New Zealand. Given the picture of biochemical iron status (Table F3), it would appear that New Zealand females menstruating or non-menstruating have a low risk of inadequate intake. Zinc The usual daily median intake of zinc from all food sources for New Zealanders was 11.9 mg (males 14.5 mg, females 9.8 mg). For both sexes, intakes were lowest in the group 65+ years (males 11.6 mg, females 8.9 mg) (Figure B). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles and ethnic groups. The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 1.2 percent. Among males the prevalence was highest in the 65+ years group (4.8 percent) and among 15–18 years females (2.4 percent). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the highest prevalence of inadequate intake (4.8 percent) compared with those living in quartile I areas (0.2 percent). Given that the EAR for dietary zinc was set to be equivalent to daily losses and a significant proportion of zinc in the New Zealand diet is from animal sources (hence highly bioavailable), it can be concluded that only a very small proportion of the New Zealand population is at risk of inadequate intake. Potassium The usual daily median intake of potassium for New Zealanders from all food sources was 3,378 mg (males 3,922 mg, females 2,936 mg). There were no apparent trends in intake across age groups, NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear to be adequate in comparison to the Reference Nutrient Intake of 3,500 mg/day (UK DRV). It is extremely unlikely that any problem of inadequate intake exists in New Zealand. Nutrients 23 Selenium Estimates of selenium intake derived from dietary intake data are not reliable due to difficulties in establishing food composition data for selenium. Food composition data in New Zealand cannot be satisfactorily compiled without knowledge of the origins of flour in all food products as imported flour (or wheat) has higher levels of selenium than the New Zealand grown equivalent. The usual daily median intakes of males (56 µg), and females (39 µg), are higher than levels reported in a small selected group of New Zealanders where duplicate diet analysis was used to assess intake (Duffield 1999). The distribution of intakes (10th and 90th percentiles), are not believed to be reliable indicators of variation in intake, given the uncertainties of the data on selenium concentration in New Zealand foods. These data are insufficient to allow conclusions to be reached on the adequacy of selenium intake of New Zealanders. International agreement has not yet been reached on the requirements for selenium intake. Manganese The usual daily median intake of manganese for New Zealanders was 4,327 mg (males 4,935 mg, females 3,891 mg). Intakes were lowest for the younger two groups (males 4,075 mg, 4,086 mg; females 2,888 mg, 3,168 mg) compared with 5,088 mg to 5,177 mg for males over 25 years and 3,914 mg to 4,393 mg for females. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the lowest intakes (males 4,461 mg, females 3,503 mg) compared to individuals living in quartile I areas (males 5,241 mg, females 4,140 mg). Intakes of NZ Måori were below those of NZ European & Others. However, all intakes were well above the safe intakes designated by the UK DRV of 1.4 mg/day, and appear to be entirely satisfactory. Copper The usual daily median intake of copper for New Zealanders from all food sources was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). For males, intakes were lower in the 65+ years group. There were no apparent trends in intake across NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear satisfactory in light of the Reference Nutrient Intake of 1.2 mg/day (UK DRV). 24 NZ Food: NZ People Nutrients 25 26 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 12074 12166 11867 11626 7959 7973 7893 8055 11881 11845 11592 11220 7794 7872 7583 7611 240.0 264.0 272.0 243.0 137.5 204.9 144.3 141.3 Mean 9884 12430 13247 12904 11134 9274 11942 8862 9102 8417 7386 6579 7969 9307 8261 8077 7520 5684 6185 5111 4700 Energy (kJ)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 70.3 6054 9441 593.0 8103 12079 470.0 9347 13037 206.0 8879 12632 182.0 8190 10914 190.0 6952 9161 110.0 8270 11631 512.3 5251 8554 285.6 6112 8783 126.3 5647 8175 125.6 5106 7227 130.3 4851 6449 81.4 5301 7701 15124 16487 15983 16240 10436 9894 11050 11825 90th 3 14272 17147 17421 17263 14345 11744 16037 12912 12379 11448 9857 8474 10944 107 110 111 108 73 73 74 74 Mean 90 110 110 117 107 85 109 72 78 77 72 64 73 3.2 2.9 3.6 2.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.7 80 74 72 67 55 57 50 46 105 107 106 103 72 71 71 70 ENERGY AND PROTEIN Protein (g)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 0.8 57 86 6.4 69 107 4.6 74 108 2.3 80 113 2.7 75 103 2.4 61 83 1.4 73 105 4.2 47 69 3.3 55 76 1.3 53 75 1.5 52 71 1.7 46 61 0.8 51 71 136 151 157 155 92 88 101 107 90th 3 130 157 148 159 143 111 149 101 104 104 95 83 99 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 10 11 10 10 10 10 11 10 14 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 21 21 22 23 22 22 22 22 Percent energy from protein2 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 16 0.4 10 15 22 15 0.7 10 14 22 14 0.5 9 14 19 15 0.2 10 14 21 16 0.3 11 15 22 16 0.3 11 15 22 15 0.4 10 15 21 14 0.5 9 14 19 15 0.5 10 14 21 16 0.2 10 15 22 17 0.2 11 16 23 17 0.3 11 16 23 16 0.4 10 15 22 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A1 Nutrients 27 3 2 1 Mean 8177 8693 7436 8250 6020 5464 4371 5259 8997 8920 7682 8122 5602 5791 5099 5516 776.0 759.0 708.0 381.0 628.0 315.4 409.0 243.8 448.0 227.0 147.0 123.0 333.7 124.3 83.3 87.2 12994 12630 10287 11579 8426 8144 6904 7622 11575 12808 10796 11939 9789 8646 7085 8545 Energy (kJ) SEM 10th 3 50th 3 1 17534 17211 13659 16186 11859 11066 9107 10277 16086 18418 14441 16759 15246 13240 10520 13365 90 th 3 113 115 98 107 75 76 68 72 99 129 120 117 83 82 72 80 Mean 5.5 2.4 1.8 1.4 3.3 1.3 1.0 0.9 6.4 7.9 14.2 5.2 6.0 3.1 5.7 2.6 70 80 70 73 52 55 50 53 69 78 72 73 50 51 47 49 110 112 95 104 73 75 67 71 97 122 110 110 80 79 70 77 ENERGY AND PROTEIN Protein (g)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 158 155 130 146 98 100 89 94 132 187 178 170 119 116 99 113 90 th 3 14 15 16 15 15 16 17 16 14 16 18 16 13 16 17 15 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.3 10 10 11 10 9 10 11 10 9 11 10 10 8 10 11 10 14 14 15 15 14 15 16 15 14 15 16 15 13 14 17 14 20 21 21 21 21 22 23 22 20 24 26 24 19 22 24 21 Percent energy from protein2 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. 15–24 11912 25–44 13261 45+ 10885 Total 12282 Females 15–24 10317 25–44 9093 45+ 7305 Total 9029 NZ European & Others Males 15–24 13163 25–44 12900 45+ 10525 Total 11920 Females 15–24 8608 25–44 8317 45+ 7025 Total 7789 NZ Maori Males Table A1 cont. 28 NZ Food: NZ People 4 3 2 1 SEM 1.0 6.4 5.6 3.1 2.2 2.5 1.6 5.8 4.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 3.4 3.5 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.8 1.9 Mean 94 118 129 126 104 87 114 84 84 80 70 60 75 114 116 115 113 74 74 75 77 79 69 69 66 48 48 43 39 10 51 71 82 77 68 58 70 43 47 46 43 39 43 th 3 th 3 111 111 111 108 72 73 71 71 50 89 114 126 121 101 85 110 80 80 77 67 58 72 Total fat (g)1 153 169 164 166 101 103 113 120 90 143 171 178 181 144 118 163 129 126 117 100 83 110 th 3 35 35 35 36 34 34 35 35 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 Mean SEM 35 0.2 35 1.4 36 0.9 36 0.4 35 0.5 34 0.6 35 0.3 34 1.2 34 1.0 35 0.4 35 0.4 34 0.5 35 0.2 24 23 25 24 24 22 22 23 10 23 23 25 25 23 24 24 26 20 23 24 23 23 th 3 35 35 36 36 34 34 35 35 50 35 35 36 36 35 34 36 34 34 35 35 33 34 th 3 45 45 46 48 45 46 47 46 90 46 45 47 46 46 45 46 48 46 47 46 45 46 th 3 TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL Percent energy from total fat2 37% 37% 36% 36% 47% 42% 41% 41% 40% 31% 36% 33% 40% 47% 37% 46% 47% 41% 42% 47% 43% 366 385 378 396 253 257 259 278 319 325 372 420 386 288 381 236 267 278 259 231 261 Meeting guideline4 Mean 16.7 16.1 20.9 14.8 12.1 7.5 8.1 9.1 SEM 5.1 24.1 24.2 14.1 11.9 16.8 11.7 19.9 20.5 7.4 8.6 14.1 4.7 241 227 228 202 152 173 137 140 10th 3 171 197 230 240 220 178 222 127 155 154 148 131 147 Cholesterol (mg)1 354 367 359 365 240 250 237 255 50th 3 296 312 356 395 367 276 359 221 252 261 243 213 243 505 565 553 627 372 351 407 445 90th 3 496 472 532 631 576 413 568 364 398 423 390 354 395 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A2.1 Nutrients 29 4 3 2 1 8.3 11.3 7.2 5.2 7.7 3.9 4.6 3.0 5.1 3.4 1.7 1.7 4.6 1.4 1.0 1.0 127 125 98 114 80 78 65 73 SEM 112 136 104 122 100 91 74 90 Mean 79 76 64 69 45 48 42 46 72 81 65 74 50 48 40 46 10 th 3 th 3 125 120 95 110 78 76 63 71 108 130 101 116 93 85 72 84 50 Total fat (g)1 179 178 136 163 119 111 90 102 158 200 149 176 158 139 110 139 90 th 3 36 36 35 35 34 35 34 34 36 38 36 37 35 37 37 36 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.3 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.5 1.1 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.8 1.2 0.6 Mean SEM 25 25 23 24 22 22 23 23 26 26 23 25 21 25 27 24 10 th 3 35 36 35 35 34 35 34 34 36 39 36 38 35 37 36 36 50 th 3 47 46 45 45 46 46 45 46 47 49 46 47 48 49 48 49 90 th 3 TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL Percent energy from total fat2 32% 33% 43% 37% 47% 42% 45% 44% 42% 24% 33% 32% 40% 33% 31% 34% 360 405 349 373 244 266 243 251 312 489 407 413 304 336 288 317 Meeting guideline4 Mean 22.6 16.1 10.0 9.7 18.0 7.4 6.5 4.5 32.5 37.5 42.6 19.1 31.5 17.9 24.8 13.1 SEM 207 246 209 226 139 164 142 155 197 265 230 225 161 180 153 171 10th 3 Cholesterol (mg)1 342 387 334 356 234 255 225 239 300 459 381 379 283 315 266 295 50th 3 534 588 508 542 363 384 369 363 442 753 623 646 471 518 450 490 90th 3 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra–individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. These data were not adjusted for intra–individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A2.1 cont. 30 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 49 50 48 48 32 32 32 34 Mean 40 51 55 54 44 37 49 36 36 35 29 25 32 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.9 32 29 28 26 18 19 17 16 48 48 46 46 30 31 30 31 Saturated fat (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.4 21 38 3.9 30 48 2.6 35 54 1.3 31 52 1.0 27 42 1.3 23 36 0.7 29 47 2.9 17 33 2.0 20 35 0.7 19 33 0.7 16 28 0.7 15 25 0.5 17 30 1 68 73 71 74 47 45 50 55 90 63 76 77 80 63 53 72 59 55 53 44 37 49 th 2 38 39 38 39 24 25 25 25 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.7 26 22 24 22 16 16 14 13 37 37 38 37 24 24 24 23 51 58 54 57 33 34 38 39 FATTY ACIDS I Monounsaturated fat (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 31 0.4 17 30 48 40 2.3 25 39 58 44 1.9 28 43 60 42 1.2 26 41 61 35 0.8 23 34 48 28 0.8 18 27 39 38 0.6 23 37 55 28 1.8 15 27 43 28 1.7 15 26 42 26 0.5 15 25 39 23 0.5 15 22 33 19 0.5 13 19 27 25 0.4 14 24 37 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A2.2 16 16 17 15 10 11 11 10 Mean 13 16 17 17 15 13 16 11 12 11 10 9 10 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 9 8 9 7 8 6 6 5 15 14 16 14 10 10 10 9 Polyunsaturated fat (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.2 7 12 1.2 8 15 1.0 10 16 0.5 9 16 0.6 8 14 0.5 8 12 0.3 8 15 0.8 6 11 0.8 6 11 0.3 6 10 0.3 6 10 0.3 5 8 0.2 6 10 24 25 26 24 13 17 16 17 90th 2 21 25 26 26 23 20 24 17 18 16 15 14 16 Nutrients 31 2 1 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.7 2.1 0.7 0.5 0.5 55 54 42 49 34 34 27 31 32 32 26 28 18 20 16 18 32 33 25 30 20 20 16 19 53 52 40 47 33 33 26 30 48 54 42 49 41 37 30 36 78 80 60 73 53 50 40 46 71 86 62 76 73 63 51 63 90 th 2 43 42 32 38 27 26 21 24 41 48 37 42 34 30 24 30 1.8 1.3 0.6 0.7 1.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 2.6 3.8 3.2 1.8 2.4 1.5 1.6 1.0 27 25 21 23 15 16 14 15 25 27 22 25 17 16 13 15 42 40 31 37 26 25 21 23 39 45 36 41 32 28 23 28 60 60 45 55 40 37 30 34 58 72 53 62 53 46 36 46 FATTY ACIDS I Monounsaturated fat (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 17 17 14 16 11 11 10 10 13 19 15 16 12 12 10 12 Mean 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2 1.0 1.8 1.9 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.4 9 9 8 8 6 6 6 6 7 9 8 8 6 6 6 6 17 16 13 15 11 10 9 10 12 17 14 15 11 11 10 11 Polyunsaturated fat (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 27 26 22 25 18 16 15 15 19 30 23 25 18 19 16 18 90th 2 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. 4.1 5.6 3.0 2.7 4.1 2.0 2.2 1.5 1 Saturated fat (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 50 58 43 52 45 40 32 39 Mean 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A2.2 cont. 32 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 9 15 15 15 16 14 15 14 15 21 22 22 22 21 21 22 22 Percent energy from saturated fat1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 15 0.1 8 15 21 15 0.6 10 16 19 16 0.5 10 16 22 15 0.2 9 15 22 15 0.3 9 14 21 15 0.3 8 14 21 15 0.2 9 15 21 14 0.6 8 15 20 15 0.5 8 15 22 15 0.2 8 15 22 15 0.3 8 14 21 14 0.3 7 14 21 15 0.1 8 15 21 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 11 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 7 7 8 8 7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 11 15 16 16 17 16 16 17 16 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 FATTY ACIDS II Percent energy from monounsaturated fat1 Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 12 0.1 7 11 16 5 0.1 2 4 8 12 0.5 7 13 16 5 0.4 2 4 7 12 0.3 8 12 17 5 0.2 3 4 8 12 0.2 8 12 16 5 0.1 2 4 8 12 0.2 7 11 16 5 0.1 2 5 9 11 0.2 7 11 15 5 0.2 2 5 9 12 0.1 7 12 16 5 0.1 2 4 8 12 0.9 8 11 17 5 0.3 2 4 8 11 0.4 6 11 17 5 0.3 2 4 9 12 0.1 7 11 16 5 0.1 2 4 8 11 0.2 7 11 16 5 0.1 2 5 8 11 0.2 7 10 15 5 0.2 2 5 9 11 0.1 7 11 16 5 0.1 2 4 8 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A2.3 Nutrients 33 2 1 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 16 16 15 15 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 15 14 15 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 9 10 8 9 6 10 9 9 15 16 14 15 14 15 14 15 16 16 15 16 16 16 15 15 21 22 21 21 20 22 21 21 23 22 23 22 24 22 23 23 Percent energy from saturated fat1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 12 12 11 12 11 12 11 11 13 13 12 13 12 12 12 12 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 7 8 7 7 6 7 7 7 8 9 8 8 6 7 7 7 12 12 11 12 11 11 11 11 13 13 12 13 12 12 12 12 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 18 17 17 18 17 16 17 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 4 8 8 9 8 9 8 8 8 7 9 10 8 7 9 10 9 FATTY ACIDS II Percent energy from monounsaturated fat1 Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A2.3 cont. 34 NZ Food: NZ People 4 3 2 1 SEM 2.0 15.6 14.9 5.6 5.4 5.0 3.5 14.3 6.7 3.3 3.8 4.2 2.2 6.1 6.9 9.0 7.2 3.6 6.2 3.7 4.3 Mean 267 351 362 338 283 252 315 264 255 229 202 189 222 321 323 313 305 222 221 217 226 223 212 222 188 158 168 141 128 10 163 227 239 228 198 183 210 163 173 152 136 136 146 th 3 311 314 306 294 216 217 212 213 th 3 50 255 343 356 331 275 247 305 257 245 223 198 184 214 Carbohydrate (g) 1 434 445 411 436 293 278 300 335 90 385 484 492 457 378 328 434 377 347 315 272 248 306 th 3 45 45 45 45 48 47 47 47 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 Mean SEM 46 0.7 49 1.7 46 1.1 45 0.5 43 0.5 46 0.6 45 0.9 51 1.2 48 1.2 46 0.4 47 0.4 48 0.6 47 0.8 32 32 32 30 36 34 34 35 10 33 38 34 32 30 34 32 37 35 34 35 36 35 th 3 45 45 45 45 48 47 47 47 50 46 48 45 45 42 47 45 52 49 46 47 49 47 th 3 55 60 57 58 59 59 59 61 90 58 61 61 58 56 57 58 62 64 59 58 60 59 th 3 26% 33% 30% 36% 42% 39% 38% 40% 36% 43% 36% 31% 24% 36% 31% 63% 47% 35% 34% 46% 40% 179 180 175 170 116 115 114 119 145 189 192 188 164 140 176 130 122 123 107 102 116 Meeting guideline 4 Mean CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH Percent energy from carbohydrate2 3.3 3.8 5.1 4.8 2.7 2.9 2.5 3.0 SEM 2.8 10.1 8.2 3.5 3.8 3.1 1.9 7.6 3.9 2.3 2.2 2.4 1.4 126 123 119 118 79 85 77 67 10th 3 89 119 136 132 123 107 124 82 80 80 70 71 75 Starch (g)1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A3.1 175 176 171 167 112 114 112 112 50th 3 138 183 190 185 162 138 172 123 118 120 104 100 112 237 242 234 226 156 147 155 179 90th 3 209 268 250 250 209 175 232 189 168 169 147 135 161 Nutrients 35 4 3 2 1 26.8 13.7 17.9 11.2 18.0 8.8 12.3 7.8 12.5 6.5 4.3 3.5 8.7 3.6 2.7 2.4 367 342 275 318 245 227 196 216 SEM 328 317 259 305 291 243 189 247 Mean 245 236 190 207 165 155 139 152 204 207 157 196 170 146 116 142 10 th 3 362 333 265 307 239 221 193 211 315 310 257 296 282 234 183 235 50 th 3 Carbohydrate (g)1 496 463 370 441 333 305 258 286 467 437 357 427 425 352 271 364 90 th 3 48 45 44 45 49 46 47 47 45 42 40 42 50 46 45 47 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.5 1.6 0.9 1.4 0.8 1.3 0.7 Mean SEM 36 32 32 32 35 34 36 35 33 25 24 28 36 33 33 33 10 th 3 47 45 45 45 50 46 47 47 44 43 41 43 50 45 45 46 50 th 3 61 58 57 58 61 59 58 59 58 54 53 55 65 57 56 59 90 th 3 40% 32% 29% 32% 53% 34% 38% 39% 34% 25% 14% 25% 47% 35% 36% 39% 197 189 157 176 117 120 104 112 169 186 143 170 143 131 107 129 Meeting guideline 4 Mean CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH Percent energy from carbohydrate2 7.6 4.0 2.9 2.1 4.4 2.2 1.6 1.4 16.0 9.1 11.6 6.3 11.4 5.7 7.3 4.9 SEM 132 133 112 119 80 82 72 77 112 126 98 114 78 77 63 74 10th 3 Starch (g)1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A3.1 cont. 194 185 153 172 115 118 102 110 166 183 139 166 134 123 101 121 50th 3 265 249 205 239 157 160 138 149 229 251 194 230 219 194 157 195 90th 3 36 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 141 143 138 135 106 106 103 106 135 135 133 122 102 103 98 96 3.9 4.7 5.2 3.8 2.6 3.8 2.6 2.7 Mean 122 160 169 149 118 112 139 134 131 106 94 87 105 83 75 91 59 63 74 53 48 Total sugars (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1.2 63 114 7.0 96 154 9.5 88 162 3.5 83 143 3.3 63 111 3.2 65 107 2.1 74 131 8.7 71 127 5.2 72 127 2.3 57 100 2.3 55 91 2.4 52 84 1.4 58 99 207 221 191 226 154 140 159 176 90th 2 190 234 259 224 182 166 215 208 194 163 137 125 160 26 25 23 21 20 20 18 17 Mean 21 27 31 24 21 20 24 23 22 19 18 16 19 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A3.2 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 14 11 12 7 11 11 8 7 25 23 22 18 19 19 17 16 SUGARS I Glucose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.3 9 20 1.9 12 26 2.0 13 28 0.6 11 23 0.7 9 19 0.8 9 18 0.5 10 22 1.9 11 21 1.2 10 21 0.6 8 17 0.6 9 17 0.6 9 16 0.3 9 18 40 43 35 39 30 31 30 29 90th 2 35 45 53 40 36 33 40 38 35 31 29 25 31 28 27 24 22 21 21 19 19 Mean 23 29 32 26 22 21 25 24 22 20 19 18 20 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.6 14 10 13 7 10 12 8 8 27 24 23 19 20 20 18 17 Fructose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.3 10 21 1.9 13 27 2.5 13 29 0.7 12 24 0.8 9 20 1.0 10 19 0.5 11 23 2.2 11 23 1.3 10 21 0.7 9 19 0.6 9 18 0.6 10 17 0.4 9 19 43 47 37 40 34 32 32 31 90th 2 38 47 55 43 38 35 43 40 36 34 30 27 33 Nutrients 37 2 1 Mean 88 79 57 78 76 55 38 53 98 85 64 76 71 61 56 62 15.2 8.0 10.7 6.5 10.5 5.8 10.2 5.0 7.9 3.9 2.6 2.4 5.4 2.8 1.6 1.6 163 147 110 133 122 101 89 99 146 121 106 123 143 104 76 108 Total sugars (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1 247 231 179 216 187 159 132 150 249 192 178 213 237 181 135 192 90 th 2 31 26 21 24 22 19 18 19 25 20 20 21 22 18 14 18 Mean 1.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.7 0.4 0.4 2.9 1.5 2.4 1.2 2.2 1.1 1.9 1.0 14 12 9 11 11 9 9 10 10 9 7 9 9 7 6 7 29 24 19 22 21 18 17 18 23 19 18 20 20 16 13 16 SUGARS I Glucose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 51 41 36 41 34 31 28 30 43 32 35 36 38 31 24 32 90 th 2 32 27 22 26 23 21 19 20 27 22 22 23 23 20 16 20 Mean 1.8 0.8 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.8 0.5 0.4 3.4 2.1 2.4 1.5 2.2 1.2 2.2 1.1 15 12 9 11 11 9 10 10 10 10 7 9 9 7 7 7 30 25 20 23 22 19 18 19 25 21 21 22 21 18 14 18 Fructose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 53 44 37 44 36 34 29 32 47 35 39 40 40 35 28 35 90th 2 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. 15–24 160 25–44 129 45+ 113 Total 135 Females 15–24 151 25–44 113 45+ 82 Total 117 NZ European & Others Males 15–24 169 25–44 154 45+ 117 Total 141 Females 15–24 126 25–44 107 45+ 92 Total 103 NZ Maori Males Table A3.2 cont. 38 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 67 69 70 71 48 48 49 53 Mean 59 82 83 77 55 53 69 69 69 50 42 37 49 2.5 2.8 3.5 2.3 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 31 28 42 26 26 31 22 18 61 61 67 63 45 46 45 46 Sucrose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1.2 25 53 4.5 42 77 5.8 39 77 2.5 35 71 1.9 25 50 2.2 26 49 1.3 31 62 5.3 32 63 3.8 32 65 1.2 23 46 1.5 21 40 1.4 19 35 0.8 23 45 109 120 103 126 74 66 80 97 90th 2 101 128 136 125 92 85 115 113 111 82 67 57 81 15 17 16 16 13 14 14 14 Mean 15 19 17 17 15 14 16 15 15 14 12 13 14 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A3.3 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 6 7 7 4 5 5 4 5 SUGARS II Lactose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 0.2 5 2.0 6 1.5 5 0.6 6 0.6 5 0.7 6 0.4 6 1.5 4 1.2 5 0.4 5 0.4 4 0.6 5 0.3 5 14 16 15 13 13 12 12 12 50th 2 13 17 15 15 13 13 14 13 13 13 11 12 12 26 28 27 32 23 24 24 25 90th 2 26 35 32 29 27 24 29 28 26 25 22 22 24 5.1 5.4 4.8 5.1 3.2 3.1 3.0 3.2 Mean 4.0 4.9 5.2 5.5 5.0 4.1 5.1 3.9 3.4 3.2 2.8 2.8 3.1 0.23 0.21 0.24 0.24 0.21 0.12 0.14 0.13 3.6 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.4 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.5 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.9 Maltose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.06 1.9 3.6 0.52 2.3 4.6 0.31 2.6 4.9 0.20 2.7 5.0 0.16 2.5 4.7 0.23 2.1 3.7 0.10 2.5 4.7 0.34 1.9 3.5 0.27 1.8 3.1 0.14 1.7 3.0 0.10 1.6 2.7 0.21 1.4 2.5 0.08 1.6 2.8 6.6 8.6 7.8 9.0 5.1 4.4 4.3 5.3 90th 2 6.5 8.0 8.1 8.9 7.9 6.4 8.2 6.3 5.3 5.1 4.2 4.5 4.9 Nutrients 39 2 1 8.6 5.3 6.5 3.9 7.6 3.7 6.4 3.3 4.8 2.8 1.6 1.5 3.7 1.4 1.4 0.9 89 68 55 71 84 57 40 61 81 78 55 69 64 49 40 47 Mean 41 36 24 31 30 25 21 24 41 32 20 33 37 22 14 22 76 73 49 62 60 46 38 45 81 63 50 65 77 50 35 53 Sucrose (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1 126 128 92 115 102 78 61 74 149 110 94 117 140 99 72 109 90 th 2 19 17 15 17 14 14 13 14 16 15 12 15 17 15 10 15 Mean 1.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 2.2 1.3 1.6 0.9 2.6 1.5 1.2 1.4 7 7 6 7 5 5 5 5 5 6 3 5 4 5 4 4 17 15 13 15 13 13 12 13 14 13 10 13 14 13 9 13 SUGARS II Lactose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 35 30 27 29 26 24 22 24 29 27 24 27 34 29 18 28 90 th 2 5.1 5.4 4.7 5.1 3.4 3.1 2.8 3.0 5.0 5.6 5.0 5.4 4.1 3.7 3.3 3.7 Mean 0.32 0.19 0.13 0.10 0.29 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.74 0.68 0.70 0.40 0.55 0.41 0.42 0.51 2.5 2.9 2.4 2.5 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.1 2.3 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.7 4.8 5.0 4.3 4.7 3.2 2.9 2.5 2.8 4.6 4.9 4.5 5.0 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.4 Maltose (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 8.2 8.6 7.4 8.1 5.3 4.8 4.4 4.6 8.5 9.5 8.6 8.9 7.1 6.2 5.2 6.2 90th 2 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A3.3 cont. 40 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 25 25 23 22 19 18 18 17 Mean 21 25 23 25 24 22 24 17 17 18 19 19 18 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 17 17 16 15 12 12 12 10 24 24 23 22 19 18 17 17 Dietary fibre (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 0.2 13 20 1.3 14 24 1.1 15 23 0.5 17 24 0.7 15 23 0.6 16 22 0.3 16 23 1.0 10 16 0.6 10 17 0.3 11 18 0.4 12 18 0.5 13 19 0.2 12 18 1 35 34 31 30 27 25 25 25 90th 2 30 36 33 34 33 30 33 24 25 26 26 26 26 13 13 12 11 10 10 9 9 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 8 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 13 13 12 11 10 10 9 9 20 18 17 16 15 14 14 13 FIBRE Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 11 0.1 6 11 16 12 0.8 6 12 19 12 0.6 7 11 17 13 0.3 8 12 18 13 0.5 8 12 19 12 0.3 8 12 17 13 0.2 8 12 18 8 0.5 5 8 12 9 0.3 5 8 13 10 0.2 6 9 14 10 0.2 6 10 15 11 0.3 7 10 15 10 0.1 6 9 14 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A4 12 12 11 11 9 9 8 8 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 5 12 12 11 11 9 9 8 8 16 16 15 15 12 11 11 12 Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 10 0.1 6 10 14 12 0.6 7 12 18 11 0.7 8 11 16 12 0.2 8 12 16 11 0.2 8 11 15 10 0.2 7 10 13 12 0.1 8 11 16 8 0.5 5 8 12 8 0.3 5 8 12 9 0.1 6 8 12 9 0.2 6 8 12 8 0.2 6 8 11 9 0.1 6 8 12 Nutrients 41 2 1 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 25 25 24 24 16 18 19 18 15 17 15 16 10 12 13 12 13 15 13 14 9 11 9 10 25 24 23 24 16 18 19 18 20 24 20 22 17 18 14 17 35 34 33 35 23 26 26 25 29 33 29 33 27 28 23 27 90th 2 13 13 13 13 8 10 10 10 10 12 11 11 9 10 8 9 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.3 7 8 8 8 5 6 7 6 6 7 7 7 4 5 5 5 12 12 12 12 8 9 10 9 10 12 10 11 8 9 8 9 19 18 19 19 12 14 15 14 15 17 15 16 13 15 13 14 FIBRE Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 12 12 11 12 8 9 9 8 11 12 10 11 9 9 7 9 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.8 1.2 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.3 8 8 7 8 5 6 6 6 7 8 7 7 5 5 5 5 12 12 11 11 8 8 8 8 11 12 10 11 9 9 7 8 17 16 15 16 11 12 12 12 14 17 14 16 14 13 11 13 Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.2 0.7 1.0 0.6 Dietary fibre (g)1 SEM 10th 2 50th 2 21 24 20 22 18 19 15 18 Mean 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A4 cont. 42 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 SEM 0.7 3.2 4.4 2.0 2.4 1.6 2.7 1.2 1.5 2.8 1.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 2.5 2.2 2.8 2.4 1.1 2.4 1.1 0.9 Mean 14 7 18 21 26 13 11 20 3 13 11 7 5 4 8 23 20 18 17 9 10 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Alcohol (g) 10th 3 50th 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 79 57 71 56 35 31 25 17 90th 3 46 14 78 66 80 41 43 66 0 46 36 23 18 15 28 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Percent energy from alcohol2 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0 0 4 1.0 0 0 4 0.4 0 0 6 0.6 0 0 4 0.5 0 0 4 0.8 0 0 5 0.3 0 0 1 0.3 0 0 4 0.8 0 0 3 0.4 0 0 2 0.2 0 0 2 0.4 0 0 2 0.3 0 0 3 0.2 0 0 ALCOHOL 18 14 16 15 11 11 10 8 90th 3 3 3 16 14 20 12 16 16 0 15 13 9 11 6 10 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, because intake clusters at zero. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A5 Nutrients 43 3 2 1 7.9 7.2 8.4 4.5 3.6 2.2 2.1 1.6 3.4 2.0 1.9 1.3 2.3 2.1 0.5 0.9 12 20 21 19 9 11 6 9 SEM 20 24 33 25 10 8 6 8 Mean 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Alcohol (g)1 10th 3 50th 3 45 65 69 63 40 39 21 30 95 66 137 80 43 20 19 20 90th 3 2 4 6 4 3 3 2 3 5 4 7 5 2 2 2 2 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.2 2.3 0.9 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 14 17 15 9 13 9 11 23 9 30 22 11 7 7 7 Percent energy from alcohol2 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 ALCOHOL These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, because intake clusters at zero. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. Percentiles. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A5 cont. 44 NZ Food: NZ People 4 3 2 1 887 792 609 528 657 611 532 456 1195 1119 1357 1374 884 883 918 925 65.4 63.5 246.1 143.7 53.5 32.6 37.4 54.8 10 580 572 523 698 746 769 669 475 443 562 556 649 541 Mean SEM 1065 26.9 1110 118.3 926 64.8 1280 87.1 1332 197.8 1279 86.9 1233 56.1 750 59.8 737 40.7 875 34.7 993 48.6 1149 166.9 900 18.9 th 3 1168 1072 1073 1043 840 858 845 821 50 939 1026 882 1105 1208 1199 1076 725 698 827 902 1048 842 th 3 th 3 1538 1505 2447 2422 1144 1188 1392 1513 90 1646 1771 1389 2027 2054 1892 1939 1060 1079 1248 1531 1773 1284 Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE) 1, 2 0.0 0.0 4.3 8.3 0.0 0.3 1.9 5.8 1.9 6.0 8.3 1.3 0.9 0.7 2.1 3.7 6.1 0.7 1.5 1.6 1.6 intake (%) 4 Inadequate 554 521 672 704 401 358 410 437 44.9 28.0 156.2 111.8 113.6 12.5 33.8 38.9 Mean SEM 524 100.5 505 54.9 476 31.6 682 80.3 545 34.1 442 52.9 638 66.0 342 27.9 364 23.0 406 26.9 428 105.5 423 93.2 408 23.7 307 296 333 280 197 212 169 182 10th 3 223 268 272 313 294 261 295 145 177 200 190 186 185 VITAMIN A Retinol (µg)1 494 475 518 479 324 337 328 350 863 790 1154 1130 549 528 680 739 2977 3588 3641 3929 3113 2994 3089 2870 50th 3 90th 3 Mean 400 804 3389 469 786 3935 454 711 2702 508 1092 3785 493 842 3634 412 652 5056 485 1033 3745 318 566 2496 337 579 2232 349 603 2825 319 711 3557 319 642 3590 334 605 3033 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. As this nutrient is concentrated in relatively few foods, one day intake distributions are highly skewed. Therefore, these estimates of usual intakes have large standard errors. For conversion factors to vitamin B equivalents, see Appendix B, Table I: Analytical techniques for nutrients. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A6.1 163.3 278.2 249.5 302.3 146.0 172.8 185.0 156.3 SEM 79.8 653.7 324.4 236.8 177.6 373.3 121.7 296.3 224.1 157.4 165.6 244.0 76.4 1930 1961 1153 869 1988 2100 1480 1234 10th 3 1428 1026 942 1457 1611 2010 1367 1312 1028 1570 1644 1992 1542 2875 3325 3043 2891 2993 2910 2817 2549 50th 3 2987 3065 2267 3187 3254 4510 3177 2340 2014 2644 3244 3363 2800 β-carotene (µg)1, 2 4162 5545 6931 8302 4395 4000 5049 4926 90th 3 5869 8006 4998 6856 6147 8837 6846 3888 3711 4314 5878 5511 4831 Nutrients 45 4 3 2 1 Mean 550 704 792 712 462 571 595 567 63.1 87.4 267.4 61.4 37.3 40.3 49.5 19.0 952 1100 1263 1093 678 835 937 841 925 1109 1245 1138 858 868 853 861 50 th 3 th 3 1520 1994 2080 1901 968 1245 1569 1320 1701 1712 1993 2072 1406 1351 1313 1368 90 1, 2 6.9 1.1 0.5 1.1 4.2 0.7 0.6 0.8 7.7 0.6 1.7 2.1 4.0 1.6 1.5 2.7 intake (%) 4 Inadequate 490 694 744 686 334 431 453 405 464 537 524 507 455 440 373 432 32.0 92.8 245.4 96.9 19.6 52.3 94.4 27.1 56.0 37.0 78.3 23.0 45.7 30.7 29.9 20.5 Mean SEM 262 321 282 283 160 212 188 199 272 331 270 310 186 229 193 202 10th 3 VITAMIN A Retinol (µg)1 460 512 490 483 321 342 321 332 432 519 501 486 394 416 353 398 50th 3 759 1119 1229 1128 522 684 645 588 694 767 797 730 797 677 579 696 3075 3568 4056 3690 2187 2866 3592 3083 4010 3786 5807 4485 2795 2878 3216 2971 90th 3 Mean Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. As this nutrient is concentrated in relatively few foods, one day intake distributions are highly skewed. Therefore, these estimates of usual intakes have large standard errors. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. For conversion factors to vitamin A equivalents, see Appendix B, Table I: Analytical techniques for nutrients. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). 530 724 738 664 498 550 548 523 10 190.9 108.9 189.6 112.6 85.9 53.7 82.5 39.6 SEM th 3 Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE) 15–24 1045 25–44 1174 45+ 1319 Total 1283 Females 15–24 916 25–44 919 45+ 901 Total 913 NZ European & Others Males 15–24 1002 25–44 1268 45+ 1374 Total 1238 Females 15–24 700 25–44 880 45+ 1031 Total 907 NZ Maori Males Table A6.1 cont. 300.8 187.5 173.7 118.8 248.5 174.3 170.4 82.5 1509.2 852.4 2163.2 565.2 451.6 293.3 735.6 252.9 SEM 1087 1449 1793 1573 1108 1519 1987 1559 908 1568 1932 1298 1219 1365 1645 1386 10th 3 90th 3 2626 3123 3653 3294 2027 2659 3372 2846 5665 6269 6851 6332 3474 4481 5494 4920 2659 8406 3310 6670 4721 10964 3478 8835 2498 4744 2611 4742 2946 5152 2678 4922 50th 3 β-carotene (µg)1, 2 46 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 SEM 2.1 15.9 9.8 4.5 4.7 4.4 2.6 12.7 8.2 5.1 4.1 4.4 2.7 6.1 5.1 6.4 5.2 5.4 7.4 3.9 4.1 Mean 114 155 137 124 114 102 122 120 108 105 105 101 105 134 115 118 120 102 113 98 109 80 47 52 50 51 53 53 47 10 51 65 60 53 58 50 56 52 45 45 52 51 48 th 2 128 100 106 107 95 100 91 97 50 102 141 124 109 106 95 111 109 96 92 98 94 95 th 2 Vitamin C (mg)1 196 200 198 207 163 185 151 186 90 191 264 230 211 179 163 202 202 184 180 168 161 176 th 2 0.0 1.6 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.2 1.3 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.9 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 11.7 11.9 12.0 11.5 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.5 0.31 0.30 0.37 0.32 0.32 0.24 0.24 0.18 7.6 7.0 7.5 7.4 6.0 6.7 5.7 5.0 10th 2 6.2 6.4 7.3 7.6 7.7 7.1 7.4 5.1 5.2 5.6 5.9 5.9 5.6 Vitamin E (mg )1 Mean SEM 10.2 0.11 11.0 0.74 11.8 0.52 12.4 0.29 11.5 0.36 10.8 0.32 11.7 0.18 8.9 1.28 8.7 0.50 9.0 0.19 8.9 0.21 8.5 0.30 8.8 0.13 VITAMINS C AND E Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A6.2 11.3 11.3 11.6 11.0 8.7 8.8 8.3 8.0 50th 2 9.7 10.6 11.5 11.8 11.1 10.4 11.2 8.8 8.3 8.6 8.5 8.1 8.4 16.5 17.5 16.9 16.1 12.8 11.3 12.3 12.6 90th 2 14.9 16.2 16.6 17.8 15.8 15.0 16.7 12.7 12.8 12.8 12.4 11.5 12.5 Nutrients 47 244 195 175 195 181 180 169 175 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.1 1.1 1.1 1.4 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 12.0 12.1 11.2 11.7 8.8 8.7 8.8 8.8 9.6 13.5 11.7 11.8 8.3 9.7 8.6 9.0 0.59 0.29 0.26 0.18 0.47 0.20 0.19 0.14 0.65 0.95 0.99 0.48 0.52 0.51 0.58 0.28 Mean SEM 7.4 7.5 7.0 7.0 5.1 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 8.4 7.2 7.2 5.1 5.5 5.6 5.4 10th 2 11.7 11.7 10.7 11.1 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.4 9.0 13.0 11.3 11.3 8.1 9.1 8.3 8.6 50th 2 3 Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). 138 107 100 109 97 92 96 94 241 278 225 248 226 180 155 188 90 th 2 Vitamin E (mg )1 2 70 55 52 57 48 46 51 48 116 135 120 125 108 93 87 98 50 th 2 VITAMINS C AND E Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. 9.9 4.8 3.7 2.8 7.4 6.1 3.7 3.3 149 118 108 119 108 105 104 105 53 61 59 57 45 47 45 46 10 th 2 Vitamin C (mg)1 1 18.2 19.1 20.3 10.2 15.0 7.1 10.4 6.2 SEM 135 157 133 142 125 105 95 109 Mean 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A6.2 cont. 17.0 17.2 16.1 17.1 13.0 12.0 12.2 12.2 14.0 19.2 16.8 17.1 11.8 14.6 11.8 13.2 90th 2 48 NZ Food: NZ People 1 3 2 SEM 0.01 0.09 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 Mean 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 10 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 th 2 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 50 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.7 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 th 2 Thiamin (mg)1 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 90 2.1 2.6 2.4 2.5 2.3 1.9 2.4 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.7 th 2 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 Mean SEM 1.8 0.02 2.1 0.14 2.2 0.09 2.2 0.05 2.0 0.04 1.8 0.06 2.1 0.02 1.5 0.11 1.6 0.07 1.6 0.03 1.6 0.05 1.5 0.06 1.6 0.02 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A7.1 1.5 1.8 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.9 10 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.4 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 th 2 2.0 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.4 50 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.0 1.8 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 th 2 B VITAMINS I Riboflavin (mg)1 2.7 2.6 3.0 3.1 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 90 2.6 3.1 3.0 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.9 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 th 2 0.2 0.0 1.7 4.9 2.2 1.8 6.4 11.6 3.4 3.2 0.7 0.7 1.3 2.1 1.2 13.9 5.6 5.0 4.7 4.0 5.6 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 44 44 44 44 30 29 29 29 Mean 36 43 45 48 43 34 44 28 31 31 29 25 29 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 SEM 0.3 2.5 2.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.6 1.6 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 35 30 28 27 23 24 20 18 10th 2 23 28 31 34 32 25 30 18 21 21 21 18 20 43 43 42 42 29 29 29 28 50th 2 35 42 44 46 42 33 43 27 30 30 29 25 29 Niacin equivalents (mg NE)1 53 60 62 63 37 34 40 43 90th 2 52 60 60 64 57 44 60 39 41 42 38 33 40 Nutrients 49 3 2 1 0.16 0.22 0.08 0.14 0.11 0.05 0.24 0.05 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 1.5 1.9 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Mean SEM 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 10 th 2 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 50 th 2 Thiamin (mg)1 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.4 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.6 2.2 2.9 2.0 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.9 90 th 2 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.6 0.11 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.15 0.13 0.27 0.07 0.17 0.09 0.09 0.07 Mean SEM 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 10 th 2 2.2 2.2 1.9 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.1 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.5 50 th 2 B VITAMINS I Riboflavin (mg)1 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.6 3.1 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.4 1.9 2.4 90 th 2 1.8 0.2 1.3 0.7 8.2 3.1 3.5 2.9 1.3 1.6 3.5 1.5 11.6 8.8 14.4 10.5 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 45 47 40 43 29 31 27 29 39 51 47 47 32 32 28 31 Mean 2.2 1.0 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 2.9 3.1 4.1 1.7 2.4 1.6 1.7 1.0 SEM 29 33 28 29 20 22 20 21 27 33 30 30 20 20 18 20 10th 2 44 46 38 42 29 30 27 28 38 49 45 45 31 31 27 30 50th 2 Niacin equivalents (mg NE)1 62 63 52 59 39 41 36 38 53 73 67 65 46 46 38 44 90th 2 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A7.1 cont. 50 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 SEM 0.01 0.10 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 Mean 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 10 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.0 1.2 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 th 2 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 50 1.4 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 th 2 Vitamin B6 (mg)1 2.2 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.9 90 2.1 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.3 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 th 2 5.4 5.7 7.0 6.3 4.2 3.5 3.7 4.1 Mean 4.9 4.9 5.7 6.6 6.3 4.5 6.0 3.2 4.6 3.9 4.1 3.9 3.9 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A7.2 0.65 0.27 0.68 0.41 0.34 0.15 0.17 0.18 SEM 0.21 0.38 0.46 0.38 0.58 0.39 0.30 0.21 0.64 0.14 0.35 0.61 0.12 3.4 3.6 4.1 2.6 2.5 2.0 2.1 2.1 10 2.4 3.0 3.2 4.0 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.0 2.6 2.1 2.1 1.8 2.1 th 2 5.1 5.3 6.3 5.1 3.8 3.2 3.3 3.6 50 4.2 4.7 5.4 6.1 5.0 4.0 5.2 3.1 4.3 3.5 3.5 2.9 3.4 th 2 th 2 7.6 8.1 10.8 11.0 6.5 5.5 5.6 6.6 90 8.2 7.0 8.6 9.9 10.8 7.2 9.7 4.6 6.9 6.1 6.7 6.4 6.2 B VITAMINS II Vitamin B12 (µg)1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 1.1 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 1.1 0.2 0.6 0.6 1.3 0.6 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 290 297 279 277 234 222 212 209 5.5 8.5 9.1 8.7 7.0 6.1 4.6 4.6 Mean SEM 251 2.4 280 13.6 281 17.2 295 6.1 286 5.5 262 7.4 286 4.1 203 13.3 202 7.6 220 3.7 228 5.1 227 7.2 220 2.8 224 203 182 189 157 146 134 131 10 160 189 182 201 202 193 200 125 125 141 151 152 142 th 2 th 2 287 286 270 268 227 216 203 201 50 242 277 272 286 278 256 278 194 195 213 222 217 212 Folate (µg)1 360 403 385 375 320 305 299 296 90 354 376 390 400 381 339 381 292 290 307 313 313 306 th 2 0.1 1.1 3.5 2.0 7.6 11.3 16.9 18.6 7.1 2.8 3.4 1.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 22.2 21.2 13.4 9.8 9.2 13.1 intake (%) 3 Inadequate Nutrients 51 3 2 1 0.16 0.13 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.02 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 SEM 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.3 Mean 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.7 10 th 2 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 50 th 2 Vitamin B6 (mg) 1 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.0 2.2 1.9 2.1 1.7 1.9 90 th 2 5.4 6.6 5.5 5.8 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.8 5.0 8.6 7.9 7.3 4.0 4.6 4.1 4.3 Mean 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.23 0.60 0.17 0.26 0.13 0.49 1.70 1.29 0.72 0.27 0.37 0.41 0.22 SEM 3.0 4.1 2.5 3.1 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.2 3.1 3.9 3.8 3.5 2.3 2.6 2.2 2.5 10 th 2 5.2 6.2 4.4 5.1 3.7 3.4 3.3 3.4 4.9 7.4 7.1 6.4 3.9 4.4 3.8 4.1 50 th 2 th 2 8.2 9.7 9.3 9.1 5.9 5.6 6.5 5.7 7.1 14.8 13.1 12.0 5.8 6.9 6.3 6.4 90 B VITAMINS II Vitamin B12 (µg)1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. Percentiles. Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A7.2 cont. 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.2 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 297 298 281 291 200 222 230 222 233 298 265 280 206 215 198 208 16.1 6.5 5.4 4.7 7.9 4.6 4.6 3.0 21.6 24.9 14.2 40.4 17.4 7.9 12.6 7.7 Mean SEM 201 211 192 198 131 146 151 146 154 187 198 188 105 128 112 119 10 th 2 th 2 291 290 272 282 197 215 222 215 226 283 260 273 194 207 196 198 50 Folate (µg)1 401 394 382 393 271 307 318 307 321 424 338 378 324 311 280 309 90 th 2 1.7 0.8 1.5 1.7 18.7 11.5 9.5 11.5 8.7 2.5 1.0 2.3 28.6 18.4 26.0 23.0 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 52 NZ Food: NZ People SEM 10.3 75.2 50.0 20.3 21.9 35.3 13.5 56.6 40.7 18.1 18.9 22.4 12.3 28.4 30.9 33.1 24.6 19.8 26.3 21.7 21.8 Mean 819 957 938 959 864 799 908 783 760 759 712 670 735 915 948 927 848 762 741 732 694 590 638 484 426 466 446 391 352 10 445 511 503 546 481 454 504 371 419 436 392 392 409 th 2 th 2 885 922 862 781 733 710 683 632 50 766 894 875 908 809 751 857 740 713 714 676 636 691 Calcium (mg) 1 1279 1292 1425 1355 1094 1077 1134 1112 90 1257 1474 1454 1435 1315 1204 1379 1258 1157 1133 1080 988 1112 th 2 # # # # # # # # 20 33 12 9 14 18 14 37 22 21 27 30 25 intake (%) 3 Inadequate 1817 1872 1803 1731 1337 1295 1271 1242 40.4 45.4 47.7 40.8 33.9 30.9 24.4 24.5 1385 1371 1214 1099 930 933 855 786 10th 2 972 1183 1280 1373 1250 1039 1248 818 905 895 856 820 865 1794 1834 1758 1667 1303 1270 1227 1188 50th 2 1477 1779 1848 1891 1712 1428 1761 1241 1305 1295 1239 1112 1247 MINERALS I Phosphorus (mg)1 Mean SEM 1537 11.6 1824 91.5 1889 81.1 1929 30.0 1757 38.1 1453 41.6 1806 20.4 1291 70.3 1366 64.5 1334 21.0 1267 23.9 1151 30.2 1288 13.8 # NZDep96 Quartiles consist of a range of age groups. As the requirements differ for each age group, an overall figure could not be calculated. 1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. 2 Percentiles. 3 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A8.1 2281 2424 2445 2442 1790 1689 1742 1764 90th 2 2179 2521 2554 2533 2320 1900 2422 1834 1904 1821 1715 1530 1761 388 385 370 358 289 273 275 262 8.2 8.7 10.9 16.3 5.0 6.6 6.1 4.4 Mean SEM 323 2.8 362 17.6 385 15.4 398 7.1 375 8.9 309 7.5 375 4.9 265 13.9 272 9.3 286 4.7 278 5.0 251 6.3 275 2.7 276 296 265 264 189 199 198 161 10th 2 210 240 273 293 287 235 273 167 182 191 186 178 183 378 378 362 352 279 267 267 249 50th 2 309 356 380 388 367 306 365 254 261 275 271 241 265 Magnesium (mg)1 514 481 485 457 400 356 362 378 90th 2 452 493 505 513 473 388 490 378 374 392 379 337 378 Nutrients 53 Mean 533 586 492 529 58.8 23.3 23.6 16.0 417 471 406 442 351 396 315 364 82.5 56.2 49.4 43.6 37.7 21.1 14.3 13.2 482 504 379 467 10 81.6 52.4 48.7 39.0 SEM th 2 50 th 2 742 745 678 716 954 938 810 885 722 684 512 658 751 841 648 761 Calcium (mg) 1 1191 1131 1064 1096 1543 1455 1295 1408 1429 1153 890 1183 1234 1341 1080 1224 90 th 2 16 25 22 6 13 11 32 18 25 9 26 53 34 12 31 24 40 * 28 43 * 27 * intake (%) 3 Inadequate 1337 1338 1228 1289 1950 1942 1662 1821 1415 1391 1132 1339 1570 1963 1682 1761 4 3 895 934 859 906 1252 1417 1170 1261 765 845 689 789 1147 1284 1112 1191 1298 1305 1195 1256 1919 1905 1628 1776 1331 1344 1101 1272 1537 1936 1608 1696 50th 2 1829 1782 1638 1712 2685 2512 2191 2440 2174 1998 1614 1975 2034 2640 2335 2408 90th 2 266 284 269 275 393 397 351 377 270 283 238 268 325 374 341 351 6.7 4.9 3.9 2.9 16.4 6.6 6.9 4.7 18.9 14.7 18.8 8.7 21.4 17.5 18.0 10.1 Mean SEM 180 195 185 187 269 297 253 262 157 168 144 157 236 261 252 253 10th 2 257 276 261 266 389 388 340 365 253 275 230 256 319 368 336 345 50th 2 Magnesium (mg)1 363 384 363 372 523 510 462 506 404 405 342 392 423 492 436 455 90th 2 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). The 15–24 years group was subdivided for inadequate intake, as the calcium requirements differ for the 15–18 and 19–24 years groups (refer Table III, Appendix B). 58.2 23.5 17.4 14.7 88.1 33.1 30.8 21.7 103.4 54.9 69.3 44.4 103.8 112.9 141.9 55.1 10th 2 MINERALS I Phosphorus (mg)1 Mean SEM * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. 2 Percentiles. 15–184 19–244 15–24 822 25–44 891 45+ 698 Total 814 Females 15–184 19–244 15–24 826 25–44 743 45+ 567 Total 732 NZ European & Others Males 15–184 19–244 15–24 1008 25–44 990 45+ 861 Total 936 4 Females 15–18 19–244 15–24 778 25–44 781 45+ 713 Total 749 NZ Maori Males Table A8.1 cont. 54 NZ Food: NZ People 10th 2 7.8 9.6 11.1 11.0 10.1 9.1 10.3 6.7 6.9 6.8 7.0 6.7 6.8 11.6 10.4 11.0 9.7 7.5 7.7 6.7 6.0 SEM 0.12 0.89 0.63 0.38 0.47 0.35 0.22 0.63 0.55 0.18 0.21 0.38 0.11 0.58 0.38 0.56 0.39 0.31 0.24 0.25 0.19 14.8 14.8 15.2 14.1 10.2 10.2 9.7 9.7 50th 2 12.0 14.7 15.3 15.5 14.1 12.2 14.6 10.1 10.4 10.1 10.1 9.2 9.9 Iron (mg) 1 18.7 20.5 20.8 20.2 14.3 13.1 13.8 14.9 90th 2 18.2 21.5 19.8 21.9 19.6 16.4 20.4 14.5 15.3 14.6 13.9 12.8 14.2 Inadequate # # # # # # # # 14 6 0 0 0 1 1 45 39 42 2 3 26 intake (%) 3 14.9 15.4 15.1 15.5 10.1 10.2 10.1 10.5 Mean 12.6 15.8 15.2 16.7 14.5 12.1 15.2 10.2 10.6 10.7 10.0 9.2 10.2 0.48 0.52 0.56 0.46 0.24 0.27 0.32 0.28 SEM 0.13 1.01 0.64 0.48 0.31 0.40 0.24 0.69 0.58 0.21 0.24 0.31 0.13 10.8 10.4 10.2 9.3 7.6 8.4 6.9 6.3 10th 2 7.9 9.5 10.5 11.2 10.1 8.2 10 6.7 7.3 7.1 7.1 6.7 7.1 14.4 14.8 14.5 14.4 9.9 10.1 9.6 9.8 50th 2 11.9 15.2 15.0 15.9 14.0 11.6 14.5 9.8 10.3 10.1 9.7 8.9 9.8 MINERALS II Zinc (mg)1 19.8 21.1 20.8 22.9 12.8 12.1 13.8 15.5 90th 2 18.2 23.0 20.1 23.2 19.4 16.6 21.4 14.3 14.4 14.8 13.2 12.1 13.8 Inadequate 0.2 0.5 0.9 2.7 0.2 0.0 1.5 4.8 1.2 3.1 1.0 0.2 0.5 4.8 1.1 2.4 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.3 1.3 intake (%) 4 # NZDep96 Quartiles consist of a range of age groups. As the requirements differ for each age group, an overall figure could not be calculated. 1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. 2 Percentiles. 3 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). It was assumed all females 45+ years were not menstruating. 