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1 9 9 9
NZ Food: NZ People
Key results of the
1997 National Nutrition Survey
‘35 percent of energy came from...’
‘Seventeen percent of the
population were
considered to...’
‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy products’
‘Contribution of energy to fat has...’
‘The vegetable guideline was met by...’
NZ Food: NZ People
Key results of the 1997
National Nutrition Survey
David Russell
Winsome Parnell
Noela Wilson
and the principal investigators of the 1997
National Nutrition Survey:
Otago University
Jim Faed
Elaine Ferguson
Peter Herbison
Caroline Horwath
Ted Nye
Papaarangi Reid
Rob Walker
Barry Wilson
Auckland University Colin Tukuitonga
Produced by the
LINZ Activity & Health Research Unit
University of Otago
for the
Ministry of Health.
®
Published in August 1999
by the Ministry of Health
PO Box 5013
Wellington, New Zealand
© 1999 Ministry of Health
ISBN 0-478-23572-0 (Document)
ISBN 0-478-23573-9 (Internet)
This document is available on the Ministry of Health’s Web site:
http://www.moh.govt.nz
Acknowledgements
The National Nutrition Survey was funded by the Ministry of Health with ‘in kind’ support of the
University of Otago who conducted the Survey through its LINZ® Activity & Health Research
Unit.
This survey would not have been completed without the dedication of the project staff who worked
long hours to meet the very tight deadlines, firstly for the development of the survey’s unique
LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System (LEDDAS©), secondly in monitoring the quality
of the survey data to provide timely feedback to field staff and thirdly, analysing the data and
preparing this report. Throughout this demanding project our field staff consistently demonstrated
their reliability and professionalism.
The valuable assistance of our NZ Måori and Pacific people support staff is also gratefully
acknowledged.
The importance of the planning, development and ongoing input into this survey by the Ministry
of Health and its National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC) is
recognised.
On technical matters, we are particularly grateful to our colleagues in Statistics New Zealand who
conducted the associated 1996/97 Health Survey and to Crop & Food Research Ltd, Palmerston
North who provided the nutrient database. Closer to home, the ongoing advice of our consultants
was essential to the success of the survey as inevitable issues were resolved in a timely fashion.
Special thanks are due to Dr George Beaton for his help with the nutrient analysis which has
produced the first probability analysis to determine dietary inadequacy in a national population.
Alicia Carriquiry and Kevin Dodd at the Iowa State University, Des Moines, also provided
invaluable assistance with these nutrient analyses.
However, our most important acknowledgment is reserved for the nearly 5,000 New Zealanders
who welcomed us into their homes and made the 1997 National Nutrition Survey possible.
Suggested citation
Russell DG, Parnell WR, Wilson NC et al. 1999. NZ Food: NZ People. Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health:
Wellington.
Acknowledgements
i
Foreword
This report and the results of the National Nutrition Survey mark the outcome of four years of
development, field work and analysis, brought about by a successful collaboration between many
Government and non-Government agencies.
The report provides definitive information on the nutritional status of adult New Zealanders. For
the first time, detailed food and nutrient information on the Måori population and indicative data
for the Pacific people of New Zealand are presented. The use of certain methods and analyses
presented in this report lead the world in their application to surveys of this kind. Examples include
the fully computerised data entry system for collecting information from survey participants, and
the probability analyses undertaken to determine nutrient inadequacy in the population.
Up-to-date knowledge about the food and nutrient intakes and nutritional status of New Zealanders
is critical in achieving the Government’s goal of improving the health of New Zealanders. The
National Nutrition Survey represents a major investment in nutrition information, by the
Government, at a time of rapid change in the food supply of New Zealand.
Ultimately, this report will help achieve the medium-term health policy goals as set out in The
Government’s Medium-Term Strategy for Health and Disability Support Services 1999. One of the 12
policy goals is to place a greater emphasis on population health approaches by, among other
measures, promoting healthier lifestyles and diets.
Hon. Tuariki Delamere
Associate Minister of Health
ii
NZ Food: NZ People
Contents
Acknowledgements
i
Foreword
ii
List of Tables
iv
List of Figures
vi
Executive Summary
1
Introduction
4
Section A Nutrients
9
Section B Dietary Sources
59
Section C Dietary Supplements
79
Section D Eating Patterns
89
Section E Frequently Eaten Foods
125
Section F Health
163
Section G Have We Changed?
177
References
187
Explanatory Notes
189
Appendix A Survey Methodology
195
Appendix B Technical Notes
199
Appendix C Glossary of Terms
211
Appendix D Pacific People and Community Nutrient Intakes
215
Appendix E Questionnaires
232
Contents
iii
List of Tables
Section A Nutrients
A1
A2.1
A2.2
A2.3
A3.1
A3.2
A3.3
A4
A5
A6.1
A6.2
A7.1
A7.2
A8.1
A8.2
A8.3
Energy and Protein
Total Fat and Cholesterol
Fatty Acids I
Fatty Acids II
Carbohydrate and Starch
Sugars I
Sugars II
Fibre
Alcohol
Vitamin A
Vitamins C and E
B Vitamins I
B Vitamins II
Minerals I
Minerals II
Minerals III
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
Section B Dietary Sources
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
Energy Sources for New Zealand Population
Total Fat Sources for New Zealand Population
Available Carbohydrate Sources for New Zealand Population
Protein Sources for New Zealand Population
Dietary Fibre Sources for New Zealand Population
Calcium Sources for New Zealand Population
Iron Sources for New Zealand Population
Folate Sources for New Zealand Population
Alcohol Sources for New Zealand Population
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Section C Dietary Supplements
C1
C2
Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Use in the Last Year
Other Dietary Supplement Use in the Last Year
84
86
Section D Eating Patterns
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6.1
D6.2
iv
Type of Diet
Dietary Changes Attempted Currently
Direction of Current Dietary Changes
Intended Dietary Changes
Direction of Intended Dietary Changes
Difficulties Involved in Eating More Fruits
Difficulties Involved in Eating More Vegetables
NZ Food: NZ People
104
106
108
110
112
113
114
D6.3
D6.4
D7.1
D7.2
D8
Difficulties Involved in Eating More Breads and Cereals
Difficulties Involved in Eating Less High Fat Foods
Food Preparation I
Food Preparation II
Household Food Security Over the Last Year
115
116
118
120
122
Section E Frequently Eaten Foods
E1
E2.1
E2.2
E3.1
E3.2
E4.1
E4.2
E4.3
E5
E6
E7.1
E7.2
Dairy Foods
Breads and Cereals I
Breads and Cereals II
Meat and Fish I
Meat and Fish II
Vegetables I
Vegetables II
Vegetables III
Fruits
Beverages
Miscellaneous Food I
Miscellaneous Food II
138
140
142
144
146
148
150
152
154
156
158
160
Section F Health
F1
F2
F3
Body Size
Blood Pressure
Blood Analyses
170
172
174
Section G Have We Changed?
G1.1
G1.2
G1.3
G2.1
G2.2
G2.3
Frequency of Choice of Type of Food Consumed
Energy I
Energy II
Body Size I
Body Size II
Cholesterol
180
181
182
184
185
186
Explanatory Notes
I
II
Number of Respondents
Effect of Sample Size on Accuracy of Estimated Proportions
192
194
Appendix B
I
II
III
Analytical Techniques for Nutrients
Food Groups
Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis
202
204
207
Appendix D Pacific People and Communities
D1
D2.1
D2.2
Unadjusted Energy and Protein
Unadjusted Total Fat and Cholesterol
Unadjusted Fatty Acids I
216
217
218
List of Tables
v
D2.3
D3.1
D3.2
D3.3
D4
D5
D6.1
D6.2
D7.1
D7.2
D8.1
D8.2
D8.3
Unadjusted Fatty Acids II
Unadjusted Carbohydrate and Starch
Unadjusted Sugars I
Unadjusted Sugars II
Unadjusted Fibre
Unadjusted Alcohol
Unadjusted Vitamin A
Unadjusted Vitamins C and E
Unadjusted B Vitamins I
Unadjusted B Vitamins II
Unadjusted Minerals I
Unadjusted Minerals II
Unadjusted Minerals III
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
List of Figures
Section A Nutrients
A1 Fig A.