4 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). Mean NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 12.6 Males 15–18 15.2 19–24 15.4 25–44 16.1 45–64 14.6 65+ 12.5 Total 15.1 Females 15–18 10.4 19–24 10.8 25–44 10.5 45–64 10.3 65+ 9.6 Total 10.3 NZDep96 Quartiles Males I 15.0 II 15.2 III 15.6 IV 14.6 Females I 10.7 II 10.3 III 10.1 IV 10.2 Table A8.2 4062 4010 3935 3897 3055 3030 2954 2952 Mean 3472 3874 3954 4180 3945 3542 3978 2854 3036 3045 3054 2851 3000 114.5 90.7 101.6 93.5 64.2 75.8 63.8 49.4 SEM 26.2 220.3 162.4 71.3 63.1 96.0 46.2 155.9 118.1 51.8 57.3 70.5 30.7 2993 2902 2876 3239 2245 2326 2057 1913 10th 2 2365 2703 2936 3068 3043 2658 2983 1861 2126 2101 2181 2060 2099 Potassium (mg)1 3994 3919 3872 3880 3001 3000 2883 2866 50th 2 3378 3837 3915 4116 3896 3482 3922 2778 2964 2975 3009 2783 2936 5226 5243 5079 4577 3933 3774 3943 4104 90th 2 4702 5093 5025 5378 4912 4503 5048 3955 4036 4075 3986 3721 3979 Nutrients 55 Mean 9.6 11.3 10.7 11.1 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.2 10.7 10.9 9.5 9.9 6.6 7.1 7.0 7.1 0.77 0.38 2.01 0.35 0.79 0.37 0.31 0.23 0.59 0.20 0.16 0.13 10 0.94 1.31 1.16 0.83 SEM th 2 10.1 10.1 9.6 9.9 15.5 15.4 13.4 14.5 10.9 10.6 10.2 10.5 13.9 17.1 14.8 15.7 50 th 2 Iron (mg)1 14.7 14.0 13.2 13.6 21.0 21.3 18.9 20.7 16.5 16.1 15.6 16.1 19.3 25.7 19.4 22.1 90 th 2 41 2 24 0 1 1 45 42 4 0 40 6 32 0 0 1 45* 36 7* 0* intake (%) 3 Inadequate 10.1 10.4 9.6 10.0 15.9 16.3 13.6 15.0 11.6 11.0 10.4 11.1 13.9 18.5 14.5 16.1 Mean 0.55 0.21 0.15 0.14 0.81 0.49 0.26 0.24 0.91 0.71 0.89 0.45 0.89 1.46 0.98 0.72 SEM 7.2 7.5 7.1 7.5 10.2 11.2 9.0 9.8 7.2 6.9 6.6 6.8 9.0 11.0 9.5 9.8 10 th 2 50 th 2 9.8 10.1 9.3 9.8 15.4 15.6 13.0 14.3 11.4 10.6 10.0 10.7 13.5 17.2 14.0 15.2 MINERALS II Zinc (mg)1 13.5 13.6 12.3 12.7 22.2 22.1 18.9 21.2 16.4 15.7 14.8 16.0 19.2 27.7 20.1 23.5 90 th 2 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.3 1.8 0.2 2.4 1.5 2.7 2.9 4.3 3.2 3.0 0.6 2.0 1.7 intake (%) 4 Inadequate 2943 3030 2981 2993 4106 4157 3830 4005 2929 3219 2752 3023 3434 4285 3696 3885 106.7 55.5 44.0 34.0 176.4 72.9 62.4 49.0 228.2 123.4 213.9 99.3 226.5 282.4 214.6 142.2 Mean SEM 2071 2142 2135 2131 2967 3065 2864 2875 1763 2070 1789 1914 2660 3014 2662 2860 10th 2 Potassium (mg)1 2894 2974 2921 2938 4077 4091 3763 3932 2809 3104 2681 2919 3406 4191 3636 3814 50th 2 3879 3989 3900 3925 5280 5334 4881 5231 4240 4506 3808 4260 4242 5686 4807 5002 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. 2 Percentiles. 3 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). It was assumed all females 45+ years were not menstruating. 4 Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). 5 The 15–24 years group was subdivided, as the iron requirements differ for the 15–18 and 19–24 years groups (refer Table III, Appendix B). NZ Maori Males 15–185 19–245 15–24 14.2 25–44 17.9 45+ 15.0 Total 16.3 5 Females 15–18 19–245 15–24 11.2 25–44 11.0 45+ 10.6 Total 10.9 NZ European & Others Males 15–185 19–245 15–24 15.7 25–44 15.8 45+ 13.9 Total 15.0 Females 15–185 19–245 15–24 10.4 25–44 10.4 45+ 9.9 Total 10.2 Table A8.2 cont. 56 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 56 60 69 59 46 39 43 47 Mean 52 55 56 65 64 46 60 35 44 47 46 38 44 2.0 2.7 5.8 3.4 3.3 1.3 2.3 4.1 45 37 38 29 31 27 22 23 Selenium (µg) SEM 10th 3 1.3 28 4.6 31 4.7 34 2.6 43 4.5 34 2.4 29 1.8 36 2.5 23 3.9 28 3.3 25 2.5 25 2.6 24 1.1 25 56 56 62 52 44 37 37 40 50th 3 47 51 53 62 56 43 56 33 41 41 41 36 39 1,2 69 88 107 96 65 54 69 78 90th 3 82 83 83 92 101 68 91 50 63 76 71 56 68 5551 5399 4892 4696 4337 4208 3977 3700 Mean 4599 4597 4368 5295 5466 5231 5162 3055 3384 4093 4326 4563 4071 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. These data are unreliable, please refer to the text. Percentiles. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Table A8.3 130.6 199.4 173.6 120.5 149.7 117.1 106.1 60.6 3202 4264 2899 2530 2451 2395 2318 2027 5241 5337 4701 4461 4140 4039 3832 3503 MINERALS III Manganese (µg)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 44.7 2508 4327 367.9 2087 4086 314.0 2385 4075 117.4 3176 5088 152.3 3057 5177 140.5 3432 5104 73.4 2943 4935 205.0 1700 2888 197.8 1777 3168 72.0 2283 3914 108.4 2523 4170 126.2 2962 4393 54.7 2293 3891 8283 6614 7136 7167 6483 6223 5825 5611 90th 3 7026 7698 6724 7669 8234 7197 7644 4626 5325 6135 6333 6322 6070 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 Mean 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.4 1.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 Copper (mg)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 0.02 1.0 1.4 0.08 1.2 1.7 0.07 1.3 1.7 0.06 1.3 1.8 0.36 1.2 1.7 0.03 1.1 1.4 0.03 1.3 1.7 0.08 0.8 1.2 0.06 0.8 1.2 0.02 0.8 1.2 0.03 0.9 1.2 0.05 0.8 1.1 0.02 0.8 1.2 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.8 90th 3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.4 1.8 2.4 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 Nutrients 57 6.3 5.9 6.0 8.2 2.9 4.8 3.5 5.0 4.8 2.4 2.1 1.7 3.2 3.4 1.8 1.4 47 68 61 67 36 49 43 48 56 64 55 59 42 44 42 42 Mean 34 42 32 35 28 25 24 25 28 39 35 34 21 28 27 26 53 61 50 55 39 39 38 38 44 64 57 58 35 46 41 43 Selenium (µg) SEM 10th 3 50th 3 1,2 83 89 85 87 59 70 65 65 70 102 93 109 54 74 63 76 90th 3 4799 5446 5470 5333 3317 4107 4495 4149 3305 4682 4722 4216 2965 4190 3783 3730 Mean 333.2 140.2 135.4 83.8 169.0 86.1 87.8 62.8 321.6 260.1 372.2 189.3 215.2 189.9 294.1 126.1 2477 3236 3143 3025 1777 2340 2792 2403 1773 2499 2641 2346 1459 2066 2062 1852 4401 5223 5196 5032 3187 3943 4330 3984 3149 4723 4423 4020 2780 3885 3617 3476 MINERALS III Manganese (µg)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 7594 7945 8150 8041 5034 6085 6388 6100 5040 6625 7181 6338 4711 6709 5720 5938 90th 3 1.8 2.0 1.6 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 Mean 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.05 1.3 1.4 1.1 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.2 Copper (mg)1 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 2.3 2.7 2.2 2.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.3 1.9 2.2 1.9 2.0 1.5 1.9 90th 3 Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group. 2 These data are unreliable, please refer to the text. 3 Percentiles. 1 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table A8.3 cont. 58 NZ Food: NZ People Section B Dietary Sources Introduction In the context of nutrition education it is often useful to either encourage or discourage the consumption of groups of foods because they are important sources of nutrients. For example, milk is an excellent source of calcium so the consumption of this group would be encouraged to augment calcium intake. Therefore, food items have been assigned into food groups on the basis of their role as a dietary source of a nutrient or nutrients (see Appendix B). This section provides an insight into the groups of foods which are sources of selected nutrients for the New Zealand population. As food choices differ with sex and age (see Section E), the contribution of each food group to nutrient intake is presented for these variables. It should be noted that the data presented in this section are percentages of nutrient intake obtained from the various dietary sources. They do not indicate the bioavailability of nutrients from the dietary sources. Details of the food groups used and the types of foods included within each food group are presented in Appendix B (Table 2). This should be studied prior to reading this section. Key Points Energy • Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the New Zealand diet. • Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults 15–24 years. Total fat • Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the New Zealand diet. Carbohydrate • Bread, non-alcoholic beverages and potatoes and kumara contributed 40 percent of carbohydrate intake of the New Zealand population. Protein • Animal products (beef and veal, poultry, fish/seafood, milk) and bread accounted for about half the dietary sources of protein in the New Zealand population. Dietary fibre • Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the dietary fibre intake for New Zealanders. Calcium • Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the New Zealand population. Dietary Sources 59 Iron • Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the New Zealand diet was estimated to be the highly bioavailable haeme iron. Folate • Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed over 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate in the New Zealand diet. Alcohol • The predominant source of alcohol for females was wine (65 percent), while beer was the predominant source for males (69 percent). 60 NZ Food: NZ People B1 Energy Table B1 Bread (not including bread-based dishes) was the principal source of energy for the New Zealand population as a whole (11 percent) for all ages and sexes. Potatoes and kumara contributed 7 percent, butter and margarine 6 percent, and milk, alcoholic beverages, cakes and muffins, non-alcoholic beverages and sugar/sweets each contributed 5 percent. Bread was the largest source of energy for males and females of all age groups, except for males 19–24 years for whom bread, potatoes and kumara, nonalcoholic beverages and bread-based dishes all contributed equally at about 9 percent. The contribution of other food sources varied according to age and sex. For males, bread (11 percent), potatoes and kumara (8 percent), butter and margarine (6 percent) and alcoholic beverages (6 percent) were the highest sources of energy. Among females, bread (12 percent), potatoes and kumara (7 percent) and butter and margarine, milk, cakes and muffins and fruits (all 6 percent) were important sources of energy. There were some age differences in important sources of energy. For young (15–24 years) males and females non-alcoholic beverages provided 8 percent– 10 percent of energy, but this dropped to 2 percent or less in males and females 65+ years (Figure A). Fruits provided about twice the proportion of energy in older males and females than younger males and females (Figure B). The largest contribution of alcoholic beverages to energy intake was in males 45–64 years (9 percent), while females 15–18 years obtained the smallest percentage of energy from alcoholic beverages (1 percent). Figure A Figure B Non-alcoholic beverages male female 8% 6% 4% 2% male female 10% Contribution to energy intake 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 44 Age group (years) 0 0% 0% 0 Contribution to energy intake 12% Fruits Age group (years) Dietary Sources 61 B2 Total Fat Table B2 Butter and margarine (16 percent) made the largest contribution to total fat intake in the population as a whole and for all age groups and both sexes. The contribution from butter and margarine increased with age in both sexes although the magnitude of the increase was greater in females. In the 15–18 years group 12 percent of total fat (males 13 percent, females 11 percent) came from butter and margarine, increasing to 21 percent and 25 percent for males and females respectively in the 75+ years group (Figure A). Potatoes and kumara, beef and veal, milk and cakes and muffins each provided 6 percent of total fat, followed by pies and pasties, bread-based dishes and sausages and processed meats, at 5 percent. Across age and sex groups, young males 19–24 years had the highest total fat intake from potatoes and kumara (10 percent), pies and pasties (9 percent) and bread-based dishes (11 percent) (Figure B). Older females 75+ years, had the highest total fat intake from milk (9 percent). Figure A Figure B Butter and margarine male female 23% 20% 17% 14% 11% male female 12% Contribution to total fat intake Contribution to total fat intake 26% Bread-based dishes 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% Age group (years) 62 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 75 + 4 65 –7 4 45 –6 –4 4 25 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% B3 Carbohydrate Table B3 The principal sources of carbohydrate were bread (20 percent), non-alcoholic beverages (10 percent), potatoes and kumara (10 percent), sugar/sweets (9 percent) and fruits (8 percent). In the 15–24 years groups non-alcoholic beverages provided slightly more (18 percent males) or an equivalent proportion (17 percent – 18 percent females) of carbohydrate as bread. Bread emerged as the predominant source of carbohydrate in males and females 25+ years (20 percent – 24 percent) with a concomitant decrease in the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages (Figure A). The decrease in carbohydrate from non-alcoholic beverages with age was counterbalanced by an increase in fruits and breakfast cereals as carbohydrate sources (Figure B). The proportion of carbohydrate from cakes and muffins, and sugar/sweets increased with age in males, while carbohydrate from bread was greatest in older groups. Grains and pasta (5 percent) although not a major source, and bread-based dishes (3 percent), contributed a greater percentage of carbohydrate in younger groups. Fruits was consistently a more important source of carbohydrate for females (10 percent) than males (7 percent), while potatoes and kumara contributed a larger percentage for males (11 percent, 9 percent respectively). Figure A Figure B male female Breakfast cereals Contribution to carbohydrate intake 20% 16% 12% 8% 4% male female 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 44 Age group (years) 0 0% 0% 0 Contribution to carbohydrate intake Non-alcoholic beverages Age group (years) Dietary Sources 63 B4 Protein Table B4 Animal products (beef and veal, milk, poultry and fish/seafood) and bread were the principal dietary sources of protein contributing about half of the total (Figure A). Beef and veal was generally the largest contributor to protein intake, providing 12 percent in females and 15 percent in males. The bread and milk groups also supplied a substantial portion of dietary protein, 10 percent and 9 percent respectively in males, and 11 percent from both groups in females. Poultry and fish/seafood supplied 7 percent–8 percent of protein for males and females. Deviations from this pattern were seen in young females (15–18 years) where bread (12 percent) was the highest contributor to protein intake, followed by milk (10 percent), beef and veal (9 percent), and bread-based dishes (8 percent); and in males 19–24 years 13 percent of protein was obtained from bread-based dishes. Poultry (10 percent), milk (9 percent) and bread (9 percent) were the next largest contributors. Although there were few age-related trends in the major sources of protein the relative importance of bread-based dishes as a source of protein was higher in the younger groups (Figure B). While grains and pasta were not a major source for the population (3 percent), intakes were higher in younger groups (5 percent, 15–18 years) compared with older groups (1 percent, 75+ years). Figure B 2% 0% Beef & veal Bread Milk Food group 64 NZ Food: NZ People Poultry Fish/ seafood 4% 2% 0% Age group (years) 10 0 4% 6% 75 + 6% 8% –7 4 8% 10% 65 10% 12% 45 –6 4 12% male female 14% Contribution to protein intake Contribution to intake 14% 44 16% Bread-based dishes 25 – male female 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Protein 0 Figure A B5 Dietary Fibre Table B5 There were five major sources of dietary fibre: bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals (Figure A). Together these sources provided three-quarters of dietary fibre intake. Vegetables, including potatoes and kumara, were the greatest source of fibre (28 percent). For females the main sources of dietary fibre were bread (22 percent), vegetables (18 percent), fruits (16 percent), potatoes and kumara (10 percent) and breakfast cereals (10 percent). For males, the major sources were bread (22 percent), vegetables (16 percent), potatoes and kumara (13 percent), breakfast cereals (12 percent) and fruits (10 percent). The proportion of fibre from fruits increased with age in both sexes to 20 percent for females and 17 percent for males in the 75+ years group (Figure B). However, fruits was consistently a more important source of dietary fibre for females (16 percent) compared with males (10 percent). Breakfast cereals contributed about twice the proportion of dietary fibre in males 15–24 years (12 percent and 15 percent) compared to females of the same age (6 percent). The lowest contribution by vegetables to dietary fibre intake was in males 15–24 years (13 percent and 10 percent). Figure B Fruits Food group Potatoes & Breakfast kumara cereals 0% 10 0 Vegetables 75 + Bread –7 4 0% 5% 65 5% 10% 4 10% 15% 45 –6 15% 20% –4 4 20% male female 25% Contribution to dietary fibre intake Contribution to intake 25% Fruits 25 male female 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Dietary fibre 0 Figure A Age group (years) Dietary Sources 65 B6 Calcium Table B6 Almost half of the population’s calcium intake was from milk and cheese (37 percent, 11 percent respectively) (Figure A). Other sources of calcium, although relatively small, were bread (6 percent), vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and dairy products (all 5 percent). The predominance of milk as a source of calcium increased with age in females (Figure B). For males, the percentage of calcium from milk decreased with age until 25–44 years and increased in older groups (Figure B). The percentage of calcium from cheese was fairly constant at about 11 percent across all age groups, except in the 75+ years group where there was a notable decrease to 6 percent and 7 percent in males and females respectively. Overall, milk was a greater source of calcium for females (39 percent) than for males (36 percent) with the exception of the 15–18 years group (males 38 percent, females 31 percent). However, in the groups 19–24 and 65–74 years the proportion of calcium from milk was similar between sexes. Dairy products contributed a slightly larger proportion of calcium intake in females (6 percent) than in males (4 percent). Conversely, more calcium was obtained from bread-based dishes in males (4 percent) than in females (2 percent). The latter was largely explained by a large contribution of bread-based dishes to the diet of 19–24 years males. The proportion of calcium obtained from vegetables increased with age (3 percent–4 percent to 7 percent–8 percent) while the contribution to calcium of non-alcoholic beverages was inversely related to age in both sexes (7 percent to 2 percent–3 percent). While grains and pasta were not a significant source of calcium in the population (2 percent), the contribution to calcium was higher in the younger groups (4 percent–5 percent, 15–18 years) than in the older groups (1 percent or less in 75+ years). Figure B Food group 66 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 Cheese 75 + Milk 4 0% 30% 65 –7 10% 34% 64 20% 38% 45 – 30% 42% 4 40% male female 46% Contribution to calcium intake Contribution to intake 50% Milk 25 –4 male female 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Calcium 0 Figure A B7 Iron Table B7 Bread and beef and veal provided the greatest proportions of iron intake, followed by breakfast cereals, vegetables and potatoes and kumara. Together these contributed about half of the iron intake (Figure A). For both males and females almost one-third of the iron comes from groups which include meat and fish (males 33 percent, females 29 percent); 23 percent from all the meat groups combined (males 24 percent, females 22 percent); 4 percent from bread-based dishes, which include meat (males 5 percent, females 3 percent); and 4 percent from fish/seafood. Therefore, just under one-third of the dietary iron intake would be haem iron (highly bioavailable) and two-thirds non-haem iron (less bioavailable). For females, bread (13 percent) was the single greatest dietary source of iron, supplying an increasing proportion with age (12 percent 15–18 years, 16 percent 75+ years). Beef and veal was ranked second for females (11 percent). Conversely, for males, beef and veal was generally the largest dietary source of iron (14 percent) followed by bread (12 percent). Exceptions were 19–24 years males for whom breakfast cereals and bread-based dishes made the most substantial contribution to iron intake (both 12 percent), and for males 75+ years for whom breakfast cereals (15 percent) and bread (14 percent) made the greatest contributions. Breakfast cereals also provided a larger percentage of iron intake for males in the younger groups (15–24 years) than for females (Figure B). Non-alcoholic beverages supplied 7 percent of dietary iron for females and 8 percent for males and declined with age to 75+ years (males 3 percent, females 4 percent). On the other hand, fruits supplied 6 percent of the dietary iron for males 75+ years, declining to 2 percent in the 15-18 years group. Figure A Figure B Iron male female 16% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% Food group 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 45 – 64 0% 44 Breakfast Vegetables Potatoes & cereals kumara 25 – Beef & veal 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Bread 0 2% 0% male female 16% Contribution to iron intake Contribution to intake 14% Breakfast cereals Age group (years) Dietary Sources 67 B8 Folate Table B8 The principal dietary sources of folate were vegetables (18 percent), bread (13 percent) and breakfast cereals (11 percent). Additional sources included fruits and potatoes and kumara (Figure A). For males 15–24 years, breakfast cereals were the largest contributor to folate intake (16 percent) followed by vegetables and bread contributing similar proportions (about 12 percent each). For all other age groups (both sexes) vegetables were the main dietary source of folate. For females, in comparison with males, a larger proportion of folate came from vegetables (20 percent, 17 percent respectively) and fruits (10 percent, 6 percent) with less from potatoes and kumara (6 percent, 9 percent). Consequently, the proportion of folate from vegetables, together with potatoes and kumara, was equivalent in males and females (26 percent). There were no major age-related patterns in folate sources although the percentage from non-alcoholic beverages increased with age in both sexes (Figure B). This was most likely due to the presence of fruit juices in this food group. The latter is in contrast to the negative association seen between the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages and age for other nutrients presented (e.g. carbohydrate) and indicated a change in type of non-alcoholic beverages as a dietary source of folate with age. Vegetables as a source of folate had the lowest contribution in males 15–24 years (12 percent and 13 percent) and females 15–18 years (15 percent). For other age groups vegetables contributed from 18 percent – 24 percent to folate intake. Bread-based dishes contributed higher amounts of folate (3 percent – 6 percent) in the 15–24 years groups, declining to 1 percent or less in the 75+ years groups. Figure B Breakfast cereals Food group 68 NZ Food: NZ People Fruits Potatoes & kumara 0% Age group (years) 10 0 Bread 75 + Vegetables 74 0% 2% 65 – 5% 4% 64 10% 6% 45 – 15% 8% 44 20% male female 10% Contribution to folate intake Contribution to intake 25% Non-alcoholic beverages 25 – male female 15 – 19 18 –2 4 Folate 0 Figure A B9 Alcohol Table B9 Wine was the predominant source of alcohol for females other than those 15–18 years (Figure A). Among females 15–18 years approximately half the alcohol consumed was beer, one-quarter spirits and one-fifth wine. In females, the proportion of alcohol from beer decreased with age compared with an increasing contribution from spirits. The contribution to alcohol intake of other alcohol 5 generally increased with age, peaking in the 75+ years males and the 65–74 years females. For males, beer was the predominant source of alcohol, although there was a decrease in the percentage of alcohol obtained from beer in males and females over 65 years (Figure B). This resulted from a greater contribution of wine and spirits to alcohol intake in males 65+ years and the 22 percent of alcohol which came from other alcohol in the 75+ years group. Liqueurs and cocktails were not major sources of alcohol in any age groups although in young males these contributed almost 10 percent. Unreported data from the Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire suggests the contribution of other alcohol to total alcohol intake was most likely explained by sherry consumption in the older age groups. Figure A Figure B Wine male female 80% 60% 40% 20% 80% 60% 40% 20% Age group (years) 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 25 – 44 0% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% male female 100% Contribution to alcohol intake Contribution to alcohol intake 100% Beer Age group (years) 5 For example, sherry, cider, alcoholic sodas. Dietary Sources 69 70 NZ Food: NZ People Food Groups Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Potatoes and kumara Butter and margarine Milk Alcoholic beverages Cakes and muffins Non-alcoholic beverages Sugar/sweets Beef and veal Fruits Bread based dishes Grains and pasta Breakfast cereals Biscuits Pies and pasties Poultry Sausages & processed meats Vegetables Fish/seafood Dairy products Cheese Sauces Pork Fats and oils Puddings Eggs and egg dishes Lamb/mutton Nuts and seeds Soups and stocks Snack foods Other meat Dietary supplements Total% Table Bl 11% 7 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 11% 8 6 5 6 4 5 5 5 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 10% 9 5 6 2 3 9 5 4 2 6 5 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 100 15–18 9% 9 4 5 5 4 9 4 2 3 9 4 3 2 5 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 0 <1 100 19–24 11% 7 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Male 25–44 12% 7 6 5 9 4 3 4 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 12% 8 7 6 5 5 2 6 6 5 <1 1 4 4 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 12% 8 7 6 5 6 1 5 3 6 3 1 6 5 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 12% 7 6 6 4 6 5 5 4 6 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 All 11% 7 4 5 1 6 10 6 3 4 5 5 2 2 3 2 3 3 1 4 2 2 2 1 2 <1 <1 1 <1 3 0 0 100 15–18 10% 7 4 6 5 4 8 6 3 5 4 3 2 3 5 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 <1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 ENERGY SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION 12% 7 5 6 4 6 5 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Female 25–44 12% 6 6 6 3 6 3 4 4 7 2 2 4 4 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 14% 6 7 6 2 6 2 3 4 8 <1 2 4 4 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 14% 7 9 8 2 5 2 4 4 8 2 1 5 4 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 100 75+ Dietary Sources 71 NZ Pop’n Food Groups (Age 15+) All Butter and margarine 16% 16% Potatoes and kumara 6 7 Beef and veal 6 6 Milk 6 5 Cakes and muffins 6 5 Pies and pasties 5 6 Bread based dishes 5 6 Sausages & processed meats 5 5 Fats and oils 4 5 Cheese 4 4 Poultry 4 4 Biscuits 3 3 Dairy products 3 3 Fish/seafood 3 3 Sauces 3 2 Pork 2 2 Eggs and egg dishes 2 2 Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) 2 2 Nuts and seeds 2 2 Grains and pasta 2 2 Sugar/sweets 2 2 Lamb/mutton 2 2 Puddings 2 1 Breakfast cereals 1 1 Fruits 1 <1 Vegetables 1 <1 Snack foods <1 <1 Soups and stocks <1 <1 Non-alcoholic beverages <1 <1 Other meat <1 <1 Alcoholic beverages <1 <1 Dietary supplements <1 <1 Total% 100 100 Table B2 19–24 12% 10 3 5 6 9 11 6 4 3 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 <1 2 1 <1 1 2 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 100 15–18 13% 8 6 7 3 5 8 6 4 4 6 3 4 2 2 <1 <1 2 2 4 3 2 <1 2 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 2 2 <1 1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 2 <1 2 3 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 <1 <1 <1 3 2 3 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 3 4 5 <1 2 <1 3 2 4 <1 <1 0 <1 0 100 2 2 2 3 2 2 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 TOTAL FAT SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Male Female 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ All 15–18 19–24 25–44 15% 18% 20% 21% 16% 11% 13% 14% 7 5 4 5 6 8 8 6 7 7 8 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 6 5 7 6 5 5 5 6 7 6 4 7 6 5 3 4 5 5 9 5 5 5 <1 4 4 6 5 4 6 4 5 4 4 6 5 3 5 4 6 3 4 3 5 4 4 4 4 3 5 4 5 5 4 5 3 2 4 2 4 5 3 3 4 5 4 2 4 4 3 4 4 7 4 5 4 3 3 4 4 2 3 <1 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 3 <1 1 2 1 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 18% 4 5 6 7 4 3 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 <1 1 2 4 2 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 21% 3 6 6 7 3 <1 4 4 5 3 4 4 4 3 2 3 2 1 1 <1 2 2 2 2 1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 25% 3 5 9 6 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 4 3 2 2 3 72 NZ Food: NZ People Food Groups Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Non-alcoholic beverages Potatoes and kumara Sugar/sweets Fruits Cakes and muffins Breakfast cereals Grains and pasta Milk Biscuits Vegetables Bread based dishes Dairy products Alcoholic beverages Pies and pasties Puddings Sauces Fish/seafood Soups and stocks Snack foods Sausages & processed meats Poultry Beef and veal Pork Nuts and seeds Eggs and egg dishes Dietary supplements Lamb/mutton Cheese Butter and margarine Other meat Fats and oils Total% Table B3 20% 10 10 9 8 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 20% 10 11 9 7 5 5 5 4 4 3 4 2 3 2 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 16% 18 12 8 4 3 6 7 4 3 2 5 3 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 15–18 16% 18 10 7 5 4 5 6 5 2 2 6 1 2 3 2 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 0 <1 100 19–24 21% 10 10 10 6 5 4 6 4 4 3 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 23% 6 11 9 8 6 5 3 4 4 3 4 2 4 2 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 21% 3 12 12 9 6 7 2 4 5 5 <1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 20% 2 12 11 11 7 9 2 4 6 4 2 2 2 <1 2 1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 21% 10 9 8 10 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 2 <1 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 18% 18 8 8 7 6 3 6 3 2 3 4 3 <1 1 1 1 <1 <1 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 18% 17 9 10 9 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 21% 10 9 8 9 7 5 6 4 4 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 22% 6 9 8 13 8 5 3 5 5 5 2 2 <1 1 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 AVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Male Female 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ All 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 24% 4 10 6 14 6 6 3 5 5 4 <1 2 <1 <l 4 1 <l 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 24% 4 11 7 14 5 7 2 6 5 4 1 2 <1 <l 2 1 <l <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ Dietary Sources 73 Food Groups Beef and veal Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Milk Poultry Fish/seafood Bread based dishes Pork Potatoes and kumara Sausages & processed meats Cheese Vegetables Lamb/mutton Grains and pasta Breakfast cereals Pies and pasties Cakes and muffins Eggs and egg dishes Non-alcoholic beverages Dairy products Biscuits Fruits Sauces Nuts and seeds Alcoholic beverages Soups and stocks Sugar/sweets Puddings Other meat Snack foods Butter and margarine Dietary supplements Fats and oil Total% Table B4 11 10 7 7 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 10 9 7 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 14% 15% 9 10 9 4 9 2 5 5 3 2 4 5 4 3 1 <1 2 2 1 <1 1 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 15–18 14% 9 9 10 4 13 5 4 5 3 2 1 4 3 6 3 2 1 1 <1 <1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 8% 10 8 6 6 5 5 4 5 4 3 4 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Male 25–44 16% 11 9 8 8 4 7 4 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 15% 11 11 5 8 <1 3 5 3 3 4 6 1 4 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 17% 12 11 6 6 3 5 5 3 2 4 3 1 6 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 <1 <1 2 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 13% 11 11 8 7 4 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 All 12% 12 10 5 4 8 6 4 5 4 3 1 5 2 3 3 1 2 3 <1 1 1 1 <1 <1 2 2 0 1 <1 0 <1 100 15–18 9% 10 10 8 8 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 5 2 1 2 2 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 12% PROTEIN SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION 11 11 9 7 4 5 4 2 4 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Female 25–44 12% 11 12 8 7 2 5 3 3 4 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 13% 13 13 6 7 <1 4 4 2 4 4 2 2 4 1 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 <1 <1 2 <1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 14% 13 14 7 6 2 3 4 2 3 5 3 1 5 <1 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 13% 74 NZ Food: NZ People Food Groups Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Vegetables Fruits Potatoes and kumara Breakfast cereals Grains and pasta Cakes and muffins Bread based dishes Non-alcoholic beverages Biscuits Pies and pasties Soups and stocks Sausages & processed meats Sauces Nuts and seeds Puddings Snack foods Sugar/sweets Fish/seafood Beef and veal Poultry Dairy products Pork Eggs and egg dishes Milk Lamb/mutton Alcoholic beverages Dietary supplements Other meat Cheese Butter and margarine Fats and oil Total% Table B5 22% 17 13 11 11 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l 0 0 100 22% 16 10 13 12 4 3 4 3 2 2 1 1 <l <l <l <1 <l <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l <l <l <l 0 0 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 18% 13 7 16 15 6 2 4 2 2 2 <1 2 1 <1 <1 2 1 <1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 0 <1 0 0 0 100 15–18 18% 10 8 15 12 6 3 6 3 1 4 1 3 1 1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 0 0 0 0 100 19–24 22% 17 10 12 11 5 3 4 3 2 2 <1 2 1 <l <l <1 <l <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l 0 <l 0 0 0 100 25% 17 11 12 12 3 4 4 3 2 2 1 <1 <l <l <l <1 <l <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l 0 <l <l 0 0 100 22% 22 12 13 11 2 3 <1 2 2 1 2 <1 <l <l 1 <1 <l <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l 0 <l 0 0 0 100 21% 17 17 12 14 2 4 2 1 3 <1 2 1 <l <l <l <1 <l <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l 0 0 0 <l 0 0 100 22% 18 16 10 10 4 4 2 3 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l <1 <l 0 0 100 22% 15 14 11 6 6 4 4 2 1 2 <1 1 1 1 <1 4 2 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 20% 18 16 12 6 5 3 4 2 3 2 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <l 0 <l 0 0 100 22% 16 15 10 10 5 4 3 3 3 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <l 0 <1 <l 0 0 100 DIETARY FIBRE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Male Female 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ All 15–18 19–24 25–44 21% 20 17 9 10 2 5 2 3 3 <1 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 0 <l <1 <l 0 0 100 45–64 23% 19 20 9 10 3 4 <1 2 2 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 0 0 0 <l 0 0 100 65–74 23% 20 20 10 13 1 2 1 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <l 0 <1 0 0 0 100 75+ Dietary Sources 75 Food Groups Milk Cheese Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Vegetables Non-alcoholic beverages Dairy products Bread based dishes Cakes and muffins Fish/seafood Potatoes and kumara Fruits Breakfast cereals Grains and pasta Sauces Sugar/sweets Eggs and egg dishes Puddings Alcoholic beverages Biscuits Pies and pasties Soups and stocks Sausages & processed meats Poultry Beef and veal Butter and margarine Snack foods Pork Nuts and Seeds Lamb/mutton Dietary supplements Other meat Fats and oil Total% Table B6 6 5 5 5 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 37% 36% 11 11 5 4 7 6 5 2 1 2 2 3 5 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 1 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 100 15–18 38% 10 6 3 7 3 8 2 1 2 1 2 3 <1 2 1 1 1 <1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 19–24 37% 10 7 5 5 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 <1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Male 25–44 34% 13 7 6 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 36% 11 6 8 2 5 <1 2 3 2 2 3 <1 1 2 5 1 <1 <l <1 1 <l <l <1 <1 <l <1 <1 <1 <l <1 <1 100 65–74 42% 9 6 8 2 4 3 3 2 3 3 6 <1 2 <1 1 4 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 38% 6 6 5 5 6 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 All 39% 11 6 4 7 7 5 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 3 <1 4 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 0 0 <1 100 15–18 31% 11 5 4 7 5 3 3 4 3 3 <1 2 <1 2 <1 2 1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 36% 11 CALCIUM SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION 6 5 6 5 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Female 25–44 38% 11 6 6 5 5 2 3 3 2 3 2 <1 2 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l <1 100 45–64 40% 10 6 7 3 6 <1 3 2 2 4 3 <1 2 <1 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l <l <1 100 65–74 42% 10 6 7 3 6 1 2 2 2 5 4 1 1 <1 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 45% 7 76 NZ Food: NZ People Food Groups Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Beef and Veal Breakfast cereals Vegetables Potatoes and kumara Non-alcoholic beverages Fish/seafood Bread based dishes Fruits Sausages & processed meats Eggs and egg dishes Cakes and muffins Pies and pasties Pork Poultry Lamb/mutton Sauces Grains and pasta Sugar/sweets Milk Biscuits Other meat Soups and stocks Nuts and seeds Alcoholic beverages Puddings Dairy products Butter and margarine Snack foods Cheese Fats and oils Dietary supplements Total% Table B7 13% 12 9 8 7 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 12% 14 9 7 8 4 4 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <l 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 10% 13 12 5 10 8 2 8 2 4 1 2 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 100 15–18 10% 7 12 4 9 5 2 12 3 4 3 2 7 3 3 <1 3 2 2 2 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 12% 15 7 8 7 4 5 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Male 25–44 14% 14 9 8 7 3 6 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 12% 15 11 9 7 4 6 <1 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 14% 11 15 8 8 3 3 2 6 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 13% 11 9 9 6 5 4 3 5 3 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 All 12% 9 8 7 8 7 4 6 5 4 2 3 3 3 1 <1 2 3 3 1 1 0 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 0 100 15–18 11% 11 6 11 8 6 5 4 5 3 2 2 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 19–24 IRON SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION 13% 11 9 8 7 5 4 4 5 2 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Female 25–44 14% 11 9 9 6 5 4 2 6 3 3 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 16% 12 10 10 6 3 3 <1 7 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 4 2 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 16% 11 14 10 7 4 3 1 6 2 4 2 <1 2 2 2 1 <1 2 2 2 2 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ Dietary Sources 77 Food Groups Vegetables Bread (includes rolls and specialty breads) Breakfast cereals Fruits Potatoes and kumara Non-alcoholic beverages Sauces Milk Bread based dishes Beef and veal Eggs and egg dishes Fish/seafood Cakes and muffins Alcoholic beverages Poultry Grains and pasta Biscuits Dairy products Nuts and seeds Soups and stocks Pies and pasties Cheese Lamb/mutton Snack foods Sugar/sweets Other meat Puddings Sausages & processed meats Pork Butter and margarine Dietary supplements Fats and oil Total% Table B8 13 11 8 8 6 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 13 12 6 9 6 5 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All 18% 17% 12 16 5 11 4 7 4 5 4 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 15–18 13% 11 16 6 10 4 5 4 6 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 <1 <1 2 2 2 <1 <1 1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 19–24 12% 14 10 6 8 5 6 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 <1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 Male 25–44 18% 14 10 6 8 7 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 12 12 6 8 7 5 4 <1 3 4 3 1 1 <1 <1 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 14 14 8 9 8 3 4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 <1 1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 13 10 10 6 7 5 4 2 2 2 2 2 <1 2 2 1 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 15 10 9 8 5 6 4 4 2 1 1 2 <1 1 3 <1 2 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 3 1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 100 12 9 11 8 5 4 5 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 <1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 13 11 9 7 7 5 5 2 2 3 2 3 <1 2 2 1 1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 FOLATE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Female 45–64 65–74 75+ All 15–18 19–24 25–44 18% 24% 18% 20% 15% 20% 18% 13 10 10 6 8 5 4 1 2 3 2 2 <1 1 <1 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 45–64 22% 13 10 11 6 8 6 4 <1 2 2 2 2 <1 <1 1 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 65–74 22% 12 13 10 6 9 5 5 <1 2 2 2 1 <1 1 <1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 100 75+ 22% 78 NZ Food: NZ People Food Groups Beer Wine Spirits Other alcohol Liqueurs and cocktails Total% Table B9 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 53% 32 10 3 1 100 All 69% 17 10 3 <1 100 15–18 81% 10 <1 0 9 100 19–24 76% 15 7 <1 0 100 ALCOHOL SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION Male Female 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ All 15–18 19–24 25–44 70% 72% 43% 45% 16% 48% 24% 16% 18 17 30 17 65 21 64 69 11 8 18 16 12 26 5 11 1 3 8 22 5 0 6 2 <1 <1 <1 0 2 5 2 3 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 45–64 6% 67 18 8 1 100 65–74 5% 59 13 19 4 100 75+ 5% 56 24 14 0 100 Section C Dietary Supplements Introduction While New Zealanders obtained most of the nutrients they needed from foods, some chose to consume ‘supplements’ on a regular or occasional basis. This included prescribed and self-selected supplements from a variety of sources: tablets; powders or liquid preparations of vitamins and/ or minerals; herbal and botanical preparations; and combinations of these substances. In this section the patterns of consumption of categories of supplements, by sex, age, ethnicity, community and NZDep96 quartiles are presented. Nutrients obtained from supplements are not reported because of the small number of participants reporting supplement consumption in the previous 24 hours. Key Points Vitamin / mineral supplement use • One-half of the New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week. • Multi vitamins and/or minerals were the most frequently chosen supplement preparations over the previous year (19 percent). Other dietary supplement use • Almost one-third of the New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements over the previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17 percent at least once a week. • Garlic preparations (9 percent), oils (6 percent) and botanical products (5 percent) were those most frequently chosen. Dietary Supplements 79 C1 Vitamin / Mineral Supplement(s) Table C1 Use in the last year About half the New Zealand population (51 percent) used vitamin and/or mineral supplements during the last year. Twenty-three percent of the population used supplements on an occasional basis and 28 percent on a regular basis. A greater proportion of females (59 percent) than males (42 percent) reported taking vitamin and/or mineral supplements (regular and occasional use combined). The highest use was reported by females 19–24 years (69 percent regular and occasional use combined) and the lowest use by males 75+ years (24 percent). While there was a trend for occasional use to decline with age, regular use remained relatively constant across age groups. NZ Måori were less likely to consume vitamins and/or minerals regularly than NZ European & Others (Figure A). Pacific males were least likely of the three ethnic groups to use supplements occasionally and Pacific females were least likely to use supplements regularly. For NZ European & Others and male NZ Måori, occasional use declined with age. Regular use was higher in females compared with males for both NZ Måori and NZ European & Others. Frequency of regular use declined with NZDep96 quartile for both males and females. Combined (regular and occasional) supplement use was highest in individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (46 percent males, 68 percent females) and lowest by those living in quartile IV areas (32 percent males, 49 percent females). Provincial males reported lower use of supplements (regular and occasional use combined) than metropolitan males (35 percent, 44 percent respectively), whereas provincial and metropolitan females reported similar use (59 percent, 60 percent). Type consumed in the last year Most consumers of supplements chose combinations rather than single vitamins or minerals. Multi vitamin and/or mineral supplements were the most frequently chosen (19 percent), followed by vitamin B complex (10 percent). Individual vitamins or minerals were consumed by a relatively small proportion of the population, with vitamin C (7 percent) and iron (4 percent) supplements the most common. Figure A Figure B Regular use of vitamin/mineral supplements Vitamin C supplements 35% male female 30% male female 40% 25% NZ population Population 30% 25% 20% 15% 20% 15% 10% 10% 5% 5% Ethnic group 80 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 75 + 4 65 –7 64 45 – 4 25 –4 NZ European & Others 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0% NZ Maori 0 0% Females were more likely than males to take multi vitamin and/or mineral supplements, anti-oxidant and other multi nutrient preparations, iron and calcium; whereas males were more likely than females to take vitamin C. Females 25–44 years were the highest consumers of iron supplements (10 percent), with use declining after this age to 2 percent in females 75+ years. Calcium supplement use peaked in the 65–74 years group (9 percent), with 0 percent to 3 percent intake in the 19–44 years groups. There was no significant variation in use across NZDep96 quartiles or between metropolitan and provincial groups, for either male or female supplement use. Vitamin C use was highest in the 15–18 years group and declined with increasing age (Figure B). This corresponds with the age-related decrease in occasional vitamin and/or mineral supplement use. Dietary Supplements 81 C2 Other Dietary Supplements Table C2 Use in the last year Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population (29 percent) used other dietary supplements during the last year, 17 percent on a regular and 12 percent on an occasional basis. As with vitamin and/or mineral supplements (Section C1), females (34 percent) reported that they were more likely to be regular or occasional users than males (22 percent). The proportion of consumers of other dietary supplements (regular and occasional) were relatively consistent across age groups. However, more females 45+ years and males 65–74 years were regular consumers compared with younger groups (Figure A). On the other hand, more females 15–18 years and males 15–64 years were occasional users compared to other groups. NZ Måori females were less likely to have taken other dietary supplements on a regular basis than NZ European & Others. Pacific females were least likely to have taken other dietary supplements on a regular basis compared to the other ethnic groups. Females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas were least likely to report taking other dietary supplements (28 percent) compared with females living in quartile I areas (41 percent). Type used in the last year A wide variety of other dietary supplements were chosen. The three most commonly chosen categories were garlic preparations (9 percent); oils such as evening primrose (6 percent); and botanical products (5 percent). Females were more likely than males to have chosen from the groups of oils and botanical products, while garlic supplement use was equal for both sexes (Figure B). Bee products use was highest in males 75+ years (5 percent) and in females 65+ years (4 percent and 6 percent). The highest use of sports supplements was in males 19–24 years (5 percent). Figure A Figure B Regular users of other dietary supplements Consumption of other dietary supplements male female 35% 10% 8% 25% NZ population NZ population 30% 20% 15% male female 6% 4% 10% 2% 5% 0% Age group (years) 82 NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% Botanical Garlic Type Oils Dietary Supplements 83 84 NZ Food: NZ People 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 25 25 16 28 27 23 20 22 18 26 23 26 22 17 16 40 34 35 29 22 17 34 36 Regular 3 28 19 18 21 22 21 19 21 29 33 37 36 35 26 34 15 10 24 23 14 16 14 11 26 28 21 19 3 2 4 5 3 4 2 1 5 4 5 3 11 12 9 9 12 13 13 8 11 9 7 8 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 1 2 0 Single B vitamins 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 Folic acid 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 9 6 5 7 10 6 8 8 5 4 8 5 Vitamin C 7 26 10 7 5 4 1 8 18 6 4 5 4 2 5 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 5 1 2 1 Fat soluble vitamins & ß-carotene 7 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 4 1 1 3 6 2 Percent of the population consuming supplement 2 1 0 7 6 1 1 2 0 7 6 6 8 Iron 4 2 2 1 0 0 4 1 6 8 10 3 3 2 7 VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR Multi vitamin Anti-oxidant &/or & other multi Vitamin B Occasional 4 mineral nutrients 5 complex 23 19 3 10 36 17 1 8 33 15 2 17 26 16 3 15 13 10 2 10 4 8 4 1 5 13 2 0 21 14 2 12 37 16 3 6 36 32 5 10 27 27 4 12 20 24 6 6 15 16 3 8 8 11 3 3 25 24 4 9 Consumption frequency (%) 1 0 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 5 4 3 2 Calcium 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 6 0 3 5 9 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 Other individual minerals 8 2 0 1 1 4 5 2 2 1 3 1 2 4 4 2 Supplement intake questionnaire. Consumers of vitamin/mineral supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement. Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional). ‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year. ‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year. Includes products containing multiple nutrients, but not claiming to be a multi vitamin or mineral. For example, the products: Immune Support; PMT; and Prostaguard. Includes individual supplements of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12. Includes individual supplements of vitamin A, D, and E. Includes individual supplements of magnesium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and others (e.g. sodium, fluoride, and iodine). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table C1 Dietary Supplements 85 38 16 3 20 20 25 14 21 13* 2 2* 5 12* 14 8* 12 35 29 11 22 43 29 17 26 10 15 11 13 22 29 22 25 8* 9 6* 8 10* 11 12* 11 21 23 22 22 35 39 35 37 Regular 3 17 18 11 15 31 29 20 26 10* 5 0* 5 6* 9 11* 9 11 10 3 9 9 20 18 16 2 3 3 3 5 4 5 5 0* 3 0* 2 0* 0 0* 0 0 1 1 1 2 4 0 3 13 18 7 12 9 13 6 9 3* 0 2* 1 3* 5 1* 4 18 6 5 9 7 8 7 7 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 Single B vitamins 6 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Folic acid 18 7 4 8 13 4 5 6 8* 2 4* 4 6* 0 6* 3 15 10 1 9 4 3 1 3 Vitamin C 1 2 2 2 7 1 3 3 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 Fat soluble vitamins & ß-carotene 7 Percent of the population consuming supplement 2 3 1 1 1 5 10 3 6 0* 0 0* 0 7* 9 0* 6 2 0 0 1 16 11 4 11 Iron VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR Multi vitamin Anti-oxidant &/or & other multi Vitamin B Occasional 4 mineral nutrients 5 complex Consumption frequency (%) 1 0 1 1 1 3 3 6 4 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 1* 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 2 Calcium 1 2 4 2 2 1 3 2 0* 0 3* 1 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 Other individual minerals 8 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Supplement intake questionnaire. 1 Consumers of vitamin/mineral supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement. 2 Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional). 3 ‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year. 4 ‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year. 5 Includes products containing multiple nutrients, but not claiming to be a multi vitamin or mineral. For example, the products: Immune Support; PMT; and Prostaguard. 6 Includes individual supplements of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12. 7 Includes individual supplements of vitamin A, D, and E. 8 Includes individual supplements of magnesium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and others (e.g. sodium, fluoride, and iodine). NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table C1 cont. 86 NZ Food: NZ People 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 12 7 12 11 9 3 5 9 24 18 15 12 10 6 14 11 10 10 5 18 14 14 11 10 8 15 12 12 13 13 14 23 21 19 17 13 13 19 23 Occasional 4 17 11 11 9 17 24 15 13 5 9 17 29 28 29 20 Regular 3 Consumption frequency (%) 1 4 4 7 6 3 5 5 4 9 6 5 6 5 4 4 4 4 3 1 4 4 9 7 7 5 3 7 Botanical 5 9 8 9 10 10 10 9 6 10 10 11 6 9 5 8 9 10 9 5 9 12 6 8 11 10 13 9 Garlic 3 2 9 9 2 2 3 3 10 10 8 8 6 5 2 1 3 8 4 2 5 3 8 15 8 8 9 2 2 5 3 2 2 2 1 6 4 4 4 3 0 0 1 4 3 3 2 2 4 5 4 8 5 4 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 4 3 1 2 2 0 0 1 2 3 5 2 0 1 2 3 6 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 5 3 1 2 1 1 2 Other 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 Supplement intake questionnaire. 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 5 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Percent of the population consuming supplement 2 Bee Sports 6 7 8 Oils Bran/fibre products supplements 9 OTHER DIETARY SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR Consumers of other dietary supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement. Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional). ‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year. ‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year. Includes herbal remedies, brewer’s yeast, spirulina, and acidophilus. Includes evening primrose, cod liver, and halibut liver. Includes oat bran, wheat bran, wheat germ, fibre powders, and fibre tablets. Includes bee pollen, royal jelly, and propolis. Includes carbohydrate and protein powders, carnitine, and creatinine. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles I Males II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table C2 Dietary Supplements 87 8 8 14 9 6 14 6 10 0* 5 0* 3 5* 2 3* 3 11 12 7 9 25 16 11 15 18* 1 8* 8 3* 6 6* 5 12 10 19 14 7 18 30 22 Occasional 4 5 10 10 8 9 13 24 15 Regular 3 Consumption frequency (%) 1 5 4 4 4 8 8 6 7 3* 4 1* 3 4* 1 4* 3 1 5 1 3 4 6 12 7 Botanical 5 8 9 9 9 11 9 12 11 1* 2 4* 2 0* 5 2* 3 2 8 13 8 2 4 4 3 Garlic 4 1 4 3 4 9 13 10 0* 0 0* 0 4* 1 1* 2 0 1 2 1 6 9 4 7 0 1 3 2 4 5 5 5 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 3* 1 0 0 7 2 2 4 1 2 0 1 3 2 1 2 4 3 0* 0 2* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 9 4 2 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 5* 1 3 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 Other Supplement intake questionnaire. 3 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 4* 0 0* 1 0* 0 0* 0 2 3 0 2 1 0 0 1 Percent of the population consuming supplement 2 Bee Sports 6 7 8 Oils Bran/fibre products supplements 9 OTHER DIETARY SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Consumers of other dietary supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement. 2 Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional). 3 ‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year. 4 ‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year. 5 Includes herbal remedies, brewer’s yeast, spirulina, and acidophilus. 6 Includes evening primrose, cod liver, and halibut liver. 7 Includes oat bran, wheat bran, wheat germ, fibre powders, and fibre tablets. 8 Includes bee pollen, royal jelly, and propolis. 9 Includes carbohydrate and protein powders, carnitine, and creatinine. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table C2 cont. 88 NZ Food: NZ People Section D Eating Patterns Introduction Within the New Zealand population, some people choose from all food types available (plant and animal) and others restrict their choice for a variety of reasons. People change their food choices not only on a daily basis but throughout life in response to many influences including education about recommended intake as expressed in food and nutrition guidelines. This section provides information about dietary change: the timing and direction of change, and the difficulties (barriers) to achieving change. Respondents were shown lists of possible ‘barriers to change’ for example, ‘barriers to increasing intake of fruits’. These lists were presented on showcards. However, respondents were able to express other, non-specified, barriers and these are described in this report as non-showcard responses. Because most New Zealanders prepare a significant proportion of their food at home, they can describe cooking and preparation habits, such as the use of fats. Having access to affordable foods which are liked and acceptable is a key issue in whether or not they are consumed. This aspect of eating patterns is termed food security. It is to be expected, therefore, that ethnic and NZDep96 quartile groups will respond differently to statements about food security. Key Points Type of diet • Ninety-four percent of the New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous) diet. Current dietary changes • One-third of New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more females (39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change. • Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22 percent) in the New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of fruits eaten (14 percent). Direction of current dietary change attempts • Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were trying to change the amount of high fat foods eaten, 94 percent were trying to eat less. • Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of fruits (14 percent) and vegetables (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent and 92 percent respectively). Intended dietary changes • Over one-fifth of the New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the next six months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas for changes. Difficulties involved in making dietary changes • Cost and don’t always have at home were two frequent difficulties cited by those trying to increase their fruits and vegetable intake. Eating Patterns 89 • Almost half of the population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and 32 percent felt it would be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good. Food preparation practices • Seventy-four percent of the New Zealand population fried or roasted meat/chicken in fat or oil, and 69 percent did the same with their vegetables. The most common types of fat used were other oils (e.g. sunflower, corn oil) and olive/canola. • Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat, while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often. Household food security • Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (least deprived). 90 NZ Food: NZ People D1 Type of Diet Table D1 Ninety-four percent of all New Zealanders ate a regular diet which included animal products. While avoids meats except chicken was uncommon, it was the most prevalent restricted food diet alongside an other 6 types of diet (both 2 percent). Females 15–18 years were most likely to report eating a vegetarian diet or avoiding red meat (13 percent). Consumption of a regular diet was slightly more common in males than females and more common in male NZ European & Others than females (Figure A). The proportion consuming a regular diet was highest in males 25–74 years and females 65–74 years (both 97 percent), with the lowest proportion in females 15–18 years (85 percent). A greater percentage of Pacific males reported avoids meats except chicken in comparison with male NZ European & Others (Figure B). The type of diet consumed was unrelated to NZDep96 quartiles. The proportion of males consuming a regular diet was higher in provincial (98 percent) than metropolitan (95 percent) areas. Figure A Figure B Regular diet male female 98% Avoided meats except chicken 96% 8% Population Population male female 10% 94% 92% 6% 4% 2% 90% NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European & Others Ethnic group 0% NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European & Others Ethnic group 6 Other included ‘non-specified combinations’ Eating Patterns 91 D2 Current Dietary Changes Table D2 One-third of all New Zealanders (34 percent) reported that they were currently attempting to change either the amount or type of foods they consumed. Compared with males, a larger proportion of females were trying to alter their diet (39 percent, 28 percent respectively). Females 25–64 years had a greater prevalence of attempted dietary change than males of the same ages (females 43 percent and 39 percent, males 31 percent and 25 percent). Attempted dietary change was most frequent in the 19–24 years group (females 58 percent, males 44 percent) but subsequently decreased with age (Figure A). Male NZ European & Others (26 percent) were less likely than females (38 percent) to be currently attempting dietary change. A greater percentage of male NZ Måori (37 percent) and Pacific people (45 percent) were undertaking dietary change compared with NZ European & Others (26 percent). Proportions attempting a dietary change did not differ according to NZDep96 quartile or community. The most popular type of dietary change reported was trying to alter the amount of high fat foods consumed (males 16 percent, females 27 percent). Fruits followed as the second most commonly reported dietary change (males 12 percent, females 17 percent) with third highest being breads and cereals for females (14 percent) and vegetables for males (10 percent) (Figure B). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be trying to change vegetables intake (17 percent) than those living in quartile I areas (8 percent). Altering the consumption of high fat foods was the predominant dietary change in all ethnic groups. A greater proportion of female NZ European & Others than males were attempting to change their consumption of fruits, breads and cereals and high fat foods. Percentages of NZ Måori and Pacific people who were attempting the various types of change were similar for both males and females. A higher proportion of metropolitan than provincial males were attempting to change their consumption of fruits (14 percent, 7 percent respectively) and vegetables (11 percent, 6 percent). Figure A Figure B Currently attempting dietary change Current dietary change male female 60% 30% 25% NZ population 40% 30% 20% 20% 15% 10% Age group (years) NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 65 – 45 – 25 – 74 0% 64 0% 44 5% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10% 0 NZ population 50% 92 male female Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals Type of change intended High fat foods D3 Direction of Current Dietary Change Attempts Table D3 Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of ‘fruits’ (14 percent) and ‘vegetables’ (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent, 92 percent respectively) (Figure A). However, more males over 45 years were trying to eat less ‘vegetables’ (27 percent). Of those altering their ‘breads and cereals’ intake, most (60 percent) were trying to eat more, with 36 percent trying to eat less. The percentage trying to eat more ‘breads and cereals’ decreased with age in females. Among females over 45 years the majority (55 percent) were trying to eat less ‘breads and cereals’. There are two types of change possible for ‘high fat foods’ 7, trying to alter the amounts eaten and changing the type of fats used. Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were attempting to change their intake of ‘high fat foods’ trying to eat less was the most popular change (94 percent) while only 31 percent were trying to change type of fat eaten (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Direction of current dietary change Attempting change to fat type eaten eat less eat more 20% (NZ population) NZ population 15% 10% 5% 0% male female Breads/cereals male female Vegetables male female Changing No change Fruits 7 Includes butter, margarine and oils. Eating Patterns 93 D4 Intended Dietary Changes Table D4 The percentage of the population intending to make dietary changes in the future (over the next six months) was calculated by including all respondents who indicated at least one type of change (fruits, vegetables, breads and cereals and/or high fat foods). Respondents who had indicated that they were currently trying to change a specific diet category (e.g. fruits or vegetables), were not asked about future changes in this category. Twenty-two percent of all New Zealanders were intending to change their fruits, vegetables, breads and cereals and/or high fat foods consumption in the future. The proportion intending to make dietary change in the future decreased with age from 19–24 years in both sexes (Figure A). The proportion of females intending to change ‘amount/type of food eaten’ increased with NZDep96 quartile area (I 20 percent, IV 29 percent). The proportion of males intending to change increased over NZDep96 quartile areas I–III (15 percent to 28 percent) and then decreased to 17 percent among individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas. This pattern was reflected in all food types intended for change. Place of residence (metropolitan vs provincial) had no effect on intention to make dietary change in the future or type of change intended. In both sexes a greater proportion of NZ Måori and Pacific people were intending to make dietary change in the future than NZ European & Others. For males, fruits was the most popular area for intended change (11 percent), followed by changing the amount of high fat foods (8 percent) and vegetables (7 percent). For females, intending to change the amount of fruits eaten was also the most popular change (12 percent) closely followed by altering the amount of high fat foods eaten (11 percent) (Figure B). Fruits was a more popular intended change (22 percent) compared with vegetables for NZ Måori females (13 percent) and NZ European & Others males and females (10 percent, 7 percent respectively). Figure A Figure B Intending to change diet in future Intended dietary changes male female 50% 14% 12% NZ population 40% NZ population male female 30% 20% 10% 8% 6% 4% 10% 2% 0% Age group (years) 94 NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals Type of change intended High fat foods D5 Direction of Intended Dietary Changes Table D5 At least 95 percent of those who intended to change the amount of ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ eaten in the future, intended to increase the amount they ate (Figure A). Although very few were intending to eat less ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ (3 percent), this was highest among those 45+ years, whereas 7 percent of males were intending to eat less ‘vegetables’ and 7 percent of females were intending to eat less ‘fruits’. The direction of future changes in ‘breads and cereals’ intake varied with age, with the proportion intending to eat less increasing with age to over half of males and females 45+ years (51 percent, 63 percent respectively). Proportionately fewer females were intending to eat more ‘breads and cereals’ in the future than males. Most of the 9 percent who intended to make future changes in their consumption of ‘high fat foods’ were intending to eat less (89 percent) with a small proportion intending to change type eaten (19 percent) (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Direction of intended dietary change eat less eat more 14% Intending to change type of fat eaten (NZ population) NZ population 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% male female Breads/cereals male female Vegetables male female Changing Not changing Fruits Eating Patterns 95 D6 Difficulties Involved in Making Dietary Changes Tables D6.1, D6.2, D6.3, D6.4 Respondents who indicated they were currently trying to eat more fruits, vegetables and/or breads and cereals were asked about any difficulties they had, or were experiencing in attempting the reported change. They were presented with a showcard but many respondents identified difficulties not listed (in the tables these are collectively called non-showcard options). The percentage of the respondents selecting a non-showcard option ranged from 4 percent (high fat foods) to 45 percent (breads and cereals). Cell sizes are small for a number of age groups related to fruits, vegetables and bread and cereals, therefore it is not possible to make statements about the age trends for the change among these food groups. The major difficulties associated with trying to eat more fruits were cost (24 percent), don’t always have at home (22 percent), poor quality (15 percent) and can’t store for long (14 percent). There were no significant differences between males and females (Figure A). There were a number of frequently cited reasons why trying to eat more vegetables was hard: don’t always have at home (16 percent), cost (15 percent), takes too long to prepare (15 percent) and not enough time (15 percent). In contrast to the difficulties expressed with attempting to eat more fruits, poor quality was not often cited as a reason why eating more vegetables would be hard (fruits 15 percent, vegetables 4 percent). Few respondents who were currently attempting to increase their consumption of breads and cereals identified with the difficulties presented to them on the showcards. Almost half, however, volunteered a non-showcard option with the most frequent response volunteered being that it was not hard to eat more breads and cereals. Don’t like breads and cereals (8 percent), was the most common showcard option followed by need willpower (7 percent) and too many calories (6 percent). All respondents, regardless of whether they were currently attempting to change their high fat foods consumption, were asked about difficulties they might find in reducing the amount of high fat foods they ate. This explains the high proportion (47 percent) that indicated none of the difficulties applied as they were happy with fat intake (Figure B). The most frequently cited difficulty Figure A Figure B Difficulty with eating more fruits 30% male female Happy with fat intake 70% 60% NZ population NZ population 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% Cost Not available Poor Quality Responses 96 male female NZ Food: NZ People Storage 0% 15–24 25–44 Age group (years) 45+ in reducing the amount of high fat foods eaten was that they taste good (32 percent), followed by not as enjoyable (16 percent), convenient (14 percent) and need willpower (11 percent). The percentage indicating that they were happy with fat intake increased with age in both sexes (males 30 percent to 62 percent; females 25 percent to 61 percent) while the percentage who would find it difficult because high fat foods taste good and are convenient decreased with age, particularly in the group 45+ years. Food preparation with less fat too hard, others would have to eat less and hard when eating out were other difficulties cited, particularly by 15–24 years females compared with females 45+ years. Eating Patterns 97 D7 Food Preparation Practices Tables D7.1, D7.2 Meat or chicken Males (78 percent) were more likely than females (70 percent) to report having meat or chicken fried or roasted in fat or oil (Figure A). The most common choices were other oils (49 percent), olive/ canola oil (35 percent), butter (18 percent) and lard (16 percent). Males 45+ years were less likely to eat meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil, less likely to use butter and more likely to use lard than those under 45 years. Females were more likely than males to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat (72 percent, 60 percent respectively), and ‘remove skin’ from chicken (49 percent, 35 percent). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil (75 percent) than those from quartile I areas (65 percent). Lard was used more among individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 22 percent, females 18 percent) compared with those from quartile I areas (males 15 percent, females 10 percent). Olive/canola oil was more likely to be used by individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles I and II areas when cooking meat or chicken (males 35 percent, females 53 percent and 42 percent) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 24 percent, females 25 percent). Individuals from the NZDep96 quartile I areas, compared to those from quartile IV areas, were more likely to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat (females) and to ‘remove skin’ from chicken (males and females). Always and often ‘remove skin’ from chicken was more common in metropolitan (52 percent) than provincial females (43 percent). NZ Måori and Pacific people were less likely than NZ European & Others to have reported always or often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat. NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have used olive/canola oil in cooking meat or chicken. Among females, Pacific people were more likely to have used margarine and less likely to have used lard in cooking meat or chicken than NZ European & Others. NZ Måori were less likely to have always or often removed chicken skin than NZ European & Others (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil Removed chicken skin (always or often) male female 90% 50% 80% Population NZ population 85% 75% 70% 40% 30% 20% 65% 10% 60% Age group (years) NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + –7 4 65 45 –6 4 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% 98 male female 60% NZ Maori Pacific people Ethnic group NZ European & Others Vegetables Sixty-nine percent of the population ate vegetables cooked in fat or oil, with young males (15–18 years) having the highest consumption (76 percent) and young females the lowest (57 percent). The fats most commonly used to cook vegetables were: other oils (44 percent), olive/canola oil (32 percent) and lard (20 percent). Olive/canola oil was more popular among females than males. Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely to use olive/canola oil in cooking (48 percent) compared with those from quartile II–IV areas (27 percent to 35 percent). Use of lard to cook vegetables varied with NZDep96 quartile for females. The lowest use was reported by those living in quartile I areas (12 percent) compared to those living in quartile IV areas (21 percent). NZ Måori were less likely to use olive/canola oil than NZ European & Others. Lard was more popular with NZ Måori compared to Pacific people. Butter was more likely to be used by Pacific people (males 31 percent, females 26 percent) than NZ European & Others for cooking vegetables. Provincial males and females (28 percent, 24 percent respectively) were more likely to use lard than metropolitan residents (males 19 percent, females 15 percent). Eating Patterns 99 D8 Household Food Security Table D8 Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally acceptable foods in a socially acceptable way. Subjects responded to eight statements on behalf of themselves (if they lived alone) or their households. Each of these statements about food relate to the issue of affordability i.e. the response was to be made in light of whether or not the respondent felt they had enough money. I/we8 can afford to eat properly Thirteen percent of New Zealanders reported that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes; the highest proportion of households in this situation were reported by 19-24 years females (31 percent). More NZ Måori (males 24 percent, females 33 percent) and Pacific people (males 39 percent, females 37 percent) reported that their households ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes compared with NZ European & Others (males 9 percent, females 10 percent). Reporting that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes, was lowest in the older groups (45+ years) of NZ European & Others. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to report that their household can afford to eat properly only sometimes compared with those from the other areas, quartiles I–III (Figure A). There were no differences between metropolitan and provincial residents. Food runs out in my/our household due to lack of money Fourteen percent of New Zealanders reported that in their household ‘food runs out because of lack of money’ sometimes (12 percent) or often (2 percent). This was reported more by females (16 percent) compared to males (11 percent). Younger (15-44 years) males and females were more likely to identify this as an issue for their household than older groups. ‘Food runs out’ often or sometimes was reported by about half of Pacific people (males 50 percent, females 49 percent) and about one-third of NZ Måori (males 26 percent, females 36 percent), compared with about one-tenth of NZ European & Others (males 7 percent, females 11 percent). Figure A Figure B Can afford to eat properly only sometimes 30% 12% NZ population NZ population male female 14% male female 25% 20% 15% 10% 10% 8% 6% 4% 5% 0% Use food grants/banks sometimes 2% I II III NZDep96 Quartile IV 0% I II III IV NZDep96 Quartile 8 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We, depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household. 100 NZ Food: NZ People This declined as an issue with increasing age in NZ European & Others but NZ Måori and Pacific people reported that this was an issue for at least one-fifth of their households regardless of age. The percentage reporting ‘food runs out’ in their household often or sometimes was also related to NZDep96 quartile. This was most frequently reported by females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (31 percent), compared to quartile I-III areas (7 percent - 19 percent). I/we9 eat less because of lack of money For the New Zealand population as a whole, and for NZ European & Others, the pattern of response to this statement reflects that of the previous question (‘food runs out because of lack of money’). Between 12 percent and 14 percent reported that their households ‘eat less because of lack of money’, sometimes or often. Similarly to ‘food runs out’, a relatively large proportion of NZ Måori and Pacific females, compared to households of NZ European & Others, reported their household ‘eat less’. The proportion reporting ‘eat less’ was affected by NZDep96 quartile. Six percent of males and 8 percent of females living in quartile I areas said that their household sometimes or often ‘eat less’, compared to 18 percent and 24 percent of those living in quartile IV areas. The variety of foods I am (we are) able to eat is limited by a lack of money Twenty-seven percent of the New Zealand population noted that this was an issue for their household sometimes or often. Compared with older people (45+ years), a greater percentage of the households of younger people reported ‘variety of foods limited by lack of money’. A higher proportion of NZ Måori (females 47 percent, males 48 percent) and Pacific people (females 48 percent, males 50 percent) reported that this was an issue for their household compared with NZ European & Others (females 26 percent, males 20 percent). ‘Variety of foods limited’ was considered an issue in households across all NZDep96 quartiles, although reported more so by individuals living in quartile IV areas compared with quartile I–III areas. Provincial males were less likely to report that their household was concerned with this issue (19 percent) than metropolitan males (26 percent). I/we9 rely on others to provide food and/or money for food, for my/our household, when I/we don’t have enough money Seven percent of the New Zealand population said that their households sometimes or often ‘rely on others’ to provide food, or money for food when they don’t have enough money. This issue was rare (1 percent or less) for those 65+ years and most frequently mentioned by younger people, particularly females 19–24 years (20 percent). More NZ Måori (males 19 percent, females 22 percent) and Pacific people (males 29 percent, females 30 percent) compared to NZ European & Others (males 3 percent, females 5 percent) specified that this was an issue sometimes or often for their household. Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be in this position than those from quartile I–III areas. Households of metropolitan females (10 percent) were more likely to ‘rely on others’ for food than households of provincial females (6 percent). 9 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We, depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household. Eating Patterns 101 I/we10 make use of special food grants or foodbanks when I/we do not have enough money for food Four percent of the New Zealand population (2 percent males, 5 percent females) stated that in the last year their household sometimes ‘use food grants/banks when they do not have enough money for food’. It was not an issue for the households of males, or females 45+ years and was most frequently reported by younger females (19–24 years, 11 percent and 25–44 years, 7 percent). Those from NZ Måori households (males 8 percent, females 16 percent) and Pacific households (males 12 percent, females 14 percent) sometimes ‘use food grants/banks’ compared to NZ European & Others (males 1 percent, females 3 percent). The group most often reporting ‘use food grants/ banks’ sometimes were households of NZ Måori females 15–24 years (19 percent). Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported their household ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes (males 6 percent, females 12 percent) more frequently than those in quartile I & II areas (males 0 percent, 1 percent; females 1 percent, 2 percent) (Figure B). I feel stressed because of not having enough money for food Twelve percent of households of the New Zealand population had this experience sometimes or often over the previous year (9 percent males, 15 percent females). The households of older people (45+ years) had this experience less often than those 19–44 years. It was most often experienced, at least sometimes, by the households of females 25–44 years (24 percent). Among females, NZ Måori (31 percent) and Pacific people (32 percent) were more often in this position than NZ European & Others (12 percent). On the other hand, among males under 25 years 10 percent of NZ Måori and NZ European & Others and 15 percent of Pacific people said that they felt their household was ‘stressed about lack of money for food’ sometimes or often. Twenty-nine percent of females and 17 percent of males from NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported this stress about their household, compared with quartile I areas (females 6 percent, males 5 percent). I feel stressed because I can’t provide the food I want for social occasions The pattern of New Zealanders reporting this experience for their household reflects that of the previous question. Overall, 13 percent (9 percent males, 15 percent females) reported that their household felt stressed about providing food for social occasions sometimes or often. Again, it was not an issue among older groups, but was highest for females 19–24 years (23 percent). Households of NZ Måori and Pacific people were more than twice as likely to report this stress than NZ European & Others. While this stress was experienced to some extent in households of all NZDep96 quartiles, females living in quartile IV areas (26 percent) were more likely to report it for their household compared with quartile I–III areas (8 percent to 18 percent). 10 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We, depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household. 102 NZ Food: NZ People Eating Patterns 103 104 NZ Food: NZ People NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D1 Avoids meats except chicken 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 8 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 0 3 3 2 5 3 2 1 4 2 Regular 94 95 92 97 97 97 96 96 85 92 94 92 97 94 93 97 96 98 94 92 94 91 94 95 98 92 94 1 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 2 1 1 0 Lacto-ovo vegetarian 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Lactovegetarian 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Vegan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 0 2 1 3 2 3 1 Other 2 4 0 1 0 2 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 1. Ovo-vegetarian 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 TYPE OF DIET Diet choice (%) Eating Patterns 105 15–24 25–44 45+ Total 15–24 25–44 45+ Total 4* 10 8* 8 6* 6 11* 7 1 1 1 1 5 3 3 3 94 97 97 96 88 93 94 93 7 1 1 3 2 4 3 3 89* 89 92* 90 92* 93 89* 92 90 99 99 96 94 94 94 94 Regular Avoids meats except chicken 3 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 1* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lacto-ovo vegetarian 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1* 1 0* 1 1* 0 0* 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 Lactovegetarian 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 Vegan 2 2 1 1 4 2 3 3 4* 0 0* 1 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Other Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 1. Ovo-vegetarian TYPE OF DIET Diet choice (%) * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females NZ Maori Males Table D1 cont. 106 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 11 11 12 14 18 18 14 16 14 7 18 14 28 25 29 30 37 41 38 39 30 24 38 39 11 6 13 12 9 9 7 13 8 13 13 17 17 14 26 28 15 15 15 19 27 29 26 24 Barriers to change questions 4 and 5. 7 5 14 15 5 5 7 10 15 14 14 14 DIETARY CHANGES ATTEMPTED CURRENTLY Currently trying to Foods currently trying to change (%) 1 change amount/type Breads and of food eaten (%) Fruits Vegetables cereals High fat foods 2 34 14 11 11 22 25 6 10 6 13 44 25 23 14 19 31 16 11 7 19 25 7 6 5 16 17 3 1 2 11 8 2 2 2 5 28 12 10 7 16 39 18 9 19 22 58 31 26 14 44 43 20 15 17 29 39 13 10 14 28 18 5 3 8 13 6 2 1 2 3 39 17 12 14 27 As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. Includes butter, margarine, and oils. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D2 Eating Patterns 107 19 14 12 15 17 17 9 15 23* 32 14* 25 34* 19 17* 23 17 15 5 11 27 21 9 17 38 37 37 37 48 44 28 41 52* 42 44* 45 52* 39 43* 44 35 29 20 26 51 43 29 38 17 9 4 8 17 15 6 11 27* 33 7* 25 37* 14 16* 21 19 13 11 15 20 18 14 18 14 17 12 14 36 29 20 26 42* 28 32* 33 45* 27 30* 33 20 25 24 23 26 28 24 27 Barriers to change questions 4 and 5. 9 7 4 6 16 18 10 14 27* 8 12* 14 24* 16 8* 16 15 10 5 10 13 14 14 14 DIETARY CHANGES ATTEMPTED CURRENTLY Currently trying to Foods currently trying to change (%) 1 change amount/type Breads and of food eaten (%) Fruits Vegetables cereals High fat foods 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Includes butter, margarine, and oils. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table D2 cont. 108 NZ Food: NZ People 1 94 5 69 31 60 36 3 92 5 86 14 83* 14* 96* 4* 97 1 15–24 1 95 4 72 28 61 33 96 1 98 2 25–44 0 94 6 65 35 63* 33* 69* 27* 87 11 45+ 1 94 5 72 28 69 27 91 7 96 3 Total 0 95 5 70 30 72 24 100 0 98 2 15–24 0 95 5 66 34 43 55 85 11 96 2 45+ Females 1 94 5 67 33 56 41 93 5 97 2 Total Barriers to change questions 6–9. 2 94 5 65 35 56 39 94 5 97 3 25–44 DIRECTION OF CURRENT DIETARY CHANGES Currently attempting change1 Males * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Figures are a percentage of those currently attempting to make a dietary change, in the corresponding food category. 2 ‘Don’t know’ responses are not presented. 3 Includes butter, margarine and oils. 1 % trying to eat more % trying to eat less 92 6 96 3 % trying to eat more % trying to eat less % trying to eat more % trying to eat less NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Direction of current attempted change 2 % trying to eat more % trying to eat less % not changing amount eaten Change in type of fat % not trying to change type % trying to change type High fat foods 3 Change in amount Breads and cereals Vegetables Food category Fruits Table D3 Eating Patterns 109 110 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 7 11 16 9 9 10 13 15 10 11 11 13 20 20 24 25 7 7 8 9 5 6 12 8 7 8 8 11 7 8 11 9 5 7 12 7 11 9 10 13 Barriers to change questions 9 and 10. 5 6 8 7 4 5 8 6 4 9 8 11 INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES Foods intending to change in the future (%) 1 Breads and Fruits Vegetables cereals High fat foods 2 11 8 7 9 17 8 10 9 20 22 12 16 13 8 5 9 5 3 3 4 2 2 4 4 2 1 0 0 11 7 6 8 22 18 9 15 14 12 19 17 15 11 9 12 7 6 6 9 3 2 2 4 4 1 0 2 12 8 8 11 15 21 28 17 20 24 26 29 Intending to change amount/type of food eaten (%) 22 26 36 25 11 8 2 20 38 40 30 18 8 5 25 As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. Includes butter, margarine, and oils. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D4 Eating Patterns 111 24 15 5 15 30 22 13 22 26* 15 1* 15 22* 18 10* 17 17 13 4 10 14 14 5 10 45* 35 9* 32 48* 37 33* 39 29 24 9 18 35 28 12 22 17 7 2 7 13 10 4 7 21* 16 6* 15 20* 20 19* 20 10 15 4 11 21 13 3 13 12 9 4 7 13 11 6 9 11* 13 2* 10 22* 14 3* 13 18 11 1 11 26 19 11 19 Barriers to change questions 9 and 10. 12 4 3 5 13 8 4 7 15* 14 0* 11 29* 8 11* 14 5 14 10 10 19 15 5 14 INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES Foods intending to change in the future (%) 1 Breads and Fruits Vegetables cereals High fat foods 2 40 27 15 28 52 36 23 38 Intending to change amount/type of food eaten (%) * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Includes butter, margarine, and oils. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table D4 cont. 112 NZ Food: NZ People % intending to eat more % intending to eat less % intending to eat more % intending to eat less % intending to eat more % intending to eat less Direction 2 1 89 10 81 19 60 34 95 3 96 3 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 2* 95* 3* 93* 7* 80* 18* 99* 1* 99* 1* 15–24 3 88 9 80 20 65* 28* 95 3 98 1 25–44 0* 96* 4* 84* 16* # # 93* 7* 98* 0* 45+ 2 92 6 85 15 65 29 97 3 98 1 Total 0 98 2 79 21 75* 17* 93 5 94 6 15–24 DIRECTION OF INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES Future intended change1 Males # n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate. * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Figures are a percentage of those intending to make a dietary change in the future, in the corresponding food category. 2 ‘Don’t know’ responses are not presented. 3 Includes butter, margarine and oils. % intending to eat more % intending to eat less % not changing amount eaten Change in type of fat % not intending to change type % intending to change type High fat foods 3 Change in amount Breads and cereals Vegetables Food category Fruits Table D5 2 84 14 76 24 32* 63* 91* 4* 92 7 45+ 0 87 12 78 22 57 37 93 4 95 5 Total Barriers to change questions 10–13. 0 83 17 79 21 54 39 94 2 96 4 25–44 Females Eating Patterns 113 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 24 22 15 14 10 9 9 7 7 4 3 2 1 0 25 15–24* 27 23 11 3 14 12 12 5 1 0 2 0 0 0 27 25–44 17 26 25 24 6 11 11 5 3 5 1 2 2 0 28 45+* 6 6 8 14 17 22 5 5 8 1 4 0 0 0 28 Total 18 22 18 16 11 13 10 5 3 3 2 1 1 0 28 15–24 25 33 9 10 9 1 7 18 12 1 0 1 0 0 14 25–44 33 23 15 16 10 9 10 6 7 7 4 3 0 0 26 DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE FRUITS Percent citing reason1 Males * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more fruit. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard. Difficulties Cost Don’t always have at home Poor quality Can’t store for long Not enough time Hassle to eat more Need willpower Don’t like Stomach upsets Pesticides/chemicals Hard to chew Allergy/bad reaction Too much sugar Not good for me Non-showcard option 2 Table D6.1 Total 28 22 12 12 10 7 9 9 10 5 3 2 0 0 23 Barriers to change question 15. 45+ 23 7 12 7 10 8 9 4 14 7 6 2 0 0 26 Females 114 NZ Food: NZ People NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 16 15 15 15 12 10 8 5 4 4 3 1 1 0 0 0 26 15–24* 12 14 24 23 16 19 10 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 25–44 27 8 22 11 12 10 9 3 10 5 2 0 1 0 0 0 33 45+* 5 0 0 1 0 2 7 7 8 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 9 Total 18 9 19 14 12 12 9 3 6 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 20 15–24* 22 15 22 37 12 13 1 15 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0 20 25–44 15 17 16 8 14 9 8 2 6 6 5 3 0 0 1 0 36 DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE VEGETABLES Percent citing reason1 Males Females 45+ 9 6 9 9 2 4 7 9 3 1 4 2 2 0 0 0 36 Total 16 14 16 16 11 9 6 7 4 5 4 2 1 0 1 0 32 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Barriers to change question 16. 1 Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more vegetables. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard. Difficulties Don’t always have at home Cost Takes too long to prepare Not enough time Don’t like Can’t store for long Need willpower Hard to prepare Hassle to eat more Poor quality Pesticides/chemicals Stomach upsets Hard to chew Allergy/bad reaction Nowhere to cook Not good for me Non-showcard option 2 Table D6.2 Eating Patterns 115 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 8 7 6 5 5 5 4 3 2 2 1 0 45 15–24* 3 9 3 6 2 3 0 3 5 0 0 0 51 25–44* 3 8 0 4 1 0 13 0 0 4 4 0 58 45+* 17 1 0 0 3 9 0 4 0 3 0 0 36 Total 6 7 1 4 2 3 5 2 2 2 2 0 50 15–24* 7 6 5 2 8 11 0 0 4 0 1 0 46 25–44 11 7 13 6 9 3 8 6 2 3 2 1 41 45+* 10 9 4 8 3 7 1 3 0 3 0 1 41 DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE BREADS AND CEREALS Percent citing reason1 Males Females Total 9 7 9 5 7 6 4 4 2 2 1 1 42 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Barriers to change question 17. 1 Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more breads and cereals. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard. Difficulties Don’t like Need willpower Too many calories Cost Hassle to eat more Too filling Fattening Stomach upsets Too heavy Not good for me Too starchy Cause wind Non-showcard option 2 Table D6.3 116 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 15–24 30 46 13 22 5 11 6 8 3 7 4 3 1 3 1 25–44 45 36 18 21 10 8 4 4 5 4 3 3 2 2 5 45+ 62 23 16 6 8 4 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 Total 49 33 16 15 8 7 4 4 4 3 2 3 2 2 4 15–24 25 43 15 25 12 15 15 12 7 7 3 5 2 2 5 25–44 39 37 19 16 16 10 11 6 7 4 3 2 2 3 3 45+ 61 20 15 5 11 5 5 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 6 Total 46 31 16 13 14 9 9 6 6 3 3 3 2 2 5 Barriers to change question 18. DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING LESS HIGH FAT FOODS Percent citing reason1 Males Females Percentage of all respondents who completed this section, including those who were currently not attempting a change in this category. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard. NZ Pop’n Difficulties (Age 15+) Happy with fat intake 47 Taste good 32 Not as enjoyable 16 Convenient 14 Need willpower 11 Preparation with less fat too hard 8 Others would have to eat less 6 Hard when eating out 5 Comfort eating 5 Cheap 3 Few low fat alternatives 3 Too much hassle 3 Too long to prepare with low fat 2 Body needs fat 2 4 Non-showcard option 2 Table D6.4 Eating Patterns 117 118 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 35 35 30 24 53 42 31 25 33 28 40 33 80 75 79 80 65 71 71 75 79 76 70 72 18 17 17 20 16 14 18 22 15 16 22 21 16 22 14 19 15 15 19 22 10 16 17 18 8 7 9 12 5 10 8 9 10 8 10 13 49 47 50 49 54 43 48 47 44 45 53 56 70 70 66 72 68 71 72 70 67 69 70 65 30 22 38 33 31 32 25 22 48 35 32 27 14 11 15 17 15 9 14 16 13 12 18 19 6 3 5 5 3 7 3 6 5 4 4 7 42 43 47 43 41 41 44 44 40 42 51 50 11 11 5 3 11 12 10 11 5 4 5 4 Vegetables Type of fat/oil (%) 1 Butter Margarine Other oils 2 Don’t know 14 5 44 8 9 5 28 21 15 4 34 28 15 5 48 9 12 5 43 6 9 2 40 4 13 12 35 8 13 5 42 11 27 3 50 13 13 6 41 9 17 6 48 5 11 4 43 2 11 4 47 2 19 6 38 1 15 5 46 4 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 8 and 9. 19 28 15 24 21 19 25 21 12 20 19 21 FOOD PREPARATION I Meat or chicken Cook in Type of fat/oil (%) 1 Cook in fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Butter Lard Margarine Other oils 2 fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Lard 74 35 18 16 9 49 69 32 20 87 34 23 15 6 38 76 30 24 85 31 20 8 8 41 67 23 13 80 32 20 16 8 53 75 29 19 73 30 14 22 8 51 67 27 25 74 29 10 30 9 38 59 27 30 73 22 11 18 8 52 62 23 24 78 31 17 18 8 48 70 28 22 71 40 27 22 10 46 57 25 24 77 42 15 9 14 46 73 42 10 72 38 22 13 9 56 70 34 18 64 43 12 15 7 46 70 43 16 70 33 13 18 17 47 60 35 22 76 25 21 25 12 37 63 25 24 70 38 18 15 10 50 68 36 18 Percentage of those who fry or roast in fat or oil. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. Includes sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D7.1 Eating Patterns 119 12 13 14 13 15 22 15 18 18* 18 38* 22 20* 21 19* 20 38 37 30 34 51 42 40 42 79 90 83 85 86 72 72 76 88* 86 80* 85 83* 80 66* 78 87 78 73 77 71 71 67 69 19 18 12 16 13 20 13 15 35* 39 30* 36 24* 23 26* 24 28 23 16 23 43 32 24 34 9 13 23 16 12 12 18 14 5* 16 16* 13 5* 15 3* 9 23 32 30 29 24 21 24 22 8 8 8 8 11 7 9 9 10* 14 14* 13 19* 18 24* 19 1 4 8 4 16 15 13 15 38 51 46 47 43 54 43 47 30* 59 68* 52 70* 67 75* 69 52 60 64 59 51 63 61 58 71 74 64 69 68 71 67 69 57* 70 57* 63 50* 68 44* 57 73 81 79 78 62 65 73 66 30 33 28 30 42 35 39 38 20* 20 35* 23 11* 25 10* 19 12 10 15 12 17 27 39 28 9 14 11 12 13 15 12 13 8* 44 22* 31 31* 24 29* 26 27 16 10 17 38 25 14 26 5 5 5 5 3 5 3 4 2* 8 10* 7 5* 16 20* 14 4 3 12 6 13 7 8 9 32 46 40 41 42 47 42 44 36* 46 65* 48 65* 59 70* 62 29 60 63 52 49 52 51 51 26 9 6 11 11 4 2 4 38* 11 4* 16 10* 8 0* 7 19 8 3 10 7 6 2 5 Vegetables Type of fat/oil (%) 1 Butter Margarine Other oils 2 Don’t know Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 8 and 9. 15 18 27 21 14 18 18 17 17* 11 10* 12 4* 9 16* 9 27 31 25 29 24 25 33 27 FOOD PREPARATION I Meat or chicken Cook in Type of fat/oil (%)1 Cook in 2 fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Butter Lard Margarine Other oils fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Lard * Limited sample size, 25 < n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percentage of those who fry or roast in fat or oil. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 2 Includes sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table D7.1 cont. 120 NZ Food: NZ People 1 34 34 32 30 49 48 42 39 33 30 45 43 99 96 99 97 94 96 95 97 97 99 95 95 26 30 28 27 30 28 25 27 29 26 30 24 29 27 22 24 26 28 32 30 19 21 23 28 11 12 5 6 10 11 11 14 3 5 5 9 98 96 97 96 99 95 99 97 95 97 97 98 FOOD PREPARATION II Pork, beef, mutton, hogget, or lamb Those who Trim excess fat (%) 1 Those who consume (%) Always Often Occasionally Never consume (%) 96 39 28 26 8 97 100 29 24 31 16 99 93 30 22 33 15 95 99 26 29 34 11 98 99 35 31 24 10 98 96 47 25 19 9 96 98 51 25 13 12 91 98 32 28 29 12 97 87 47 28 21 4 96 95 44 29 21 6 95 95 38 29 26 6 97 96 47 26 22 5 98 98 55 30 13 2 97 97 58 16 17 9 94 95 45 27 23 5 97 Percentage of those who consume. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D7.2 18 17 25 24 21 19 15 15 26 28 24 20 25 24 27 28 31 23 22 22 27 28 27 27 38 46 21 29 31 41 43 49 18 17 27 33 Never 32 52 39 47 37 27 17 40 24 26 27 22 13 15 23 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 14 and 15. 19 13 27 19 17 18 20 13 29 26 23 19 Always 21 9 14 12 20 32 43 17 18 22 20 27 36 42 24 Chicken Remove skin (%) 1 Often Occasionally 21 26 18 21 19 29 17 25 18 26 20 21 18 21 18 25 25 33 22 31 25 28 24 28 32 20 20 23 25 28 Eating Patterns 121 26 23 21 23 13 19 29 20 31* 23 34* 28 29* 43 29* 36 30 27 41 34 55 41 53 48 92 100 98 97 96 96 96 96 99* 100 100* 100 96* 97 100* 98 96 98 98 98 91 95 96 95 22 30 29 28 25 30 25 27 19* 26 28* 24 42* 21 23* 28 26 18 27 23 39 29 25 31 32 33 22 28 15 24 18 20 35* 30 33* 32 25* 33 33* 31 32 38 24 32 41 35 42 39 15 9 8 10 5 5 5 5 16* 21 5* 16 4* 2 15* 6 17 21 29 22 8 16 3 11 96 98 97 97 94 97 97 96 100* 100 100* 100 100* 99 100* 99 100 100 99 100 100 98 99 99 FOOD PREPARATION II Pork, beef, mutton, hogget, or lamb Those who Trim excess fat (%) 1 Those who consume (%) Always Often Occasionally Never consume (%) * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percentage of those who consume. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table D7.2 cont. 19 17 19 18 25 26 26 26 19* 31 5* 22 30* 17 19* 22 14 10 15 13 13 20 18 18 23 27 23 25 32 28 24 27 15* 11 25* 15 19* 25 36* 26 39 21 35 30 36 30 35 33 45 44 31 39 21 24 18 21 44* 54 51* 51 23* 35 35* 32 39 62 46 51 42 41 31 39 Never Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 14 and 15. 12 13 27 19 23 21 33 27 22* 4 19* 12 27* 22 10* 21 8 7 5 7 8 9 16 10 Always Chicken Remove skin (%) 1 Often Occasionally 122 NZ Food: NZ People 1 6 9 11 21 5 10 16 27 12 10 14 14 92 90 87 78 94 88 82 72 86 89 84 85 Can afford to eat properly SomeAlways times 86 13 85 10 82 17 81 17 93 7 99 1 98 0 87 12 81 10 68 31 80 19 92 8 98 2 97 2 85 14 The household: 1 1 1 3 2 0 1 1 3 0 1 3 6 11 7 14 13 8 6 11 16 7 8 16 25 Food runs out SomeOften times 2 12 2 11 0 21 2 12 1 7 0 2 0 0 1 10 1 23 6 22 3 18 1 7 0 2 0 3 2 14 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 4 12 8 13 11 6 9 11 16 7 10 14 20 Eat less SomeOften times 1 12 0 12 1 22 1 12 0 7 0 3 1 0 1 11 1 10 2 23 2 16 1 9 1 4 0 3 2 12 4 3 6 4 1 3 4 6 3 5 6 9 22 16 22 26 13 18 22 31 15 20 26 35 Variety of foods limited SomeOften times 5 22 3 30 4 36 4 25 4 12 1 6 0 4 4 21 3 23 9 34 9 30 3 15 1 16 0 9 6 23 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 4 6 3 8 5 2 4 5 12 4 4 7 13 Rely on others SomeOften times 1 6 0 5 1 10 1 7 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 10 7 13 2 9 0 3 0 1 0 1 2 7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 2 5 4 0 1 2 6 1 2 6 12 1 2 4 2 1 0 1 3 1 2 3 7 2 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 1 1 2 4 9 7 13 14 7 5 10 13 7 9 16 22 Food Security Questionnaire. 10 6 12 14 4 7 9 14 5 10 14 22 The household: 1 Stressed about Stressed when no Use food lack of money food for social grants/banks for food occasions SomeSomeSomeOften times Often times Often times 0 4 2 10 2 11 0 5 0 7 1 7 0 4 1 12 1 9 0 2 2 13 2 13 0 2 2 4 1 5 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 8 1 8 2 4 3 5 1 11 1 11 5 15 2 21 1 7 5 19 3 16 0 2 2 9 2 10 0 0 1 3 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 5 3 12 2 13 HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY OVER THE LAST YEAR Because of lack of money, the household: 1 Percentage of the population response for each question. Options ‘Never’ and ‘Don’t know’ are not reported. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table D8 Eating Patterns 123 21 30 17 24 35 37 23 33 33* 43 36* 39 41* 35 38* 37 11 14 3 9 17 15 4 10 76 68 81 74 62 62 77 66 67* 53 64* 59 53* 62 62* 60 86 85 97 90 78 84 96 89 Can afford to eat properly SomeAlways times The household: 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 0 1 4* 1 10* 4 15* 9 9* 10 3 9 2 5 7 9 4 7 14 8 3 7 20 13 3 10 47* 47 44* 46 25* 45 43* 39 21 22 19 21 31 32 22 29 Food runs out SomeOften times 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0* 1 0* 1 2* 6 0* 4 2 3 2 3 3 7 4 5 15 8 4 8 14 13 5 10 21* 46 33* 36 34* 32 48* 37 27 26 9 23 26 26 18 24 Eat less SomeOften times 3 4 2 3 7 8 2 5 8* 12 16* 12 4* 15 13* 12 3 5 11 6 7 14 8 10 27 21 9 17 23 28 13 21 23* 50 32* 38 42* 35 31* 36 65 40 14 42 48 36 27 37 Variety of foods limited SomeOften times 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 1 5* 2 3* 3 0* 4 0* 2 0 4 1 2 11 4 2 5 6 4 1 3 8 6 1 4 28* 26 25* 26 27* 25 34* 28 12 22 13 17 22 17 10 17 Rely on others SomeOften times 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0* 2 2* 1 4* 1 2* 2 0 1 1 0 4 0 1 2 2 1 1 1 5 5 1 3 14* 11 14* 12 9* 17 13* 14 9 8 6 8 19 18 8 16 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 2 0* 5 18* 6 0* 9 7* 6 0 5 3 3 6 13 7 9 0 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 5* 6 4* 5 4* 7 5* 6 4 2 3 3 3 6 7 5 7 10 2 6 15 14 7 11 24* 32 25* 29 15* 24 27* 22 10 27 7 17 26 26 18 24 Food Security Questionnaire. 9 10 2 7 9 17 5 10 15* 39 16* 27 21* 26 30* 26 10 23 10 16 18 28 17 22 The household: 1 Stressed about Stressed when no Use food lack of money food for social grants/banks for food occasions SomeSomeSomeOften times Often times Often times HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY OVER THE LAST YEAR Because of lack of money, the household: 1 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percentage of the population response for each question. Options ‘Never’ and ‘Don’t know’ are not reported. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table D8 cont. 124 NZ Food: NZ People Section E Frequently Eaten Foods Introduction These data are derived from the food frequency questionnaire which also included questions on some key food habits. For each food or beverage item respondents were asked to describe their usual frequency of consumption by choosing one of eight frequency of consumption options for example, never, less than once a month, etc. If the choice of foods was expected to vary with season (e.g. fruits, vegetables, porridge, soups, etc) respondents were requested to indicate the frequency of consumption according to how often the foods were consumed ‘in season’. Choice of foods and beverages varies widely with individuals, over time and according to sex. The choice is set against the background of the rich variety which is available for consumption in New Zealand; both what is grown and produced here, and imported. This section compared the distribution of demographic groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) across frequency of consumption categories. These data have been summarised and presented as the proportion consuming most food and beverage items in the questionnaire, at least once per week. Key Points Dairy foods • Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males. • Teenagers (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice cream, at least once per week. Bread and cereal foods • Only about one in five of the New Zealand population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day. • Males 15–24 years were the most frequent consumers of bread and the number of servings of bread per day consumed by females was not related to age group. Meat and fish • New Zealanders most frequently (at least once per week) chose beef or veal followed by beef mince dishes and chicken. Vegetables • About two-thirds of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day. • Only two out of five males aged 15–18 years met the recommended number of daily vegetable servings. Fruits • Almost half of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day. • Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day. Frequently Eaten Foods 125 Beverages • Tea and coffee were equally consumed by about three out of five New Zealanders at least three times per week. • Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drank white wine at least once a week. Miscellaneous foods • Two-thirds of the New Zealand population consumed sweet spreads and over half Vegemite or Marmite at least once per week. • In winter, half of the New Zealand population had homemade soup at least once per week. 126 NZ Food: NZ People E1 Dairy Foods Table E1 Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products (e.g. trim milk, yoghurt, cottage or ricotta cheeses) than males, who showed a greater preference for some of the higher fat options, e.g. standard milk, ice cream. Standard milk was a more popular choice among younger males and females. Compared with older males and females, more younger people consumed flavoured milk and milk as a beverage while hot beverage made with milk (e.g. Milo, hot chocolate drinks) were more popular among males 15–18 years. Young people (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice cream (males 57 percent, females 48 percent) and custard/dairy food (males 25 percent, females 39 percent). With increasing age fewer males consumed yoghurt (Figure A). However, milk puddings were most popular in the 75+ years group (males 22 percent, females 20 percent). The most popular cheeses were colby/mild/tasty (65 percent overall). All cheeses, with the exception of cottage or ricotta and cream cheese were more likely to be eaten by males and females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. Standard milk was more likely to be consumed by males and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas compared with males and females living in quartile I areas. The reverse is true for trim milk. Yoghurt and ice cream were more likely to be eaten by males living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. In contrast the consumption of hot beverage made with milk was greater in individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles III and IV areas. Among NZ Måori and Pacific people, compared with NZ European & Others, standard milk was more popular (Figure B) and the reverse was true for trim milk. Pacific people were also less frequent consumers of colby/mild/tasty and edam/gouda cheeses and more frequent consumers of hot beverage made with milk, than other ethnic groups. Compared with metropolitan males, provincial males were less frequent consumers of yoghurt, mozzarella/feta/camembert cheese and all drinks of milk. Ice cream and colby/mild/tasty cheeses were eaten more often by people in provincial communities. Figure A Figure B Yoghurt consumed (≥1/week) 50% male female Usually chose standard milk 90% 80% Population 40% 30% 20% 10% 70% 60% 50% Age group (years) 0 NZ Maori Pacific people 10 + 75 –7 4 65 4 –6 45 –4 4 25 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0% 0 NZ population male female NZ European & Others Ethnic group Frequently Eaten Foods 127 E2 Bread and Cereal Foods Tables E2.1, E2.2 Only 18 percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day with the percentage declining with increasing age, particularly for males (Figure A). Males were more likely to meet the guideline (28 percent) than females (9 percent). The amount of bread consumed was higher among males than females. Males were also more likely to consume a larger number of servings of cereals with 18 percent of males consuming ≥10 servings of cereals per week compared with 13 percent of females. Males 15–18 years (47 percent) were most likely to consume at least five servings of bread per day, with more older males having 3-4 servings per day compared to younger males. In females, the number of servings of bread per day was not related to age, although the 65+ years group more frequently had 3–4 servings per day. A higher proportion of younger males and females consumed 10 or more servings of cereal foods per week. While a higher proportion of people living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas consumed five or more servings of bread per day, the proportion consuming 10 or more servings of cereals per week was less. Pacific people and NZ Måori females were more frequent consumers of five or more servings of bread per day than NZ European & Others. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely to consume less than four servings of cereal foods per week than NZ European & Others. Among females, more NZ Måori and Pacific people (20 percent, 14 percent respectively) met the breads and cereals guideline than NZ European & Others (7 percent). Fifty percent of New Zealanders spread butter and 47 percent polyunsaturated margarines (e.g. Miracle Sunflower) on their bread/crackers. Overall, the percentage using butter or margarine on bread/ crackers was lower among younger people. More common spreads used by NZ Måori and Pacific people were butter and butter & margarine blend compared to NZ European & Others. Provincial males were more likely to have used butter than metropolitan males (56 percent, 51 percent respectively) and less likely to have used polyunsaturated margarines (43 percent, 50 percent) as spreads. Figure A Figure B Met breads and cereals guideline (6+ servings/day) 50% 20% 10% 30% 20% Age group (years) NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 75 + 74 65 – 64 45 – 25 –4 4 0% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 40% 10% 0% 128 50% NZ population 30% male female 60% male female 40% NZ population Cooked porridge consumed (≥1/week) A higher proportion of young people consumed pasta, specialty breads, waffles/donuts, fruit/iced buns, rice and Måori bread than older people while savoury biscuits/crackers and cooked porridge were more popular among older New Zealanders (Figure B). About 8 percent of NZ Måori (males 10 percent, females 7 percent) and 5 percent of Pacific people (males 6 percent, females 4 percent) consumed Måori bread compared with virtually no NZ European & Others. NZ Måori were less likely to consume savoury biscuits/crackers, pasta (females only) and rice, but more likely to have had rewena bread, Måori bread, frybread and cooked porridge than NZ European & Others. A higher proportion of Pacific people consumed rice than the other two ethnic groups. In metropolitan areas, rice, pasta and specialty breads were consumed more frequently than in provincial areas, although cooked porridge consumption was more frequent in provincial communities. Females from NZDep96 quartile I areas were higher consumers of rice, pasta, savoury biscuits/crackers and specialty breads than females living in quartile IV areas. Frequently Eaten Foods 129 E3 Meat and Fish Tables E3.1, E3.2 The most common types of meat consumed at least once a week by New Zealanders were beef or veal (males 57 percent, females 51 percent), beef mince dishes (47 percent, 43 percent), chicken (40 percent, 44 percent), beef or veal mixed dishes (38 percent, 39 percent), and bacon/ham (41 percent, 33 percent). In addition, 36 percent males and 26 percent females chose sausages (including frankfurters and saveloys) and 34 percent females and 29 percent males consumed chicken mixed dishes. Fishbattered was chosen nearly twice as often among males (20 percent) than females (11 percent). More younger people ate beef mince dishes, luncheon meats, chicken and chicken mixed dishes (Figure A). A higher percentage of older females had fish (other than battered or fried) and other offal e.g. kidneys, while males and females over 75 years were less likely to have sausages. Males and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat hogget/mutton (29 percent, 21 percent respectively) compared to those from quartile I areas (18 percent, 13 percent). The same applied for females for fish-battered (16 percent, 8 percent) and hogget/mutton mixed dishes (17 percent, 6 percent). Items more likely to be eaten by both NZ Måori and Pacific people than by NZ European & Others included: lamb, hogget/mutton, fish-battered, hogget/mutton mixed dishes, pork - roast/ chops/steak, corned beef, lamb mixed dishes, shellfish and pork bones (Figure B). In addition, a higher proportion of Pacific people consumed chicken, chicken mixed dishes, fish-canned, fish-steamed/baked/grilled/raw, fish-fried and pork mixed dishes than the other two ethnic groups. Figure A Figure B Luncheon meats consumed (≥1/week) male female 50% Shellfish consumed (≥1/week) 30% 25% Population 30% 20% 20% 15% 10% Age group (years) NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 65 – 45 – 25 –4 74 0% 64 0% 4 5% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10% 0 NZ population 40% 130 male female NZ Maori Pacific people Ethnic group NZ European & Others E4 Vegetables Tables E4.1, E4.2, E4.3 Potato (males 95 percent, females 93 percent), carrots (81 percent, 86 percent), tomatoes (72 percent, 81 percent), lettuce (67 percent, 79 percent), onions/leeks (68 percent, 74 percent) and peas (73 percent, 64 percent) were the most common types of vegetables consumed by New Zealanders at least once a week. Sixty-seven percent of the population consumed at least three servings of vegetables a day, and therefore met the New Zealand Nutrition Task Force (1991) guideline. More females (73 percent) met the guideline than males (62 percent) and the group most likely to meet the guideline was females 65–74 years (87 percent). Males 15–18 years (42 percent) were least likely to meet the guideline (Figure A). The likelihood of meeting the guideline was related to NZDep96 quartile, particularly among females (quartile I 83 percent, quartile IV 60 percent). NZ European & Others were most likely (males 65 percent, females 76 percent) and Pacific people least likely (males 27 percent, females 42 percent) to have three or more servings of vegetables per day. The only vegetables eaten at least once per week more often by males than females were peas (males 73 percent, females 64 percent), hot chips (54 percent, 42 percent) and mixed frozen vegetables (54 percent, 40 percent). Thirteen other vegetables, including tomatoes, cauliflower and asparagus, were eaten more frequently by females. Males and females 15–24 years more often consumed mixed frozen vegetables, mushrooms and hot chips (Figure B). Older people more often ate potato, carrots, tomatoes, onions/leeks, cauliflower, pumpkin, green beans, silverbeet/spinach, courgettes (males only), kumara, beetroot, celery, brussels sprouts, asparagus, parsnip and turnips/swedes. Compared to New Zealanders living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas a greater proportion of New Zealanders in quartile I areas ate carrots, sweetcorn (females only), mushrooms, peas (males only), tomatoes, sprouts (females only), broccoli, courgettes, capsicum, lettuce, cauliflower (females only), celery, asparagus, and cucumber. Figure A Figure B Met vegetables guideline (3+ servings/day) Hot chips consumed (≥1/week) 90% 80% male female 80% 50% NZ population male female 60% 40% 20% 40% Age group (years) 10 0 + 75 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 + 75 74 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0% 0 NZ population 60% 70% Age group (years) Frequently Eaten Foods 131 There was a higher proportion consuming mixed frozen vegetables among females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas, compared with quartile I areas. NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have consumed carrots, tomatoes, lettuce, onions/leeks, cauliflower, broccoli and green beans, and more likely to have eaten mixed frozen vegetables and hot chips (females only). Watercress, kamo kamo, and puha were almost exclusively consumed among NZ Måori and to a lesser extent among Pacific people. The latter were the most likely to consume taro, green bananas and taro leaf. Provincial people showed a higher frequency of consumption of potato, hot chips (females only), pumpkin, kumara, peas, silverbeet/spinach, carrots (females only), cabbage/coleslaw, beetroot, turnips/ swedes, parsnip, cauliflower, brussels sprouts and yams. Mushrooms, capsicum and other green leafy vegetables were more often eaten by individuals living in metropolitan areas. 132 NZ Food: NZ People E5 Fruits Table E5 Forty-six percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day. Females (56 percent) were more likely to meet the guideline than males (34 percent), with the highest proportion in the older groups (Figure A). Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day (34 percent, 19 percent respectively), and less likely to have at least two servings per day (34 percent, 56 percent). Numbers of servings of fruit per day increased with age in both sexes, although the percentage of females 15–18 years having at least two servings of fruit per day was high (60 percent). There was an increase in the proportion of males and females eating less than one serving of fruit per day who lived in NZDep96 quartile IV areas, compared with those from quartile I areas. There was a similar pattern for vegetable consumption. Female NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely than NZ European & Others to consume less than one serving of fruit per day (26 percent and 30 percent, 18 percent). The fruit consumed most often at least once per week by the New Zealand population was bananas (females 85 percent, males 78 percent). Other fruit consumed by more than half the population were apples (73 percent), oranges (67 percent), and stone fruit (peach, nectarine, plum, apricot) in season (56 percent). Almost all fruits were consumed more frequently by females except for fruit canned in syrup. Older groups (65+ years) reported a higher frequency of choice of stewed fruit, bananas and stone fruit (males only) at least once per week. Individuals from NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely than individuals living in quartile IV areas to consume grapes, kiwifruit, stone fruit, apples, bananas, berry fruits (strawberries and other berries or cherries), sultanas and other dried fruit. While most fruits were eaten equally often among all ethnic groups, Pacific people more often chose pears and oranges than other ethnic groups. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were less likely to choose kiwifruit, stewed fruit and other dried fruits than NZ European & Others (Figure B). The only differences in fruit choice between metropolitan and provincial residents, were the more frequent consumption of fruit canned in syrup and stewed fruit in provincial areas. Figure A Figure B Met fruit guideline (2+ servings/day) Kiwifruit consumed (≥1/week) 80% 50% 70% 50% male female 40% 30% Population 40% 60% 30% 20% 10% Age group (years) 10 0 74 75 + 65 – 64 45 – 44 25 – 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0% 0 NZ population male female NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European & Others Ethnic group Frequently Eaten Foods 133 E6 Beverages Table E6 Non-alcoholic Water (80 percent), tea (62 percent) and coffee (61 percent) were consumed regularly (at least three times per week) by the greatest numbers of New Zealanders. Males were more frequent regular consumers than females of coffee (64 percent, 58 percent respectively), carbonated drinks (30 percent, 18 percent), cordial (7 percent, 4 percent), powdered drinks (23 percent, 18 percent) and sports drinks (5 percent, 2 percent); whereas for females it was diet carbonated drinks (10 percent, 7 percent), water (85 percent, 74 percent), herbal tea (11 percent, 4 percent) and tea (65 percent, 58 percent). Males 19–24 years were the most frequent consumers of sports drinks (20 percent). Apart from tea, coffee, diet carbonated drinks and herbal tea, younger groups more frequently consumed non-alcoholic drinks than older groups. Tea was less regularly consumed by the 15–24 years group (males 25 percent and 26 percent, females 40 percent and 47 percent), but more frequently consumed by the 75+ years group (males 89 percent, females 86 percent) (Figure A). The highest frequency of consumption of herbal tea was among females 19–64 years (10 percent – 13 percent). Powdered drinks and cordial were more regularly consumed by individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas but fruit juice, tea (males only), water (females only) and coffee were more popular among individuals living in quartile I and II areas. Compared to the other two ethnic groups, Pacific people were higher regular consumers of fruit drinks and sports drinks, while NZ Måori more often had cordial and carbonated drinks. Fewer NZ Måori and Pacific people drank coffee, tea and herbal tea than NZ European & Others. Alcoholic More males than females chose beer (51 percent, 10 percent respectively) and spirits/liqueurs (21 percent, 16 percent). White wine was the more popular drink among females (23 percent, 13 percent). Consumption (at least once per week) of beer among females 45+ years was uncommon (≤ 5 percent). Red wine consumption was highest among males 25–74 years (15 percent to 17 percent) and females Figure A Figure B Tea consumed (≥3/week) male female 100% White wine consumed (≥1/week) 30% 25% Population 60% 40% 20% 15% 10% NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 65 25 – Age group (years) –7 4 0% 45 –6 4 0% 44 5% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 20% 0 NZ population 80% 134 male female NZ Maori Pacific people Ethnic group NZ European & Others 19–64 years (14 percent to 17 percent). Females 19–74 years (19 percent to 29 percent) and males 45–74 years (17 percent to 25 percent) had the highest white wine consumption on at least a weekly basis. The frequency of consumption of beer at least once a week was lowest among Pacific people compared to the other two ethnic groups. Red wine and white wine consumption, although common among NZ European & Others (15 percent to 25 percent at least once per week), was very rare among NZ Måori (3 percent to 8 percent) and Pacific people (1 percent to 4 percent) (Figure B). Compared with NZ European & Others the choice of spirits/liqueurs was lower among NZ Måori and Pacific people except for NZ Måori males 15–24 years who had the highest frequency of intake of all groups (27 percent). Provincial males were less likely than metropolitan males to consume red wine and white wine at least once per week. Frequently Eaten Foods 135 E7 Miscellaneous Foods Tables E7.1, E7.2 Of New Zealanders who ate eggs, almost a quarter consumed at least four eggs per week (males 33 percent, females 16 percent) and about a third ate one or less per week (26 percent, 36 percent). This did not include eggs used in baking. The proportion consuming at least four per week changed with NZDep96 quartile areas for both males (quartile I 20 percent, quartile IV 43 percent), and females (quartile I 10 percent, quartile IV 25 percent). NZ Måori males (59 percent) and females (34 percent) were about twice as likely to have eaten at least four per week than NZ European & Others (males 28 percent, females 13 percent). Sweet spreads (jam, honey, marmalade or syrup) were the most popular ‘toppings/spreads’ (66 percent) followed by Vegemite or Marmite (53 percent) and peanut butter (36 percent). Tomato sauce was the most popular ‘sauces/dressings’ (48 percent) though its popularity declined among older groups (Figure A). Both were consumed at least once per week by a higher proportion of males than females. Sweet spreads were more popular among those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas and among provincial rather than metropolitan residents. Sweet spreads were the most frequently used ‘toppings/spreads’ among NZ European & Others (males 72 percent, females 64 percent), NZ Måori males (62 percent) and Pacific males (51 percent). Plain sweet biscuits (53 percent) were the most popular of the ‘biscuits/cakes/muffins’ category. Cream filled/chocolate biscuits were consumed by more males (44 percent) than females (37 percent). All biscuits, cakes and muffins were eaten less by individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas than quartile I areas. More provincial males preferred cakes/scones/pikelets than metropolitan males. At least once per week during winter 50 percent of the New Zealand population had homemade soup and 37 percent had canned/packet soup. Only small proportions of the population ate sweet pies/pastries and other puddings/desserts at least once per week. Males were twice as likely as females to consume sweet pies/pastries (14 percent, 7 percent). The consumption of sweet pies/pastries decreased with age in both sexes. Chocolate and other confectionery were almost equally popular (35 percent, 34 percent respectively). There was no sex difference in the frequency of consumption of other confectionery and muesli bars but chocolate was eaten more by males than females (38 percent, 33 percent). The consumption of other confectionery, muesli bars and chocolate all decreased with age (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Tomato sauce consumed (≥1/week) 80% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% male female 70% NZ population NZ population Chocolate consumed (≥1/week) male female 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% Age group (years) 136 NZ Food: NZ People Age group (years) 10 0 75 + 65 –7 4 4 45 –6 25 –4 4 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 75 + 65 –7 4 4 45 –6 25 –4 4 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% Takeaway style foods (meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger, pizza) were more frequently consumed by males than females. The percentage consuming meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger and pizza at least once per week was highest in those 15–24 years and decreased with age. NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely to have eaten meat pies/sausage rolls and hamburger than NZ European & Others. Meat pies/sausage rolls were consumed by a greater proportion of individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 46 percent, females 21 percent) compared with quartile I areas (33 percent, 10 percent). More males than females ate potato crisps (38 percent, 33 percent). There was a marked decrease with age in the percentage of the population consuming potato crisps while older people were more likely to consume nuts. Among females, NZ European & Others (32 percent) were less likely to consume potato crisps than NZ Måori (40 percent) or Pacific people (45 percent). Coconut cream was only used by a very small proportion of the population with the exception of Pacific people (males 38 percent, females 40 percent). There was a strong gradient across the NZDep96 quartiles for coconut cream intake, with the lowest consumption among those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas (1 percent) and highest in quartile IV areas (7 percent – 8 percent). Frequently Eaten Foods 137 138 NZ Food: NZ People NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E1 Trim 25 15 24 21 25 27 20 22 30 27 24 30 34 19 27 24 24 23 18 30 27 31 20 23 20 28 24 Standard 60 85 78 72 57 40 51 66 59 57 60 47 41 44 54 61 61 66 77 42 52 57 66 65 69 51 59 Milks chosen most often (%) Milk type 39 34 32 33 37 31 37 43 28 34 34 35 21 16 22 20 18 14 19 27 17 19 22 26 18 13 8 6 19 12 13 20 4 8 9 9 41 46 31 34 49 44 39 39 32 31 31 36 28 24 42 41 30 28 24 24 48 43 38 38 18 18 19 18 21 16 17 17 19 21 16 17 15 17 15 15 14 14 18 17 17 12 15 16 6 6 6 8 4 5 7 8 7 6 6 8 17 14 23 23 21 17 15 9 31 23 21 16 3 1 8 8 2 4 1 3 9 8 9 6 5 2 8 4 7 3 2 5 10 6 5 5 5 4 5 5 6 5 3 4 7 6 3 4 3 3 4 3 2 3 6 2 4 4 3 3 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 10 – 11. 65 69 63 68 73 68 61 61 67 64 65 61 Drinks of milk Other dairy foods Cheeses Hot Brie, blue, beverage Cream/ Custard/ Colby, Cottage Mozzarella, & other Milk as a made with Flavoured sour dairy Milk mild, Edam/ or feta, specialty Cream beverage milk milk Ice cream Yoghurt cream food puddings tasty gouda ricotta camembert cheeses cheese 35 20 11 38 35 18 15 6 65 20 5 5 5 3 63 37 42 57 33 11 25 8 52 13 2 7 2 2 50 30 37 35 30 18 19 7 70 19 6 8 4 7 40 20 15 40 29 17 16 4 66 17 2 4 5 3 28 14 8 46 24 20 11 4 66 16 1 3 6 2 25 11 3 48 22 21 12 9 72 10 1 3 6 3 18 14 5 37 9 32 20 22 65 11 1 1 4 2 37 19 16 43 27 18 16 6 66 16 2 4 5 3 51 25 21 48 47 23 39 4 67 19 3 3 0 5 45 25 13 31 44 21 19 5 59 24 8 9 5 1 35 20 8 28 42 17 11 4 65 25 9 8 5 4 23 19 2 29 42 18 8 6 61 25 8 7 5 3 26 20 4 35 42 11 18 15 71 20 8 3 6 2 30 28 2 41 32 27 29 20 71 11 5 2 9 6 32 21 8 32 42 18 15 7 64 24 8 6 5 4 DAIRY FOODS Percent consuming at least once per week. Frequently Eaten Foods 139 14 10 20 13 11 18 13 15 17* 14 15* 15 14* 27 29* 24 22 23 25 24 33 25 31 29 92 82 73 83 75 73 85 77 85* 95 69* 86 67* 75 80* 73 78 69 51 63 53 57 41 50 Standard Trim Milks chosen most often (%) Milk type 55 39 27 36 47 33 24 31 61* 30 36* 40 49* 43 22* 40 51 48 22 43 48 40 34 41 29 20 14 18 20 18 20 19 31* 29 35* 31 44* 35 26* 35 50 17 11 26 36 26 37 30 37 14 7 15 12 7 3 6 33* 13 15* 19 14* 11 8* 11 50 23 1 26 37 11 2 16 42 42 46 44 32 29 32 30 36* 46 49* 44 63* 44 33* 47 57 32 35 40 54 26 31 36 33 31 22 27 46 46 41 44 14* 9 37* 17 46* 26 34* 34 28 30 11 24 43 25 24 29 15 16 20 17 24 18 18 19 14* 4 13* 9 15* 12 6* 12 19 21 35 24 17 12 17 15 19 16 12 15 26 10 14 14 34* 14 23* 22 28* 20 11* 20 24 21 7 19 29 14 16 19 6 2 7 5 3 4 10 6 9* 2 25* 9 14* 8 6* 10 12 15 5 12 8 6 17 9 20 20 15 18 26 28 22 25 4* 1 3* 2 8* 9 12* 10 8 6 8 7 13 13 15 13 5 2 1 2 6 10 8 9 0* 6 0* 3 3* 3 11* 5 2 4 2 3 7 5 4 5 7 5 3 5 8 9 5 7 3* 0 0* 1 3* 0 8* 3 11 1 1 4 2 3 2 3 3 6 6 5 4 6 6 6 3* 0 0* 1 1* 1 9* 3 4 1 2 2 0 1 0 1 6 3 2 3 2 5 4 4 5* 2 1* 3 4* 2 8* 4 4 5 1 3 4 3 1 3 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 10 – 11. 69 71 69 70 64 67 66 66 20* 25 33* 25 44* 34 46* 39 53 54 59 55 60 57 59 58 Drinks of milk Other dairy foods Cheeses Hot Brie, blue, beverage Cream/ Custard/ Colby, Cottage Mozzarella, & other Milk as a made with Flavoured sour dairy Milk mild, Edam/ or feta, specialty Cream beverage milk milk Ice cream Yoghurt cream food puddings tasty gouda ricotta camembert cheeses cheese DAIRY FOODS Percent consuming at least once per week. * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E1 cont. 140 NZ Food: NZ People 6 5 4 3 2 1 42 44 38 36 48 44 44 41 39 42 44 45 4 3 4 5 4 7 6 7 4 2 7 6 33 40 12 12 27 34 39 42 9 11 12 17 29 34 32 36 25 32 34 34 28 29 34 41 19 15 15 11 23 15 15 19 17 14 13 8 27 32 9 10 24 25 28 36 8 9 9 12 93 96 90 91 89 93 96 94 84 88 93 89 51 56 47 48 49 59 43 50 46 50 41 45 50 43 47 47 55 41 52 48 61 43 45 47 11 11 11 12 13 12 8 10 7 10 10 9 9 6 12 11 6 8 10 8 6 12 15 13 6 6 8 8 4 4 8 6 4 8 8 7 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 5 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 5 4 2 3 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 BREADS AND CEREALS I % using Type of butter/margarine used on bread/crackers (%) 2 Cereals Breads & butter on Butter & Reduced Bread Bread Bread Cereals ≥10 cereals bread/ Polyunsat. margarine Praise/ Low salt Unsalted fat <1/day 3–4/day ≥5/day <4/week 3 /week 3 6+/day 4 crackers 5 Butter margarines 6 blend Olivio margarine butter margarine Other 5 42 23 31 16 18 92 50 47 11 10 7 2 2 0 6 25 47 28 28 39 86 52 49 20 8 6 3 2 1 6 38 40 24 30 33 92 54 53 11 6 4 2 0 3 5 40 35 32 21 29 94 60 41 12 7 5 2 2 0 2 41 34 36 12 26 96 46 53 7 9 9 1 1 0 1 44 33 27 5 22 96 39 50 11 12 4 1 1 0 0 62 15 19 6 15 98 43 51 7 8 12 2 1 0 4 40 35 31 18 28 94 52 48 11 8 6 1 1 1 5 44 15 41 17 12 84 50 58 6 2 6 2 4 0 7 45 13 34 17 8 87 51 53 10 6 8 7 5 0 8 40 13 28 20 10 89 51 46 12 11 8 3 4 0 6 44 10 37 7 8 91 45 44 11 14 8 1 1 0 2 57 10 38 2 6 93 35 45 10 16 9 1 4 0 2 56 13 26 6 8 98 39 49 12 11 7 0 0 1 6 44 12 33 13 9 90 47 47 11 11 8 2 3 0 Frequency of servings 1 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 4, 6 and 13. Percent of population consuming specified number of servings. ‘< 1/day’ and ‘< 4/week’ includes those who do not eat breads/cereals. Percent of those who use butter/margarine. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. Servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal. New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. Includes people who use butter and/or margarine products on bread and/or crackers. For example, ‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E2.1 Frequently Eaten Foods 141 38 32 46 37 35 45 42 41 26* 39 34* 34 49* 32 42* 39 32 41 44 41 46 40 49 45 5 4 2 4 7 8 6 7 0* 9 3* 6 2* 9 18* 9 7 4 2 4 6 8 4 6 42 34 32 35 9 11 9 10 52* 28 31* 36 30* 17 13* 20 42 44 26 39 32 23 22 25 24 27 32 29 32 27 34 31 26* 49 49* 43 50* 29 38* 37 30 52 42 42 50 33 50 42 29 23 11 19 18 20 5 14 16* 3 8* 8 21* 17 18* 19 28 12 1 15 11 15 2 10 36 29 25 28 6 8 6 7 38* 27 28* 30 12* 16 10* 14 35 35 20 31 25 19 13 20 89 93 96 94 84 88 93 89 96* 95 100* 97 99* 95 97* 96 89 97 98 95 87 97 93 94 49 59 43 50 46 50 41 45 59* 69 63* 65 63* 49 48* 53 71 65 57 65 63 61 53 60 55 41 52 48 61 43 45 47 37* 47 46* 44 34* 56 61* 51 42 42 56 46 41 56 41 48 13 12 8 10 7 10 10 9 20* 18 9* 17 23* 24 18* 22 18 13 11 14 10 20 25 19 6 8 10 8 6 12 15 13 13* 3 4* 6 2* 6 3* 4 8 2 11 6 2 8 8 6 4 4 8 6 4 8 8 7 7* 24 8* 16 17* 13 3* 12 7 3 6 5 15 6 6 8 1 2 1 1 5 3 1 2 10* 3 0* 4 1* 1 1* 1 4 1 0 2 7 1 0 2 1 2 1 1 5 4 2 3 4* 0 15* 5 3* 1 0* 1 0 2 5 2 2 3 3 3 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 0* 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 BREADS AND CEREALS I % using Type of butter/margarine used on bread/crackers (%) 2 Cereals Breads & butter on Butter & Reduced Bread Bread Bread Cereals ≥10 cereals bread/ Polyunsat. margarine Praise/ Low salt Unsalted fat <1/day 3–4/day ≥5/day <4/week 3 /week 3 6+/day 4 crackers 5 Butter margarines 6 blend Olivio margarine butter margarine Other Frequency of servings 1 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 4, 6 and 13. * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percent of population consuming specified number of servings. ‘< 1/day’ and ‘< 4/week’ includes those who do not eat breads/cereals. 2 Percent of those who use butter/margarine. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100. 3 Servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal. 4 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. 5 Includes people who use butter and/or margarine products on bread and/or crackers. 6 For example, ‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E2.1 cont. 142 NZ Food: NZ People NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E2.2 Pasta 54 64 73 61 39 28 24 52 73 71 69 45 23 25 57 58 56 45 49 64 61 51 45 54 46 58 50 Breakfast cereal 60 70 65 60 59 60 52 60 60 52 60 60 61 66 60 63 60 56 62 62 64 60 53 61 61 59 62 45 43 58 55 54 46 41 37 65 58 55 48 Savoury biscuits/ crackers 51 41 34 41 50 60 55 45 57 42 54 64 64 67 57 51 33 53 39 52 45 41 45 54 53 47 41 Rice 48 46 55 53 42 26 28 46 40 59 60 43 30 26 49 23 26 19 24 26 25 20 25 19 17 20 23 10 7 14 7 9 9 11 6 15 14 10 7 10 9 6 5 8 12 6 13 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 4 6 5 6 7 5 3 5 4 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 4 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 3 Rewena bread 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 Frybread 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 12. 4 2 2 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 2 4 BREADS AND CEREALS II Percent consuming at least once per week Crumpets Waffles Cooked Specialty Fruit or or or Maori porridge breads iced buns croissants doughnuts bread 23 10 7 5 3 1 13 6 17 10 9 6 8 16 16 8 5 1 23 11 7 7 3 2 28 6 9 4 3 1 39 3 11 4 1 1 52 3 7 3 1 0 24 9 10 6 3 2 7 16 13 7 5 1 10 13 1 6 5 2 19 15 5 4 2 1 22 8 5 4 1 0 30 4 6 2 2 2 39 4 9 3 1 1 20 11 6 4 2 1 Frequently Eaten Foods 143 70 62 36 52 76 73 38 58 66* 48 32* 49 66* 52 29* 51 46* 42 29* 40 68* 51 58* 58 67 62 59 61 55 61 61 61 65 55 24 51 53 51 20 44 Pasta 72 54 52 59 53 61 63 59 Breakfast cereal 41 43 54 48 52 57 66 60 41* 39 56* 43 28* 56 63* 50 20 24 36 26 37 36 35 36 Savoury biscuits/ crackers 49 55 37 46 53 62 38 49 77* 62 61* 67 74* 78 59* 72 57 32 25 38 37 44 26 38 Rice 8 21 32 24 6 15 25 18 9* 33 51* 31 18* 36 45* 33 19 30 42 29 16 29 49 29 14 12 5 9 16 17 6 12 3* 9 18* 9 17* 10 1* 10 7 8 5 8 7 8 7 7 19 6 10 11 6 5 6 5 12* 8 17* 11 17* 17 22* 19 10 8 3 7 7 4 8 6 11 7 4 6 6 4 3 4 0* 0 15* 3 13* 8 19* 12 3 6 0 4 5 7 2 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4* 4 12* 6 6* 1 6* 4 13 10 7 10 7 6 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0* 1 2* 1 0* 2 0* 1 7 4 2 5 3 5 13 6 Rewena bread 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 2* 1 0* 1 6 8 5 6 1 4 8 4 Frybread Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 12. 