Fig B.
A2 Fig A.
Fig B.
A3 Fig A.
Fig B.
A4 Fig A.
Fig B.
A5 Fig A.
Fig B.
A6 Fig A.
Fig B.
A7 Fig A.
Fig B.
A8 Fig A.
Fig B.
Usual daily median energy intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median protein intake: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fat guideline (≤ 33 percent):
by age group and sex
Mean percent contribution of fat type to energy: by sex
Mean percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy: by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who met the carbohydrate guideline
(≥ 50 percent): by age group and sex
Usual daily median dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median non-starch polysaccharide intakes: by type and sex
Daily mean alcohol intake: by age group and sex
Mean percent contribution of alcohol to energy: by age group and sex
Usual daily median ß-carotene intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median vitamin C intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median thiamin intake: by ethnic group and sex
Usual daily median vitamin B12 intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median calcium intake: by age group and sex
Usual daily median zinc intake: by age group and sex
11
11
12
12
14
14
16
16
17
17
18
18
20
20
22
22
Section B Dietary Sources
B1 Fig A.
Fig B.
B2 Fig A.
Fig B.
B3 Fig A.
Fig B.
B4 Fig A.
Fig B.
vi
Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to energy intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of fruits to energy intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of butter and margarine to total fat intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to total fat intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to carbohydrate intake: by age group
and sex
Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to carbohydrate intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution to protein intake: by food groups and sex
Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to protein intake: by age group and sex
NZ Food: NZ People
61
61
62
62
63
63
64
64
B5 Fig A.
Fig B.
B6 Fig A.
Fig B.
B7 Fig A.
Fig B.
B8 Fig A.
Fig B.
B9 Fig A.
Fig B.
Percent contribution to dietary fibre intake: by food groups and sex
Percent contribution of fruits to dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution to calcium intake: by food groups and sex
Percent contribution of milk to calcium intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution to iron intake: by food groups and sex
Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to iron intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution to folate intake: by food groups and sex
Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to folate intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of wine to alcohol intake: by age group and sex
Percent contribution of beer to alcohol intake: by age group and sex
65
65
66
66
67
67
68
68
69
69
Section C Dietary Supplements
C1 Fig A.
Fig B.
C2 Fig A.
Fig B.
Proportion of population who were regular users of vitamin/mineral supplements:
by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed vitamin C supplements:
by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who were regular users of other dietary
supplements: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed other dietary supplements:
by type of supplement and sex
80
80
82
82
Section D Eating Patterns
D1 Fig A.
Fig B.
D2 Fig A.
Fig B.
D3 Fig A.
Fig B.
D4 Fig A.
Fig B.
D5 Fig A.
Fig B.
D6 Fig A.
Fig B.
D7 Fig A.
Fig B.
D8 Fig A.
Fig B.
Proportion of population who ate a regular diet: by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of population who avoided meats except chicken: by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:
by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:
by type of change and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population attempting current dietary change and the
direction of change: by type and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population attempting change to fat type eaten
Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:
by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:
by type and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population intending to make dietary change and the direction
of change: by type and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change type of fat eaten
Proportion of New Zealand population who had difficulties with eating more fruits:
by type and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population happy with fat intake: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who cooked meat or chicken in fat or oil:
by age group and sex
Proportion of population who always or often removed chicken skin: by ethnic
group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who can afford to eat properly only sometimes:
by NZDep96 quartile and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who use food grants/banks sometimes:
by NZDep96 quartile and sex
List of Figures
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
98
98
100
100
vii
Section E Frequently Eaten Foods
E1 Fig A.
Fig B.
E2 Fig A.
Fig B.
E3 Fig A.
Fig B.
E4 Fig A.
Fig B.
E5 Fig A.
Fig B.
E6 Fig A.
Fig B.
E7 Fig A.
Fig B.
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed yoghurt at least once per week:
by age group and sex
Proportion of population who usually chose standard milk: by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who met the breads and cereals guideline
(6+ servings per day): by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed cooked porridge at least once
per week: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed luncheon meat at least once per
week: by age group and sex
Proportion of population who consumed shellfish at least once per week: by ethnic
group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who met the vegetables guideline
(3+ servings per day): by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed hot chips at least once per week:
by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fruits guideline
(2+ servings per day): by age group and sex
Proportion of population who consumed kiwifruit at least once per week: by ethnic
group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tea at least three times
per week: by age group and sex
Proportion of population who consumed white wine at least once per week: by ethnic
group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tomato sauce at least once
per week: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed chocolate at least once
per week: by age group and sex
127
127
128
128
130
130
131
131
133
133
134
134
136
136
Section F Health
F1 Fig A.
Fig B.
F2 Fig A.
Fig B.
F3 Fig A.
Fig B.
Mean body weight: by age group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population with a waist:hip ratio excess: by age group
and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population with hypertension: by age group and sex
Proportion of population with high blood pressure: by ethnic group and sex
Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:
by age group and sex
Proportion of population who met the National Heart Foundation lipid guideline: by ethnic
group and sex
164
164
166
166
167
167
Section G Have We Changed?
G1 Fig A.
Fig B.
G2 Fig A.
Fig B.
viii
Mean contribution of fat to energy: by sex and survey
Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed selected food at least once
per week: by survey
Proportion of New Zealand population who were obese: by sex and survey
Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:
by sex and survey
NZ Food: NZ People
179
179
183
183
Executive Summary
Overview
This report represents an overview of the 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97).
This survey provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and nutrition-related
clinical measures of New Zealanders. NNS97 was based on a nationally representative sample of
4,636 New Zealanders living in selected households and aged 15 years or above.
The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents and included: a 24 hour diet recall; a
self-administered qualitative food frequency questionnaire which estimated the frequency of intake
of foods over the preceding 12 months and included questions on food preparation habits; questions
on dietary supplements, barriers to dietary change and self assessment of household food security;
physical measurements including weight, height, three circumferences, two skinfolds and elbow
breadth; blood pressure; and a blood sample for determining of cholesterol and iron status.
Key Results
Nutrients
• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.
• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger
males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for
percent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.
• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in both
males and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in males
and females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.
• Males 45–64 years were the least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)
guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).
• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females
compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).
• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in
those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).
• Dietary intakes of thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin E for the New Zealand
adult population, appear to be satisfactory.
• Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) are at a greater risk of inadequate
intake of vitamin A, riboflavin and folate than those in less deprived areas.
• Younger females compared to older females (45+ years) are more likely to have inadequate
intakes of riboflavin and folate.
• Dietary intakes of phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese and copper appear to
be satisfactory.
• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietary
intake and biochemical iron status.
• Estimates of inadequate intake of dietary calcium among females varied across age groups
from 21 percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.
Executive Summary
1
Dietary sources
• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the
adult New Zealand diet.
• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults
15–24 years.
• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the adult New Zealand diet.
• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the
dietary fibre intake for adult New Zealanders.
• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the adult New Zealand
population.
• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the adult New Zealand diet was estimated to
be the highly bioavailable haem iron.
• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed about 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate
in the adult New Zealand diet.
Dietary supplements
• Half the adult New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over
the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.
• Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements (other
than vitamins and/or minerals) over the previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17
percent at least once a week.
Eating patterns
• Ninety-four percent of the adult New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous)
diet.
• One-third of adult New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more
females (39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.
• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22
percent) in the adult New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of
fruits eaten (14 percent).
• Over one-fifth of the adult New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the
next six months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas
for changes.
• Almost one-half of the adult New Zealand population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and
32 percent felt it would be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.
• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,
while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.
• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in
NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile I
areas (least deprived).
2
NZ Food: NZ People
Frequently eaten foods
• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.
• Only about one in five of the New Zealand adult population reached the New Zealand Nutrition
Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.
• About two-thirds of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce
(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.
• Almost half of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce
(1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.
• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.
• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drank
white wine at least once a week.
Health
• Seventeen percent of the adult New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females)
were considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males,
30 percent females).
• About 22 percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking
hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure
≥ 95 mmHg).
• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three
percent of the adult New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.
• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2
percent of females, respectively.
Have we changed? (1989 to 1997)
• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent to 35 percent.
• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg. Associated with this increase was an increase in
obesity levels from 11 percent to 17 percent.
• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L. This was reflected
in the proportion of the adult New Zealand population with a serum cholesterol greater than
6.5 mmol/L, decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.
Executive Summary
3
Introduction
Background
The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97) was a voluntary cross-sectional
population survey which provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and
nutrition-related clinical measures on a representative sample of 4,636 New Zealanders living in
selected households and aged 15 years or above. Data were collected over the 12-month period
December 1996 to November 1997. NNS97 is the most comprehensive food and nutrition survey
ever undertaken on the New Zealand population. It is possible to link NNS97 data with 1996/97
Health Survey data (Ministry of Health 1999) to provide information on health status, factors
affecting health status and health services utilisation as respondents in the NNS97 had completed
the 1996/97 Health Survey, although these analyses do not form part of this report.
Survey Objectives
As determined by the Ministry of Health, the objectives of the National Nutrition Survey were to:
1. ensure participation of NZ Måori at all levels through appropriate consultation, resource
allocation and the development of culturally appropriate practices for collection and
dissemination of data;
2. monitor food and nutrient intakes against the Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy
New Zealanders, compare nutrient intakes with the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs)
and assist in future revision of RDIs;
3. provide baseline data on the nutritional status and food security of the population, which
would become a basis for comparisons with future surveys;
4. assess changes over time in dietary habits and provide a basis of comparison with future
regular surveys;
5. assist with the ongoing development of, and monitor the impact of New Zealand’s nutrition
policy; monitor health goals and targets for nutrition and diet-related diseases; assist in the
revision of future health goals and targets;
6. assist in the development of food policy and regulations related to food composition and
safety; assist in the provision of information related to food production, manufacture and sales;
7. provide data on nutrient and food intakes, that are suitable for risk assessment required for
setting and reviewing national and international regulatory food policies (such as fortification
and contaminant monitoring);
8. provide information on the inter-relationship of health, social, economic and nutrition
variables in selected population subgroups for policy development, including health promotion;
9. provide a basis for nutrition education and other strategies to improve nutrition, and to provide
a means of measurement for existing nutrition programmes;
10. facilitate the development of nutritional status and dietary intake indicators which could be
used for more regular surveillance;
11. provide this much needed information to external users such as dietitians, nutritionists, the
food industry and NZ Måori health providers.
4
NZ Food: NZ People
Personnel
NNS97 was funded by the Ministry of Health and conducted by the University of Otago through
its LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit.
Project Director
Professor David Russell, University of Otago
Project Coordinator
Dr Noela Wilson, University of Otago
Nutrition Manager
Mrs Winsome Parnell July 1996 – December 1996, June 1998 – August 1999
Ms Sarah Zino
January 1997 – May 1998
Principal Investigators Dr Jim Faed, Pathology, University of Otago
Dr Elaine Ferguson, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Mr Peter Herbison, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of Otago
Dr Caroline Horwath, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Dr Ted Nye, Medicine, University of Otago
Mrs Winsome Parnell, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Dr Papaarangi Reid, Wellington School of Medicine, and Director of the Te
Ropu Rangahau Hauora a Eru Pomare
Dr Colin Tukuitonga, Måori & Pacific Health, University of Auckland
Associate Professor Rob Walker, Medicine, University of Otago
Dr Barry Wilson, Physical Education, University of Otago
Consultants
Mr Len Cook, Government Statistician, Statistics New Zealand
Professor Rosalind Gibson, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Ms Penny Field, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Professor David Skegg, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of Otago
Professor Murray Tilyard, General Practice, University of Otago
Dr Wayne Sutherland, Medicine, University of Otago
Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare League
Professor Mason Durie, Måori Studies, Massey University
Dr Michael Marfell-Jones, Tai Poutini Polytechnic
Dr Ian Morison, Biochemistry, University of Otago, and Southern Community
Laboratories
Dr Murray Skeaff, Human Nutrition, University of Otago
Project Office
Charles Blakey, Computer Scientist
Rachel Bolch, Food Composition Nutritionist
Maureen Foster, LINZ® Secretary
Sonya Gowans, Research Nutritionist
Michelle Hurdle, Field Secretary
Ianthe Jones, Coding Nutritionist
Louise Mainvil, Senior Nutritionist
Joanne McKenzie, Biostatistician
Carol Murdoch, Research Assistant
Antony O’Hagan, Computing Assistant
Frances Okey, Project Secretary
Joanne Swanson, Research Assistant
Introduction
5
Field Staff
Glennys Adams
Wendy Aitken
Birnie Allen
Adrienne Bell
Joanne Blackman
George Blake
Josephine Bray
Diana Brooks
Bobbi Campbell
Diana Clear
Maureen Clifford
Jennifer Coleman
Nicole Coupe
Ruth Edwards
Eseta Finau
Gavin Foulsham
Karen Fukofuka
Patricia Gould
Jean Grace
Rochelle Gredig
Vera Greiner
Melissa Hackell
Rita Harder
Erika Harman
Rosalind Herbison
Rebecca Herder
Judith Jack
Darron Jayet
Jan Jenkinson
Kathryn Jolly
Dineke Kleyn
Dorin Kumar
Deidre Latell
Christina Macfarlane
Maetel Marshall
Carol Murdoch
Jane Owers
Elaine Prakash
Mary Reid
Jacqueline Roy
Susan Schwartfeger
Vivienne Shepherd
Wendy Slatter
Susan Smith
Sharyn Stilwell
Joanne Swanson
Mele Talamahina
Kathryn Taylor
Amanda Tomlinson
Lara Turner
Julia West
Julie West
Karin Wilkinson
Maori Support
Ms Leah Couch, Wellington
Mrs Inez Kingi, Rotorua
Mrs Makuini McKerchar, Invercargill
Mrs Hiki Pihema, Gisborne
Mr Kaio Rivers, Auckland
Mrs Maisie Taylor, Northland
Mrs Makere Wano, New Plymouth
Mr Tom Webb, Gisborne
Pacific People Support
Dr Sitaleki Finau, Auckland
Dr Debbie Ryan, Auckland
Mrs Metua Faasisila, Auckland
Mr Henry Tuia, Wellington
National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC)
The Ministry of Health received advice on the planning and development of the survey from this
Committee:
Members
Professor Jim Mann (Chair)
Dr Barry Borman
Professor Rosalind Gibson
Dr Hunaara Kaa
Judith Ka’ai
Makuini McKerchar
Winsome Parnell
Dr Robert Scragg
Susan Sharpe
Dr Murray Skeaff
Dr Boyd Swinburn
Patsy Watson
Mark Clements
Lib Coubrough
Jill Coulson
Michele Grigg
Jane McLennan
Dr Arbutus Mitikulena
Gail Powell
Jenny Reid
Tim Rochford
Michelle Vanderlanh Smith
Carolyn Watts
Heather Wilson
Ministry of Health Officials
Helen Wyn (Manager)
Robert Quigley (Coordinator)
Dr Gillian Durham
Elizabeth Aitken
Donnell Alexander
Maraea Bellamy
6
NZ Food: NZ People
This Report
This report provides a ‘snapshot’ of the nutritional and health status of New Zealanders in 1997.