7 2 2 3 4 2 1 2 7* 9 13* 9 21* 11 10* 14 7 4 1 4 7 1 4 3 BREADS AND CEREALS II Percent consuming at least once per week Crumpets Waffles Cooked Specialty Fruit or or or Maori porridge breads iced buns croissants doughnuts bread * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E2.2 cont. 144 NZ Food: NZ People 1 Beef mince dishes 45 39 55 51 44 41 34 47 37 40 52 40 36 26 43 48 46 50 45 43 45 43 43 47 47 42 47 Beef/ veal 54 59 58 57 60 58 44 57 53 48 52 53 49 45 51 62 52 56 59 55 52 50 46 54 66 50 54 Includes frankfurters and saveloys. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E3.1 42 34 47 39 39 41 38 42 47 45 44 41 36 42 37 42 42 39 34 36 41 42 37 36 40 44 32 37 41 40 43 41 37 36 32 30 33 20 38 25 32 28 30 28 37 35 32 32 33 43 24 31 34 33 37 39 25 24 29 27 27 27 20 18 27 26 31 28 19 19 16 22 Beef/veal Chicken mixed Bacon/ mixed Luncheon Chicken dishes ham dishes Sausages 1 meats 42 38 38 32 31 23 41 39 39 30 37 40 52 38 45 37 47 32 44 39 43 36 36 35 34 39 43 24 33 18 25 31 28 14 34 18 28 30 37 13 23 7 40 38 41 29 36 27 58 36 33 34 27 22 53 34 42 41 26 26 47 42 36 41 33 25 40 42 30 30 20 13 35 34 27 19 21 10 32 30 28 21 12 6 44 39 33 34 26 19 22 21 19 18 20 15 21 30 19 16 18 24 Lamb 20 25 26 19 23 18 28 22 21 25 16 19 20 21 19 13 14 18 15 11 13 18 15 18 18 14 17 19 23 10 13 16 19 23 24 8 9 12 16 13 8 17 12 11 8 12 14 16 14 12 20 13 19 9 14 10 12 19 18 6 9 12 17 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16. 19 32 14 21 18 19 28 29 13 16 16 21 FishHogget/ steamed/ mutton Hogget/ FishFishbaked/ mixed mutton canned battered grilled/raw dishes 20 15 15 13 12 22 9 20 8 13 28 11 31 7 16 22 16 23 12 14 22 13 16 11 13 25 15 10 16 20 19 11 13 15 10 23 14 20 11 14 19 5 12 9 8 14 15 12 13 8 13 21 12 15 10 20 16 9 16 11 17 20 9 22 14 21 13 15 21 15 16 16 11 15 10 MEAT AND FISH I Percent consuming at least once per week Frequently Eaten Foods 145 41 57 34 46 50 46 49 47 30* 35 29* 32 31* 37 35* 34 52 51 44 48 37 54 36 43 58 59 60 59 54 47 47 49 52* 67 52* 59 57* 50 51* 52 59 55 58 57 49 53 51 51 Beef/ veal Beef mince dishes 47 45 31 39 54 45 38 43 44* 50 59* 51 57* 60 64* 60 48 38 38 42 59 53 29 48 39 40 37 38 37 43 38 39 29* 36 40* 35 23* 34 43* 33 43 34 22 34 33 39 37 37 44 44 40 42 42 38 29 34 25* 26 35* 28 36* 26 19* 27 42 40 32 39 28 29 26 28 33 37 20 29 36 41 27 34 36* 35 48* 38 56* 41 40* 45 39 26 24 29 39 41 18 35 47 36 32 36 26 33 18 25 8* 23 40* 23 22* 35 33* 30 35 40 33 37 31 37 22 32 35 36 17 27 24 25 11 19 10* 27 23* 22 27* 19 8* 19 44 29 16 31 24 31 19 26 22 16 21 19 22 13 19 17 43* 47 64* 50 52* 40 47* 45 35 29 25 30 21 25 23 24 Lamb 11 14 13 13 11 20 15 16 13* 39 41* 32 21* 27 40* 28 7 19 12 14 7 16 13 14 26 20 13 18 9 11 10 10 17* 35 20* 27 14* 14 17* 15 30 38 24 33 22 18 8 18 6 11 12 10 9 12 18 14 20* 34 39* 32 32* 40 32* 36 10 12 17 13 13 20 19 17 14 12 13 13 4 7 11 9 11* 33 39* 28 28* 27 12* 24 20 22 28 23 17 19 26 20 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16. 25 19 21 21 14 11 18 15 9* 40 47* 33 39* 26 18* 28 31 39 33 35 19 24 35 25 FishHogget/ steamed/ mutton Hogget/ FishFishbaked/ mixed mutton canned battered grilled/raw dishes MEAT AND FISH I Percent consuming at least once per week Beef/veal Chicken mixed Bacon/ mixed Luncheon Chicken dishes ham dishes Sausages 1 meats * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Includes frankfurters and saveloys. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table E3.1 cont. 146 NZ Food: NZ People 1 9 10 12 18 7 9 10 11 13 10 10 7 11 14 14 16 11 10 7 15 14 14 11 11 Pork-roast/ Fishchops/ fried steak 12 10 16 12 19 13 13 14 12 10 11 9 19 7 14 12 14 7 12 9 10 11 8 8 16 6 13 10 11 9 Shell fish (e.g. mussels, oysters, paua, kina, pipis). NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E3.2 10 11 7 11 6 9 9 16 3 7 10 14 Corned beef 9 9 10 9 12 9 11 10 10 9 8 10 7 7 8 10 6 9 5 8 6 10 13 7 6 9 10 Pork mixed dishes 9 13 10 11 7 4 8 9 8 8 9 8 7 6 8 8 8 9 10 7 4 12 12 8 7 9 14 Lamb mixed dishes 9 8 11 10 6 7 6 8 11 13 9 8 7 9 9 7 7 5 6 4 5 10 10 3 4 3 10 Shellfish 1 6 5 7 9 7 2 3 7 2 11 6 4 3 2 5 3 2 3 2 1 1 3 7 0 2 1 7 Pork bones 3 4 1 4 2 0 2 3 3 5 3 2 1 0 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 Liver/ pate 2 4 3 2 1 2 3 2 0 1 2 2 5 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 3 1 1 4 Other seafood e.g. prawns 2 3 2 3 1 0 2 2 2 6 2 2 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Other offal e.g. Turkey/ kidneys Venison duck 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Mutton bird 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Eel 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16. MEAT AND FISH II Percent consuming at least once per week Frequently Eaten Foods 147 7 21 12 15 21 14 8 14 12* 29 25* 23 26* 27 8* 22 14 13 9 11 4 9 8 8 16 15 26 18 22 12 6 14 12* 21 26* 20 23* 25 12* 22 18 12 12 13 9 9 11 10 Pork-roast/ Fishchops/ fried steak 7 7 9 8 5 5 8 6 38* 38 48* 40 37* 26 36* 31 10 17 24 17 17 16 16 16 Corned beef 13 11 6 9 5 8 7 7 5* 10 32* 14 39* 13 2* 18 7 14 9 10 11 10 10 10 Pork mixed dishes 11 7 6 7 11 7 7 8 12* 30 41* 27 28* 28 43* 31 8 20 3 12 14 14 16 14 Lamb mixed dishes 5 7 4 5 4 4 2 3 6* 34 35* 26 29* 13 28* 21 11 12 26 15 11 15 14 14 Shellfish 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 0* 15 29* 14 15* 8 7* 10 5 14 8 10 18 11 12 13 Pork bones 4 3 2 2 1 2 3 2 0* 2 2* 2 2* 1 6* 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 4 2 Liver/ pate 3 2 1 2 4 1 0 1 3* 13 19* 12 8* 14 11* 11 0 5 3 3 6 4 2 4 Other seafood e.g. prawns MEAT AND FISH II Percent consuming at least once per week * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Shell fish (e.g. mussels, oysters, paua, kina, pipis). 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table E3.2 cont. 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 0* 0 1 2 0 1 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0* 0 8* 2 0* 1 0* 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 Mutton bird 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2* 0 0* 1 3* 0 0* 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 0 Eel Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16. 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0* 2 0* 1 0* 2 0* 1 0 1 3 1 1 1 5 2 Other offal e.g. Turkey/ kidneys Venison duck 148 NZ Food: NZ People 4 3 2 1 67 42 53 59 72 74 71 62 68 59 71 78 87 77 73 66 66 60 54 83 78 69 60 58 72 70 80 12 24 21 16 13 7 9 15 13 15 10 8 5 6 9 12 12 17 19 4 7 11 16 17 11 10 7 95 93 98 92 97 96 98 95 91 95 92 94 93 90 87 94 98 99 97 95 96 89 90 97 99 97 93 83 80 82 84 89 88 83 78 72 91 87 84 80 75 75 78 84 89 93 81 79 76 86 89 92 90 86 77 72 72 81 80 77 74 72 66 88 81 79 74 60 60 71 77 87 77 72 64 71 81 85 90 86 81 73 65 73 79 79 73 72 64 58 84 82 78 71 70 63 63 71 83 64 67 80 76 77 83 87 68 79 71 68 68 75 72 67 71 69 66 75 80 70 69 44 59 70 71 80 74 68 47 64 77 77 81 78 74 69 80 62 68 76 76 73 65 65 62 64 66 65 66 73 80 67 70 73 63 62 65 66 62 58 64 68 58 66 58 67 60 58 61 62 62 62 59 58 59 56 55 67 68 57 60 58 50 60 67 63 58 61 61 53 60 61 66 60 51 58 52 69 60 59 59 38 53 50 67 63 66 55 68 55 57 69 66 71 62 59 54 54 65 65 63 51 53 45 75 66 62 54 37 54 53 61 55 38 54 57 64 65 67 68 58 65 59 46 55 53 61 50 51 44 49 55 56 54 57 28 35 43 63 66 60 49 42 47 49 64 68 66 55 52 53 55 40 45 53 55 57 53 42 41 43 40 75 75 61 45 24 19 54 63 55 49 32 21 15 42 47 54 57 40 39 54 52 54 55 33 37 41 50 61 65 60 47 32 43 54 56 57 41 33 24 30 40 47 44 49 45 48 48 46 47 42 51 46 42 45 34 39 41 51 67 52 45 41 25 40 54 73 60 47 46 Mixed Cabbage/ CauliHot frozen Green Peas coleslaw flower Broccoli Pumpkin chips 4 vegetables beans VEGETABLES I Percent consuming at least once per week Vegetables Vegetables Onions/ ≤ 1/day ≥ 3/day 2 Potato 3 Carrots Tomatoes Lettuce leeks Servings 1 Percent of people eating these numbers of servings of vegetables per day (‘≤ 1’ includes Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 3 and 20. those who don’t eat vegetables). Serving = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1/2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup salad vegetables. New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. Potato: boiled, mashed, baked or roasted. Hot potato chips or kumara chips/ french fries/ wedges. 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 Table E4.1 Frequently Eaten Foods 149 Servings1 11* 28 42* 27 43* 39 47* 42 52 61 74 65 67 74 82 76 54* 43 25* 41 34* 20 38* 28 20 14 10 13 10 8 6 7 91 94 98 96 93 91 98 94 49* 87 77* 74 84* 80 95* 86 87 99 97 95 89 90 94 91 83 79 88 84 79 88 90 88 47* 61 90* 64 76* 83 67* 77 54 75 65 66 70 77 89 78 63 73 80 74 72 82 87 83 52* 56 74* 58 72* 86 64* 77 50 63 66 59 53 70 82 68 66 65 72 68 82 80 82 81 69* 60 86* 68 84* 75 78* 79 65 52 61 59 61 59 81 65 55 71 73 69 57 80 78 75 47* 64 74* 62 71* 68 71* 70 42 68 74 61 52 66 76 64 72 72 77 75 63 64 63 63 21* 54 65* 47 46* 51 42* 47 52 80 70 70 65 73 70 70 60 54 66 59 53 58 64 60 46* 58 79* 60 61* 65 71* 65 52 65 74 63 55 64 69 62 52 49 66 57 66 57 69 64 34* 38 67* 44 40* 49 50* 47 29 56 54 47 49 56 60 55 54 55 58 56 68 68 66 68 22* 26 53* 31 34* 45 44* 42 29 55 43 44 44 56 61 54 34 42 63 50 46 47 66 55 11* 28 74* 34 23* 43 31* 34 29 54 57 47 46 61 73 60 77 63 38 54 58 49 26 40 59* 40 50* 47 41* 45 39* 42 72 51 33 54 64 50 33 50 67 57 42 53 53 36 28 35 36* 70 53* 56 64* 63 77* 66 59 79 51 66 69 64 48 62 39 40 54 47 34 39 60 48 14* 41 44* 34 39* 47 48* 45 36 43 46 42 22 42 51 37 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 3 and 20. 1 Percent of people eating these numbers of servings of vegetables per day (‘≤ 1’ includes those who don’t eat vegetables). Serving = 1 medium potato/ kumara or 1/2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup salad vegetables. 2 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. 3 Potato: boiled, mashed, baked or roasted. 4 Hot potato chips or kumara chips/ french fries/ wedges. 44 56 49 50 49 63 76 62 25 17 24 21 22 14 5 14 Mixed Cabbage/ CauliHot frozen Green Peas coleslaw flower Broccoli Pumpkin chips 4 vegetables beans VEGETABLES I Percent consuming at least once per week Vegetables Vegetables Onions/ ≤ 1/day ≥ 3/day 2 Potato 3 Carrots Tomatoes Lettuce leeks NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E4.1 cont. 150 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 VEGETABLES II Percent consuming at least once per week 37 29 30 26 55 50 44 43 31 32 48 49 41 37 40 43 40 46 42 48 38 44 43 46 38 36 35 37 37 41 36 36 36 39 34 33 31 29 37 39 33 27 34 27 43 36 36 34 32 23 37 31 35 28 29 26 39 39 34 29 24 23 37 37 29 25 24 19 47 39 33 26 25 30 31 37 27 26 25 28 29 34 30 36 28 18 35 30 33 23 22 20 44 34 28 24 24 32 29 38 25 30 24 24 34 33 26 30 21 18 32 31 25 17 17 19 40 33 26 28 14 15 24 25 18 13 14 11 29 24 21 20 11 12 23 20 14 12 11 9 29 22 19 16 11 12 20 21 14 14 12 6 30 20 18 14 10 20 16 19 13 13 13 12 21 16 16 15 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20. 14 19 20 27 20 14 14 14 27 23 20 19 Silverbeet/ Sweet- MushBrussels spinach Cucumber Beans 1 corn rooms Courgettes 2 Kumara Capsicum Beetroot Celery sprouts Avocado Asparagus Sprouts Parsnip 42 40 37 34 33 30 30 30 29 26 19 19 16 16 15 20 25 32 35 21 11 15 9 18 13 11 9 4 6 8 37 24 39 29 37 16 17 26 18 10 5 18 4 8 6 32 28 33 35 36 23 25 30 20 17 12 13 11 14 9 51 36 44 29 25 30 33 25 33 24 24 16 15 13 18 62 46 40 15 19 30 34 18 41 32 23 15 20 8 25 51 24 38 18 13 26 31 9 37 29 17 5 15 4 27 40 30 38 31 30 24 27 26 26 19 16 14 12 11 13 23 47 37 39 28 19 20 21 21 25 6 22 9 20 8 28 40 25 43 50 32 32 30 22 29 12 25 17 22 10 40 47 36 44 40 40 29 41 28 29 15 27 20 23 11 51 53 36 34 34 39 37 34 37 35 33 23 25 21 24 63 55 44 21 19 37 43 23 40 40 40 22 31 11 25 69 44 41 22 23 33 38 11 39 39 40 13 38 18 35 43 48 36 38 35 36 32 33 31 32 22 24 22 20 17 Beans (including baked beans), lentils. Courgettes, zucchini, marrow, eggplant, squash. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E4.2 Frequently Eaten Foods 151 24 29 36 31 45 49 52 50 30* 22 60* 33 67* 52 64* 58 7* 36 74* 36 23* 44 55* 41 30 29 53 40 27 37 55 43 24 24 36 27 27 36 44 35 37 50 54 47 24 50 71 47 40 34 43 39 30 38 39 37 10* 39 47* 33 44* 34 18* 34 30 26 34 29 26 25 35 28 34 36 24 30 42 43 29 37 11* 20 39* 22 29* 36 25* 31 27 29 28 28 46 46 27 42 35 36 23 30 44 44 30 38 16* 32 27* 26 28* 19 23* 23 20 35 19 26 30 27 19 26 15 26 30 25 31 44 39 39 9* 7 29* 13 12* 24 15* 18 12 15 31 18 14 28 32 25 16 23 32 26 26 26 37 31 7* 32 65* 33 21* 26 37* 28 20 35 32 30 33 45 63 46 19 33 21 26 31 45 29 36 10* 19 56* 25 15* 28 32* 26 19 17 23 19 11 24 17 18 19 21 36 27 23 29 39 32 8* 9 30* 13 23* 23 6* 19 19 21 29 23 14 27 36 25 11 18 26 20 31 30 38 34 21* 19 46* 26 34* 32 45* 36 7 13 22 13 9 17 24 16 14 14 14 14 26 28 21 25 21* 4 11* 10 25* 21 26* 24 17 12 19 16 16 24 26 21 5 12 16 12 16 21 29 24 3* 5 21* 8 4* 11 17* 11 0 9 12 6 7 11 17 11 9 16 11 12 26 25 19 22 6* 3 35* 11 1* 8 8* 6 1 6 8 4 8 16 9 12 8 10 22 15 11 13 28 19 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 1* 1 1 6 9 5 4 6 15 8 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20. 9 13 24 17 11 16 36 24 0* 6 32* 10 3* 9 22* 11 2 8 12 7 6 11 23 12 Silverbeet/ Sweet- MushBrussels spinach Cucumber Beans 1 corn rooms Courgettes 2 Kumara Capsicum Beetroot Celery sprouts Avocado Asparagus Sprouts Parsnip VEGETABLES II Percent consuming at least once per week * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Beans (including baked beans), lentils. 2 Courgettes, zucchini, marrow, eggplant, squash. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E4.2 cont. 152 NZ Food: NZ People 1 Such as whitloof. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E4.3 8 10 8 8 15 14 10 11 7 11 11 17 12 10 11 15 16 14 15 14 13 9 16 13 7 6 6 4 5 6 6 10 4 5 5 10 3 5 7 9 4 3 5 3 9 9 8 5 2 4 3 3 0 1 3 6 1 2 2 9 2 2 3 6 1 1 1 7 2 1 4 9 Other green leafy Turnips/ Green Kamo vegetables 1 swedes bananas Yams Watercress kamo 13 10 7 6 3 3 11 4 6 4 1 0 11 6 5 2 2 0 13 4 8 5 3 2 9 10 7 4 3 4 13 20 5 4 2 3 13 28 1 2 1 1 12 8 6 4 2 2 9 6 11 4 2 0 14 8 5 6 4 2 15 7 8 9 3 4 15 16 4 8 4 5 18 22 3 7 2 5 15 32 6 7 1 1 15 12 6 8 3 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 1 6 0 1 2 6 1 3 1 2 0 0 2 5 1 0 1 6 Taro Puha 2 2 4 0 1 1 3 2 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 0 3 Taro leaf 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 Karengo 1 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 Pacific Island yams Cassava 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Bread fruit 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20. Soybeans/ tofu 2 3 2 4 1 0 1 2 3 3 4 2 3 1 3 VEGETABLES III Percent consuming at least once per week Frequently Eaten Foods 153 6 4 15 9 9 8 21 14 0* 1 11* 3 1* 4 2* 2 0* 16 32* 16 15* 30 19* 23 13 13 10 12 12 14 16 15 1 5 5 4 2 3 12 5 11 14 15 14 9 13 17 12 3 7 4 5 5 6 3 5 29* 41 49* 40 53* 36 37* 41 9 4 8 7 0 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 6 11 8 9 0* 12 9* 8 3* 12 8* 9 2 2 0 1 0 2 4 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 3* 5 28* 10 4* 15 19* 13 6 16 25 15 12 15 22 16 0 0 2 1 0 2 1 1 0* 6 28* 9 0* 7 1* 3 2 11 18 11 3 22 44 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37* 41 59* 45 39* 42 44* 42 1 4 1 1 4 2 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0* 2 6* 2 3* 1 0* 1 5 12 24 13 8 12 26 15 Taro Puha 3 4 0 2 3 4 2 3 6* 5 17* 8 4* 10 5* 7 0 2 5 2 0 1 0 1 Soybeans/ tofu 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 7* 3 7* 5 4* 10 8* 8 0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 Karengo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3* 12 15* 10 21* 13 16* 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1* 18 21* 14 4* 7 27* 12 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Pacific Island yams Cassava 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4* 3 12* 5 3* 0 8* 3 2 2 0 1 2 1 0 1 Bread fruit Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9* 23 26* 20 15* 16 26* 18 0 0 0 0 3 2 3 2 Taro leaf VEGETABLES III Percent consuming at least once per week Other green leafy Turnips/ Green Kamo vegetables 1 swedes bananas Yams Watercress kamo * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Such as whitloof. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E4.3 cont. 154 NZ Food: NZ People 43 34 34 28 68 56 51 49 34 37 57 55 26 33 40 42 12 19 21 25 33 36 18 21 Fruit < 1/day 1 27 37 39 39 31 27 14 34 20 29 22 17 9 5 19 FRUITS Percent consuming at least once per week 79 75 85 83 81 79 76 76 90 84 82 79 68 65 78 77 72 71 66 61 83 76 74 77 62 59 72 73 66 61 56 58 74 74 73 70 44 48 66 68 50 46 43 42 74 70 63 57 42 39 54 53 42 38 42 41 57 55 48 55 28 29 49 48 34 27 28 23 60 50 45 39 29 29 46 47 31 32 28 24 53 47 44 39 24 22 36 35 28 23 21 21 43 35 32 33 16 19 31 35 17 17 18 17 33 31 31 32 16 14 28 28 15 13 17 17 32 27 24 30 22 28 20 23 24 21 23 27 20 22 20 24 13 12 24 23 15 13 11 10 28 25 20 17 11 15 19 26 10 16 12 11 23 23 18 20 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 2, 21, and 22. 20 22 26 30 26 20 20 15 32 30 23 22 Fruit Fruit Stone Berry canned Other Stewed 2+ /day 2 Bananas Apples Oranges fruit 3 Pears fruits 4 Kiwifruit Grapes Sultanas Feijoas Melon in syrup dried fruit fruit 46 82 73 67 56 47 39 38 30 24 24 22 22 18 17 36 68 76 66 37 48 31 25 28 19 20 28 26 10 5 30 79 63 62 42 37 19 26 25 15 13 16 24 7 3 32 74 67 57 40 37 25 29 20 20 14 15 21 13 6 36 84 67 65 51 42 30 30 26 22 19 12 26 12 13 40 83 69 62 59 48 45 33 31 24 27 15 27 16 37 53 82 71 57 59 52 29 36 23 31 14 10 32 22 47 34 78 68 61 45 41 28 29 23 20 16 16 24 12 13 60 76 85 72 65 45 38 40 36 17 40 27 28 19 21 48 79 69 65 60 45 41 30 32 22 29 27 22 20 8 49 84 78 74 65 51 50 44 35 30 32 33 19 22 12 60 87 76 74 71 59 53 56 38 26 32 28 19 24 23 74 86 81 74 72 66 53 48 41 30 34 24 23 26 47 71 90 81 74 69 55 41 51 34 36 25 10 35 27 62 56 85 78 72 67 53 49 47 36 27 31 28 21 23 21 Servings Percent of people eating less than one serving of fruit per day, or no fruit at all. Serving = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1/2 cup of stewed fruit. 2 Percent of people eating 2 servings or more of fruit per day. NZ Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. 3 Peach, nectarine, plum, apricot. 4 Strawberry’s and other berries or cherries. 1 NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E5 Frequently Eaten Foods 155 43 23 30 31 48 47 52 49 33* 24 36* 29 57* 49 56* 53 30 34 39 35 55 49 67 57 32 48 38 41 33 28 17 26 35* 45 38* 41 32* 27 34* 30 39 37 27 33 22 21 13 18 72 76 83 78 79 84 88 84 77* 74 88* 78 82* 87 95* 88 85 67 84 76 67 80 84 77 71 68 67 68 76 79 77 78 62* 73 87* 74 80* 86 95* 86 59 62 74 64 75 76 85 77 60 56 63 60 67 74 73 73 73* 75 83* 76 77* 79 88* 80 72 58 64 64 66 67 84 71 42 41 52 46 67 68 71 69 24* 44 74* 46 38* 51 45* 46 38 32 56 40 50 53 71 57 40 34 43 38 42 48 59 52 51* 65 76* 64 75* 72 82* 76 41 44 55 46 48 55 75 58 22 26 33 29 43 55 53 52 19* 24 34* 24 30* 30 28* 30 31 21 34 27 29 29 38 31 30 30 32 31 38 47 54 49 6* 23 44* 23 27* 37 40* 35 13 17 13 15 23 31 45 32 25 20 26 23 36 35 39 37 20 22 24 23 20 32 30 30 6* 13 15* 11 20* 13 5* 14 5 9 15 9 15 20 14 18 14 14 20 16 34 31 31 31 6* 18 30* 18 41* 31 34* 35 24 13 21 19 29 40 34 35 19 13 12 14 26 32 22 27 23* 23 41* 27 38* 46 29* 39 29 26 22 26 30 31 43 33 23 19 27 23 23 17 23 20 12* 33 28* 26 42* 17 33* 28 36 25 24 28 26 27 24 26 9 14 14 13 24 23 26 25 8* 7 18* 10 5* 17 3* 11 6 7 6 6 10 19 21 17 5 5 23 13 16 11 36 23 0* 9 11* 8 8* 12 4* 9 3 10 9 8 4 12 27 14 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 2, 21, and 22. 19* 30 50* 31 30* 34 35* 33 36 9 29 22 25 29 38 30 Fruit Fruit Fruit Stone Berry canned Other Stewed 1 2 3 4 < 1/day 2+ /day Bananas Apples Oranges fruit Pears fruits Kiwifruit Grapes Sultanas Feijoas Melon in syrup dried fruit fruit Servings FRUITS Percent consuming at least once per week * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percent of people eating less than one serving of fruit per day, or no fruit at all. Serving = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1/2 cup of stewed fruit. 2 Percent of people eating 2 servings or more of fruit per day. NZ Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline. 3 Peach, nectarine, plum, apricot. 4 Strawberry’s and other berries or cherries. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E5 cont. 156 NZ Food: NZ People 1 29 30 28 35 17 17 20 21 34 25 20 16 75 74 84 85 30 20 27 22 36 27 24 19 29 27 22 21 Carbonated Fruit drinks juice 24 26 53 31 54 38 34 28 16 22 18 20 20 17 30 27 34 29 42 30 15 25 14 24 13 19 6 24 18 25 78 77 73 71 88 87 82 79 Water 80 76 79 73 75 77 77 74 83 82 83 84 91 89 85 21 26 18 19 17 22 25 27 14 15 19 26 8 6 10 8 8 7 6 6 10 13 8 7 7 9 4 5 5 4 8 14 3 1 4 9 6 4 3 1 5 6 6 7 3 1 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 4 5 2 3 5 5 57 64 64 66 65 59 53 55 66 65 63 63 Tea 62 25 26 54 76 81 89 58 40 47 61 72 82 86 65 BEVERAGES Percent consuming ‘regularly’ 1 Non-alcoholic Diet Powdered carbonated Sports Fruit drinks drinks Cordial drinks drinks 20 8 6 4 3 33 6 13 9 7 35 4 13 20 8 29 7 7 6 3 12 8 5 2 2 8 11 7 0 4 9 7 4 0 1 23 7 7 5 3 33 11 6 4 11 30 11 7 9 3 21 9 5 2 2 10 10 1 1 3 10 7 6 1 2 8 7 3 0 6 18 10 4 2 3 ‘Regularly’ includes all those who consume these beverages at least 3 times per week. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E6 65 62 59 56 66 67 63 61 60 59 59 53 Coffee 61 36 51 71 68 65 51 64 32 53 63 62 59 49 58 51 53 10 11 55 55 55 40 10 11 9 8 14 10 22 23 20 14 8 8 32 25 19 12 21 20 15 16 22 24 22 15 20 17 16 10 16 8 13 12 19 15 9 9 18 16 10 5 4 3 1 1 6 2 4 4 1 0 1 1 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 23. 4 4 11 11 6 5 2 4 11 14 11 8 Herbal tea 8 2 2 6 4 2 1 4 3 10 13 13 6 5 11 Percent consuming at least once per week Alcoholic Low White Spirits/ Red alcohol Beer wine liqueurs wine beer 30 18 18 13 2 32 1 16 3 3 56 6 28 8 0 58 13 18 15 3 54 17 19 17 7 40 25 28 15 8 24 8 32 7 5 51 13 21 14 4 17 8 14 4 0 24 19 17 17 2 11 24 14 14 1 5 29 18 16 0 3 19 14 7 1 4 13 17 6 3 10 23 16 13 1 Frequently Eaten Foods 157 63 34 26 40 47 17 13 25 45* 38 21* 36 43* 18 12* 24 52 33 16 29 36 14 12 17 80* 78 86* 81 88* 85 95* 88 79 72 76 75 86 84 86 85 36 31 20 27 31 26 23 26 25* 23 27* 25 36* 22 36* 29 34 14 22 22 22 19 18 20 Carbonated Fruit drinks juice 73 73 68 72 67 80 84 77 Water 33 26 10 20 27 18 8 15 36* 50 20* 39 24* 36 24* 30 38 42 24 37 49 34 29 38 6 7 8 7 12 10 9 10 4* 7 11* 7 18* 10 16* 14 2 3 12 5 5 7 5 7 11 6 5 7 2 3 2 2 7* 10 15* 11 10* 8 2* 7 25 13 4 15 20 10 11 13 16 4 0 5 6 2 1 2 32* 8 11* 16 16* 10 0* 9 7 14 0 9 7 5 1 4 9 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 4* 19 19* 15 24* 7 11* 13 0 3 0 1 14 4 6 8 27 52 79 59 45 62 77 66 33* 49 87* 53 56* 63 73* 63 15 65 71 50 38 55 69 53 Tea BEVERAGES Percent consuming ‘regularly’ 1 Non-alcoholic Diet Powdered carbonated Sports Fruit drinks drinks Cordial drinks drinks * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 ‘Regularly’ includes all those who consume these beverages at least 3 times per week. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E6 cont. 45 73 66 65 46 65 61 60 30* 63 61* 54 33* 62 59* 52 49 65 64 60 46 51 38 46 Coffee 49 59 48 53 24 11 4 10 22* 29 29* 28 7* 6 2* 5 44 58 49 51 15 11 7 11 5 15 19 15 17 28 26 25 3* 3 2* 3 2* 4 6* 4 0 2 8 3 9 5 4 6 23 19 23 21 17 16 18 17 14* 3 3* 6 11* 5 2* 6 27 17 6 17 12 9 9 10 6 17 16 15 15 16 13 15 0* 1 6* 2 0* 1 3* 1 7 7 12 8 1 5 6 5 1 3 7 4 1 1 1 1 3* 1 15* 4 3* 1 1* 2 1 3 6 3 3 0 0 1 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 23. 2 7 3 4 10 15 11 12 0* 3 0* 1 4* 4 9* 5 0 3 1 2 0 8 6 5 Herbal tea Percent consuming at least once per week Alcoholic Low White Spirits/ Red alcohol Beer wine liqueurs wine beer 158 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 2–3/ week 44 44 34 43 39 51 55 42 35 41 46 49 59 57 48 49 41 36 41 48 47 48 46 43 40 48 47 ≤ 1/ week 31 33 32 22 26 30 26 26 49 37 37 37 33 31 36 31 29 27 17 41 39 37 28 27 23 37 34 Frequency 1 Eggs 30 37 15 19 20 31 36 43 10 15 15 25 66 77 59 67 78 73 64 63 64 67 60 56 48 49 56 62 49 49 46 46 58 59 56 56 41 38 32 30 40 39 40 40 32 29 29 34 55 54 41 43 54 57 52 55 40 43 40 45 41 54 38 45 44 46 42 48 41 39 38 43 23 29 24 32 30 28 20 20 29 29 23 25 21 23 26 31 23 22 20 21 29 30 25 26 9 10 15 16 11 13 7 8 19 18 13 12 53 61 53 53 64 61 48 45 59 54 50 46 45 42 38 33 54 41 41 38 45 33 35 33 38 47 37 39 46 46 36 35 41 41 38 32 25 20 29 23 26 33 17 17 33 31 27 18 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 17 – 19. 20 24 22 27 24 25 18 16 28 28 20 19 Biscuits/cakes/muffins LowCream White/ calorie Plain filled/ Cakes/ Mayon- cheese Salad salad sweet chocolate scones/ Gravy naise sauce dressing dressing biscuits biscuits pikelets Muffins 43 26 25 23 12 53 40 39 26 40 19 17 14 8 51 63 38 23 38 34 22 20 14 43 37 35 29 40 23 21 20 7 53 43 39 26 52 26 24 26 11 58 42 42 20 55 26 18 20 14 71 46 49 17 49 16 26 28 8 65 37 60 23 45 25 22 21 10 55 44 41 23 37 39 24 20 6 64 48 35 27 40 24 32 16 13 42 45 26 18 37 25 28 23 16 50 38 37 30 43 26 25 26 20 53 31 39 31 49 26 29 35 21 60 34 50 25 50 33 34 26 10 65 30 48 20 40 27 28 24 16 52 37 38 28 MISCELLANEOUS FOOD I Percent consuming at least once per week Sauces/dressings Vegemite ≥ 4/ Sweet or Peanut Tomato week spreads 2 Marmite butter sauce 24 66 53 36 48 24 54 54 56 75 34 53 50 48 75 35 66 47 43 55 35 80 47 30 48 20 86 50 40 36 19 87 35 23 35 33 70 48 40 54 16 36 67 33 65 22 37 61 38 64 17 61 54 34 48 15 69 57 25 27 8 77 64 29 23 12 85 58 22 27 16 62 57 31 41 Toppings/spreads Frequency of egg consumption for those who eat eggs (percent). Includes jam, honey, marmalade and syrup. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E7.1 Frequently Eaten Foods 159 35 31 26 31 33 48 47 43 38* 37 23* 35 34* 44 54* 43 38 45 45 44 40 46 52 48 18* 9 41* 19 41* 24 25* 28 38 24 27 28 46 39 36 39 2–3/ week 9 6 17 9 26 22 20 23 ≤ 1/ week Frequency 1 Eggs 23 29 27 28 14 15 12 13 44* 54 35* 47 26* 32 22* 27 56 63 57 59 41 31 33 34 57 67 82 72 37 63 74 64 24* 55 76* 51 21* 44 46* 39 50 61 79 62 40 50 74 52 55 50 47 49 69 56 58 59 28* 25 32* 27 50* 35 40* 41 45 41 43 43 47 47 75 54 53 45 30 40 36 35 25 30 21* 43 64* 42 11* 33 26* 25 54 38 30 41 43 35 35 37 77 57 43 55 62 50 26 41 49* 52 64* 54 76* 48 40* 54 77 50 52 58 68 40 27 44 40 40 53 46 38 36 46 41 18* 56 65* 48 34* 42 25* 35 40 44 41 42 44 37 42 41 30 26 26 27 30 25 27 27 18* 15 18* 17 37* 26 14* 27 23 15 26 20 27 24 29 26 22 21 24 22 28 27 27 27 8* 6 9* 8 10* 16 15* 14 16 24 21 21 38 36 25 34 12 8 12 10 12 16 19 17 5* 5 19* 8 12* 12 16* 13 9 4 9 7 4 10 21 11 45 55 64 58 54 52 59 56 29* 34 54* 37 43* 40 24* 37 54 46 33 45 42 37 32 38 48 46 44 46 45 40 32 37 20* 38 32* 32 68* 36 10* 39 52 29 30 36 44 31 20 32 37 41 46 43 28 39 45 40 13* 33 42* 29 41* 23 18* 27 36 26 31 30 30 28 25 28 32 28 21 25 22 33 29 29 8* 22 27* 20 40* 18 19* 25 8 14 6 10 16 18 11 15 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 17 – 19. 18 20 24 22 19 24 28 25 11* 18 27* 18 11* 22 20* 19 16 14 29 18 15 10 27 15 Biscuits/cakes/muffins LowCream White/ calorie Plain filled/ Cakes/ Mayon- cheese Salad salad sweet chocolatescones/ Gravy naise sauce dressing dressing biscuits biscuits pikelets Muffins MISCELLANEOUS FOOD I Percent consuming at least once per week Sauces/dressings Vegemite ≥ 4/ Sweet or Peanut Tomato week spreads 2 Marmite butter sauce Toppings/spreads * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Frequency of egg consumption for those who eat eggs (percent). 2 Includes jam, honey, marmalade and syrup. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E7.1 cont. 160 NZ Food: NZ People 1 38 38 31 35 42 39 35 38 35 39 38 37 50 50 36 38 57 60 56 47 41 50 52 62 18 19 15 16 23 19 15 15 18 14 15 16 15 12 7 8 16 13 13 13 8 7 8 8 40 34 35 29 39 37 38 39 36 32 32 33 36 33 34 32 38 34 35 31 38 30 31 34 13 14 13 12 14 14 10 12 13 11 14 12 40 34 16 12 33 35 37 46 10 13 16 21 23 15 12 8 20 19 22 24 11 10 10 14 39 37 34 30 41 36 41 36 35 32 31 34 20 18 18 20 22 18 19 21 20 22 15 18 Nuts 19 13 11 18 25 29 14 20 8 8 19 25 21 20 19 4 1 4 1 1 2 3 7 1 2 3 8 Coconut cream 3 2 2 5 2 0 1 3 4 1 5 2 1 0 3 Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 18. 12 11 7 6 13 12 11 10 8 5 7 8 MISCELLANEOUS FOOD II Percent consuming at least once per week Soups Puddings Confectionery Other foods Other Sweet Meat pies/ Home- Canned/ puddings/ pies/ Other Muesli sausage Potato made packet desserts pastries Chocolate confectionery bars rolls 1 Hamburger Pizza crisps 50 37 17 10 35 34 13 26 16 9 35 28 34 27 24 66 67 16 57 42 19 70 30 28 16 24 52 34 14 63 47 30 52 36 35 16 13 38 34 17 39 24 11 43 55 37 20 12 28 28 9 30 9 5 28 69 42 22 6 37 36 3 16 2 4 22 60 46 16 9 20 28 4 14 1 4 7 44 36 19 14 38 35 13 38 21 11 38 53 36 21 16 59 55 28 27 33 12 67 33 44 16 11 54 43 17 28 30 12 56 47 37 14 7 34 33 13 16 12 9 39 66 36 17 8 24 24 11 9 3 4 18 71 40 15 6 20 31 3 6 1 2 14 75 39 20 3 19 30 3 9 0 2 9 55 38 16 7 33 33 12 15 11 7 33 Includes other savoury pastries. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table E7.2 Frequently Eaten Foods 161 31 37 22 32 38 31 37 34 24* 27 26* 26 26* 31 30* 29 31 35 41 37 43 39 38 39 23 22 39 26 27 32 54 36 21* 45 60* 42 47* 59 62* 56 31 37 60 46 44 49 70 57 22 18 20 19 16 14 17 16 11* 13 25* 15 30* 11 24* 20 14 8 15 12 23 14 23 19 26 13 9 14 10 6 6 7 14* 17 29* 19 36* 16 4* 19 17 16 16 16 16 7 12 11 54 41 30 38 54 34 23 32 52* 31 23* 35 50* 30 6* 30 70 24 23 38 69 30 20 39 47 36 30 35 45 34 26 33 31* 13 15* 18 50* 17 5* 24 53 25 25 34 56 32 32 38 15 18 7 13 22 14 8 13 8* 17 14* 14 14* 13 3* 11 18 14 5 13 21 12 5 12 57 39 24 35 20 15 7 12 63* 56 51* 57 55* 25 17* 31 74 40 37 50 45 22 14 27 43 23 7 19 29 10 2 9 29 13 4 12 10 10 3 7 11* 12 15* 12 11* 8 1* 7 15 3 6 7 20 7 4 10 59 44 24 38 60 38 16 32 47* 51 26* 44 64* 43 28* 45 67 33 22 41 62 40 17 40 13 20 24 21 6 18 23 19 6* 15 28* 16 14* 22 20* 19 5 10 31 14 14 21 17 17 Nuts 0 3 0 1 0 3 1 1 24* 44 46* 38 35* 47 31* 40 2 5 1 3 2 4 1 3 Coconut cream Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 18. 44* 28 30* 33 30* 22 8* 21 55 30 0 30 40 16 7 20 MISCELLANEOUS FOOD II Percent consuming at least once per week Soups Puddings Confectionery Other foods Other Sweet Meat pies/ Home- Canned/ puddings/ pies/ Other Muesli sausage Potato made packet desserts pastries Chocolate confectionery bars rolls 1 Hamburger Pizza crisps * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Includes other savoury pastries. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table E7.2 cont. 162 NZ Food: NZ People Section F Health Introduction The nutrition-related health of New Zealanders was determined from anthropometric measures, blood pressure and blood assays. The critical body size data in terms of health are body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip (W/H) ratio. Blood pressure provides an indication of the prevalence of an important cardiovascular disease risk factor. While we have confidence in the trends in blood pressure measurement we note that the equipment used (an automatic electronic sphygmomanometer) in the NNS97 may be a factor which suggests some caution in the interpretation of these data. All blood assays were conducted by Dunedin-based Southern Community Laboratories (an IANZ accredited laboratory) which follows the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia quality assurance programme. Key Points Body size • Seventeen percent of the New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females) were considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males, 30 percent females). Blood pressure • Twenty-two percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure ≥ 95 mmHg). Blood analyses • The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three percent of the New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L. • Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2 percent of females, respectively. Health 163 F1 Body Size Table F1 Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, circumferences, breadths and skinfolds) were included as indicators of health status and to provide a description of the size and shape of New Zealanders. Height and weight Males on average were 13 cm taller and 12 kg heavier than females. Weight was greatest in the 45–64 years group (males 84.6 kg, females 72.7 kg) (Figure A). NZ Måori (males 87.3 kg, females 75.2 kg) and Pacific people (males 95.0 kg, females 84.7 kg) were heavier than NZ European & Others (males 78.9 kg, females 67.1 kg) but did not differ significantly in height. Mean height was greatest in the 19–24 years group (177.4 cm) and decreased in older age groups. The difference in height may reflect a loss of height with age group and/or a trend to an increase in height among younger New Zealanders. Body mass index Body Mass Index (BMI) is an indicator of excess weight. The proportion of the population who are overweight 11 or obese 12 can be estimated from BMI. Thirty-five percent of the population (40.4 percent males, 30.1 percent females) were classified as overweight and a further 17 percent were considered obese (14.7 percent males, 19.2 percent females). Obesity in the population increased with age, peaking in the 45–64 years group (males 23 percent, females 26.5 percent), then declining in the older groups. The proportion of the population classified as overweight was highest in those 65–74 years (males 57.6 percent, females 47.5 percent). In females, there was a strong relationship between obesity and NZDep96 quartile. Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas had the lowest level of obesity (13.1 percent), compared with quartile IV areas (25.4 percent). This relationship was not significant in males. The proportion of the population who were overweight was not associated with NZDep96 quartile. NZ Måori (males 27.0 percent, females 27.9 percent) and Pacific people (26.2 percent, 47.2 percent) were more likely to be classified as obese than NZ European & Others (12.6 percent, 16.7 percent). The proportion of overweight females was not affected by ethnic group. However, Pacific males Figure A Figure B Weight male female 85 80% 80 70% 60% 75 70 65 male female 90% NZ population Mean (kg) 90 W/H ratio excess 50% 40% 60 30% 20% 55 10% Age group (years) Age group (years) 11 NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2 . 12 NZ Maori and Pacific people with a BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. 164 NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 4 65 –7 4 45 –6 4 25 –4 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 10 0 75 + 4 65 –7 4 45 –6 4 25 –4 15 – 19 18 –2 4 0 0% were more likely to be classified as overweight (59.2 percent) than NZ European & Others (41.0 percent) and NZ Måori (30.0 percent). NZ Måori males (30.0 percent) were less likely to be classified as overweight than NZ European & Others (41.0 percent). Waist/hip ratio Waist to hip (W/H) ratio is considered an indicator of cardiovascular risk when the ratio exceeds 0.9 for males and 0.8 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994). The proportion of the population with a W/H ratio excess increased with age from the 15–18 years groups (males 7.7 percent, females 10.2 percent) to the 75+ years group (72.9 percent, 71.8 percent) (Figure B). With the exception of the youngest and oldest groups, a higher proportion of males had a W/H ratio excess than females. Pacific people (males 66 percent, females 52.4 percent) had the highest prevalence of W/H ratio excess compared with NZ Måori (47.5 percent, 38.0 percent) and NZ European & Others (46.8 percent, 34.4 percent). Skinfolds The mean triceps skinfold was 19.5 mm (females 25.0 mm, males 13.9 mm) which was similar to the mean subscapular skinfold at 20.8 mm (females 23.3 mm, males 18.3 mm). In males, mean triceps skinfold did not change with age group, but mean subscapular skinfold was highest in the 45–64 years group (21.0 mm). In females, the highest mean triceps and subscapular skinfolds were measured in the 45–64 years group (triceps 28.4 mm, subscapular 27.0 mm). The mean subscapular skinfold was higher in females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (25.3 mm) compared with quartile I areas (21.7 mm). Health 165 F2 Blood Pressure Table F2 Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures increased with age as described in other studies in developed societies peaking in the 75+ years group at approximately 160 mmHg (systolic) and 80 mmHg (diastolic). Males up to 65 years had higher blood pressure than females of a comparable age. Hypertension Participants were deemed to be hypertensive in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) cut-off values (≥ 160 mmHg systolic and/or ≥ 95 mmHg diastolic), irrespective of whether they were taking hypertensive medication. Under these criteria, 16.5 percent of males and 12.3 percent of females were deemed to be hypertensive. Hypertensive levels were lowest in the 15–44 years groups and increased markedly with age, peaking at 48 percent to 51 percent in the 75+ years groups (Figure A). Twenty percent of the population had high blood pressure when all individuals who reported taking hypertensive medication and those who were hypertensive were included. This prevalence did not alter across ethnic groups (Figure B). Close to 10 percent of the population were on some form of hypertensive medication. Of interest, is the observation that 4.2 percent of respondents (males 4.1 percent, females 4.3 percent) who reported taking hypertensive medication were still hypertensive at the time of their blood pressure measurements. Medication of hypertensives was apparently more effective in NZ European & Others (males 6.1 percent, females 6.4 percent) compared with NZ Måori (1.6 percent, 3.3 percent) and Pacific people (1.2 percent, 4.4 percent). Figure A Figure B Hypertension male female High blood pressure 25% male female 50% Population 30% 20% 15% 10% Age group (years) 166 NZ Food: NZ People 10 0 75 + 65 – 45 – 25 – 74 0% 64 0% 44 5% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 10% 0 NZ population 20% 40% NZ Maori Pacific people Ethnic group NZ European & Others F3 Blood Analyses Table F3 The mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) of New Zealanders was 5.7 with no difference between males and females. Cholesterol levels increased with age group for females, but for males it peaked at the 65–74 years group before declining slightly. Twenty-three percent of New Zealanders had cholesterol levels greater than 6.5 mmol/L, the level which some international organisations suggest as a cut-off point above which people should be counselled to reduce their cholesterol levels (Figure A). However, in females, proportions among NZ Måori and Pacific people were low (10.0 percent and 11.9 percent respectively) compared to NZ European & Others (25.6 percent). Among males, a lower proportion of Pacific people exceeded 6.5 mmol/L (17.5 percent) than did NZ Måori (27.6 percent) or NZ European & Others (23 percent). Metropolitan residents (males 21.4 percent, females 22.0 percent) were less likely than provincial residents (27.4 percent, 27.7 percent) to have levels above 6.5 mmol/L. The overall level of HDL cholesterol in the population was 1.3 mmol/L with females (1.4) having higher levels than males (1.2). This trend was also evident among the three ethnic groups. HDL levels decreased from NZDep96 quartile I areas (females 1.5, males 1.2) to quartile IV areas (1.3, 1.1). Lipid Guidelines developed by The National Heart Foundation (1996) recommend a total cholesterol of 3.0 mmol/L – 5.0 mmol/L and 31 percent of New Zealanders achieved this guideline. Among females, NZ European & Others were the least likely to achieve this guideline (29.4 percent) compared with NZ Måori (43.8 percent) and Pacific people (60.2 percent) (Figure B). Males in the three ethnic groups had similar percentages meeting the guideline (NZ European & Others 31.1 percent, NZ Måori 26.8 percent, Pacific people 28.7 percent). The only difference in haemoglobin levels (g/L) was between males (151) and females (135). Males 75+ years had a lower mean haemoglobin level (144) than all other age groups. Ferritin levels (µg/L) of males (190) were substantially higher than those of females (80). They were lowest among premenopausal females (38–62) and males 15–18 years (78) and highest among Pacific males (318). Provincial males (206) had higher concentrations than metropolitan males (183). There were no apparent differences by NZDep96 quartiles. Figure A Figure B Total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L 70% 50% Population 60% 50% 40% 30% 40% 30% 10 0 45 –6 75 + 0% 65 –7 4 0% 4 10% 25 –4 4 20% 10% 15 – 19 18 –2 4 20% Age group (years) male female 70% 60% 0 NZ population Met NHF lipid guideline male female NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European & Others Ethnic group Health 167 The zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol) was higher in females (41) than males (35), which was the reverse of the pattern seen in ferritin concentrations. In females, the ratio was highest among Pacific people (53) compared to NZ Måori (45) and NZ European & Others (40). Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia primarily affected females (6 percent, 3 percent, 2 percent respectively). Prevalence was highest among NZ Måori females (11 percent, 9 percent, 6 percent). Males overall were not affected with only 4 percent of the 15–18 years group and 2 percent of the 75+ years group considered to have low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia. 168 NZ Food: NZ People Health 169 170 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 0.27 0.41 0.23 0.29 175.4 174.9 162.2 162.2 80.2 81.0 68.6 68.8 79.8 80.6 79.5 81.9 66.7 68.5 68.2 71.7 0.48 0.47 0.43 0.39 0.45 0.33 0.33 0.32 175.5 175.8 175.0 174.6 162.9 162.2 162.0 161.7 0.55 0.76 0.47 0.81 0.96 0.85 0.79 0.89 0.69 0.83 0.92 0.81 Weight (kg) Mean SEM 74.5 0.33 71.2 2.16 77.9 1.42 81.5 0.67 84.6 0.80 78.6 0.92 71.8 1.02 80.4 0.45 61.4 1.67 67.8 1.51 68.6 0.61 72.7 0.75 68.8 0.95 62.5 1.17 68.7 0.41 Height (cm) Mean SEM 168.6 0.21 174.9 0.95 177.4 0.75 176.4 0.31 174.9 0.43 171.9 0.52 168.2 0.65 175.3 0.23 163.3 0.61 164.6 0.88 163.6 0.26 161.5 0.32 159.0 0.57 156.4 0.59 162.2 0.18 26.0 26.4 26.1 26.2 25.9 26.0 25.9 26.9 25.2 26.0 26.0 27.5 0.16 0.22 0.17 0.31 0.25 0.26 0.24 0.26 0.26 0.29 0.35 0.30 BMI (kg/m2) Mean SEM 26.1 0.10 23.2 0.63 24.8 0.40 26.1 0.19 27.6 0.23 26.6 0.28 25.3 0.30 26.2 0.13 23.0 0.63 25.0 0.56 25.7 0.22 27.9 0.27 27.2 0.34 25.5 0.46 26.1 0.15 38.2 45.5 30.2 29.9 39.0 41.9 41.0 40.2 32.3 27.9 30.1 30.3 14.4 15.3 18.5 20.9 14.8 14.5 12.5 16.7 13.1 19.8 19.6 25.4 0.89 0.90 0.78 0.79 0.89 0.91 0.89 0.90 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.80 46.2 50.8 34.0 39.3 44.9 50.9 45.6 49.1 28.9 36.5 34.3 43.5 14.0 13.7 25.0 25.1 14.4 13.4 13.5 14.1 24.3 25.4 24.8 25.7 0.27 0.37 0.30 0.62 0.47 0.39 0.42 0.39 0.57 0.57 0.62 0.43 18.2 18.4 23.0 23.8 18.2 18.0 18.0 19.0 21.7 23.7 22.7 25.3 0.32 0.52 0.38 0.66 0.56 0.54 0.56 0.50 0.61 0.68 0.72 0.62 BODY SIZE OverW/H ratio Subscapular weight 1 Obesity 2 W/H excess 3 Triceps skinfold skinfold (%) (%) ratio (%) (mm) (mm) Mean SEM Mean SEM 35.2 17.0 0.84 41.4 19.5 0.21 20.8 0.23 11.7 12.6 0.81 7.7 13.0 1.07 13.2 1.23 34.0 2.1 0.84 12.5 12.2 0.50 14.1 0.66 39.2 14.1 0.89 38.1 14.3 0.35 18.5 0.43 48.2 23.0 0.94 74.2 14.7 0.38 21.0 0.54 57.6 13.9 0.95 77.1 13.1 0.63 19.3 0.57 38.9 7.4 0.95 72.9 12.8 0.45 18.0 0.78 40.4 14.7 0.90 47.6 13.9 0.22 18.3 0.27 23.5 5.3 0.74 10.2 20.8 1.23 18.0 1.22 17.7 17.2 0.75 10.8 23.0 0.98 21.8 1.30 25.7 17.1 0.77 24.8 25.2 0.40 23.0 0.47 36.6 26.8 0.80 48.4 28.4 0.49 27.0 0.59 47.5 22.0 0.83 68.1 24.5 0.68 23.5 0.78 33.3 17.3 0.83 71.8 19.6 0.70 17.7 0.81 30.1 19.2 0.78 35.6 25.0 0.28 23.3 0.33 Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2, NZ European & Others with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2. Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32kg/m2, NZ European & Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table F1 31.7 32.0 30.3 30.2 31.6 31.7 31.6 32.3 29.6 30.2 30.3 31.1 0.13 0.18 0.14 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.31 0.22 Upper arm circumference (cm) Mean SEM 31.0 0.09 29.0 0.54 31.3 0.36 32.3 0.16 32.6 0.16 30.9 0.25 29.2 0.24 31.8 0.11 27.5 0.62 29.4 0.47 30.1 0.17 31.9 0.20 30.7 0.27 28.6 0.35 30.2 0.12 Health 171 1.11 0.54 0.89 0.47 0.70 0.49 0.97 0.41 1.78* 1.26* 0.79* 0.85 1.26* 0.60 1.34* 0.61 0.74 0.35 0.37 0.25 0.74 0.30 0.26 0.21 175.6 174.7 172.3 174.4 163.4 162.7 159.5 162.1 177.3* 175.1* 170.1* 174.7 164.5* 161.5 160.7* 162.1 176.6 176.8 173.7 175.4 164.1 163.8 160.2 162.2 Height (cm) Mean SEM 72.2 79.8 80.9 78.9 62.4 66.6 69.0 67.1 101.8* 93.8* 88.9* 95.0 81.9* 79.4 97.5* 84.7 80.9 87.8 93.9 87.3 69.8 77.2 77.8 75.2 1.26 0.71 0.61 0.46 1.30 0.65 0.56 0.43 6.31* 2.15* 2.87* 2.29 5.56* 2.90 4.20* 2.45 3.15 2.26 2.91 1.66 1.94 1.55 2.53 1.13 Weight (kg) Mean SEM 23.2 25.5 26.7 25.6 23.1 24.8 26.9 25.5 32.3* 30.5* 30.7* 31.1 30.2* 30.4 37.7* 32.2 26.2 28.7 31.6 28.7 26.1 29.2 30.7 28.7 0.34 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.48 0.23 0.20 0.16 1.77* 0.60* 0.98* 0.63 1.75* 1.04 1.45* 0.84 0.94 0.72 0.87 0.53 0.72 0.53 0.99 0.42 BMI (kg/m2) Mean SEM 24.5 38.7 50.0 41.0 19.4 23.5 38.9 29.8 57.6* 55.8* 69.7* 59.2 25.5* 34.8 21.6* 28.8 17.4 36.3 33.5 30.0 21.8 36.7 38.4 32.7 2.3 12.1 17.3 12.6 8.3 14.4 21.7 16.7 30.0* 27.4* 18.4* 26.2 40.6* 34.0 78.4* 47.2 17.4 22.2 47.4 27.0 17.7 28.0 39.8 27.9 0.82 0.88 0.94 0.90 0.74 0.76 0.81 0.78 0.88* 0.92* 0.99* 0.92 0.76* 0.82 0.87* 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.95 0.89 0.77 0.80 0.84 0.80 6.3 35.0 73.8 46.8 7.4 21.7 54.7 34.4 33.1* 74.3* 90.0* 66.0 25.4* 53.5 80.6* 52.4 23.2 44.5 81.9 47.5 18.0 34.1 68.8 38.0 11.5 14.1 13.9 13.6 21.3 24.8 25.6 24.6 25.4* 16.0* 15.6* 18.5 26.9* 29.8 38.3* 31.1 13.0 14.5 17.6 14.8 23.5 26.4 30.0 26.4 0.42 0.40 0.28 0.23 0.96 0.46 0.36 0.30 5.48* 1.27* 1.07* 1.84 1.50* 1.60 2.45* 1.15 1.10 0.92 1.94 0.73 1.12 0.88 2.83 0.89 12.0 17.6 19.8 17.5 18.4 21.5 24.0 22.1 30.5* 26.1* 24.6* 27.0 28.0* 34.1 44.3* 34.9 16.4 22.0 27.2 21.5 24.6 29.0 31.6 28.3 0.50 0.47 0.39 0.28 1.12 0.51 0.45 0.36 4.86* 1.76* 1.92* 1.74 1.92* 2.18 2.67* 1.52 1.70 1.38 2.08 1.03 1.70 1.38 2.08 0.91 BODY SIZE OverW/H ratio Subscapular weight 1 Obesity 2 W/H excess 3 Triceps skinfold skinfold (%) (%) ratio (%) (mm) (mm) Mean SEM Mean SEM * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2, NZ European & Others with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2. 2 Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32kg/m2, NZ European & Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. 