Its purpose is to show the range of data available from NNS97 and to highlight the most significant findings.
Only a limited number of independent variables have been selected for analysis for example, age
group, sex, ethnicity etc. No account has been taken of the possible interaction between these
variables for example, the relationship between age and NZDep96 quartile. It is acknowledged
that these interactions may exist and, further, may be important for definitive interpretation of the
data. This report provides preliminary results only and further analyses may explore these and
other more complex issues.
The seven sections covered by this report are subdivided into topics. Each topic is presented as a
brief description of the major findings. This information encapsulates the tabulated data on the
topic which appears at the end of each section. The tables provide demographically related findings
for each topic.
The seven sections are:
A Nutrients
B
Dietary Sources
C Dietary Supplements
D Eating Patterns
E
Frequently Eaten Foods
F
Health
G Have We Changed?
A brief description of the methodology is provided in Appendix A.
This publication can be downloaded from the Ministry of Health Web Site: http://www.moh.govt.nz
Further Information
The objectives of this report are to provide both an introduction to, and a systematic overview of
the data; to answer basic questions; and to illustrate the potential for exploring more complex
questions.
Further analyses by the principal investigators are ongoing. Details of these analyses will be
published in professional and scholarly journals in the fields of public health, medicine, nutrition,
dietetics and epidemiology.
Details of the methodologies are included in the publication Food Comes First: Methodologies for the
National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). Food Comes First may be downloaded from the Ministry of Health’s Web Site at http://www.moh.govt.nz
Further enquiries about the availability of data should be made to the LINZ® Activity & Health
Research Unit at the University of Otago or the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health has also
made the unit record data available to other major New Zealand universities and Måori Health
Research Units on CD-ROM for the purpose of research on nutritional matters. Following guidance
from Statistics New Zealand these universities and Måori Health Research Units must meet strict
conditions to protect the confidentiality of respondents. Other applicants requesting access to the
unit record data may contact the Ministry of Health.
Introduction
7
8
NZ Food: NZ People
Section A
Nutrients
Introduction
New Zealanders obtain the energy and nutrients they require from a wide variety of foods and
beverages, and less frequently, from dietary supplements. The adequacy of energy and nutrient
intake is important in examining the wider issue of nutritional status. (Nutritional status of a group
or individual also requires an assessment of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters.)
The intake of energy and 40 nutrients from food and beverages only is presented here, by sex, age,
ethnicity, NZDep96 quartile and place of residence. Further, the adequacy of intake of some
nutrients is presented in the light of published standards or recommended levels of intake.
Respondents were asked about their food consumption during the previous day only; this will
not reflect what they ‘usually’ eat. Thus, on any given day an individual may have an unusually
low or unusually high intake of a particular nutrient. Therefore, the nutrient intakes presented in
this section have been adjusted to account for the effect of day-to-day variation in food intake.
Under-reporting food, and consequently nutrient intake, is widespread in dietary studies. These
problems are not unique to the 24 hour diet recall methodology. This limitation should be recognised
when interpreting the nutrient data. For further discussion of under-reporting refer to Appendix B.
The day to day variation in nutrient intake was estimated by repeating the 24 hour diet recall on a
sub-sample and adjusting the nutrient intakes reported using the C-SIDE programme to estimate
the distribution of ‘usual’ intakes in the population. While other national surveys of a similar
nature such as NHANES III (Briefel et al 1995) and the Australian Nutrition Survey (Australian
Bureau of Statistics 1998) have conducted repeat recalls, the data were not adjusted to estimate
‘usual’ intake using the C-SIDE programme. The data for the NNS97 are the first national survey
data adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE to be published. Nutrient ratios (for
example, percent energy from fat) presented in this section were not adjusted for intra-individual
variation as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats.
The bases for determination of adequate intakes were:
a. Recommended levels of nutrient intakes from food formulated by the United Kingdom Panel
on Dietary Reference Values (UK DRV) of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy
(UK Department of Health 1991);
b. Targets/guidelines from the report of the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (Department of
Health 1991).
Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by formal
probability analyses as the UK DRV does not provide suitable estimates of mean requirements for
these nutrients. For some, it is possible to offer qualitative judgments about whether there is likely
to be a problem of inadequate intakes that might be a cause of public health concern. Intakes of
thiamin, riboflavin and vitamin B6 were not evaluated by probability analysis since requirements
are expressed as a ratio to energy or, in the case of B6, to protein intake. C-SIDE could not be
applied to ratios in the estimation of usual intakes and it was decided to defer these analyses
pending further development of C-SIDE.
Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas and the number of Pacific
people who participated in the survey was small. This meant a reliable estimate of usual intake
using the C-SIDE programme was unable to be made for either. Intakes for these two groups,
which were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, are included in Appendix D.
Nutrients
9
Key Points
Energy and Protein
• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.
• Sixteen percent of energy for females and 15 percent for males was obtained from protein.
Fats
• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger
males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline for
percent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.
• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in both
males and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in males
and females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate provided 45 percent of energy for males and 47 percent for females.
• Males 45–64 years were least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)
guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).
• Sucrose was the predominant sugar for both males (62 g/day) and females (45 g/day).
Dietary fibre
• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females
compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).
Alcohol
• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in
those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).
Vitamins
• Retinol provided just under half the daily median vitamin A intake with the remainder coming
from carotenoids. The prevalence of estimated inadequate vitamin A intake for the New Zealand
population was low (1.9 percent).
• Usual daily median vitamin E intakes were 11.2 mg in males and 8.6 mg in females.
B-vitamins
• Some females may have an inadequate intake of riboflavin. In particular, females 15-18 years,
NZ Måori females and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas.
• Vitamin B12 intake appeared adequate for the New Zealand population.
Minerals
• Estimates of inadequate intake of calcium among females varied across age groups from 21
percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.
• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietary
intake and biochemical iron status.
• Intakes of zinc appeared adequate for most groups of the New Zealand population.
10
NZ Food: NZ People
A1
Energy and Protein
Table A1
Energy
The usual daily median energy intake for males (11,631 kJ) was higher than for females (7,701 kJ).
Those aged 19–24 years reported the highest energy intake for both sexes (males 13,037 kJ, females
8,783 kJ) thereafter decreasing gradually with age (Figure A).
Given that males on average have a greater proportion of lean body mass and greater average
body weight than females, as a group they consume more food to maintain their bodies and meet
their requirements for exercise. Thus, not only is their daily mean energy intake above females,
but most nutrients will be taken in greater amounts: both the nutrients supplying energy
(macronutrients) and vitamins and minerals.
No clear trend in energy intake between the NZDep96 quartiles was evident although females
living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas showed a wider variation in energy intake (lower at the 10th
and higher at the 90th percentile) than females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. Females living
in NZDep96 quartile IV areas may have both higher and lower energy intakes, or there may be
greater intra-subject variation.
In females 15–24 years, NZ Måori had higher median energy intakes (9,789 kJ) than NZ European
& Others (8,426 kJ).
Protein
The usual daily median protein intake for males was 105 g and 71 g for females. Both males and
females 65+ years had the lowest intakes (Figure B). However, the percent energy from protein in
the diet was similar for both sexes (15 percent males, 16 percent females) and did not vary markedly
with age or NZDep96 quartile.
Given that the dietary intakes observed were almost double the Reference Nutrient Intake (from
the UK DRV) for both males and females it can be concluded that the dietary protein intakes from
food of New Zealanders are high.
Mean percent energy from protein increased in females with age (14 percent 15–18 years, 17 percent
65+ years), but did not vary with NZDep96 quartiles.
Figure A
Figure B
Usual daily energy intake
male
female
14
Usual daily protein intake
110
12
Median (g)
100
10
8
90
80
70
6
Age group (years)
10
0
65
+
45
–6
4
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
65
+
45
–6
4
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
60
0
Median (kJx103)
male
female
120
Age group (years)
Nutrients
11
A2
Fats
Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3
Total fat
The usual daily median fat intake was 110 g for males and 72 g for females. As with protein, the
lowest intake was among males and females 65+ years. Fat contributed the same amount to energy
intake of both males and females (median 35 percent).
There was little variation among age groups and NZDep96 quartiles for mean percent energy
from fat. However, in females, NZ Måori had a higher mean percent energy from fat (36 percent)
compared to NZ European & Others females (34 percent) and the trend was similar, although not
significant, for males (37 percent, 35 percent respectively).
More females (43 percent) than males (37 percent) met the 1991 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce
guideline for contribution of total fat to energy 1. Males 15–18 years were the least likely (31 percent)
to meet this guideline across age and sex groups (Figure A).
It should be noted that the percent of energy from fat has not been adjusted for intra-individual
variation. Thus, the percent of those meeting the guideline may have been overestimated as these
data will include some low percentages of energy from fat which have not been adjusted to reflect
the proportion of energy ‘usually’ contributed by dietary fat.
Cholesterol
The usual daily median cholesterol intake, which reflects total fat intake, was 359 mg for males
and 243 mg for females. The highest consumption was for males 25–44 years (395 mg). Intake was
similar across all NZDep96 quartiles. In females 25–44 years, NZ Måori had higher dietary
cholesterol intakes (315 mg) than NZ European & Others (255 mg).
Types of Fat 2
In the New Zealand population saturated fat was the major contributor to the usual daily median
fat intake at 38 g, compared to 30 g of monounsaturated fat and 12 g of polyunsaturated fat.
Figure A
Figure B
Met fat guideline (≤33%)
male
female
50%
Fat type
16%
14%
Contribution to energy
46%
NZ population
42%
38%
34%
30%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0
Saturated
Monounsaturated
Polyunsaturated
10
+
65
4
–6
45
4
–4
25
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0%
0
male
female
Category
Age group (years)
1 ≤ 33 percent energy from fat.
2 Note: Total fat values do not equal the sum of the fatty acid subtotals because total fat is the sum of many lipid fractions, whereas
the subtotals represent only the sum of fatty acids (Quigley et al 1995).
12
NZ Food: NZ People
For the three types of fat, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated, intake for males was
higher than for females: 47 g vs 30 g, 37 g vs 24 g and 15 g vs 10 g respectively. This reflects the
higher total fat intakes among males. However, the percent contribution to energy from these
three fat types was similar across age and sex. Mean percent energy from saturated fat was 15
percent (males and females) from monounsaturated fat (12 percent for males and 11 percent for
females) and for polyunsaturated fat 5 percent (males and females) (Figure B). For all groups, the
percent energy from polyunsaturated fat is below the level recommended by the New Zealand
Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of 6-10 percent.
Neither the usual daily median intakes of the three fat types nor the mean percent contribution to
energy from the fat categories appear to be related to the NZDep96 quartile. Saturated and
monounsaturated fat intake was higher for NZ Måori females (36 g, 28 g) compared to NZ European
& Others (30 g, 23 g).
Nutrients
13
A3
Carbohydrates
Tables A3.1, A3.2, A3.3
Carbohydrate
For the New Zealand population the usual daily median intake of carbohydrate was over 40 percent
higher for males (305 g) than females (214 g). For both sexes the intake of carbohydrate was greatest
in the younger groups (15–24 years) and decreased with age, reflecting the pattern of energy intake
with age.
The mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate was higher in females (47 percent) than
in males (45 percent). There was variation across age groups but no consistent pattern emerged.
Among males, NZ Måori had a lower mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate (42
percent) than NZ European & Others (45 percent) (Figure A).
Overall, 36 percent of New Zealanders met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline
for carbohydrate intake 3 (females 40 percent, males 31 percent). Males 45–64 years were least
likely (24 percent) and females 15–18 years (63 percent) were most likely of all New Zealanders to
meet the guideline (Figure B). The amount of carbohydrate consumed and the mean percent
contribution to energy intake showed little variability across NZDep96 quartiles (45 percent – 48
percent). However, males living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were least likely (26 percent) to meet
the guideline for percentage energy from carbohydrate compared to those living in quartile IV
areas (36 percent). In males 45+ years, NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to
meet the guideline for carbohydrate intake (14 percent, 29 percent).
Starch
Starch was the largest single contributor to carbohydrate intake, contributing just over half the
usual daily median intake. Intake was higher for males (172 g) than females (112 g), paralleling
carbohydrate intake. Among males it was lowest in the 65+ years group (138 g) and lower for
females 45+ years (100 g and 104 g).
Sugars
Total sugar intake, from all sources (usual daily median intake) was 114 g (131 g males, 99 g
females). For both sexes, intake declined with age but was not affected by NZDep96 quartile. The
Figure A
Figure B
Percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy
Met carbohydrate guideline (≥50%)
male
female
48%
55%
NZ population
46%
44%
42%
45%
35%
Age group (years)
3 ≥ 50 percent energy from carbohydrate.
14
NZ Food: NZ People
0
10
+
65
4
–6
45
4
–4
NZ European & Others
Ethnic group
25
NZ Maori
15
–
19 18
–2
4
25%
0
Mean
male
female
65%
most significant sugar contributing to intake was sucrose (62 g males, 45 g females), followed by
fructose, glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose intake, in parallel with total sugar, dropped for
males and females in the groups 25 years and over but particularly for females. Fructose and
glucose intakes declined with age in a similar way but to a lesser extent. Males from NZDep96
quartile IV areas had a lower intake of glucose and fructose compared with the other quartiles,
accounting for their lower total sugar intake.
Nutrients
15
A4
Dietary Fibre
Table A4
The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre in the New Zealand population was 20 g, with 11 g
insoluble non-starch polysaccharides and 10 g soluble non-starch polysaccharides. Dietary fibre
intakes were higher for males than for females across all age groups largely because of their higher
energy intake (Figure A). This was evident for both insoluble and soluble non-starch
polysaccharides (Figure B). Across age groups dietary fibre intake was similar. However, females
65+ years had higher insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.4 g) than females 15–18 years (8.2 g).
Males 15–18 years compared to males 65+ years had higher soluble non-starch polysaccharides
(12.0 g, 10.0 g).
Dietary fibre intake for both sexes was higher for individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas
(males 24.4 g, females 18.6 g) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 21.7 g, females
16.6 g). This difference was most pronounced in insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (males 12.6 g,
10.9 g; females 9.9 g, 8.6 g).
There were no ethnic differences in dietary fibre intake, however NZ Måori males had lower
insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.8 g) than NZ European & Others (12.3 g).
For males the usual daily median intake of dietary fibre (23 g) was closer to the New Zealand
Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline 4 than the intake for females (18 g). For both sexes, soluble
fibre comprised more than the ‘approximately one-quarter of total dietary fibre’ recommended by
the Taskforce.
Figure A
Figure B
Usual daily dietary fibre intake
male
female
26
Usual daily non-starch polysaccharide intakes
12
10
Median (g)
Median (g)
22
20
18
16
6
Age group (years)
4 25-30 g per day.