3 Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table F1 cont. 29.6 31.8 31.6 31.3 27.8 29.6 30.8 29.8 37.1* 36.2* 34.4* 36.1 32.8* 33.4 39.6* 34.8 32.2 34.2 34.9 33.8 30.0 32.1 32.5 31.6 0.33 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.45 0.19 0.15 0.13 1.40* 0.52* 0.62* 0.52 1.60* 0.75 1.10* 0.69 0.66 0.43 0.58 0.33 0.61 0.39 0.54 0.30 Upper arm circumference (cm) Mean SEM 172 NZ Food: NZ People 5 4 3 2 1 SEM 0.4 2.0 1.5 0.7 1.1 1.9 2.6 0.6 1.3 1.0 0.6 1.0 2.1 2.7 0.6 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.1 0.7 1.1 0.7 1.1 Mean 1 132 120 130 131 143 155 160 137 112 113 117 136 152 161 127 135 138 138 137 127 129 127 127 137 137 127 127 Systolic (mmHg) 80 81 76 77 79 81 81 81 77 77 75 75 Mean 1 78 66 74 80 87 86 81 80 71 70 75 80 79 79 76 Diastolic (mmHg) 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 SEM 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3 0.4 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.6 1.4 1.6 0.3 61.5% 60.7% 74.6% 70.9% 65.7% 60.8% 58.6% 58.6% 76.3% 73.2% 71.4% 72.8% 7 6 16.6% 16.4% 12.4% 12.1% 11.1% 19.3% 18.5% 18.4% 10.5% 13.0% 12.7% 13.1% 21.9% 22.0% 18.1% 18.6% 16.3% 25.9% 23.0% 23.5% 15.8% 19.9% 18.0% 19.3% 20.0% 2.5% 3.4% 8.5% 36.1% 59.9% 65.5% 21.9% 0.7% 0.4% 5.3% 24.9% 53.0% 72.5% 18.2% High blood pressure 6 5.3% 5.6% 5.7% 6.5% 5.2% 6.5% 4.6% 5.1% 5.3% 6.9% 5.3% 6.2% 4.1% 4.1% 4.3% 4.2% 2.3% 5.7% 4.5% 4.2% 3.1% 5.0% 4.6% 4.4% Medication 7 Not Effective effective 5.7% 4.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% 1.4% 0.2% 7.8% 7.7% 21.4% 13.1% 17.7% 18.1% 5.4% 4.1% 0.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 2.2% 0.2% 8.1% 5.4% 16.5% 14.7% 21.5% 22.0% 5.9% 4.3% High blood pressure includes all participants on medication plus those in the hypertensive category (footnote 5) above. Effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication and not classified as hypertensive. Non effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication and are classified as hypertensive. The sum of effectively and non effectively medicated is the percentage of the population on hypertensive medication. 21.9% 22.9% 13.0% 17.0% 23.2% 19.8% 23.0% 22.9% 13.1% 13.8% 15.9% 14.1% BP categories (irrespective of medication) 2 NormoHypertensive 3 Borderline 4 tensive 5 67.5% 18.2% 14.4% 93.5% 4.0% 2.5% 76.4% 20.6% 3.0% 75.5% 17.4% 7.1% 42.1% 29.7% 28.2% 26.3% 35.2% 38.5% 20.3% 31.9% 47.8% 61.2% 22.2% 16.5% 99.7% 0.3% 0.0% 97.4% 2.2% 0.4% 90.1% 6.9% 3.1% 57.1% 26.1% 16.8% 35.2% 28.2% 36.6% 21.7% 27.3% 51.0% 73.5% 14.2% 12.3% BLOOD PRESSURE Systolic and diastolic pressures are the mean of the participants readings (maximum three). Participants were classified irrespective of whether they were taking hypertensive medication or not. Categories were determined hierarchically and are mutually exclusive. Normotensive: systolic < 140 mmHg and diastolic < 90 mmHg. Borderline: 140 mmHg ≤ systolic ≤ 160 mmHg, and/or 90 mmHg ≤ diastolic < 95 mmHg. Hypertensive: systolic ≥ 160 mmHg or diastolic ≥ 95 mmHg. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table F2 Health 173 1.5 2.2 3.5 1.6 1.3 1.8 3.8 1.8 # 2.6* 5.0* 2.3 1.9* 2.1 5.5* 2.4 1.5 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.7 # 133* 162* 139 112* 117 146* 123 126 130 147 137 112 117 143 128 SEM 125 135 149 136 111 117 151 123 Mean 1 Systolic (mmHg) 71 79 86 80 70 75 80 76 # 84* 97* 83 72* 73 80* 74 71 83 87 81 70 76 84 76 Mean 1 Diastolic (mmHg) 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.4 # 2.1* 3.5* 1.8 1.6* 1.7 4.7* 1.6 1.5 1.9 2.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 2.5 0.9 SEM 82.1% 78.8% 36.8% 61.3% 98.9% 90.7% 48.7% 73.1% # 62.4%* 22.3%* 54.2% 92.1%* 91.4% 29.9%* 75.8% 94.3% 58.5% 34.0% 63.1% 98.4% 85.4% 29.7% 76.0% 7 6 3.4% 5.1% 31.3% 16.1% 0.0% 2.5% 24.9% 12.2% # 14.7%* 66.6%* 21.6% 3.8%* 4.5% 38.8%* 13.1% 1.0% 17.2% 39.9% 18.0% 0.0% 6.3% 41.7% 12.9% 3.7% 6.9% 43.7% 22.2% 0.4% 4.7% 37.0% 18.5% # 14.7%* 72.1%* 22.7% 3.8%* 4.5% 54.6%* 17.2% 1.0% 17.2% 46.4% 19.7% 0.0% 9.2% 49.9% 16.2% High blood pressure 6 0.3% 1.7% 12.3% 6.1% 0.4% 2.2% 12.1% 6.4% # 0.0%* 5.5%* 1.2% 0.0%* 0.0% 15.8%* 4.1% 0.0% 0.0% 6.6% 1.6% 0.0% 2.9% 8.2% 3.3% 0.0% 0.3% 9.2% 4.1% 0.0% 0.1% 9.7% 4.4% # 0.0%* 19.3%* 4.0% 0.0%* 0.6% 17.2%* 4.7% 0.0% 0.0% 17.7% 4.4% 0.0% 0.8% 10.2% 2.8% Medication 7 Not Effective effective High blood pressure includes all participants on medication plus those in the hypertensive category (footnote 5) above. Effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication and not classified as hypertensive. Non effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication and are classified as hypertensive. The sum of effectively and non effectively medicated is the percentage of the population on hypertensive medication. 14.5% 16.0% 31.9% 22.6% 1.1% 6.8% 26.5% 14.7% # 22.9%* 11.1%* 24.2% 4.2%* 4.1% 31.3%* 11.1% 4.7% 24.3% 26.2% 18.9% 1.6% 8.3% 28.6% 11.2% BP categories (irrespective of medication) 2 NormoHyper3 4 tensive Borderline tensive 5 BLOOD PRESSURE # n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate. * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Systolic and diastolic pressures are the mean of the participants readings (maximum three). 2 Participants were classified irrespective of whether they were taking hypertensive medication or not. Categories were determined hierarchically and are mutually exclusive. 3 Normotensive: systolic < 140 mmHg and diastolic < 90 mmHg. 4 Borderline: 140 mmHg ≤ systolic ≤ 160 mmHg, and/or 90 mmHg ≤ diastolic < 95 mmHg. 5 Hypertensive: systolic ≥ 160 mmHg or diastolic ≥ 95 mmHg. 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table F2 cont. 174 NZ Food: NZ People 4 3 2 1 SEM 0.03 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.16 0.05 0.13 0.11 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.16 0.04 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.07 Mean 5.7 4.5 4.9 5.7 6.2 6.3 5.8 5.7 4.7 5.0 5.3 6.3 6.7 6.8 5.7 5.8 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.9 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.9 21.4 27.4 22.0 27.7 27.3 21.7 19.7 22.9 21.6 29.0 24.8 18.4 > 6.5 3 23.4 4.2 4.9 20.5 35.7 34.5 20.7 23.2 5.9 5.4 12.2 35.5 57.9 51.9 23.7 Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 32.8 25.5 33.5 27.2 29.1 31.9 31.9 29.8 34.1 25.8 33.0 34.6 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 Between 3 and 5 4 Mean 31.1 1.3 72.2 1.1 57.3 1.2 31.4 1.2 16.9 1.2 10.5 1.3 21.0 1.2 30.6 1.2 67.2 1.3 51.5 1.4 42.4 1.4 13.1 1.5 8.7 1.4 4.6 1.5 31.7 1.4 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 SEM 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.01 HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) Zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol). Percentage of the population. Participants were only included in this calculation if they had a value for each of the following: ferritin, c-reactive protein, haemoglobin, and zinc protoporphyrins. Also their c-reactive protein was ≤ 8mg/L. Percentage of the population. Percentage of the population with total cholesterol between 3 and 5 mmol/L. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table F3 151 151 135 135 150 152 150 152 135 135 135 136 7 6 5 Mean 143 150 153 152 151 150 144 151 134 134 135 136 137 133 135 183 206 79 82 194 186 184 195 78 84 75 84 Mean 137 78 129 200 225 187 200 190 38 47 62 99 145 131 80 6.55 7.26 3.00 4.91 11.6 8.4 10.7 9.0 4.2 5.5 4.1 6.7 SEM 3.1 7.3 9.4 6.8 12.3 13.1 23.4 5.1 3.7 3.5 2.6 6.3 10.9 13.6 2.6 Ferritin (µg/L) 36 34 41 41 34 34 36 37 41 40 42 43 Mean 38 35 35 35 35 35 40 35 40 41 42 41 39 44 41 0.4 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 SEM 0.3 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.5 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.6 0.4 Zinc protoporphyrin/ haemoglobin ratio 1 1 0 6 6 0 1 1 0 5 5 7 7 0 0 3 3 0 0 1 0 2 2 3 4 0 0 2 2 0 0 1 0 2 2 3 3 Iron Low iron Iron deficiency stores 5 deficiency 6 anemia 7 3 2 1 4 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 7 6 6 4 2 1 7 3 2 6 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 3 2 Iron status (%) 2 Ferritin < 12µg/L. Ferritin < 12µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol. Iron deficiency anemia; ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol, and haemoglobin; < 136 g/L (15–19 years male), < 137 g/L (20–49 years male), < 133 g/L (50–69 years male), < 124 g/L (70+ years male), < 120 g/L (15–69 years female), or < 118 g/L (70+ years female). 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 SEM 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.4 0.5 1.0 1.7 0.3 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.3 Haemoglobin (g/L) BLOOD ANALYSES Health 175 0.16* 0.33 0.23 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.19* 0.08 # 0.27* # 0.17 # 0.17 # 0.19 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.04 # 6.0* # 5.7 # 5.1 # 5.1 4.6 5.6 6.1 5.7 5.0 5.4 6.5 5.8 SEM 5.3* 6.2 6.4 6.0 4.7 5.2 6.1* 5.3 Mean 3.9 18.3 34.4 22.9 6.7 13.3 43.1 25.6 # 28.5* # 17.5 # 6.2 # 10.9 10.1* 33.8 34.3 27.6 2.4 5.7 30.3* 10.0 > 6.5 3 Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 67.0 33.0 16.0 31.1 51.4 41.8 10.8 29.4 # 20.4* # 28.7 # 58.9 # 60.2 44.3* 23.6 12.4 26.8 72.4 41.1 11.5* 43.8 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 # 1.1* # 1.1 # 1.3 # 1.3 1.2* 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1* 1.2 Between 3 and 5 4 Mean 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 # 0.05* # 0.03 # 0.05 # 0.04 0.06* 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.06* 0.02 SEM HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 151 152 150 151 134 135 136 135 # 154* # 155 # 138 # 137 152* 150 151 151 134 135 139* 135 Mean 7 6 5 4 98 186 207 181 40 59 108 78 # 388* # 318 # 73 # 80 149* 233 323 229 54 73 201* 94 Mean 6.7 5.8 9.5 5.2 2.9 2.8 4.3 2.5 # 73.7* # 44.5 # 13.2 # 9.5 21.9* 21.3 31.6 16.1 6.1 7.8 59.8* 13.8 SEM 34 34 35 34 39 41 41 40 # 41* # 41 # 54 # 53 36* 36 40 37 44 46 43* 45 Mean 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 # 2.5* # 1.6 # 5.1 # 3.1 2.1* 1.3 1.5 0.9 2.1 2.0 2.6* 1.3 SEM Zinc protoporphyrin/ haemoglobin ratio1 2 0 0 1 2 7 4 5 # 0* # 0 # 2 # 4 0* 0 0 0 14 11 5* 11 2 0 0 0 1 2 3 2 # 0* # 0 # 2 # 4 0* 0 0 0 12 8 5* 9 Low iron Iron stores 5 deficiency 6 Iron status (%) 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 # 0* # 0 # 2 # 4 0* 0 0 0 10 5 5* 6 Iron deficiency anemia 7 Percentage of the population with total cholesterol between 3 and 5 mmol/L. Ferritin < 12 µg/L. Ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol. Iron deficiency anemia; ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol, and haemoglobin; < 136 g/L (15-19 years male), < 137 g/L (20-49 years male), < 133 g/L (50-69 years male), < 124 g/L (70+ years male), < 120 g/L (15-69 years female), or < 118 g/L (70+ years female). 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.3 # 1.7* # 1.1 # 2.0 # 1.5 1.9* 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.5 1.1 1.8* 0.8 SEM Ferritin (µg/L) BLOOD ANALYSES Haemoglobin (g/L) # n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate. * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 Zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol). 2 Percentage of the population. Participants were only included in this calculation if they had a value for each of the following: ferritin, c-reactive protein, haemoglobin, and zinc protoporphyrins. Also their c-reactive protein was ≤ 8mg/L. 3 Percentage of the population. NZ Maori Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Table F3 cont. 176 NZ Food: NZ People Section G Have We Changed? Introduction Caution should be exercised when comparing these NNS97 data in this report with previous national nutrition surveys. The most recent national survey of nutrition undertaken in New Zealand was the Hillary Commission’s Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey conducted in 1989 (Russell and Wilson 1991). Specific differences which may affect the validity of comparisons include the following. 1. Change in the ethnic mix of the population. The proportion of NZ Måori, Pacific people and other ethnic groups has increased in New Zealand since 1989. 2. The age structure of the New Zealand population has changed since 1989 with an increasing proportion of older New Zealanders. 3. Methodologies were not identical in the two surveys. Specific differences include: LINZ NNS97 Sampling Frame Electoral roll Area-based frame Oversampling New Zealand Måori New Zealand Måori and Pacific people Location of Interview Central clinics Participant’s home 24 hour Diet Recall Paper based Two pass Limited probe questions Single administration Data collected over three months Computer based Three pass Detailed probe questions Repeat on subsample Data collected over 12 months Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire Two formats Few ethnic foods Manually coded One format Good choice of ethnic foods Different questions Different food combinations within questions Checked with respondent by interviewer Electronically scanned Skinfolds Slimguide calipers Harpenden calipers Blood Pressure Hawksley Random Zero Sphygmomanometer Omron 706C Smart-Inflate Monitor Not checked with respondent Therefore, only limited comparisons have been presented in this report. Further comparisons will be made in research papers which adjust for some of the methodological differences. Have We Changed? 177 Key Points Energy and selected foods • Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent in 1989 to 35 percent in 1997. • While some changes in food choices reflected dietary guidelines (e.g. increased frequency of consumption of pasta and rice), other choices did not (e.g. decreased frequency of consumption of many vegetables). Health • Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg since 1989. Associated with this increase was an increase in obesity levels from 11 percent in 1989 to 17 percent in 1997. • Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L since 1989. This was reflected in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol greater than 6.5 mmol/L, decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent. 178 NZ Food: NZ People G1 Energy and Selected Foods Tables G1.1, G1.2, G1.3 The mean daily energy intakes (unadjusted for intra-individual variation) reported from the 24 hour diet recall data for the New Zealand population were higher in NNS97 (males 12.0 MJ, females 8.0 MJ) than the LINZ survey (11.2 MJ, 7.2MJ respectively). The question of whether this is a ‘true’ increase in energy intake cannot be answered because the methodological and sampling issues (outlined in the introduction) would also be expected to increase reported energy intake. However, when unadjusted 90th percentiles of energy intake are compared (LINZ 14.4 MJ, NNS97 15.8 MJ) it can be concluded that there is an increase in the proportion of high energy consumers. (These unadjusted percentile data are not included in this report.) Sources of energy from macronutrients for the New Zealand population have continued to change. Between 1989 and 1997, the percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen, from 37.5 percent to 34.9 percent. This trend continues the decrease from the level of about 40 percent reported in the 1977 survey (Birkbeck 1983). This decrease in contribution to energy from fat has been observed in both males and females (Figure A). The contribution of carbohydrate to energy has shown a corresponding increase from 43.7 percent to 46.2 percent and that of protein from 14.8 percent to 15.6 percent. Consumption of selected foods Foods for which comparable data were available between NNS97 and LINZ surveys, are listed in Table G1. Some of the changes observed were in the direction recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelines: an increase in some lower fat cheeses and in high carbohydrate foods such as pasta and rice (Figure B). Other changes did not complement the dietary guidelines, particularly the decrease in frequency of choice of many vegetables. Figure A Figure B Fat contribution to energy Selected food consumed (≥1/week) LINZ NNS97 40% 60% 50% NZ population 38% Mean LINZ NNS97 36% 34% 32% 40% 30% 20% 10% Male Female 0% Rice Pasta Have We Changed? 179 FREQUENCY OF CHOICE OF TYPE OF FOOD CONSUMED 1 Table G1.1 Increase Food Category Food Dairy Edam/Gouda Decrease 2 LINZ NNS97 Diff. 9% 20% 11% Meat & Fish Breads & Cereals Fruits Vegetables Pasta Rice Pears Feijoas Melon Bananas Grapes Broccoli Brussels sprouts Capsicum Non-alcoholic Carbonated Beverages drinks Alcoholic Beverages Miscellaneous Chocolate Other confectionery 1 2 39% 31% 34% 12% 14% 75% 25% 41% 15% 25% 54% 48% 47% 25% 22% 81% 30% 59% 19% 29% 16% 16% 14% 13% 8% 7% 5% 18% 5% 5% 42% 50% 8% 30% 35% 6% 21% 34% 13% Food LINZ NNS97 Diff. 2 Cottage/ricotta cheese Ice cream Milk puddings Colby/mild/tasty cheeses Sausage/frankfurter/ saveloy Fish/other than fried or battered Luncheon meats Fruit/iced buns 18% 47% 12% 70% 5% 37% 6% 65% 13% 10% 6% 5% 47% 31% 17% 30% 29% 15% 14% 23% 8% 17% 5% 7% Raisins Stewed fruit Canned fruit in syrup Pineapple Grapefruit Green beans Pumpkin Peas Cabbage/coleslaw Beetroot Avocado Bean sprouts Celery Decaffeinated coffee 38% 28% 30% 18% 21% 59% 63% 77% 68% 37% 25% 21% 31% 18% 24% 17% 22% 12% 16% 46% 52% 68% 60% 29% 19% 16% 26% 7% 14% 11% 7% 6% 5% 13% 11% 9% 8% 8% 6% 5% 5% 11% Tea Beer 77% 41% 69% 30% 7% 11% Cream filled/chocolate biscuits Muesli bars 49% 22% 40% 13% 8% 10% Percentage of population consuming more than one serving per week. Due to rounding, the difference between LINZ and NNS97 may differ (+ 1 percent) from the difference presented. All differences are statistically significant. 180 NZ Food: NZ People Have We Changed? 181 3 2 1 0.13 0.09 0.21 0.14 0.18 0.08 1.00 0.47 0.39 0.26 0.21 0.15 0.12 0.09 9.2 9.9 11.2 12.0 7.2 8.0 11.7 12.3 7.6 9.0 11.1 11.9 7.2 7.8 Mean 10.7–11.5 11.6–12.2 6.9–7.4 7.6–8.0 9.8–13.7 11.3–13.2 6.9–8.4 8.5–9.5 8.9–9.4 9.7–10.1 10.8–11.6 11.7–12.2 7.0–7.4 7.8–8.1 ENERGY I Energy (MJ) 1 SEM 95% C.I. 2 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. C.I. = confidence interval. * = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All LINZ NNS Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ Maori Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ European & Others Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS Table G1.2 * * * NS * * * Difference 3 182 NZ Food: NZ People 5 4 3 2 1 0.29 0.21 0.41 0.33 0.38 0.27 1.55 0.94 1.68 0.67 0.43 0.36 0.39 0.30 43.7 46.2 42.3 45.0 45.1 47.3 38.0 42.4 43.5 46.7 42.6 45.3 45.2 47.2 41.8–43.5 44.6–46.0 44.4–46.0 46.6–47.8 35.0–41.0 40.6–44.2 40.2–46.8 45.4–48.0 43.2–44.3 45.8–46.6 41.5–43.1 44.3–45.6 44.3–45.8 46.8–47.8 * * NS NS * * * Percent energy from carbohydrate 1 Mean SEM 95% C.I. 4 Difference 5 14.8 15.3 14.9 16.0 15.4 16.1 13.6 15.3 14.8 15.6 14.8 15.4 14.8 15.8 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.15 0.66 0.51 0.53 0.30 0.11 0.10 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.13 14.4–15.1 15.0–15.6 14.6–15.2 15.7–16.2 14.1–16.7 15.1–17.1 12.6–14.7 14.7–15.8 14.6–15.1 15.4–15.8 14.5–15.2 15.1–15.7 14.5–15.1 15.6–16.1 * NS NS NS * NS * ENERGY II Percent energy from protein 2 Mean SEM 95% C.I. 4 Difference 5 These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. C.I. = confidence interval. * = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All LINZ NNS Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ Maori Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ European & Others Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS Table G1.3 37.9 35.2 36.6 34.3 41.0 36.8 40.7 36.2 37.5 34.9 38.1 35.4 36.9 34.5 0.36 0.30 0.37 0.27 1.27 0.75 1.51 0.62 0.25 0.18 0.35 0.28 0.36 0.24 37.2–38.6 34.6–35.8 35.9–37.3 33.8–34.9 38.6–43.5 35.4–38.3 37.7–43.7 35.0–37.4 37.0–38.0 34.6–35.3 37.4–38.8 34.8–35.9 36.2–37.6 34.0–35.0 * * * * * * * Percent energy from fat 3 Mean SEM 95% C.I. 4 Difference 5 G2 Health Tables G2.1, G2.2, G2.3 Body size Mean body weight has increased in the New Zealand population from 71.3 kg in 1989 to 74.5 kg. The increase for males and females was 2.6 kg and 3.6 kg respectively. Changes were not significant for NZ Måori or male NZ European & Others. Female NZ European & Others increased weight by 2.7 kg. There was no change in height in any groups compared. BMI has increased in the New Zealand population and this is reflected in the estimated obesity levels rising from 11.1 percent to 17.0 percent. This increase has occurred for both males and females (Figure A). The increase was significant for NZ European & Others, but not for NZ Måori. There has also been an increase in central obesity (as estimated by W/H ratio excess) from 27.4 percent to 41.4 percent of the New Zealand population. This increase has occurred for both males and females and was significant for NZ European & Others. There was no significant change for NZ Måori. While methodological differences may account for some, they are not considered to account for all of the difference. Serum cholesterol Mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) has decreased from 5.9 to 5.7 for the population, although the decrease was only significant for females (NZ European & Others 6.1, 5.8, NZ Måori 5.7, 5.3). The decrease in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L from 30.2 percent to 23.4 percent is beneficial, with the greatest impact on females (33.7 percent, 23.7 percent) (Figure B). Figure A Figure B Obesity Total serum cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L LINZ NNS97 LINZ NNS97 40% 20% 35% NZ population NZ population 15% 10% 30% 25% 20% 5% 15% 0% Male Female Male Female Have We Changed? 183 184 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 0.27 0.33 0.34 0.45 0.36 0.41 1.65 1.66 1.70 1.13 0.35 0.46 0.36 0.43 71.3 74.5 77.8 80.4 65.1 68.7 82.3 87.3 72.2 75.2 77.4 78.9 64.4 67.1 Mean 76.7–78.1 78.0–79.8 63.7–65.1 66.2–67.9 79.1–85.5 84.0–90.6 68.9–75.6 73.0–77.4 70.8–71.9 73.8–75.1 77.2–78.5 79.6–81.3 64.4–65.8 67.9–69.5 Weight (kg) SEM 95% C.I.1 * NS NS NS * * * Difference 2 C.I. = confidence interval. * = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All LINZ NNS Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ Maori Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ European & Others Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS Table G2.1 175.4 175.4 162.4 162.2 174.1 174.4 162.7 162.1 168.7 168.6 175.3 175.3 162.4 162.2 Mean 0.20 0.25 0.18 0.21 0.76 0.47 0.71 0.41 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.23 0.18 0.18 175.0–175.8 174.9–175.9 162.0–162.8 161.8–162.7 172.6–175.6 173.5–175.3 161.3–164.1 161.3–162.9 168.4–169.1 168.2–169.0 174.9–175.7 174.8–175.7 162.1–162.8 161.9–162.6 BODY SIZE I Height (cm) SEM 95% C.I. 1 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Difference 2 25.2 25.6 24.5 25.5 27.2 28.7 27.3 28.7 25.0 26.1 25.3 26.2 24.7 26.1 Mean 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.59 0.53 0.61 0.42 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 25.0–25.4 25.4–25.9 24.2–24.7 25.2–25.8 26.0–28.3 27.6–29.7 26.1–28.5 27.8–29.5 24.9–25.2 25.9–26.3 25.1–25.5 25.9–26.4 24.5–25.0 25.8–26.4 BMI (kg/m2) SEM 95% C.I. 1 * NS NS NS * * * Difference 2 Have We Changed? 185 4 3 2 1 0.60 0.70 0.75 1.06 0.94 1.00 4.24 3.80 3.60 3.04 0.75 1.09 0.97 1.07 11.1 17.0 9.5 14.7 12.6 19.2 19.6 27.0 17.5 27.9 8.9 12.6 11.8 16.7 Mean 7.31–10.25 10.42–14.69 9.93–13.73 14.65–18.85 11.29–27.90 19.54–34.43 10.49–24.60 21.93–33.85 9.87–12.24 15.62–18.37 8.02–10.96 12.61–16.78 10.71–14.39 17.26–21.20 Obesity 1 (%) SEM 95% C.I. 3 * * NS NS * * * Difference 4 33.1 46.8 20.2 34.4 32.6 47.5 40.9 38.0 27.4 41.4 33.1 47.6 22.0 35.6 Mean BODY SIZE II 1.29 1.76 1.18 1.44 5.34 4.54 5.20 3.19 0.85 1.03 1.25 1.61 1.17 1.27 30.57–35.65 43.33–50.22 17.90–22.54 31.61–37.27 22.12–43.06 38.62–56.44 30.72–51.12 31.74–44.25 25.75–29.08 39.43–43.47 30.63–35.53 44.41–50.73 19.68–24.28 33.06–38.05 W/H excess 2 (%) SEM 95% C.I. 3 * * NS NS * * * Difference 4 Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2, NZ European and Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. The LINZ data have been recalculated for these BMI cutoffs. Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women. C.I. = confidence interval. * = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All LINZ NNS Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ Maori Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ European & Others Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS Table G2.2 186 NZ Food: NZ People 2 1 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.20 0.12 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.7 6.0 5.7 5.6 6.0 5.7 5.3 5.8 5.7 6.1 5.8 5.77–5.91 5.59–5.78 5.98–6.13 5.73–5.89 5.36–5.87 5.64–6.41 5.51–5.96 5.10–5.43 5.88–5.98 5.67–5.78 5.75–5.98 5.63–5.81 5.96–6.10 5.66–5.81 * NS * NS * NS * 27.0 22.9 34.5 25.6 22.6 27.6 22.8 10.0 30.2 23.4 26.6 23.2 33.7 23.7 1.21 1.63 1.41 1.37 4.63 5.46 4.15 3.32 0.89 0.99 1.16 1.54 1.34 1.25 24.58–29.33 19.73–26.13 31.75–37.27 22.96–28.33 13.53–31.68 16.85–38.26 14.66–30.94 3.51–16.53 28.43–31.93 21.49–25.39 24.32–28.89 20.18–26.21 31.04–36.30 21.25–26.14 * NS NS NS * NS * CHOLESTEROL Total cholesterol (mmol/L) Total cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L (%) 1 2 Mean SEM 95% C.I. Difference Mean SEM 95% C.I.1 Difference 2 C.I. = confidence interval. * = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) All LINZ NNS Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ Maori Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS NZ European & Others Males LINZ NNS Females LINZ NNS Table G2.3 References Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1998. National Nutrition Survey: Nutrient Intakes and Physical Measurements, Australia 1995. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Beaton GH. 1994. Criteria of an Adequate Diet. In: M Shils, J Olson, M Shike (eds.). Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease 8th ed, Vol 2, 1491–1506. Philadelphia: Lea and Feibiger. Birkbeck JB. 1983. New Zealanders and their diet. A report to the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand on the National Diet Survey, 1977, 2nd ed. Dunedin: Otago University. Briefel RR, McDowell NA, Alaimo K, et al. 1995. Total energy intake of the US population: The third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988-1991. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62 (Suppl): 10 725–805. Burlingame BA, Milligan GC, Spriggs TW and Athar N. 1997. The Concise New Zealand Food Composition Tables. Palmerston North: New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research and Ministry of Health. Department of Health. 1991. Food for Health. The Report of the Nutrition Taskforce to the Department of Health. Wellington: Department of Health. Department of Statistics and Center for Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD), Iowa State University. 1996. A User’s Guide to C-SIDE. Technical Report 96-TR 31. Dietary Assessment Research Series Report 8. Dodd KW. 1996. A Technical Guide to C-SIDE, Software for Intake Distribution Estimation. Technical Report 96–TR 32. Dietary Assessment Research Series Report 9. Duffield AJ. 1999. Selenium requirements for New Zealanders. PhD thesis, University of Otago. Gibson RS. 1990. Principles of Nutrition Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press. Lohman TA, Roche AF, Martorell R (eds). 1988. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Illinois: Human Kinetics. Ministry of Health. 1999. Taking the Pulse. The 1996/97 New Zealand Health Survey. Wellington: Ministry of Health. National Cholesterol Education Program. 1994. Second Report of the Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel II). Circulation 89: 1333–1432. National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation. 1986. Nutrient adequacy: Assessment using food consumption surveys. Washington DC: National Academy Press. New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research. 1998. FOODfiles: Datafiles of the New Zealand Food Composition Database, version 9.0. OCNZ 98. Nusser SM, Carriquiry AL, Dodd KW and Fuller WA. 1996. A Semiparametric Transformation Approach to Estimating Usual Daily Intake Distributions. Journal of American Statistical Association 91: 1440–1449. Quigley RJ, Burlingame BA, Milligan GC and Gibson JJ. 1995. Fats and fatty acids in New Zealand foods. Palmerston North: NZ Institute for Crop & Food Research and the Public Health Commission. Quigley R and Watts C. 1997. Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand. Wellington: Ministry of Health. Russell DG and Wilson NC. 1991. Life in New Zealand Commission Report Volume I: Executive Overview. Dunedin: University of Otago. References 187 Salmond C, Crampton P and Sutton F. 1998. NZDep96. Index of Deprivation. Research Report No.8. Wellington: Health Services Research Centre. Schofield W, Schofield C and James W. 1985. Basal metabolic rate: Review and prediction, together with an annotated bibliography of source material. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 39 C (Suppl 1): 1–96. Statistics New Zealand. 1997. 1996–97 New Zealand Health Survey. Final Report prepared for the Ministry of Health and the Regional Health Authorities. Unpublished. Swinburn BA, Carmichael HE and Plank LD. 1999. Body Composition in Samoans. Wellington: Ministry of Health. The National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Dyslipidaemia Advisory Group. 1996. 1996 National Heart Foundation clinical guidelines for the assessment and management of dyslipidaemia. New Zealand Medical Journal 109: 224–32. United Kingdom Department of Health. 1991. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom. London: HMSO. Wilson NC and Russell DG. 1998. Overview and Methodology of the National Nutrition Survey. New Zealand Dietetic Association Conference Proceedings Number 3, 31–33. 188 NZ Food: NZ People Explanatory Notes Tables 1. All data have been weighted 13, to compensate for sampling bias, in a three step process: i. determination of each participant’s probability of selection into the survey sample supplied by Statistics NZ ii. adjustment of the response rate to correct for differences occurring between days of the week and months of the year iii. post-stratification by age, sex and ethnicity to the New Zealand population as at the 1996 Census. 2. Cell sizes are included in Table I for the different sections of the survey. When the sample size in the cell was less than 25 it was considered insufficient to provide a reliable population estimate and the data are not presented. Where the sample size was 25 ≤ n < 50, an asterisk (*) is shown next to the data to indicate that caution should be exercised in interpretation. 3. In some cases where numbers are insufficient to provide reliable estimates, data are presented in collapsed age groups only. Examples of this are Tables D3 – D5. 4. Sampling error: The NNS97 used a complex sampling design which involved both stratification and clustering. It is therefore not appropriate to calculate standard errors using formulae that assume simple random sampling. To assist readers a guide to the level of sampling error present in population proportions has been prepared (Table 2). These sampling errors have been calculated as: sampling error = 1.96 deff x p(1 – p) n where deff is the ratio of the variance calculated from the actual survey estimate, to the variance on the estimate had it been calculated assuming a simple random sample of the same size. Since deff varies for health characteristics and subpopulations (age groups, sex, ethnic groups etc) within the characteristics an average deff value (calculated over several subpopulations over a wide selection of variables) was used in the sampling error equation. 5. Derivation of ethnic group. Where only one ethnic group was given, that category was coded. In cases where participants stated that they belonged to more than one ethnic group, a single ethnic category was assigned to that person using a system of priority recording of ethnicity. The following hierarchical rules 14 were applied: i. If NZ Måori was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned to NZ Måori. ii. If any of the Pacific groups was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned to Pacific people. iii. All remaining participants were assigned to NZ European & Others. 13 Weighting is based on participation in the 24 hour diet recall. Although individuals did not necessarily participate in all sections of the survey, only one weight was created (similar to 1996/97 Health Survey). The creation of individual weights for the different sections were considered but rejected, as drop off rates were similar across demographic variables (e.g. ethnic groups). 14 This system of hierarchical recording of ethnicity was consistent with the 1996/97 Health Survey. Explanatory Notes 189 6. NZDep96. This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual (Salmond et al 1998). The scale ranges from quartile I to quartile IV, where quartile I represents the least deprived areas to live in and quartile IV the most deprived areas to live in. See Appendix C for further information. 7. Metropolitan/Provincial. Individuals were classified as living in a metropolitan area if their residential address was in an urban centre with a population ≥ 30,000. All other individuals were classified as provincial. 8. SEM. This is the abbreviation used for the standard error of the mean. Text Italics have been used in the text to indicate actual response choices of participants. Only statistically significant differences among various groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) have been discussed in the text. It was not always possible to carry out an appropriate statistical test because of factors such as the complex sampling design, and the distribution of the particular health characteristic (e.g. differences in median alcohol consumption). When this occurs it is noted in the text. Differences in nutrient medians were calculated using the following pivotal quantity: Q= T1 – T2 ST2 + S2T 1 2 where T1 and T2 are the estimates of the medians from subgroup 1 and subgroup 2 respectively, and S1 and S2 are the standard errors for these estimates. These pivotal quantities were then statistically tested for a significant difference by comparing the observed quantity with that of the two-tailed normal critical value at the 95 percent level of significance. Refer to Appendix B for further information on the nutrient analysis. Differences in proportions between subgroups (for example percentage hypertensive) were considered to be significant if the 95th percentile confidence limits surrounding the two estimates did not overlap. Differences in means (for example height, blood pressure) were also assessed using confidence limits. Again the difference was considered significant if the confidence limits surrounding the two estimates did not overlap. It should be noted that testing for a significant difference between two subgroups using the above method of comparing confidence intervals is a conservative method. No trend analysis was undertaken, nor was any adjustment made for multiple testing. Figures Data for age groups have been plotted at the mid-point of each age group. 190 NZ Food: NZ People Explanatory Notes 191 192 NZ Food: NZ People 1 Initial 4636 109 145 759 588 211 115 1927 137 209 1205 667 296 195 2709 396 430 450 651 486 581 663 979 1290 637 1856 853 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 294 51 391 51 77 49 67 106 94 85 93 124 Repeat 695 26 27 131 82 19 14 299 23 39 186 83 40 25 396 24 hour diet recall New Zealand population (‘000) 2656 99 152 516 345 111 58 1281 96 157 554 352 124 92 1375 Repeat 24 hour recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only. NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) Males 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total Females 15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total NZDep96 Quartiles Males I II III IV Females I II III IV Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Table I 1283 635 1851 848 396 428 447 647 485 580 663 971 1274 630 1837 835 394 425 443 642 484 574 659 955 1283 635 1847 844 396 429 447 646 484 579 663 965 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS Dietary Qualitative supplements food Barriers to used over the frequency change/ food last year questionnaire security 4617 4576 4609 107 105 107 145 142 145 757 746 757 585 585 585 211 209 211 113 117 113 1918 1904 1918 137 133 137 209 203 208 1199 1191 1197 664 660 662 296 292 294 194 193 193 2699 2672 2691 1249 616 1722 792 391 424 440 610 457 548 625 884 Blood pressure 4379 105 139 733 572 206 110 1865 131 187 1112 637 273 174 2514 1250 622 1746 802 394 422 437 619 462 552 630 904 Anthropometry 4420 104 141 738 572 208 109 1872 132 188 1115 647 284 182 2548 1001 483 1320 565 320 353 360 451 369 424 484 608 Blood analysis 3369 68 116 586 463 170 81 1484 75 146 867 471 196 130 1885 Explanatory Notes 193 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ European & Others Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total NZ Maori Males Table I cont. 168 587 788 1543 198 848 1036 2082 30 53 33 116 47 109 35 191 15 24 12 52 16 27 14 57 190 425 466 1081 188 450 515 1153 56 119 93 268 101 248 87 436 Initial 32 101 95 228 39 128 135 302 8 16 8 32 13 36 5 54 13 14 12 39 10 22 8 40 Repeat 24 hour diet recall 45 67 36 148 48 77 39 165 New Zealand population (‘000) 168 586 786 1540 198 844 1033 2075 28 53 33 114 47 109 35 191 56 118 90 264 101 246 86 433 166 580 787 1533 196 845 1030 2071 28 50 33 111 46 105 32 183 53 116 91 260 94 241 83 418 168 585 786 1539 197 843 1028 2068 28 53 33 114 47 109 35 191 56 119 90 265 101 245 86 432 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS Dietary Qualitative supplements food Barriers to used over the frequency change/ food last year questionnaire security 168 569 771 1508 187 799 974 1960 24 49 29 102 42 90 33 165 52 115 88 255 89 223 77 389 Blood pressure 168 573 770 1511 187 800 999 1986 26 48 31 105 42 93 33 168 51 117 88 256 91 222 81 394 Anthropometry 134 463 634 1231 138 655 735 1528 16 36 19 71 22 57 16 95 34 87 61 182 61 155 46 262 Blood analysis 194 NZ Food: NZ People 3 2 1 50% 25% 17% 14% 12% 10% 9% 8% 7% 7% 6% 6% 6% 4% 3% 3% 2% The values in the table are 1.96 x SE, therefore p +/- the value are the 95% confidence limits. For example, if 30% of the sample choose a particular response (sample size = 100) we can be 95% confident that the correct percentage lies between 19 and 41% (30% +/- 11%). Note that the sample error on a proportion estimate p (where p > 50%) is the same as that of a proportion estimate 1-p produced using the same sized sample. The lower limit of these confidence intervals are zero. EFFECT OF SAMPLE SIZE ON ACCURACY OF ESTIMATED PROPORTIONS 1 Proportion 2 Sample size 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 3 3 3 25 11% 15% 18% 20% 21% 23% 24% 24% 25% 10% 12% 14% 15% 16% 17% 17% 17% 50 8% 3 3 75 6% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 14% 14% 100 5% 7% 9% 10% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 150 4% 6% 7% 8% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 200 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 250 3% 5% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 300 3% 4% 5% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 350 3% 4% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 400 3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 450 3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 500 2% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 6% 1000 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 4% 4% 4% 4% 1500 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 2500 1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 4500 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% Table II Appendix A Survey Methodology Linking with Health Survey The NNS97 was conducted in association with the 1996/97 Health Survey. The 1996/97 Health Survey was conducted by Statistics New Zealand and was a nation-wide survey involving approximately 9,000 New Zealanders over a 12 month period. At the conclusion of the 1996/97 Health Survey interview, individuals were asked to participate in the NNS97. The linkage of the two surveys had the potential to significantly enhance the value of both data collections and will provide a comprehensive picture of the health and nutrition patterns of New Zealanders aged 15 years and older. Nevertheless, this approach was not optimal for maximising sample size, since some respondents were ‘lost to follow-up’. Survey Design An area based sampling frame was used with a three stage stratified design consisting of a selection of primary sampling units (PSUs), households within the selected PSU, and a single randomly selected respondent within a household. A detailed description of the survey design is included in Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). Survey Sample As for most surveys, the sample design was influenced by statistical, financial and operational considerations. The NNS97 covered rural and urban areas across New Zealand but was restricted to persons living in private dwellings. Only one person per dwelling was invited to take part in the 1996/97 Health Survey and, therefore, in the NNS97. The total number of respondents was 4,636, including an oversampling of NZ Måori and Pacific people. Survey Methods 24 hour diet recall: The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured into three steps (passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick list’, involved respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed in the previous day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight). In the second pass, a detailed description of each food or beverage item on the quick list was ascertained through a series of questions and prompts (generated by the programme) which were specific to each item. The third and final step was a review of the recall. Further details about this methodology are included in Appendix B Technical Notes. Food Frequency Questionnaire: This was a self-administered, qualitative questionnaire which estimated the frequency of intake of foods over the preceding 12 months or in the case of seasonal foods, the consumption frequency when they were ‘in season’. This questionnaire also included questions on food preparation habits for example, use of fats/oils in cooking. This instrument was developed and piloted by the University of Otago’s LINZ® Research Unit under a separate contract with the Ministry of Health. This questionnaire was designed so the data could be electronically scanned. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix E. Appendix A 195 Food-related questions: A number of additional food-related questions on dietary supplements, barriers to change and food security were included in the survey. These were asked after the 24 hour diet recall and were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS® software. Environmental chemicals: A small number of questions on exposure to dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides were included. These data will be reported by the Ministry for the Environment in a separate report. Physical measurements: Physical measurements collected were weight, height, circumferences (waist, hip and arm), two skinfolds (triceps and subscapular) and elbow breadth. Blood pressure was also measured. These data were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS® software. The results of physical measurements were sent to the respondent if requested. Blood sample: A standard blood sample was taken for the purpose of measuring mean cell volume, haematocrit, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum iron, erythrocyte protoporphyrin, white blood cell count, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol and environmental chemicals. Transferrin receptors were measured on females aged 15–34 years. Details of the methodologies are included in the Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). This document can be downloaded from the Ministry of Health Web site at http://www.moh.govt.nz Quality Control of Data Quality control of the data was of primary concern and the difficulty of maintaining the control was compounded by the fact that data collection covered a 12 month period, 16 different sets of equipment were used, 49 different people were involved in data collection and staff were based throughout New Zealand. A number of different data quality control initiatives including ongoing staff training and monitoring, use of computer-based data capture, equipment calibration, ongoing review of interview data and telephone checks were thus required. Details of these procedures are described in Wilson and Russell (1998). Collection of Data The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents by two trained interviewers. Respondent Burden This was an important consideration in the design of the NNS97 methodologies. The constraints of a survey setting are different from those of clinical and epidemiological settings. The NNS97 respondents were selected by Statistics New Zealand according to the procedures outlined above, so that survey results could be generalised to the New Zealand population. The methods were developed to be efficient and to burden the respondent as little as possible, both in terms of time and effort. Respondents in the 1996/97 Health Survey and the NNS97 were visited in their homes on different occasions by different interviewers for two lengthy interviews. Because participation was voluntary, most respondents whom NNS97 interviewers encountered were motivated and comfortable about participating. Ethical Issues Ethical approval for the survey was granted by 14 ethics committees throughout New Zealand. Participation in the survey was voluntary, and written consent before the interview began was required from the respondent, or from the guardian of respondents under 18 years. 