NZ Food: NZ People
0
10
+
65
4
–6
45
25
–4
4
2
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
8
4
14
16
male
female
14
24
0
Insoluble
Soluble
Non-starch polysaccharides
A5
Alcohol
Table A5
Alcohol was consumed by only some individuals on the day of recall. Therefore, the median
intakes of alcohol (0 g) do not provide information which is useful. The levels of 90th percentiles of
intake and mean intakes do provide useful information on the alcohol intakes of New Zealanders.
Unlike other nutrients, the intake data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation since
on any particular day zero consumption would not be uncommon. In addition, because of the
extreme non-normality of the data no statistical tests were undertaken.
For the population as a whole the daily mean intake was 14 g. Intake was higher for males (20 g)
than females (8 g).
For males, mean intake peaked for the 45–64 years group (26 g) and dropped by half in the 65+
years group (13 g) (Figure A). A different pattern was seen for females, where the group 19–24
years had the highest mean intake (13 g) and thereafter intake fell with increasing age (75+ years,
4 g).
NZ Måori males had higher intakes mean (25 g) than NZ European & Others (19 g). Among
females, NZ Måori and NZ European & Others had similar intakes (8 g, 9 g respectively).
There appeared to be a trend for daily mean alcohol intake to be higher for individuals living in
NZDep96 quartile I areas compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 23 g, 17 g; females
9 g, 6 g).
The mean proportion of energy from alcohol in the New Zealand population (4 percent) ranged
from 1 percent for males and females 15–18 years to 6 percent for males 45–64 years (Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Daily alcohol intake
male
female
30
Percent contribution of alcohol to energy
6%
25
5%
Mean
20
15
10
4%
3%
Age group (years)
10
0
+
75
4
65
–7
64
45
–
4
25
–4
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10
0
+
75
4
65
–7
64
45
–
25
–4
4
0%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
1%
0
0
2%
5
0
Mean (g)
male
female
7%
Age group (years)
Nutrients
17
A6
Vitamins
Tables A6.1, A6.2
Vitamin A
The usual daily median intake of vitamin A equivalents for the New Zealand population was 939 µg
retinol equivalents (RE), 400 µg of which was from retinol and the remainder from carotenoids. As
β-carotene and retinol are concentrated in a few foods, estimates (even after adjusting for intraindividual variations) have very wide confidence intervals.
The intake from both sources was higher for males (1,076 µg RE) than females (842 µg RE). There
was major variation among age groups for β-carotene (plant sources of vitamin A) compared to a
more constant intake from retinol.
For males, the usual daily median intake of β-carotene in the 65+ years group (4,510 µg) was twice
that of the 19–24 years group (2,267 µg) (Figure A). For females, the highest reported intake was
again for the 65+ years group (3,363 µg) and lowest in the 19–24 years group (2,014 µg). This
impacted on the overall lower vitamin A equivalents intake of males 19-24 years and females 15–
24 years.
Patterns of intake were similar for NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A for the New Zealand population was
1.9 percent (2.1 percent males, 1.6 percent females). Higher prevalances were seen in males and
females 19–24 years (8.3 percent, 6.1 percent respectively) compared to older groups. These
differences were not statistically significant. Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas had a
higher prevalence of inadequate intake (males 8.3 percent, females 5.8 percent) than those from
quartile I and II areas (males 0 percent, females 0 percent – 0.3 percent).
As the requirement for vitamin A is established to cover functional needs and maintain stores, it is
unlikely that intake is of concern in the New Zealand population as a whole. However, it is possible
that there are sub-groups of the population, particularly the socioeconomically disadvantaged
and young adults, whose dietary intake of vitamin A is of concern.
Figure B
130
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
10
0
65
+
25
–
45
–6
4
90
44
2000
15
–
19 18
–2
4
100
65
+
110
2500
Age group (years)
18
120
45
–6
4
3000
44
Median (mg)
140
4000
3500
male
female
150
4500
0
Median (µg)
5000
Usual daily vitamin C intake
25
–
male
female
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Usual daily β-carotene intake
0
Figure A
Vitamin C
The usual daily median intake of vitamin C for the New Zealand population was 102 mg (males
111 mg, females 95 mg). The highest intakes were reported by males and females 15–18 years (141
mg, 109 mg respectively) most likely reflecting their beverage choices (see Section E). Intakes were
constant across other age groups of females and fell slightly with age for males (Figure B). Intakes
were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.
Overall, the estimated prevalence of inadequate intakes for the New Zealand population was less
than one percent. The prevalence was marginally higher in the groups 25–44 years of the New
Zealand population (males and females) and among NZ Måori females 15–24 years. However, no
appreciable risk of inadequate intake is evident in any group assessed within the New Zealand
population, particularly given that the estimated average requirement from the UK DRV is in
excess of the amount needed to prevent scurvy.
Vitamin E
The usual daily median intake of vitamin E for the New Zealand population was 9.7 mg (males
11.2 mg, females 8.6 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age, NZDep96 quartile
or ethnicity for males or females.
Because vitamin E requirements depend on polyunsaturated fatty acid intake (and this can vary
widely) the UK DRV do not specify a level of intake. Foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acids
usually, but not always, contain high amounts of vitamin E.
The UK DRV panel concludes ‘Daily intakes of 4 mg and 3 mg α-tocopherol equivalents can be
adequate for men and women respectively’ (UK Department of Health 1991, p 129). Given that the
10th percentile of usual daily intakes in this study are 7.4 mg for males and 5.6 mg for females, it
would appear that the vitamin E intakes of the New Zealand population are entirely satisfactory.
Nutrients
19
A7
B-Vitamins
Tables A7.1, A7.2
Thiamin
The usual daily median intake of thiamin for New Zealanders was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females
1.2 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake for males or females, with NZDep96 quartiles
or between NZ Måori and NZ European & Others (Figure A). Males 65+ years had the lowest
intake (1.4 mg) compared with other age groups (1.6 mg – 1.8 mg). This may be related to their
lower total energy intake compared with other age groups. Thiamin requirement is closely related
to energy metabolism and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel state that absolute intake
should not fall below 0.4 mg/day in people on very low energy diets. Given the 10th percentile of
usual intakes in this study (males 1.1 mg, females 0.8 mg) it would appear that the intake of
thiamin in the New Zealand population is satisfactory.
Riboflavin
The usual daily median intake of riboflavin for the New Zealand population was 1.8 mg (males
2.0 mg, females 1.5 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age or NZDep96 quartile
for either males or females.
While the estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 3.4
percent, it was higher for females 15–18 years (13.9 percent) compared with females 45+ years (4.0
percent – 4.7 percent). Similarly, females living in quartile IV areas had higher levels of inadequate
intake (11.6 percent) compared with those from quartile I and II areas (1.8 percent, 2.2 percent)
and for NZ Måori females (10.5 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (2.9 percent). This
may reflect both the type and amounts of particular foods chosen by females, especially young
females. As the requirement is based on the intake needed to maintain tissue saturation, it is
unlikely that intakes not meeting this requirement would be associated with any functional
impairment. However, biochemical data would be necessary to support this conclusion.
Niacin equivalents
The usual daily median intake of niacin equivalents (NE) for the New Zealand population was
35 mg (males 43 mg, females 29 mg). The higher level for males reflected both their higher energy
and their higher protein intake and therefore higher intakes of niacin from tryptophan. Intakes
Figure A
Figure B
Usual daily thiamin intake
male
female
2.0
Usual daily vitamin B12 intake
male
female
7
6
5
Median (µg)
Median (mg)
1.5
1.0
4
3
2
0.5
1
Age group (years)
20
NZ Food: NZ People
0
10
+
65
4
–6
–4
4
45
Ethnic group
25
NZ European & Others
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
NZ Maori
0
0
were lower for individuals 65+ years (males 33 mg, females 25 mg) compared with those 19–64
years (males 42 mg – 46 mg, females 29 mg – 30 mg). There were no discernible intake trends with
NZDep96 quartile. Intakes were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.