196 NZ Food: NZ People New Zealand Maori and Pacific People Consultation The NNS97 project team’s NZ Måori principal investigator, Dr Papaarangi Reid, was supported by Consultants Professor Mason Durie, medical consultant of Te Pumanawa Hauora Måori Health Research Unit, Massey University, and Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare League. Bishop Bennett was also involved through the Måori Statistical Forum which had input via the Ministry of Health. The principal investigator for Pacific people was Dr Colin Tukuitonga, Måori and Pacific Health Unit, University of Auckland, with individuals from each of the main Pacific groups providing advice, guidance and support for the project team and the field staff. Local New Zealand Måori support people were also involved. Response Analysis The response rate for the 1996/97 Health Survey was 73.8 percent (Statistics NZ 1997). Of those respondents to the 1996/97 Health Survey who were asked to consent to having their personal information (name, address, telephone number) passed to the University of Otago for contacting to participate in the NNS97, 80.2 percent agreed (n = 5,613). Four thousand six hundred and thirty six completed the 24 hour diet recall and 977 did not participate for the following reasons: 698 refused 147 unable to be located 100 completed the qualitative food frequency questionnaire 27 ill 5 deceased. Statistics NZ (personal communication Feb 1998) calculated this as a response rate of 84.7 percent, allowing for the survey design. The overall response rate taking into account the three step procedure for recruitment of participants was 50.1 percent. Survey Non Response There are several types of bias that can occur in surveys. Selection bias occurs when particular subgroups of the population do not respond in the same proportion as other subgroups in the population. This may then cause biased survey estimates of collected variables. For example, a representative sample size of 500 is selected from a population to investigate nutrient intake. Suppose also that 400 people from this sample are considered to have excellent health, while 100 are considered to have poor health. Selection bias through non-response will occur if, for example, 75 percent of the people with excellent health respond but only 30 percent of the people with poor health respond. When estimates of nutritional variables are calculated (such as usual daily mean energy intake) they may be biased towards a healthy population. NNS97 was ‘piggybacked’ on the 1996/97 Health Survey. This meant that participants of the 1996/97 Health Survey were also asked to participate in NNS97. There were therefore three stages at which participants could drop out. Initially, they could refuse to participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey. If they did participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey they could refuse to have their name passed on to the University of Otago for participation in the NNS97. Finally, participants of Appendix A 197 the 1996/97 Health Survey who initially agreed to participate in the NNS97 could refuse when contacted. Information was not available to investigate non-response of those who did not participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey, and chose not to participate in the NNS97. However, information was available to investigate non-response of those who participated in the 1996/97 Health Survey, but then chose not to participate in the NNS97. Non-response for this group of people was investigated by selecting particular variables collected from the 1996/97 Health Survey that were thought to be related to diet, for example, age group, ethnic group, sex, marital status, labour force status, smoking status. Response rates to each variable were then compared between the two surveys. It was found from this analysis that for the variables selected the two samples were very similar, suggesting the NNS97 sample had similar characteristics to the 1996/97 Health Survey sample. 198 NZ Food: NZ People Appendix B Technical Notes Development of 24 Hour Diet Recall Methodology The first step in the development of this methodology was to review the use of methodologies in use in other large national surveys. The 24 hour diet recall methodology is widely regarded as the only suitable dietary survey methodology to be used in national surveys which aim to determine the food and nutrient intake of the population. Following the decision to collect the data in the home, a decision was made to use methodology similar to that which the Australians used in their 1995 National Nutrition Survey. This was refined from the methodology used by the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals 1994-96 (CSFII) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Permission was granted to use and adapt the instruments and associated booklets used in the Australian survey. This methodology was further developed and modified by the LINZ® Research Unit’s NNS97 Project Team to New Zealand conditions and adapted to a direct computer data entry system (the LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System – LEDDAS©). The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured into three steps (passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick list’, involved respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed in the previous day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight). In the next stage, a detailed description of each food or beverage item on the quick list was ascertained through a series of programme-controlled questions and prompts specific to each item. Questions for each item included: time of consumption, amount eaten, any additions made prior to consumption (i.e. eaten in combination with other foods, for example, potatoes with butter), the cooking method, fats used in preparation and recipe where appropriate. If the respondent did not know the recipe of a mixed item, probe questions about ingredients likely to influence the fat content of the food (for example type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used) were asked. If the respondent was able to supply some information about these ingredients it was used to modify a standard recipe (see nutrient analysis section). For any foods from a category where fortification was permitted, brand and product names were requested. Where the respondent had the packaging available, a bar code scanner was used to record information directly. The amount of food or beverages consumed was described by volume using cups, spoons, food photographs and shape dimensions. Alternatively, a help file was available containing weights of common servings or measures of specified items (e.g. one slice of bread) and conversions from the raw to cooked form. When the respondent supplied a recipe the amount of each ingredient was obtained and the portion of the whole dish eaten was recorded. The third and final pass was a review of the recall. The interviewer read aloud the foods eaten in chronological order and verified the descriptions and amounts consumed with the respondent. A final question checked whether anything had been omitted from the recall. Any information that was forgotten or incorrectly entered was added or edited at this stage, although editing facilities were available throughout the recall. Entry errors were minimised by warning messages, for example, seeking confirmation of unusually large volumes or amounts of the food eaten. A comprehensive food list, which comprised all of the known foods and beverages available for consumption in New Zealand, was contained within the programme. Foods eaten were entered in a format consistent with the names used in this list to produce standardised descriptions. The series of item specific questions in the second pass of the recall ensured food items were described in sufficient detail to enable accurate matching with food composition data. This minimised possible Appendix B 199 variation between interviewers as they were read from the computer screen to respondents. A notepad function allowed interviewers to record any additional information about foods eaten by the respondent. Dietary Analysis Nutrient Analysis Food and beverages from the 24hr diet recall were electronically matched to food composition data to calculate nutrient intake. The primary source of food composition information was the New Zealand Food Composition Database (NZFCD) which contains the composition of approximately 2,000 foods and was compiled by Crop and Food Research Ltd (1998). Detailed food composition analytical techniques for nutrients included in the NZFCD are in Burlingame et al (1997). Table I provides an outline of the analytical techniques. If a direct match with information in the NZFCD was not available and the frequency of use was high relative to other foods, additional nutrient composition data was sought either from overseas databases (Australian, USDA and British) if applicable, or the food item was prioritised for New Zealand analysis. When a food or beverage could not be completely described by the respondent (for example the person had milk but did not know the type) it was matched to a composite of the various types of milk weighted to reflect use reported in the survey. Foods that were fortified at the commencement of data collection (2 December 1996) were identified by the New Zealand Therapeutic Database (NZTD) which obtained fortificant levels from the manufacturer. Crop and Food Research Ltd (CFR) then incorporated these levels into existing nutrient information for the corresponding food to create brand and product name specific nutrient composition. Products fortified during the 12 month survey period or changes in fortificant levels could not be taken into account due to an unknown and variable time lag between a change in manufacturing procedure and product consumption. If a recipe could not be supplied for a mixed food item eaten it was matched to a standard recipe. Preparation of ‘standard recipes’ was carried out by examination of appropriate recipes from the Australian survey and checking commonly used recipes from top selling New Zealand cook books. Modifications were made to standard recipe ingredients to correspond with frequent responses to the ingredient probe questions (e.g. type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used). These modified recipes were matched to mixed food items where the respondent, although unable to supply the entire recipe, had been able to give some ingredient information in response to the probe questions. The nutrient composition of these recipes, allowing for weight and nutrient loss in cooking, was calculated by CFR. Dietary Sources Food items reported as consumed in the 24hr diet recall, have been allocated to groups to calculate dietary sources of nutrients. Table II outlines the groups and illustrates the designation of food items. The following issues require explanation: 1. Grouping of components of mixed dishes: Respondents who consumed a mixed dish, such as macaroni cheese, may or may not have known the recipe. If the recipe was supplied by the respondent the ingredients were entered individually i.e. each ingredient was separately allocated to the appropriate group. When the exact recipe was unknown, information regarding content was sought from the participant, for example, whether meat was added to the macaroni cheese, in order to identify which recipe provided the best nutrient match. In this situation where there was nutrient composition information only for the dish as a whole, it was grouped 200 NZ Food: NZ People accordingly. For example, macaroni cheese would be assigned to ‘grains and pasta’ since pasta is the main ingredient. 2. Alcoholic beverages: These were considered as an aggregate group for all analyses, except sources of alcohol, where the sub-groups have been used to examine the contribution of the various beverage types to alcohol intake. 3. Comparisons of dietary sources of nutrients with results of the 1989 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey: While many of the groups are essentially the same as those used in the LINZ survey, food consumption patterns have changed considerably in the last eight years and a new food group classification was required. Consequently, food items may fall into different groups and direct comparison of results warrants caution. Asterisks (*) in Table II indicate that this is not a directly comparable group to 1989. C-SIDE – Software for Intake Distribution Estimation It is important to assess the distribution of a population’s usual intake for a particular dietary component (for example protein intake), where usual intake of that nutrient for an individual is defined as the long-run average for that individual. The distribution of a dietary component based on an individual’s one day intake is wider than that of individual’s usual intake, since an individual’s day-to-day diet is likely to be highly variable. The software package C-SIDE (developed by Iowa State University) was used in the NNS97 to estimate the distribution of usual intakes of dietary components. This software can be used when daily intake observations are repeated at least once on a subsample of the individuals in the population. To estimate the distribution of usual intakes of a dietary component an assumption that the data is normally distributed is required. Nutrient data is generally non-normal, and can be particularly extreme in some nutrients (for example retinol, vitamin A). To remedy this problem C-SIDE uses a combination of a power and grafted polynomial transformation. The method used by C-SIDE to estimate usual intake distributions consists of the four major tasks: preliminary data adjustments, semiparametric transformation to normality, estimation of within and between individual variances for intakes, and finally back transformation into the original scale. These tasks, described below, are summaries of those found in the C-SIDE User’s Guide. Detailed information describing the C-SIDE methodology can be found in Nusser et al (1996) and Dodd (1996). a. Preliminary data adjustments Preliminary data adjustments include shifting observed intake data by a small amount away from zero, incorporating survey weights by creating an equal weights sample, and correcting for the effect of sample day (first versus all the rest) on the mean and variance of the distribution of observed intakes. Appendix B 201 Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients* Nutrient INFOODS Tagname1 Units Description/synonym/method Energy ENERC kJ Energy, calculated (protein = 16.7 kJ/g; total fat = 37.7 kJ/g; available carbohydrate = 16.7 kJ/g; alcohol = 29.3 kJ/g). Protein PROCNT g Protein, calculated from total nitrogen; generally FAO/WHO conversions factors. Total fat FAT g Total fat/total lipid; several methods depending on food matrix. Saturated fat FASAT g Sum of individual saturated fatty acids; GC of methyl esters. Monounsaturated fat FAMS g Sum of individual monounsaturated fatty acids; GC of methyl esters. Polyunsaturated fat FAPU g Sum of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids; GC of methyl esters. Cholesterol CHOLE mg Cholesterol, GC. Carbohydrate CHOAVL g Available carbohydrate; sum on mono-, di- and oligosaccharides, starch and glycogen; or enzymic digestion and colorimetry. Dietary fibre PSACNS g Non-starch polysaccharides/fibre; Englyst method. Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides PSACNSI g Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst method. Soluble non-starch polysaccharides PSACNSS g Soluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst method. Total sugars SUGAR g Total available sugars, sum of individual mono- and di-saccharides; GC or HPLC. Glucose GLUS g Available glucose, sum of individual d-glucose monosaccharides; GC or HPLC. Fructose FRUS g Available fructose, sum of individual d-fructose monosaccharides; GC or HPLC. Sucrose SUCS g Available sucrose, sum of individual sucrose disaccharides; GC or HPLC. Lactose LACS g Available lactose, sum of individual lactose disaccharides; GC or HPLC. Maltose MALS g Available maltose, sum of individual maltose disaccharides; GC or HPLC. Starch STARCH g Starch; enzymic digestion and colorimetry. Alcohol ALC g Alcohol/ethyl alcohol, hydrometer or GC. Vitamin A equivalents VITA µg Total vitamin A equivalents/retinol equivalents; equals (µg retinol ) + (0.166 x µg β-carotene equivalents); HPLC. 202 NZ Food: NZ People Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients* cont. 1 Nutrient INFOODS Tagname1 Units Description/synonym/method Retinol RETNOL µg All trans retinol only, HPLC. β -carotene CARTBEQ µg Beta-carotene equivalents; equals (µg β-carotene) + (0.5 x µg other provitamin A carotenoids); HPLC. Vitamin C VITC mg Vitamin C; HPLC and titration. Vitamin E VITE mg Vitamin E/α - tocopherol equivalents; equals (mg α tocopherol ) + (0.4 x mg β - tocopherol) + (0.1 x mg gamma-tocopherol) + (0.01 x mg delta-tocopherol) + (0.3 x mg alpha-tocotrienol) + (0.05 x mg β tocotrienol) + (0.01 x mg gamma-tocotrienol); HPLC. Thiamin THIA mg Thiamin; HPLC, fluorescence detection of thiochrome. Riboflavin RIBF mg Riboflavin; HPLC, fluorescence detection. Niacin equivalents NIAEQ mg Total niacin equivalents; equals (mg pre-formed niacin (HPLC, UV detection)) + (1/60 x mg tryptophan (HPLC)). Vitamin B6 VITB6C mg Vitamin B6; HPLC, fluorescence detection. Vitamin B12 VITB12 µg Vitamin B12; microbiological. Folate FOL µg Folate, total; radioassay or microbiological. Calcium CA mg Calcium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Phosphorus P mg Phosphorus, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Magnesium MG mg Magnesium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Iron FE mg Iron, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS. Zinc ZN mg Zinc, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS. Potassium K mg Potassium; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Selenium SE µg Selenium; fluorometry or wet ashing ICP-AES. Manganese MN mg Manganese; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Copper CU mg Copper; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES. Klensin JC, Feskanich D, Lin V, Truswell AS, and Southgate DAT 1989. Identification of Food Components for INFOODS Data Interchange. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. The up-to-date listing can be found on the World Wide Web [http://www.fao.org/infoods/]. * The information in this table was adapted by R Quigley, Ministry of Health, from Burlingame et al, 1997. Appendix B 203 Table II: Food Groups Food Group Grains and pasta* Bread* Breakfast cereal Biscuits Cakes and muffins* Bread-based dishes* Puddings Milk Dairy products Cheese Eggs and egg dishes Butter and margarine Fats and oils* Beef and veal Lamb/mutton Pork Poultry Other meat* Sausages and processed meats* Pies and pasties Fish/seafood Vegetables* Potatoes and kumara* Snack foods* Fruits Nuts and seeds* Sugar/sweets* Soups and stocks Sauces* Non-alcoholic beverages* Alcoholic beverages Beer Wine Spirits Liqueurs and cocktails Other alcohol Meal replacements* Examples of food items included Rice (fried/risotto), flour, pasta (filled/with sauce /lasagne), bran, wheatgerm, barley, semolina All types bread (rolls, pita, foccacia, garlic), bagels, English muffins, crumpets, sweet buns All types cereals (muesli, porridge, puffed/flakes/extruded & bran cereals) Sweet biscuits, crackers, muesli bars All cakes and muffins, slices, scones, pancakes, doughnuts, pastry Sandwiches, filled rolls, hamburgers, pizza, samosas, wontons, spring rolls Milk puddings, cheesecake, fruit crumbles & pies, mousse, steamed sponges, Pavlova Cow, soy & goat milk, flavoured milk, milkshakes, milk powder Cream, sour cream, yoghurt, dairy food, ice-cream Cheddar, edam, speciality (blue, brie, feta etc), ricotta, cream cheese, cottage cheese, processed cheese Poached, boiled, scrambled and fried eggs, omelettes, self-crusting quiches Butter, margarine (poly- and mono-unsaturated), butter/margarine blends Dripping, lard, canola, olive, sunflower and vegetable oils All muscle meats (steak, mince, corned beef, roast etc), casseroles/ stews, stir-fries All muscle meats (chops, mince, roast etc), casseroles/stews, curries All muscle meats (roast, chop, schnitzel etc), bacon, ham, casseroles/ stews, stir-fries All chicken, duck, turkey and muttonbird muscle meats (breast, leg, wing etc), casseroles/stews and stir-fries Venison, rabbit, tongue, kidney, heart, liver (lambs fry), pâté (liver), sweetbreads Sausages, luncheon, frankfurters, saveloy/cheerios, salami, meatloaf and patties All pies including potato top, pasties, savouries, sausage rolls, quiche with pastry All fish and dishes (canned, battered, fingers etc), shellfish, squid All vegetables including mixes, coleslaw, green salads, legumes and pulses, tofu Mashed, boiled, baked, scalloped etc potatoes and kumara, hot chips, crisps, hash browns Corn chips, popcorn, extruded snacks (burger rings etc), mixes (scroggin) Fresh, canned, cooked and dried fruits Peanuts, almonds, sunflower and sesame seeds, tahini, coconut milk & cream Sugars, syrups, confectionery, chocolate, jam, marmalade, honey, jelly, sweet toppings All instant and home-made soups, stocks and stock powder Gravy, tomato & cream based sauces, mint, tartare and cheese sauces, mayonnaise, oil and vinegar dressings, chutney, marmite All teas, coffee & substitutes, Milo, hot chocolate, juices, cordial, soft drinks, water All types including reduced alcohol White, red, sparkling, mulled, saki (rice wine) Vodka, gin, brandy, rum All types including spirits and mixes, cream based Wine cooler, cider, alcoholic soda, sherry, port Complan, Ensure, Vitaplan * Not comparable with 1989 LINZ Survey 204 NZ Food: NZ People b. Semiparametric transformation to normality Observed intake data (whether adjusted or not) generally have non-normal distributions. For nutrients such as vitamins and some micro nutrients, skewness is quite extreme. Most statistical procedures rely on the assumption of normality. The C-SIDE procedure transforms adjusted dietary intake data into normality as part of obtaining estimates of usual intake distributions. The transformation into normality in C-SIDE is done in two steps. In the first step, data are transformed so that their distribution is as close to normal as possible, by using a power transformation. However, power transformed data are not necessarily normal. Thus, a second transformation which takes the power transformed intakes into the normal scale is employed. This second step in the transformation is nonparametric and is based on a grafted polynomial model. The power transformation plus the grafted polynomial function make up the semiparametric transformation into normality. c. Estimation of within and between individual variances in intakes C-SIDE uses a measurement error model for observed daily intakes, similar to the model proposed by the National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation (1986). The model states that the observed intake for an individual on any day is equal to that individual’s usual intake plus a measurement error. The variance of the usual intakes is the between individual variance. The variance of the measurement errors is the within individual variance, and reflects the day-to-day variation in intakes for an individual. Estimates for both the within (intra) and the between (inter) individual variances are obtained under the measurement error model, under the assumption of normality. The variances are used to estimate the distribution of usual intakes in the normal scale. d. Back-transformation into the original scale The final step in the methodology is to transform the estimated usual intake distribution from the normal scale into the original scale. More than “undoing” the transformation into normality by applying the inverse transformation is required because the original transformation is nonlinear. The inverse transformation makes an adjustment for the fact that the mean of a nonlinear function of a random variable is not the nonlinear function of the mean. The inverse transformation is based on an approximation to the mean function. This back-transformation is called mean transformation, since it brings the distribution of usual intakes (true individual means) back into the original scale. The programme estimates statistics of interest from the estimated usual intake distribution. For example, estimates for the mean and the variance of the usual intake distribution for a nutrient, for a set of percentiles, or for the proportion of the population below (or above) a given threshold are available. Appendix B 205 Adequacy of nutrient intake (probability analysis) The adequacy of vitamin A, riboflavin, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin C, iron, calcium and zinc intakes were evaluated by probability analysis (National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation 1986). Comparison with the mean requirement (short-cut probability approach) was used to evaluate the intake of these nutrients except iron intakes in menstruating females which were evaluated using full probability analysis (see below). Nutrient requirements formulated by the United Kingdom Panel on Dietary Reference Values (UK Department of Health 1991) were used in the analysis (Table III). Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium, phosphorus and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by probability analysis, as there were no suitable mean requirement estimates. Niacin, thiamin and vitamin B6 could not be evaluated by probability analysis, because the mean requirement estimates are based on a ratio, for example, vitamin B6 is 13 µg/g protein. The current C-SIDE programme does not allow for ratios to be adjusted for intraindividual variation. Probability analysis compares nutrient intakes with the corresponding requirement distribution and calculates the likelihood (probability) that a particular nutrient intake would fail to meet requirement. Lower nutrient intakes are associated with a higher probability of inadequacy as they are less likely to meet requirement, while higher nutrient intakes have a low probability of inadequacy. To perform full probability analysis it is necessary to know the distribution of requirements (symmetry, mean and standard deviation) or to be able to make a reasonable assumption about the distribution. It is reasonable to assume that the distribution of requirements for most nutrients is normal. The only nutrient for which there is evidence to the contrary is iron requirements in menstruating females, which are positively skewed. Each nutrient intake is compared to the requirement distribution and the area under the requirement distribution to the right of the intake value is the probability that intake is inadequate to meet requirement. The probabilities are then averaged to obtain the percentage of the population with inadequate intakes. The probability approach has been criticised because the variation in requirement (standard deviation) is not known for many nutrients. However, it has been demonstrated that when the requirement distribution is symmetrical (not necessarily normal) the probability approach is relatively insensitive to the variance of requirement (National Research Council 1986). Provided the intake distribution is wider than the requirement distribution, the mean requirement is known, and a symmetrical (not necessarily normal) distribution can be reasonably assumed; the percentage of the population with intakes below the mean requirement will approximate the prevalence of inadequate intakes determined by full probability analysis (Beaton 1994). In other words, for those whose intake is below the mean requirement, the prevalence of inadequacy is over-estimated, and for those whose intake is above the mean requirement the prevalence is underestimated, as the requirement distribution is symmetrical and the errors of over- and under-estimation tend to cancel each other out. 206 NZ Food: NZ People Table III: Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis* Nutrient EAR Basis of requirement Vitamin A 500 µg RE males 400 µg RE females for all age groups Supports all vitamin A dependent functions & maintains liver stores Riboflavin 1.0 mg males 0.9 mg females for all age groups Saturation of tissues with riboflavin Folate 150 µg for all age and sex groups Adequate red blood cell folate & liver storage levels (NOT the requirement to prevent neural tube defects) Vitamin B12 1.25 µg for all age and sex groups 25 mg for all age and sex groups Maintains liver stores Vitamin C Iron Calcium Zinc 8.7 mg males 15-18 years 6.7 mg males 19+ years 5.7 mg non-menstruating females** Menstruating females*** : Iron intakes were converted to absorbed iron (assuming 15 percent absorption). Basal losses of 0.86 mg were subtracted from the absorbed iron intakes.These values were log transformed & compared with the log normalised distribution of menstrual iron losses (-0.734 mean, 0.777 SD, log units) 750 mg males 15-18 years 625 mg females 15-18 years 525 mg males & females 19+ years 7.3 mg males 5.5 mg females for all age groups Mid-point between requirement to prevent scurvy & intake which produces measurable plasma concentrations Maintains normal clinical function and supply of iron to tissues (includes menstrual loss in women of child-bearing age) Support growth and match any obligatory losses Match losses * ** The EARs are from the UK Dietary Reference Values (1991) The requirement of 5.7 mg differs from the published UK value (6.7 mg) as the UK had incorrectly assigned the same basal loss to men and women over 50 years (G Beaton, personal communication) *** The assumption has been made that all women under 45 years are menstruating and all women 45+ years are not menstruating. Appendix B 207 The requirement estimates from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values (United Kingdom Department of Health 1991) were chosen as they are currently the only recommendations which document the mean requirement (with the exception of some FAO/WHO reports) and they have been formulated more recently than the Australian Recommended Nutrient Intakes. As the United Kingdom diet is similar to the New Zealand diet in factors affecting requirement estimates (e.g. intake of animal products), the United Kingdom nutrient requirements may be applied to the New Zealand population. The mean requirements and the criteria the requirements are intended to satisfy are presented in Table III. The probability of intake being inadequate was calculated using nutrient intakes first adjusted to remove the effects of day to day (intra-individual) variation. Details of this methodology are included in the previous section on C-SIDE. This is important because on any given day a number of people will have unusually low or high intakes, which are not reflective of their ‘usual’ intake. Nutrient requirements, however, represent the required long-term average (usual) intakes, not amounts that must be consumed each day. Without adjusting for intra-individual variation the prevalence of inadequate intakes would be over- or under-estimated depending on where the intake distribution lies in relation to the requirement distribution. Evaluating nutrient intakes by probability analysis is preferable to making direct comparisons with recommended intakes as the variation in requirement between individuals is taken into account (National Research Council 1986). Directly comparing nutrient intakes with recommended intakes fails to recognise that the recommended intakes are devised to be sufficient to meet the needs of almost all healthy individuals. Consequently, an individual may still meet their own requirement although not consuming the recommended intake. When interpreting the prevalence of inadequate intakes it is important to note: • The prevalence of inadequate intakes reflects the criterion on which requirement is based. For example, if the requirement for nutrient X is based on maintaining body stores (assuming normal losses) and it is estimated 15 percent of the population have inadequate intakes; this indicates 15 percent are not consuming enough nutrient X to maintain body stores but does not indicate functional impairment or a deficiency disorder. It also does not indicate which specific individuals in the population have inadequate intakes to maintain their body stores. Table III outlines the criteria on which the requirement estimates were based. • Accurate assessment of whether dietary intakes are adequate requires a combination of biochemical, anthropometric and dietary measurements. The estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intakes serve to highlight areas which may be of concern. However, the body is highly adaptable and enhances the absorption and/or decreases the obligatory losses of many nutrients if dietary intake is inadequate. Conversely, it is possible that dietary intake appears adequate but due to a high content of absorption inhibitors in the diet and/or high nutrient losses (due to physiological or pathological factors), a deficiency results. In addition, errors in the nutrient intake data (from over- or under-reporting and the translation of food into nutrient intakes) introduce error into the estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intakes. Therefore, biochemical and anthropometric measurements are required to accurately determine nutritional status as the net effect of dietary intake and the body’s response must be taken into account (Gibson 1990). 208 NZ Food: NZ People Under-reporting Under-reporting is an acknowledged problem in all types of dietary surveys. A common method of estimating under-reporting is to calculate the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolism. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is most frequently computed based on height and weight using the age specific formulas of Schofield, Schofield & James (1985). The Australian Survey (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998) used a formula based on weight only. However, the population on which the Schofield equations were developed was ‘normal’ (to a maximum weight of 84 kg) and not obese. Extrapolating the calculation of BMR for weights beyond 84 kg has an inherent error as the assumption being made is that Lean Body Mass (the primary determinant of BMR) increases in proportion to absolute mass. Over 25 percent of this survey population had a weight exceeding 84 kg, and thus further work will be required before an appropriate BMR can be calculated for the 84+ kg group, and an accurate estimation of under-reporting calculated. Appendix B 209 210 NZ Food: NZ People Appendix C Glossary of Terms Blood Pressure: Blood pressure was measured using an Omron 706c smart-inflate blood pressure monitor. A large cuff was used for individuals with an upper arm circumference greater than 32 cm. The measurement was repeated three times and the measurements averaged. BMI: Body Mass Index is an indicator of body fatness. It is calculated from the formula weight/ height2 where weight is in kilograms and height in metres. Cholesterol (Serum Concentrations): These data were provided by Southern Community Laboratories who used an enzymatic method for total cholesterol (Boehringer Mannheim, on a Hitachi 717 automated analyser). High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was measured directly using PEG modified enzymes (cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase) linked to a peroxidase colorimetric reaction (Boehringer Mannheim). These methods were operated with International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control procedures and underwent fortnightly peer review through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality Assurance programme. C-reactive Protein: The C-reactive protein was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using nephelometry on a Behring Nepelometer (BNA). This method was operated in accordance with International Accreditation New Zealand approved quality control procedures and peer reviewed through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality Assurance programme. C-SIDE: This is the abbreviation for the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation developed by Iowa State University. This programme allows for the estimations of the distribution of usual intakes of nutrients for a population when daily intake observations are repeated at least twice on a subsample of the individuals in the population (Nusser et al 1996). EAR: Estimated Average Requirement of a group of people for energy or protein, or a vitamin or mineral. About half will usually need more than the EAR; about half will need less. This EAR definition and values for EAR were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values (UK DRVs). Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin: The free erythrocyte protoporphyrin in serum was measured by Southern Community Laboratories and expressed as a zinc protoporphyrin/haeme ratio using a ProtoFluor Z Haematofluorometer (Helena Laboratories). This method was standardised using high and low calibrators as supplied with the Protofluor Reagent Kit (Helena Laboratories). Ferritin: Serum ferritin was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using a sandwich chemiluminometric immunoassay on a Ciba Coring ACS: 180 automated immunoassay analyser. World Health Organization reference materials were used to standardize the assay which is in accordance with International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control and peer reviewed monthly through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Endocrine Quality Assurance Programme. Food Security: Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally acceptable foods in a socially acceptable way. Height: Measurements were made without footwear using a portable stadiometer. Two measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 cm. If these differed by more than 0.5 cm a third measurement was taken. The height measurement for each individual was the average of the two closest measurements. Appendix C 211 LINZ®: Life in New Zealand Activity & Health Research Unit, University of Otago. This Unit managed the NNS97 contract on behalf of the University. LRNI: Lower Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of the nutrient that is enough for only the few people in a group who have low needs. This LRNI definition and values for LRNI were sourced from the UK DRV. New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) Guidelines: Sourced from Food for Health (Department of Health 1991). For example, breads and cereals 6+ servings/day; vegetables 3+ servings/day; fruit 2+ servings/day. NNS97: The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey. NNSTAC: National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee consisting of 12 members supported by 18 Ministry of Health officials. The names of these individuals are included in the Introduction. Nutrient database: The nutrient composition of foods was supplied by Crop and Food Research Ltd (Palmerston North) and included the New Zealand Food Composition Data, additional composition data sourced from overseas, brand and product specific food composition of fortified foods, and the nutrient composition of standard and modified recipes used in the survey. NZDep96: This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual (Salmond et al 1998). The index is based on eight dimensions of deprivation: income, access to a car, living space, home ownership, employment, qualifications, support, access to a telephone. The usual NZDep96 consists of a principal components score, scaled to a mean of 1,000 with a standard deviation of 100, from which it is broken into 10 equal categories. The Ministry of Health worked from the principal components score to create four categories (instead of 10) for the 1996/ 97 Health Survey, and then this NZDep96 category (or quartile) was supplied to LINZ® for the NNS97 analysis. Quartile I is defined as individuals living in the least deprived areas and quartile IV as individuals living in the most deprived areas. Obesity: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a BMI ≥ 30 for all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999). Overweight: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 26 and < 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a BMI ≥ 25 and < 30 for all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999). PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls, formerly used in electrical transformers. PSU: This is a small geographic unit known as a Primary Sampling Unit. New Zealand is divided into 18,800 PSUs and most contain between 50 and 100 dwellings, with an average of 65 dwellings per PSU. QFFQ: Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire, which asks about the frequency of consumption of foods and preparation/cooking practices. RNI: Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of nutrient that is enough, or more than enough, for about 97 percent of people in a group. If the average intake of the group is at RNI, then the risk of deficiency in that group is very small. This RNI definition and values for RNI were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values. Safe Intake: A term used to indicate intake or range of intakes of a nutrient for which there is not enough information to estimate Reference Nutrient Intake, Estimated Average Requirement, or Lower Reference Nutrient Intake. It is an amount that is enough for almost everyone but not so large as to cause undesirable effects. This ‘safe intake’ definition and values for ‘safe intake’ were derived from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values. 212 NZ Food: NZ People Skinfolds: Subcutaneous skinfolds were measured with Harpenden calipers at two sites: triceps and subscapular using standardised procedures (Lohman et al 1988). All measurements were made to the nearest 0.1 mm. Two measurements were made at each site and if they differed by more than 0.5 mm a third measurement was taken. The mean of the two closest measurements was used as the skinfold measure for the participant. Stadiometer: An instrument for measuring the standing height of an individual. Therapeutic Database: A database of brand-name foods compiled from manufacturer information primarily to produce lists of food products free from certain components (e.g. gluten) and additives and includes nutrient composition. This database is maintained by Auckland Hospital under a contract with the Ministry of Health. Transferrin Receptor: The serum transferrin receptor concentration was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using a quantitative immunoenzymetric kit from Orion Diagnostics. There was no commercial control available so the performance of this assay was monitored by: • in house patient control which is run with each batch, • comparison of the coefficient of variation of duplicates to the kit manufacturers recommendations. Twenty-Four Hour (24hr) Diet Recall: An individualised interviewer administered recall of all foods and beverages consumed in the previous 24 hours (midnight to midnight), using the three pass technique (quick list, specified probe questions for each item on the quick list, and a review). UK DRV: United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values resulting from the report of the 1991 Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. These include Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), Reference Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), Lower Reference Nutrient Intakes (LRNIs) and ‘safe intake’. Weight: Measured on a SECA Model 770 scale to the nearest 0.1 kg with the respondent in light clothing. The reported data have been corrected for a clothing weight of 1.2 kg. Scales were calibrated with standard weights each day. Two measurements were taken and if these differed by more than 0.5 kg a third measurement was taken. The weight measurement for each individual was the average of the two closest measurements. W/H Ratio: Waist circumference/Hip circumference ratio. Waist circumference was measured at the natural narrowing midway between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. The measurement was taken at the end of a normal expiration. The hip measurement was taken at the maximum circumference around the buttocks when viewed from the side (Lohman et al 1988). Both measurements were made to the nearest 0.1 cm. Two measurements at each site were taken and if these differed by more than 1.0 cm a third measurement was taken. The measurement used for each individual was the average of the two closest measurements. W/H Ratio Excess: The W/H Ratio is judged excessive when the ratio is > 0.90 for males and > 0.80 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994). 1996/97 Health Survey: The New Zealand Health Survey was completed by Statistics New Zealand under contract to the Ministry of Health. The results are reported in Taking the Pulse (Ministry of Health 1999). Appendix C 213 214 NZ Food: NZ People Appendix D Pacific People and Community Nutrient Intakes Data in this appendix are presented but not interpreted. Pacific people a. The number of Pacific people (191 females, 116 males) who completed a 24 hour recall was too small to allow a reliable estimate of usual nutrient intake using the C-SIDE programme. Thus, these nutrient data are not adjusted for intra-individual variation and cannot, therefore, be compared with nutrient data presented in the main body of the text. b. Interpretation of these nutrient data are compounded by small numbers across the age groups, differences in migrant status, and the heterogeneity of the group given their varying countries of origin. For these reasons it is not possible to interpret the Pacific people nutrient data in the same way as has been done for other ethnic groups or to make comparisons between groups. At best, these nutrient data provide a broad picture of the nutrient intake of Pacific people and allow a basis on which further work can be developed. Nevertheless, these nutrient data make an essential contribution, ensuring the nutrient intake of the New Zealand population as a whole, is representatively described. Community Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only, and therefore, provincial nutrient data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation using the C-SIDE programme. These nutrient data are, therefore, not comparable with the nutrient data presented in the main body of the text. Appendix D 215 216 NZ Food: NZ People 895.7* 959.3 757.3* 579.9 542.2* 613.3 1037* 412.1 166.4 268.1 97.6 158.6 11944* 12475 9740* 11726 9395* 8246 8504* 8630 11717 12504 7929 8072 Mean 90th 3 6565 7057 4335 4620 10913 11843 7503 7418 17651 18603 11681 12375 6620* 10435* 21686* 4093 11036 21740 6228* 9118* 17694* 5816 10532 20643 5523* 8217* 13949* 3916 7471 15243 4134* 8182* 15330* 4269 8122 13965 Energy (kJ) SEM 10th 3 50th 3 106 115 74 73 107* 118 106* 112 66* 81 87* 78 1.9 2.9 1.1 1.4 8.6* 12.0 10.6* 6.9 4.4* 8.7 11.9* 5.3 53 59 40 40 51* 31 47* 39 41* 28 41* 33 97 106 69 66 107* 87 105* 100 64* 66 80* 67 169 178 112 113 185* 243 186* 206 99* 165 188* 126 15 16 16 16 15* 15 19* 16 12* 16 18* 15 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8* 0.8 1.3* 0.6 0.6* 0.7 1.3* 0.5 10 11 10 10 10* 9 10* 10 9* 10 11* 10 15 15 15 15 15* 14 18* 15 11* 15 18* 14 21 22 22 21 20* 24 26* 24 19* 24 29* 22 UNADJUSTED ENERGY AND PROTEIN 1 Protein (g) Percent energy from protein 2 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. 