Niacin requirement is related to energy expenditure and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel
has set a Reference Nutrient Intake of 6.6 mg NE per 1,000 kcal (4,200 kJ) for males and females. As
the usual daily median intakes for males are approximately 15.5 mg NE per 4,200 kJ and for females
15.8 mg NE per 4,200 kJ, the intakes of New Zealanders appear to be entirely adequate.
Vitamin B6
The usual daily median intake of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population was 1.4 mg (males
1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). Males 15–24 years have higher intakes (1.8 mg) than males 65+ years
(1.4 mg). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles. These values are close to the Reference
Nutrient Intake from the UK DRV of 1.4 – 1.5 mg/day for males and 1.2 mg/day for females.
These values have assumed a protein intake similar to New Zealand intakes which is significant
because vitamin B6 requirement is related to protein metabolism. Some vitamin B6 from vegetables
is unavailable but intestinal flora synthesise some absorbable vitamin B6. On balance, it appears
that intakes of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population are more than adequate.
Vitamin B12
The usual daily median intake of vitamin B12 for the New Zealand population was 4 mg (males
5 mg, females 3 mg). Males 19–44 years have higher intakes (5.4 mg – 6.1 mg) than males 65+ years
(4.0 mg) (Figure B). Levels varied little across NZDep96 quartiles. The overall estimated prevalence
of inadequate intake was 0.4 percent i.e. negligible risk of deficiency. Since the average requirement
has been calculated at a level to maintain liver stores, this indicates that the vitamin B12 intakes
observed in the population are sufficient to withstand periods of zero intake.
Folate
The usual daily median intake of folate from food for the New Zealand population was 242 µg
(males 278 µg, females 212 µg). Intakes varied little across age group. Females living in NZDep96
quartile I areas had higher levels of intake (227 µg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas
(201 µg).
While the overall estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was
7.1 percent, the prevalence was consistently higher among females than males (regardless of age).
Among females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas there was a higher prevalence of inadequate
intake (18.6 percent) compared to those living in quartile I areas (7.6 percent). Also, NZ Måori
females had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (23 percent) compared with NZ European &
Others (11.5 percent). Females 15–24 years had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (21.2
percent – 22.2 percent) compared with females 45+ years (9.2 percent – 9.8 percent).
Interpretation of folate data must take account of the following. Firstly, the requirement estimates
have been set to maintain liver stores, thus intakes below these requirements will not necessarily
be associated with any functional impairment (this is not the level recommended for peri-conceptual
females to reduce the risk of neural tube defects). Secondly, as determining folate levels in foods is
inherently difficult, it is likely that the folate food composition data used in this survey may lead
to an underestimate of folate intakes. In light of this, the prevalence of inadequate intake is likely
to be overestimated.
Nutrients
21
A8
Minerals
Tables A8.1, A8.2, A8.3
Calcium
The usual daily median intake of calcium, from food for New Zealanders was 766 mg (males 857
mg, females 691 mg). Intake was lowest for males and females 65+ years (751 mg, 636 mg
respectively) (Figure A). Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 781 mg, females
632 mg) had lower intakes compared with those from quartile I and II areas (males 885 mg, 922 mg;
females 733 mg, 710 mg). NZ Måori males (761 mg) had lower intakes than NZ European & Others
(885 mg).
The estimated average requirements from the UK DRV for calcium have been set acknowledging
the difficulty in establishing true population requirements, largely because of the diversity of
functions of calcium in the body. For the New Zealand population the estimated prevalence of
inadequate intake has been assessed as 20 percent. Higher prevalences were observed among
females (25 percent) compared to males (14 percent). The youngest group (15–18 years) has the
highest prevalence of inadequate intake (males 33 percent, females 37 percent). NZ Måori had
higher prevalences of inadequate intake (males 24 percent, females 34 percent) compared with
NZ European & Others (males 11 percent, females 22 percent).
Phosphorus
The usual daily median intake of phosphorus for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was
1,477 mg (males 1,761 mg, females 1,247 mg). The highest intakes were among the 19–44 years
groups (males 1,848 mg, 1,891 mg; females 1,305 mg, 1,295 mg), and the lowest intakes in the
65+ years group (males 1,428 mg, females 1,112 mg). Intakes were higher in females living in
NZDep96 quartile I areas (1,303 mg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (1,188 mg).
These phosphorus intakes are relatively high and the calcium phosphorus (Ca:P) ratio is close to
1:2. Neither the intake nor the ratio are in the ranges believed to alter calcium metabolism
(P intakes 1.0-1.6 g/day and Ca:P molar ratio 1:3). It is extremely unlikely that there could be any
problem of inadequate phosphorous intakes in New Zealand.
Figure A
Figure B
Usual daily calcium intake
male
female
950
Usual daily zinc intake
male
female
18
900
16
Median (mg)
Median (mg)
850
800
750
700
14
12
10
650
22
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
+
65
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10
0
65
+
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
Age group (years)
0
8
600
Magnesium
The usual daily median intake of magnesium for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was
309 mg (males 365 mg, females 265 mg). Intakes were similar across age groups, NZDep96 quartiles
and ethnic groups. These values are close to the Reference Nutrient Intake, based on the UK DRV
estimated average requirement of 3.4 mg/kg/day, and appear to be adequate.
Iron
The usual daily median intake of iron from all food sources for the New Zealand population was
12.0 mg (males 14.6 mg, females 9.9 mg). For both sexes, the lowest intakes were for those 65+
years. NZ Måori males and females had higher intakes of iron than NZ European & Others by
1.2 mg and 0.6 mg respectively.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for males in the New Zealand population was low
(1 percent), but higher for females at 26 percent. Females 45+ years included those both menstruating
and non-menstruating and hence with quite different iron requirements. Prevalence of inadequate
intake of this group has been calculated assuming that all were not menstruating and this is reflected
in the lower prevalences of inadequacy. The highest prevalence of inadequacy (39 percent – 45
percent) was in females 15–44 years (all assumed to be menstruating).
Among males and non-menstruating females estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intake are
similar to those with low iron stores assessed by biochemical indicators (0 percent males, 6 percent
females) (see Table F3). However, for menstruating females low iron stores range between four
and seven percent, considerably below the estimated prevalences of inadequate intake. This
anomaly might be explained by one or more of: estimates of blood loss in menstruation
inappropriate for New Zealand females (hence an inappropriately high Estimated Average
Requirement (EAR)); the possibility that food intake is under-reported; a higher percent of dietary
iron is absorbed in New Zealand. Given the picture of biochemical iron status (Table F3), it would
appear that New Zealand females menstruating or non-menstruating have a low risk of inadequate
intake.
Zinc
The usual daily median intake of zinc from all food sources for New Zealanders was 11.9 mg
(males 14.5 mg, females 9.8 mg). For both sexes, intakes were lowest in the group 65+ years (males
11.6 mg, females 8.9 mg) (Figure B). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles and ethnic
groups.
The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 1.2 percent.
Among males the prevalence was highest in the 65+ years group (4.8 percent) and among 15–18
years females (2.4 percent). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the highest prevalence
of inadequate intake (4.8 percent) compared with those living in quartile I areas (0.2 percent).
Given that the EAR for dietary zinc was set to be equivalent to daily losses and a significant
proportion of zinc in the New Zealand diet is from animal sources (hence highly bioavailable), it
can be concluded that only a very small proportion of the New Zealand population is at risk of
inadequate intake.
Potassium
The usual daily median intake of potassium for New Zealanders from all food sources was 3,378
mg (males 3,922 mg, females 2,936 mg). There were no apparent trends in intake across age groups,
NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear to be adequate in comparison to the
Reference Nutrient Intake of 3,500 mg/day (UK DRV). It is extremely unlikely that any problem
of inadequate intake exists in New Zealand.