3 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D1 Appendix D 217 9.7* 10.7 10.9* 6.7 7.6* 7.6 17.0* 5.9 2.0 3.4 1.2 1.8 113* 114 94* 109 81* 79 81* 80 111 123 74 77 Mean SEM 50 57 30 34 47* 42 33* 40 34* 30 22* 28 10th 3 Total fat (g) 102 113 69 70 113* 97 84* 95 67* 65 77* 65 50th 3 180 198 122 126 203* 209 168* 198 153* 142 138* 139 90th 3 35 36 34 35 36* 34 36* 35 31* 35 32* 33 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4 2.3* 1.9 2.6* 1.3 1.8* 0.9 2.4* 1.0 Mean SEM 23 26 22 24 21* 17 20* 20 19* 22 16* 22 10th 3 35 37 34 35 38* 34 36* 37 31* 36 32* 34 50th 3 46 46 46 47 48* 47 54* 48 46* 47 51* 47 90th 3 39% 32% 44% 40% 30%* 49% 39%* 41% 61%* 38% 59%* 49% guideline 4 Meeting UNADJUSTED TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL 1 Percent energy from total fat 2 362 426 263 259 392* 502 409* 450 238* 311 343* 298 Mean 9.1 15.9 6.7 7.6 44.6* 67.4 63.7* 37.9 31.6* 40.0 73.4* 29.3 SEM 117 152 79 85 118* 101 119* 117 83* 36 65* 57 10th 3 90th 3 296 363 211 211 685 723 502 490 329* 819* 274 1160 336* 995* 318 996 211* 526* 212 810 264* 678* 216 720 50th 3 Cholesterol (mg) * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. 3 Percentiles. 4 The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D2.1 218 NZ Food: NZ People 5.6* 4.7 4.6* 3.2 3.5* 2.4 5.9* 2.1 0.9 1.6 0.6 0.9 48* 48 38* 46 35* 31 34* 33 47 54 32 33 Mean 18 20 12 12 22* 13 13* 14 13* 13 10* 11 42 48 29 29 38* 36 36* 36 30* 27 30* 28 Saturated fat (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 81 92 55 57 99* 96 76* 91 67* 51 66* 62 90 th 2 37 41 24 26 39* 39 36* 39 27* 27 27* 27 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.7 3.1* 4.0 4.9* 2.5 2.8* 3.2 6.4* 2.3 15 18 9 11 18* 12 13* 12 11* 7 6* 7 34 39 22 22 40* 31 31* 34 20* 21 21* 21 64 62 42 44 65* 82 77* 69 53* 58 53* 51 UNADJUSTED FATTY ACIDS I 1 Monounsaturated fat (g) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D2.2 16 16 10 11 15* 15 11* 14 11* 12 12* 12 Mean 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 2.0* 1.8 1.4* 1.1 1.3* 1.9 3.6* 1.3 6 6 3 4 5* 3 3* 4 2* 3 2* 3 13 14 9 9 13* 11 10* 11 10* 11 7* 9 29 32 19 20 33* 31 21* 30 22* 23 24* 22 Polyunsaturated fat (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Appendix D 219 1.3* 0.9 1.0* 0.7 0.9* 0.5 1.1* 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 15* 14 14* 14 13* 14 14* 14 15 16 15 15 9 10 8 9 6* 5 7* 7 7* 7 7* 7 15 16 15 15 15* 14 16* 15 13* 13 13* 13 21 22 22 21 26* 21 20* 21 21* 20 22* 21 Percent energy from saturated fat Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 12 12 11 12 13* 12 14* 12 10* 12 11* 11 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.9* 0.8 1.3* 0.6 0.7* 0.5 1.0* 0.4 7 8 7 7 7* 6 7* 6 6* 6 4* 6 12 12 11 11 14* 11 14* 12 10* 12 10* 11 16 16 16 16 18* 19 24* 19 16* 17 20* 17 5 5 5 5 5* 5 4* 5 4* 6 4* 5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6* 0.4 0.5* 0.3 0.5* 0.4 0.6* 0.3 2 2 2 2 2* 2 2* 2 1* 2 1* 2 4 5 4 5 4* 4 4* 4 3* 5 4* 4 8 8 8 8 10* 8 8* 8 9* 10 9* 10 UNADJUSTED FATTY ACIDS II 1 Percent energy from monounsaturated fat Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D2.3 220 NZ Food: NZ People 23.8* 26.4 25.2* 15.8 18.2* 13.9 18.7* 10.6 5.1 7.1 2.8 4.5 323* 322 249* 306 312* 235 241* 258 313 323 222 221 Mean SEM 168 170 120 122 196* 100 137* 116 160* 116 109* 120 10 th 3 292 299 209 208 284* 314 186* 289 315* 209 230* 246 50 th 3 Carbohydrate (g) 484 519 336 336 612* 549 421* 520 495* 366 373* 388 90 th 3 45 44 48 47 46* 45 43* 45 56* 49 50* 51 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 2.1* 2.7 2.8* 1.6 2.3* 1.3 2.7* 1.3 Mean SEM 32 32 35 34 35* 30 20* 30 38* 35 30* 35 10 th 3 45 44 48 47 46* 44 40* 44 59* 50 51* 51 50 th 3 58 56 60 58 60* 65 68* 62 68* 64 71* 68 90 th 3 34% 24% 41% 37% 29%* 33% 32%* 32% 78%* 52% 52%* 60% guideline 4 Meeting UNADJUSTED CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH 1 Percent energy from carbohydrate 2 174 180 116 115 177* 192 171* 183 165* 146 150* 152 Mean 3.2 4.5 1.5 2.6 16.5* 16.7 20.5* 10.8 10.2* 11.5 15.8* 7.2 SEM 87 87 60 54 84* 46 53* 58 85* 58 66* 67 10th 3 Starch (g) * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. 3 Percentiles. 4 The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake. 1 Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D3.1 161 172 109 107 153* 205 138* 159 156* 121 136* 144 50th 3 277 286 181 180 294* 316 326* 311 246* 283 271* 266 90th 3 Appendix D 221 19.4* 16.0 9.0* 10.1 12.6* 6.3 9.8* 6.3 3.1 4.1 1.8 3.2 138 142 105 105 53 54 41 42 44* 31 19* 31 46* 29 32* 33 121 123 97 92 114* 99 66* 91 148* 77 73* 88 Total sugars (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 146* 129 78* 123 146* 88 90* 105 Mean 244 260 181 179 327* 255 155* 251 262* 165 194* 189 90th 2 24 24 19 19 20* 20 12* 18 27* 15 16* 18 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.8 3.7* 2.8 1.5* 1.8 4.7* 1.5 2.3* 1.9 6 6 4 5 1* 2 2* 2 4* 3 4* 3 20 20 16 17 14* 16 11* 14 25* 12 12* 14 48 48 35 35 51* 47 27* 40 58* 33 35* 44 UNADJUSTED SUGARS I 1 Glucose (g) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D3.2 25 25 20 20 20* 21 13* 19 27* 17 17* 20 Mean 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.8 4.0* 3.1 1.7* 2.0 4.4* 1.6 2.5* 1.8 SEM 6 5 4 5 1* 1 2* 2 3* 2 5* 3 21 21 17 17 14* 18 12* 15 26* 13 12* 15 Fructose (g) 10th 2 50th 2 51 52 40 38 51* 55 31* 48 55* 37 35* 43 90th 2 222 NZ Food: NZ People 16.5* 10.0 6.3* 7.3 7.9* 3.8 6.1* 3.6 1.9 2.8 1.1 1.8 68 71 50 49 19 18 13 12 19* 15 3* 15 24* 13 13* 14 56 57 42 41 63* 46 31* 45 65* 40 38* 45 Sucrose (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 92* 73 41* 72 77* 46 47* 55 Mean 134 143 93 96 209* 168 96* 178 152* 86 104* 110 90th 2 16 17 14 14 10* 10 7* 9 10* 8 7* 8 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.6 2.2* 1.8 1.4* 1.1 1.7* 1.0 1.2* 0.7 2 3 2 2 0* 0 0* 0 0* 1 0* 0 13 13 11 10 4* 6 5* 6 8* 5 5* 6 33 33 28 27 25* 23 18* 23 30* 16 17* 18 UNADJUSTED SUGARS II 1 Lactose (g) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D3.3 4.9 5.5 3.1 3.1 4.4* 5.9 4.4* 5.1 4.3* 2.9 2.8* 3.3 Mean 0.14 0.23 0.10 0.13 0.61* 1.34 1.03* 0.70 0.49* 0.46 0.65* 0.29 SEM 1.1 1.4 0.8 0.7 0.3* 0.1 0.0* 0.2 1.5* 0.3 0.1* 0.4 4.0 4.4 2.4 2.4 3.8* 3.0 3.7* 3.2 3.9* 2.0 2.1* 2.3 Maltose (g) 10th 2 50th 2 9.6 10.2 5.8 5.7 8.4* 16.7 11.4* 12.3 7.6* 7.2 8.3* 7.3 90th 2 Appendix D 223 2.1* 1.9 2.1* 1.3 1.3* 1.0 1.9* 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 17* 21 19* 20 21* 18 21* 19 24 24 18 18 Mean 11 12 9 10 5* 6 7* 6 9* 7 11* 9 23 23 17 17 16* 23 17* 20 22* 16 18* 18 Dietary fibre (g) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 38 40 29 28 25* 35 38* 33 32* 32 35* 32 90th 2 12 13 10 10 8* 10 9* 9 11* 9 11* 10 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 1.2* 1.0 0.9* 0.7 0.7* 0.5 1.1* 0.5 5 6 4 5 2* 3 3* 3 4* 3 6* 4 11 11 9 9 7* 11 8* 9 10* 8 9* 9 21 23 16 16 14* 16 17* 15 18* 16 19* 18 11 12 9 9 9* 11 10* 10 11* 9 10* 10 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 1.0* 1.0 1.2* 0.7 0.6* 0.5 0.8* 0.4 6 6 4 4 3* 3 3* 3 5* 4 5* 4 11 11 8 8 8* 12 8* 10 12* 8 9* 9 18 19 13 13 13* 19 19* 18 16* 16 16* 16 UNADJUSTED FIBRE 1 Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g) Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D4 224 NZ Food: NZ People 11.9* 13.1 4.9* 7.7 2.3* 0.7 0.4* 0.8 1.5 2.4 0.6 2.2 19* 31 10* 23 3* 2 0* 2 20 21 8 10 Mean 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 65 66 27 28 102* 157 74* 106 0* 0 0* 0 5 5 3 3 3* 6 3* 5 1* 1 0* 1 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 2.0* 2.9 1.4* 1.6 0.5* 0.3 0.2* 0.2 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 0* 0 16 16 11 10 16* 31 24* 24 0* 0 0* 0 UNADJUSTED ALCOHOL 1 Alcohol (g) Percent energy from alcohol 2 SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake. 3 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D5 Appendix D 225 161.0* 428.2 94.2* 216.8 98.8* 60.9 154.9* 56.0 53.8 110.2 59.8 41.9 857* 1164 712* 976 734* 665 744* 703 1195 1346 941 969 350 327 276 311 176* 177 163* 178 287* 89 104* 157 857 953 678 728 601* 684 616* 616 609* 549 660* 548 2196 2457 1633 1739 1837* 1618 1547* 1575 1408* 1383 2479* 1394 Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 572 681 435 422 492* 756 325* 585 311* 305 307* 307 42.3 99.2 56.0 31.8 170 176 102 113 73.8* 115* 317.9 65 41.9* 47* 158.3 65 41.6* 61* 40.0 44 72.2* 24* 29.3 40 420 495 308 331 328* 369 298* 328 270* 239 204* 241 854 979 626 667 1117* 1067 662* 1013 694* 665 999* 681 UNADJUSTED VITAMIN A 1 Retinol (µg ) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. As these nutrients are concentrated in relatively few foods, one day intakes are highly skewed. Therefore, the estimate of intake has large standard errors. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D6.1 3738 3986 3033 3276 2192* 2435 2336* 2342 2534* 2162 2620* 2377 Mean 185.7 243.5 99.4 161.4 783.6* 706.5 479.9* 429.7 465.6* 285.9 586.0* 248.7 367 449 310 405 52* 162 168* 119 461* 129 24* 172 1886 2087 1753 1760 772* 969 1219* 886 1539* 1017 1892* 1382 β-carotene (µg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 9217 10809 7410 7792 7125* 6474 5104* 5057 6506* 6546 8049* 6702 90th 2 226 NZ Food: NZ People 23.6* 17.4 20.0* 11.9 12.4* 9.7 12.5* 7.0 4.3 5.0 2.8 7.9 104* 131 105* 118 112* 94 110* 103 127 113 104 111 Mean 23 28 21 24 6* 9 21* 13 20* 12 23* 17 95 82 78 83 55* 95 93* 90 105* 57 101* 75 279 236 218 220 281* 330 291* 306 265* 221 221* 219 11.7 11.9 8.7 9.2 9.7* 14.0 11.2* 12.1 9.3* 10.4 9.1* 9.8 0.22 0.38 0.16 0.23 1.21* 1.84 1.78* 1.07 0.74* 1.21 1.55* 0.69 5.1 5.2 4.0 4.4 0.9* 3.8 3.7* 3.6 3.9* 4.1 2.9* 4.1 10.4 11.0 7.7 8.1 11.0* 10.4 9.3* 9.5 8.8* 7.4 7.2* 7.6 UNADJUSTED VITAMINS C AND E 1 Vitamin C (mg) Vitamin E (mg) th 2 th 2 th 2 SEM 10 50 90 Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D6.2 19.7 20.1 14.1 15.2 16.9* 30.8 23.5* 23.6 16.7* 25.7 19.1* 18.8 90th 2 Appendix D 227 0.17* 0.14 0.13* 0.09 0.07* 0.09 0.15* 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 1.7 1.8 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.5* 0.4 0.4* 0.4 0.8* 0.4 0.4* 0.4 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.3* 1.3 1.1* 1.3 1.3* 0.9 0.9* 1.1 Thiamin (mg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1.5* 1.5 1.2* 1.4 1.3* 1.1 1.1* 1.1 Mean 2.7 2.8 1.9 1.9 2.7* 2.5 2.3* 2.4 1.8* 2.2 2.4* 2.0 90th 2 2.1 2.2 1.6 1.5 1.8* 1.8 1.4* 1.7 1.3* 1.3 1.3* 1.3 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.26* 0.20 0.11* 0.13 0.08* 0.10 0.14* 0.07 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.8* 0.5 0.6* 0.6 0.6* 0.4 0.5* 0.5 1.9 2.0 1.5 1.4 1.4* 1.4 1.5* 1.4 1.3* 1.2 1.3* 1.2 3.5 3.5 2.5 2.5 3.4* 3.5 2.4* 3.4 2.2* 2.2 2.4* 2.2 UNADJUSTED B VITAMINS I 1 Riboflavin (mg) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D7.1 43 46 30 29 45* 50 47* 48 29* 33 35* 32 Mean 0.8 1.2 0.4 0.6 3.8* 5.1 5.5* 3.1 1.7* 3.7 4.0* 2.1 22 24 15 15 22* 14 19* 16 16* 11 17* 13 39 43 27 26 45* 39 41* 42 26* 26 35* 27 70 73 45 46 75* 100 98* 91 44* 66 75* 56 Niacin equivalents (mg NE) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 228 NZ Food: NZ People 0.24* 0.17 0.14* 0.11 0.28* 0.11 0.17* 0.12 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 1.6* 1.8 1.5* 1.7 1.8* 1.4 1.6* 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.2 Mean 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.6* 0.4 0.5* 0.6 0.4* 0.4 0.6* 0.4 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.2* 1.5 1.5* 1.5 1.6* 1.2 1.5* 1.4 Vitamin B6 (mg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 3.0 2.7 2.2 2.1 3.6* 3.8 2.3* 3.2 3.8* 2.5 2.8* 3.0 90 th 2 5.5 7.2 4.0 3.7 5.8* 6.7 6.4* 6.3 3.0* 4.4 4.7* 4.1 0.22 0.58 0.21 0.14 1.07* 1.16 1.38* 0.71 0.34* 0.74 1.00* 0.45 1.6 1.7 1.0 1.1 0.6* 1.0 1.4* 1.2 0.9* 0.5 0.8* 0.8 4.0 4.6 2.8 2.8 4.6* 3.7 4.8* 4.2 2.4* 3.0 3.8* 3.2 10.2 14.6 6.4 6.7 11.6* 16.7 22.2* 12.5 5.7* 9.4 15.4* 7.8 UNADJUSTED B VITAMINS II 1 Vitamin B12 (µg) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D7.2 285 287 222 216 211* 258 209* 234 217* 195 226* 209 Mean 5.3 6.8 3.4 4.2 22.9* 22.6 19.6* 13.4 21.1* 11.6 22.0* 10.5 131 147 105 113 73* 50 90* 65 94* 78 108* 93 261 275 207 199 193* 267 209* 230 202* 187 187* 194 Folate (µg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 456 434 349 336 313* 450 335* 393 359* 329 385* 359 90th 2 Appendix D 229 86.5* 89.9 70.2* 51.4 53.1* 42.3 50.8* 27.8 19.8 27.2 13.2 19.4 612* 652 541* 616 512* 494 453* 489 910 912 740 723 Mean 354 365 283 288 171* 161 197* 171 224* 183 144* 183 803 801 659 645 522* 593 469* 508 416* 417 371* 412 Calcium (mg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 1533 1559 1281 1258 1210* 1139 1154* 1144 916* 814 948* 907 90 th 2 1778 1875 1297 1269 1575* 1741 1474* 1634 1110* 1144 1293* 1170 27.7 43.3 19.8 23.5 170.6* 165.2 121.1* 101.1 75.4* 84.5 179.5* 64.8 912 998 697 696 849* 540 869* 675 738* 414 525* 525 1678 1760 1228 1167 1462* 1422 1376* 1415 1025* 1055 1233* 1056 2658 3015 2009 1956 2510* 3280 2441* 2868 1742* 2071 1999* 1965 UNADJUSTED MINERALS I 1 Phosphorus (mg) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D8.1 373 377 276 273 305* 443 389* 391 308* 322 294* 311 Mean 5.6 9.1 3.8 4.5 31.5* 58.8 80.5* 35.8 21.3* 30.2 28.6* 17.9 194 210 149 157 163* 154 162* 160 133* 99 126* 126 348 355 257 260 298* 368 316* 316 283* 255 302* 270 Magnesium (mg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 571 576 416 404 521* 914 488* 600 514* 712 513* 538 90th 2 230 NZ Food: NZ People 1.44* 1.50 1.08* 0.84 0.68* 0.88 1.62* 0.60 0.26 0.47 0.18 0.20 13.0* 16.0 12.5* 14.4 10.9* 10.8 12.2* 11.2 14.6 16.2 10.3 10.3 Mean 7.4 7.7 5.1 5.4 6.6* 5.5 6.5* 6.7 6.5* 3.8 4.0* 4.6 Iron (mg) SEM 10th 2 13.4 14.5 9.5 9.4 13.0* 14.5 11.9* 13.3 9.6* 8.6 10.3* 9.6 50 th 2 22.8 26.6 16.1 16.4 24.0* 30.6 23.8* 24.4 16.8* 21.1 28.8* 19.4 90 th 2 14.9 16.1 10.3 10.1 13.0* 19.7 16.7* 17.1 10.5* 13.7 13.1* 12.7 0.31 0.51 0.18 0.24 1.10* 2.92 2.90* 1.61 1.13* 1.73 1.76* 0.99 7.0 7.4 4.8 5.0 6.0* 6.1 6.8* 6.1 5.0* 4.0 5.5* 5.0 13.1 14.1 9.1 8.7 13.6* 13.4 10.7* 13.3 7.6* 9.5 11.4* 9.6 24 .0 27.5 17.2 16.6 20.4* 45.3 37.6* 32.4 20.3* 36.9 31.0* 26.7 UNADJUSTED MINERALS II 1 Zinc (mg) Mean SEM 10th 2 50th 2 90th 2 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 Percentiles. 1 Pacific People Males 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Females 15–24 25–44 45+ Total Community Males Metropolitan Provincial Females Metropolitan Provincial Appendix D8.2 3898 4178 2995 3014 2801* 4250 3623* 3689 3195* 2869 3406* 3090 Mean 57.3 103.4 39.4 52.7 242.9* 395.2 344.1* 242.1 224.7* 197.3 408.6* 162.8 1969 2249 1582 1646 1250* 947 1826* 1072 1269* 1092 1251* 1152 3619 3958 2857 2851 2728* 4500 3642* 3372 3328* 2536 3244* 3009 Potassium (mg) SEM 10th 2 50th 2 5879 6444 4491 4527 5024* 7937 5931* 6472 4966* 5647 6592* 4966 90th 2 Appendix D 231 Mean 21* 12 20* 18 16* 10 16* 12 20 21 15 14 17.4* 27.5 8.9* 14.9 3.0* 6.6 10.9* 4.3 2.3 3.1 1.5 3.6 44 49 31 30 49* 60 80* 58 30* 30 51* 33 Selenium (µg) 50th 3 SEM 10th 3 2 108 114 79 82 173* 185 136* 157 57* 111 152* 111 90 th 3 5122 5269 4095 4040 3603* 4523 4029* 4146 3262* 3640 3496* 3500 110.0 159.6 71.4 100.9 452.0* 426.5 527.6* 290.3 188.2* 204.9 280.9* 142.3 2117 2105 1721 1785 965* 1437 1018* 1024 2023* 1214 1687* 1562 4633 4621 3760 3747 3980* 4167 3453* 3979 3049* 3435 3709* 3091 8745 9010 6740 6473 6271* 8373 9572* 7545 5463* 6906 5740* 5869 UNADJUSTED MINERALS III 1 Manganese (µg) Mean SEM 10th 3 50th 3 90th 3 * Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data. 1 These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. 2 These data are unreliable, please refer to the text. 3 Percentiles. Pacific People Males 15–24 78* 25–44 106 45+ 77* Total 92 Females 15–24 34* 25–44 50 45+ 65* Total 49 Community Males Metropolitan 59 Provincial 64 Females Metropolitan 43 Provincial 45 Appendix D8.3 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.3* 2.0 1.5* 1.7 1.2* 1.4 1.2* 1.3 Mean 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.12* 0.24 0.17* 0.13 0.09* 0.10 0.13* 0.06 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.5* 0.4 0.7* 0.5 0.7* 0.6 0.7* 0.7 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.1 1.2* 1.8 1.5* 1.4 1.2* 1.1 1.0* 1.1 Copper (mg) SEM 10th 3 50th 3 2.6 2.8 2.0 2.0 2.0* 3.7 2.5* 2.9 1.9* 2.4 2.5* 2.2 90th 3 Appendix E Questionnaires Dietary Supplement Questions 1. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the year? YES 232 NO ➤ Q3 DON’T KNOW ➤ Q3 NZ Food: NZ People Appendix E Folic Acid Potassium Iron Calcium Anti-Oxidant Vitamin Vitamin E Vitamin D Vitamin C B Complex Vitamins Vitamin B12 Vitamin B6 Niacin (B3) Riboflavin (B2) Thiamin (B1) Vitamin A or carotenoids Multi/vitamins with other minerals Multi/vitamins with iron Multi/vitamins or minerals Type Brand Name No. Taken Dose Units Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week More than once per week Frequency Daily Episodic Don’t Know 2. What vitamins and/or minerals did you take? Use Supplement Show Card 1 233 3. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the past 24 hours? YES 4. NO ➤ Q5 DON’T KNOW ➤ Q5 Which vitamins and/or minerals did you take? USE SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 1 Type Brand Name Number Taken Dose Units Multi/vitamins or Minerals Multi/vitamins with Iron Multi/vitamins with other Minerals Vitamin A or Carotenoids Thiamin (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Niacin (B3) Vitamin B6 Vitamin B12 B Complex Vitamins Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Anti Oxidant Vitamin Calcium Iron Potassium Folic Acid 5. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessed bran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets, lecithin, evening primrose oil, performance enhancers, etc. at any time during the last year? YES 234 NO ➤ Q7 DON’T KNOW ➤ Q7 NZ Food: NZ People Performance Enhancers Yeast Evening Primrose Oil Codliver Oil Herbal Supplement Kelp Garlic Lecithin Fibre Tablets Wheat Germ Oat Bran Wheat Bran Type Brand Name No. Taken Dose Units Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week More than once per week Frequency Daily Episodic Don’t Know 6. Which fibre etc. supplements did you take? Appendix E 235 7. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessed bran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets; lecithin, evening primrose oil, performance enhancers, etc. during the past 24 hours? YES 8. NO ➤ End DON’T KNOW ➤ End Which fibre supplements etc. did you take? USE SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 2 Type Brand Name Wheat Bran Oat Bran Wheat Germ Fibre Tablets Lecithin Garlic Kelp Herbal Supplement Codliver Oil Primrose Oil Yeast Performance Enhancer 236 NZ Food: NZ People Number Taken Dose Units SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 1 SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 2 Examples Include: Examples Include: Multivitamins or Minerals Wheat Bran Vitamin A Oat Bran Thiamin (B1) Wheat Germ Riboflavin (B2) Fibre Tablets Niacin (B3) Lecithin Vitamin B6 Garlic Vitamin B12 Kelp B Complex Vitamins Herbal Supplement Vitamin C Codliver Oil Vitamin D Primrose Oil Vitamin E Yeast Calcium Performance Enhancers Iron Potassium Appendix E 237 Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire Identification Number: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 This survey will help us to find out about New Zealander's food patterns and assist with health promotion and health policy development. How can you help? • By telling us what YOU usually eat (not someone else in your household!) • Please fill out the form yourself. • Be accurate, but don’t spend too much time on each food. • Please answer EVERY question. • If you don’t know the answers to the cooking questions, please ask the person who usually cooks your food. • Answer by FILLING the OVAL that best applies to you. INSTRUCTIONS: PENCIL ONLY • Use the pencil provided • Do not use red pen or felt tip pen • Erase mistakes fully • Make no stray marks Please MARK LIKE THIS: NOT LIKE THIS: ✔ ✘ If you have any questions, please ring: 0800 78 75 74 Thank you for contributing to this important project. © Ministry of Health 238 NZ Food: NZ People How to answer: Please answer by filling in the oval which best describes how often you eat or drink a particular food. Please use the pencil and rubber provided. Ensure that only one oval is filled in per food item for computer scanning. Here are some examples: How often do you usually eat these foods? Never If on average you . . . Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Never eat any sort of mince dish then you would mark Eat cooked porridge 5 times per week in the winter, but never in the summer, then you would mark Eat fresh peaches about 3 times a week when they are in season, then you would mark Eat onions or leeks; onions 4 times per week, but leeks only once a month, then you would mark Appendix E 239 First of all, we have some questions about your general eating habits 1. How would you describe your eating pattern? (Please mark one only) Eat a variety of all foods, including animal products Eat eggs, dairy products, fish and chicken but avoid other meats Eat eggs and dairy products but avoid all meats and fish Eat eggs but avoid dairy products, all meats and fish Eat dairy products but avoid eggs, all meats and fish Eat no animal products Other (please specify) 2. On average, how many servings of fruit (fresh, frozen, canned or stewed) do you eat per day? Do not include fruit juice or dried fruit. (Please mark one only) (a ‘serving’ = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1⁄2 cup of stewed fruit) e.g. 1 apple + 2 small apricots = 2 servings Per Day I don’t eat fruit Less than 1 per day 1 serving 2 servings 3 or more servings 3. On average, how many servings of vegetables (fresh, frozen, canned) do you eat a day? Do not include vegetable juices. (Please mark one only) (a ‘serving’ = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1⁄2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup of salad vegetables) e.g. 2 medium potatoes + 1⁄2 cup of peas = 3 servings Per Day I don’t eat vegetables Less than 1 per day 1 serving 2 servings 3 servings 4 or more servings 240 NZ Food: NZ People 4. On average, how many slices or rolls of bread (or toast) do you eat per day? Per Day I don’t eat bread or toast ➞ Go to question 6 Less than 1 per day 1–2 3–4 5–6 7 or more 5. What type(s) of bread, rolls or toast do you eat most often? (Please mark only those you usually eat.) White White – high fibre Wholemeal or wholegrain Other (please specify) 6. On average, how many servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal do you eat per week? (Please mark one only) (a ‘serving’ = 1 cup cooked rice/pasta or porridge or cornflakes or 1⁄2 cup muesli or 2 weetbix) e.g. 1 cup of rice 3 times per week + 2 weetbix 4 times a week = 7 servings per week Per WEEK I don’t eat these foods Less than 4 per week 4–6 servings 7–9 servings 10–12 servings 13–15 servings 16 or more servings Appendix E 241 7. Do you usually eat breakfast cereal? No ➝ If no, go to question 8 Yes ➝ What breakfast cereal(s) do you have most often? (Please mark only those you usually have.) Weetbix Cornflakes or Rice Bubbles Toasted muesli Untoasted muesli Special K All-Bran, San-Bran, Bran Flakes or Weetbix – ‘Hi-Bran’ Just Right, Light and Tasty or Good Morning Nutrigrain, Cocoa Pops or Honey Puffs Puffed Wheat or Mini-Wheats Porridge Other (please specify) 8. Do you eat meat or chicken fried or roasted in fat or oil? No ➝ If no, go to question 9 Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often? (Please mark only those you usually use) Butter Margarine Butter margarine blend Lard or dripping Olive or canola oil Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc Don't know Other (please specify) 9. Do you eat vegetables fried or roasted in fat or oil? No ➝ If no, go to question 10 Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often? (Please mark only those you usually use) Butter Margarine Butter margarine blend Lard or dripping Olive or Canola oil 242 NZ Food: NZ People Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc Don't know Other (please specify) We would now like to ask in more detail about the foods you eat. 10. How often do you usually eat these foods or drinks? Please fill one oval for each food or drink. Never Dairy Foods Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Flavoured milk (e.g. milkshake, iced coffee) Milk as a drink Milk on breakfast cereals Milk added to hot beverages made with water (e.g. coffee, tea, milo) Hot beverages make with milk (e.g. milo, cocoa, hot chocolate drinks) Cream or sour cream Ice cream Custard or dairy food Yoghurt, plain or flavoured (including fromage frais) Milk puddings (e.g. rice, semolina, instant) Cream Cheese Cottage or ricotta cheese Mozzarella, feta, or camembert Edam or Gouda cheese Colby, Mild, Tasty cheese Brie, blue and other specialty cheeses 11. Do you drink or use any type of milk? No ➝ If no, go to question 12 Yes ➝ What type(s) do you have most often? (Please mark only those you usually have) Standard, homogenised milk (blue top) Trim milk (green top) Super Trim Skim milk or low-fat powdered milk Light Blue Whole or powdered whole milk (silver top) 'Calci-trim' 'Slim and Fit' Soy Milk Other (please specify) Appendix E 243 12. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Never Bread and Cereal Foods Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Focaccia, bagel, pita or other speciality breads Paraoa Parai (frybread) Rewena bread Doughboys or Maori bread Crumpet or croissant Waffle or doughnut Fruit or iced buns Savoury or dry biscuits, crispbread, or crackers Cooked porridge Breakfast cereal (including muesli) Rice (including white or brown) Pasta eg. spaghetti, ravioli, macaroni, noodles 13. Do you use butter or margarine on bread or crackers? No ➝ If no, go to question 14 Yes ➝ What type(s) do you use most often? (Please mark only those you usually use) Butter Unsalted butter Butter and margarine blend Low salt margarine ‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc. (ie Polyunsaturated margarines) Reduced fat margarine e.g. ‘Slimarine’ ‘Praise’ or ‘Olivo’ margarine Other (please specify) 14. Do you eat pork, beef, mutton, hogget or lamb? No ➝ If no, go to question 15 Yes ➝ Do you trim any excess fat off these meats? (Please mark one only) Always Often 244 NZ Food: NZ People Occasionally Never cut the fat off meat 15. Do you eat chicken? No ➝ If no, go to question 16 Yes ➝ Do you remove the skin from chicken? (Please mark one only) Occasionally Never remove the skin from chicken Always Often 16. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Meat and Fish Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Beef mince dishes (e.g. rissoles, meatloaf) Beef or veal mixed dishes (e.g. casserole, stir-fry) Beef or veal – roast, chop, steak, schnitzel Corned beef (including canned) or brisket Hogget or mutton mixed dishes (e.g. stews) Hogget or mutton – roast, chops Lamb mixed dishes (e.g. casserole, stir-fry) Lamb – roast, chop, steak Pork mixed dishes (e.g. casserole, stir-fry) Pork - roast, chop, steak Pork - boiled bones Sausage, frankfurter or saveloy Bacon or ham Luncheon meats, salami or brawn Liver (including pate) Other offal (e.g. kidneys) Chicken mixed dishes (e.g. casserole, stir-fry) Chicken – roast, fried, steamed, BBQ Turkey or duck Venison Appendix E 245 16. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Never Meat and Fish Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Mutton bird Canned tuna, salmon, sardines Eel Fish, battered Fish, fried (including fish fingers or fish cakes) Fish, steamed, baked, grilled or raw Shellfish (e.g. mussels, oysters, paua, kina, pipis) Other seafood (e.g. prawns) 17. Do you eat eggs? No ➝ If no, go to question 18 Yes ➝ Not counting eggs used in baking cakes etc, how many eggs do you usually eat per week? (Please mark one only) Per WEEK Less than 1 1 egg 2 eggs 3 eggs 4 eggs 5 or more eggs per week 18. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Miscellaneous Cakes, scones or pikelets Muffins - all types Sweet pies or sweet pastries Other puddings or desserts (not including milk-based puddings) Plain sweet biscuits Cream filled and/or chocolate biscuits Canned or packet soup (in winter) Home-made soup (in winter) 246 NZ Food: NZ People Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day 18. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Never Miscellaneous Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Hamburger Meat pie, sausage roll or other savoury pastries Pizza Muesli bars Chocolate (including chocolate bars e.g. Moro bars) Other confectionery Jam, honey, marmalade or syrup Peanut butter, other nut spreads Vegemite or marmite Nuts Potato crisps, corn chips, Twisties etc. 19. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Dressings and Sauces Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Mayonnaise Low-calorie salad dressing Salad dressing Tomato sauce Gravy White sauce/cheese sauce etc. Coconut cream Appendix E 247 20. How often do you usually eat these foods? (If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?) Please fill one oval for each food. Vegetables (including fresh, frozen or canned) Potato; boiled, mashed, baked or roasted Hot potato chips or kumara chips/ french fries/wedges Pumpkin; boiled, roast or mashed Kumara; boiled, roast or mashed Peas Mixed frozen vegetables Green beans Silver beet, spinach Carrots Cabbage, coleslaw Sweet corn Mushrooms Tomatoes Beetroot Taro Taro leaf (e.g. palusami) Green bananas Watercress Puha Sprouts (e.g. alfalfa, mung) Turnips or swedes 248 NZ Food: NZ People Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day 20. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods? (If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?) Please fill one oval for each food. Vegetables (including fresh, frozen or canned) Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Parsnip Karengo (seaweed) Onions or leeks Soybeans, tofu Beans (including baked beans), lentils Cauliflower Broccoli or broccoflower Brussel sprouts Courgette/zucchini, marrow, eggplant, squash Kamo kamo Pacific Island yams Yams Capsicum (or peppers) Celery Cassava Asparagus Breadfruit Cucumber Avocado Lettuce Other green leafy vegetables e.g. Whitloof etc. Appendix E 249 21. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Never Fresh Fruits – when they are in season Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Once per week 2–4 times per week 5–6 times per week Once per day 2 or more times per day Apple Pear Banana Orange, mandarin or tangelo Grapefruit Peach, nectarine, plum or apricot Mango, paw-paw or persimmons Pineapple Grapes Strawberries and other berries or cherries Melon (e.g. watermelon, rockmelon etc.) Kiwifruit Feijoas Tamarillos 22. How often do you usually eat these foods? Please fill one oval for each food. Other Fruits Sultanas, raisins or currants Other dried fruit (e.g. apricots, prunes, dates) Preserved or canned fruit in syrup Preserved or canned fruit in water or juice Stewed fruit 250 NZ Food: NZ People Never Less than once a month 1–3 times per month Well done, just one more question! (Please note that the possible categories you have to choose from have changed.) 23. How often do you usually have these drinks? Please fill one oval for each drink. Drinks Never or rarely 3 times a month or less 1–2 times per week 3–6 times per week 1–2 times per day 3–5 times per day 6 or more times per day Fruit juice e.g. Just Juice, Fresh-up, Robinson's or Rio Gold etc. Vegetable juice (e.g. tomato juice) Fruit drink e.g. Choice, Rio Splice etc. Powdered drinks (e.g. Raro, Vita-fresh etc.) Low-calorie cordial Cordial Diet carbonated drink (e.g. diet sprite) Carbonated drinks (e.g. coke, lemonade etc.) Sport's drinks (e.g. Gatorade, Powerade etc.) Water (including unflavoured mineral water, soda water, tap water) Coffee Coffee – decaffeinated Coffee substitute (e.g. Inka) Koko Tea Herbal tea Soy beverages Beer – low alcohol Beer – ordinary Red wine White wine or champagne / sparkling wine Wine cooler Sparkling grape juice Sherry or port Spirits, liqueurs Appendix E 251 Are there any other foods, not included in this questionnaire, that you eat at least once a week? If so, please tell us: Who completed this questionnaire? Myself Interviewer Someone else 19 Today’s date is: DATE 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Thank you for your time and effort in completing this questionnaire. It is much appreciated. 252 NZ Food: NZ People Barriers to Dietary Change Questions INTERVIEWER TO COMPLETE: 1. Servings of fruit per day? number See Q2 in QFFQ 2. Servings of vegetables per day? number See Q3 in QFFQ 3. Servings of bread per day? number See Q4 in QFFQ Servings of cereals per week? number See Q6 in QFFQ (Totals per day 4. number) I’d now like to ask you some questions about changes to your choice of foods. Are you trying at present to make any changes to your choice of foods? (For example, trying to change the amounts or types of foods you eat) Yes ➤ Q5 No ➤ Q10 Don’t Know ➤ Q10 Appendix E 253 5. We’d now like you to think about four particular groups of foods. For each group of foods, can you tell me if you are trying at present to change the amount you eat? (Interviewer to show each card in turn then note all positive responses that apply) DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high in fat fruits ➤ Q6 vegetables ➤ Q7 breads or cereals ➤ Q8 butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat ➤ Q9 IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q10 Comments If in answering Q5, the subject has already described whether they are trying to eat more or less of the food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q6-9 unnecessarily. 6. About fruit, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates a change in fruit only 7. ➤ Q10 About vegetables, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables only 254 NZ Food: NZ People ➤ Q10 8. About bread or cereals, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables and/or bread and cereals only 9. ➤ Q10. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you trying to change your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both questions). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6 9a Eat more foods high in fat Eat less foods high in fat No change in amount eaten 9b Change type of butter, margarine or oils used No change in type eaten Comments If the respondent is presently changing a food group, then you are unable to ask about an intending change to that food group. Appendix E 255 10. In the last question, we asked about any changes you are making now. We’d now like to ask about whether you are thinking about making any changes to the foods you eat in the future. We’re interested in whether you intend or plan to make any changes over the next 6 months. Are you intending to change the amount you eat of any of these groups of foods? (Interviewer to show each card in turn, then note all positive responses) (DO NOT ASK, SHOW SHOW CARDS 1-4) DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high in fat Tick all that apply: fruits ➤ Q11 vegetables ➤ Q12 breads or cereals ➤ Q12 foods such as butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat ➤ Q14 IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q15 Comments ___________________________________________________________________________ If in answering Q10, the subject has already described whether they are intending to eat more or less of the food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q11-14 unnecessarily 11. About fruit, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit only 256 NZ Food: NZ People ➤ Q15. 12. About vegetables, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables only 13. ➤ Q15. About bread or cereals, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 more less don’t know If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables and/or breads and cereals only ➤ Q15. 14. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you intending to change your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both questions). U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6 14a Eat more foods high in fat Eat less foods high in fat No change in amount eaten 14b Change type of butter, margarine or oils needed No change in type eaten Comments Appendix E 257 15. If Q1 < 2 OR Q6 = ‘eat more fruit’ (ask this question). People often find it hard to increase the amount of fruit they eat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change. Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more fruit. Would any apply to you? U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 7 FRUIT Cost too much I don’t like fruit Can’t store fruit for long It’s a hassle to try and eat more Often of poor quality Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion It’s hard to chew Causes allergy or other bad reaction Not enough time Don’t always have fruit at home Contains too much sugar Fruit is not good for me Would need willpower to eat more Pesticides or chemicals on fruit I would not find it hard to eat more Other (describe) ➤ 258 Q16 NZ Food: NZ People 16. If Q2 < 3 OR Q7 = ‘eat more vegetables’ (ask this question). People often find it hard to increase the amount of vegetables they eat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change. Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more vegetables. Would any apply to you? U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 8 VEGETABLES Cost too much I don’t like vegetables Can’t store them for long It’s a hassle to try and eat more Often of poor quality They cause stomach upsets or indigestion Vegetables are hard to chew Causes allergy or other bad reaction Take too long to prepare Don’t always have them at home It’s hard to prepare vegetables I have nowhere to cook vegetables Not enough time Would need willpower to eat more They’re not good for me Pesticides or chemicals on vegetables I would not find it hard to eat more Other (describe) ➤ Q17 Appendix E 259 17. If Q3 < 6 (total) OR Q8 = ‘eat more breads or cereals’ (ask this question). People often find it hard to increase the amount of breads and cereals they eat (Use DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 to remind them of foods in this group). We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change. Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more breads and cereals. Would any apply to you? U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 9 BREADS AND CEREAL FOODS Cost too much I don’t like them They’re fattening It’s a hassle to try and eat more They’re too filling They upset my stomach They’re too heavy They provide too many calories They’re too starchy They’re not good for me They cause wind Would need willpower to eat more I would not find it hard to eat more Other (describe) ➤ 260 Q18 NZ Food: NZ People 18. ALL subjects to answer: People often find it hard to cut down the amount of butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change. Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about cutting down on butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat. Would any apply to you? U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1 0 BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT They taste good It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat They’re convenient There are few low-fat alternatives Cheap The people I live with would have to eat less too Would need willpower It’s hard when I eat out a lot My body needs fat Preparing meals with less fat takes too long I like to eat these foods for comfort It’s a hassle to try and eat less I wouldn’t enjoy food as much None of the above, I’m happy with my fat intake Other (describe) End Barriers Questions Appendix E 261 D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1 D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 4 FRUITS Butter, margarine, oils, and Also includes: OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT coconut For example: pawpaw FRIED FOOD AND PASTRIES watermelon figs mango guava D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5 EAT MORE EAT LESS D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 2 V E G E TA B L E S Also includes: manioc/cassava taro kumara puha green bananas D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6 FOODS HIGH IN FAT AMOUNT EATING MORE EATING LESS EATING THE SAME choko TYPE OF BUTTER, MARGARINE OR OILS CHANGED THE TYPE HAVEN’T CHANGED D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 3 BREADS AND CEREALS Also includes: breakfast cereals porridge muesli rice pasta 262 NZ Food: NZ People D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 7 D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 8 FRUIT VEGETABLES Cost too much Cost too much I don’t like fruit I don’t like vegetables Can’t store fruit for long Can’t store them for long It’s a hassle to try and eat more It’s a hassle to try and eat more Often of poor quality Often of poor quality Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion They cause stomach upsets or indigestion It’s hard to chew Vegetables are hard to chew Causes allergy or other bad reaction Causes allergy or other bad reaction Not enough time Vegetables take too long to prepare Don’t always have fruit at home Don’t always have them at home Contains too much sugar It’s hard to prepare vegetables Fruit is not good for me I have nowhere to cook vegetables Would need willpower to eat more Not enough time Pesticides or chemicals on fruit Would need willpower to eat more I would not find it hard to eat more They’re not good for me Other Pesticides and chemicals on vegetables I would not find it hard to eat more Other Appendix E 263 D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 9 D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1 0 BREAD AND CEREALS BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT Cost too much I don’t like them They’re fattening It’s a hassle to try and eat more They’re too filling They upset my stomach They’re too heavy They provide too many calories They’re too starchy They’re not good for me They cause wind Would need willpower to eat more I would not find it hard to eat more Other Taste good It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat They’re convenient There are few low-fat alternatives Cheap The people I live with would have to eat less too Would need willpower It’s hard when I eat out a lot My body needs fat Preparing meals with less fat takes too long I like to eat these foods for comfort It’s a hassle to try and eat less I wouldn’t enjoy food as much None of the above, I’m happy with my fat intake Other 264 NZ Food: NZ People Food Security Questions INTRODUCTION I now want to ask you some questions about particular foods you choose, and the buying of food or gifting of food. We are interested in whether you feel you always have sufficient resources to have the food you need for yourself and the people you live with. We are not concerned with your budget, or how you spend your money, but we are more interested in finding out about how people get the food that they need for their household to eat and share. (In all questions ‘we’ refers to the household, unless it is a one-person household). First of all, we know that some people can’t afford to eat properly and we are interested in whether you think you eat properly. It’s what you think eating properly is - not what I or anyone else thinks. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 1 I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY Always Sometimes Never Don’t Know 2. We are interested in whether you run out of basics, like bread, potatoes, etc. because you do not have enough money. We are NOT referring to treats or special foods. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 2 FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know Appendix E 265 3. Now we are interested in whether a lack of money leads you to sometimes have smaller meals than you would like or whether a lack of money means there isn’t enough for seconds or you sometimes skip meals? USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 3 I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF MONEY How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 4. Now we are going to talk about the variety of foods you eat. By variety we mean the number of different kinds of foods you have. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 4 THE VARIETY OF FOODS I AM (WE ARE) ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACK OF MONEY How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 5. Some people rely on support and assistance from others for supplying their regular food and we are interested in find out how many people fall into this group. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 5 I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD, FOR MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 266 NZ Food: NZ People 6. Also, some people have to rely on other sources of help such as food grants or food banks. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 6 I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WE DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 7. We know that some people get quite stressed and worried about providing enough food even though they don’t actually go without food. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 7 I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 8. We recognise that for some people food and sharing food with others is important, to the point that they won’t have enough food for themselves. In this question we are only interested in social situations which are gatherings within, or outside, the household. As a result people may find themselves stressed/whakama (embarrassed) about their koha (gift) when providing food for others. USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 8 I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year? Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know Appendix E 267 FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 1 FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 5 I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD FOR MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY Always Sometimes Never Often Don’t Know Sometimes Never FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 2 FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 6 I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WE DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD Don’t Know Often FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 3 Sometimes Never I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF MONEY Don’t Know Often Sometimes Never FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 7 I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD Don’t Know Often FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 4 Sometimes Never THE VARIETY OF FOOD I AM (WE ARE) ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACK OF MONEY Don’t Know Often FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 8 Sometimes I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR SOCIAL OCCASIONS Never Don’t Know Often Sometimes Never Don’t Know 268 NZ Food: NZ People Appendix E 269