Nutrients
23
Selenium
Estimates of selenium intake derived from dietary intake data are not reliable due to difficulties in
establishing food composition data for selenium. Food composition data in New Zealand cannot
be satisfactorily compiled without knowledge of the origins of flour in all food products as imported
flour (or wheat) has higher levels of selenium than the New Zealand grown equivalent. The usual
daily median intakes of males (56 µg), and females (39 µg), are higher than levels reported in a
small selected group of New Zealanders where duplicate diet analysis was used to assess intake
(Duffield 1999). The distribution of intakes (10th and 90th percentiles), are not believed to be reliable
indicators of variation in intake, given the uncertainties of the data on selenium concentration in
New Zealand foods. These data are insufficient to allow conclusions to be reached on the adequacy
of selenium intake of New Zealanders. International agreement has not yet been reached on the
requirements for selenium intake.
Manganese
The usual daily median intake of manganese for New Zealanders was 4,327 mg (males 4,935 mg,
females 3,891 mg). Intakes were lowest for the younger two groups (males 4,075 mg, 4,086 mg;
females 2,888 mg, 3,168 mg) compared with 5,088 mg to 5,177 mg for males over 25 years and
3,914 mg to 4,393 mg for females. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the lowest
intakes (males 4,461 mg, females 3,503 mg) compared to individuals living in quartile I areas
(males 5,241 mg, females 4,140 mg). Intakes of NZ Måori were below those of NZ European &
Others. However, all intakes were well above the safe intakes designated by the UK DRV of
1.4 mg/day, and appear to be entirely satisfactory.
Copper
The usual daily median intake of copper for New Zealanders from all food sources was 1.4 mg
(males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). For males, intakes were lower in the 65+ years group. There were
no apparent trends in intake across NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear
satisfactory in light of the Reference Nutrient Intake of 1.2 mg/day (UK DRV).
24
NZ Food: NZ People
Nutrients
25
26
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
12074
12166
11867
11626
7959
7973
7893
8055
11881
11845
11592
11220
7794
7872
7583
7611
240.0
264.0
272.0
243.0
137.5
204.9
144.3
141.3
Mean
9884
12430
13247
12904
11134
9274
11942
8862
9102
8417
7386
6579
7969
9307
8261
8077
7520
5684
6185
5111
4700
Energy (kJ)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
70.3
6054
9441
593.0
8103 12079
470.0
9347 13037
206.0
8879 12632
182.0
8190 10914
190.0
6952
9161
110.0
8270 11631
512.3
5251
8554
285.6
6112
8783
126.3
5647
8175
125.6
5106
7227
130.3
4851
6449
81.4
5301
7701
15124
16487
15983
16240
10436
9894
11050
11825
90th 3
14272
17147
17421
17263
14345
11744
16037
12912
12379
11448
9857
8474
10944
107
110
111
108
73
73
74
74
Mean
90
110
110
117
107
85
109
72
78
77
72
64
73
3.2
2.9
3.6
2.7
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
80
74
72
67
55
57
50
46
105
107
106
103
72
71
71
70
ENERGY AND PROTEIN
Protein (g)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
0.8
57
86
6.4
69
107
4.6
74
108
2.3
80
113
2.7
75
103
2.4
61
83
1.4
73
105
4.2
47
69
3.3
55
76
1.3
53
75
1.5
52
71
1.7
46
61
0.8
51
71
136
151
157
155
92
88
101
107
90th 3
130
157
148
159
143
111
149
101
104
104
95
83
99
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
10
11
10
10
10
10
11
10
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
21
21
22
23
22
22
22
22
Percent energy from protein2
Mean SEM
10th 3
50th 3
90th 3
16
0.4
10
15
22
15
0.7
10
14
22
14
0.5
9
14
19
15
0.2
10
14
21
16
0.3
11
15
22
16
0.3
11
15
22
15
0.4
10
15
21
14
0.5
9
14
19
15
0.5
10
14
21
16
0.2
10
15
22
17
0.2
11
16
23
17
0.3
11
16
23
16
0.4
10
15
22
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from protein for each
participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A1
Nutrients
27
3
2
1
Mean
8177
8693
7436
8250
6020
5464
4371
5259
8997
8920
7682
8122
5602
5791
5099
5516
776.0
759.0
708.0
381.0
628.0
315.4
409.0
243.8
448.0
227.0
147.0
123.0
333.7
124.3
83.3
87.2
12994
12630
10287
11579
8426
8144
6904
7622
11575
12808
10796
11939
9789
8646
7085
8545
Energy (kJ)
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
1
17534
17211
13659
16186
11859
11066
9107
10277
16086
18418
14441
16759
15246
13240
10520
13365
90
th 3
113
115
98
107
75
76
68
72
99
129
120
117
83
82
72
80
Mean
5.5
2.4
1.8
1.4
3.3
1.3
1.0
0.9
6.4
7.9
14.2
5.2
6.0
3.1
5.7
2.6
70
80
70
73
52
55
50
53
69
78
72
73
50
51
47
49
110
112
95
104
73
75
67
71
97
122
110
110
80
79
70
77
ENERGY AND PROTEIN
Protein (g)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
158
155
130
146
98
100
89
94
132
187
178
170
119
116
99
113
90
th 3
14
15
16
15
15
16
17
16
14
16
18
16
13
16
17
15
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.3
10
10
11
10
9
10
11
10
9
11
10
10
8
10
11
10
14
14
15
15
14
15
16
15
14
15
16
15
13
14
17
14
20
21
21
21
21
22
23
22
20
24
26
24
19
22
24
21
Percent energy from protein2
Mean SEM
10th 3
50th 3
90th 3
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from protein for each
participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
15–24 11912
25–44 13261
45+
10885
Total
12282
Females
15–24 10317
25–44
9093
45+
7305
Total
9029
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24 13163
25–44 12900
45+
10525
Total
11920
Females
15–24
8608
25–44
8317
45+
7025
Total
7789
NZ Maori
Males
Table A1 cont.
28
NZ Food: NZ People
4
3
2
1
SEM
1.0
6.4
5.6
3.1
2.2
2.5
1.6
5.8
4.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
3.4
3.5
3.4
2.7
2.1
1.7
1.8
1.9
Mean
94
118
129
126
104
87
114
84
84
80
70
60
75
114
116
115
113
74
74
75
77
79
69
69
66
48
48
43
39
10
51
71
82
77
68
58
70
43
47
46
43
39
43
th 3
th 3
111
111
111
108
72
73
71
71
50
89
114
126
121
101
85
110
80
80
77
67
58
72
Total fat (g)1
153
169
164
166
101
103
113
120
90
143
171
178
181
144
118
163
129
126
117
100
83
110
th 3
35
35
35
36
34
34
35
35
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
Mean SEM
35
0.2
35
1.4
36
0.9
36
0.4
35
0.5
34
0.6
35
0.3
34
1.2
34
1.0
35
0.4
35
0.4
34
0.5
35
0.2
24
23
25
24
24
22
22
23
10
23
23
25
25
23
24
24
26
20
23
24
23
23
th 3
35
35
36
36
34
34
35
35
50
35
35
36
36
35
34
36
34
34
35
35
33
34
th 3
45
45
46
48
45
46
47
46
90
46
45
47
46
46
45
46
48
46
47
46
45
46
th 3
TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL
Percent energy from total fat2
37%
37%
36%
36%
47%
42%
41%
41%
40%
31%
36%
33%
40%
47%
37%
46%
47%
41%
42%
47%
43%
366
385
378
396
253
257
259
278
319
325
372
420
386
288
381
236
267
278
259
231
261
Meeting
guideline4 Mean
16.7
16.1
20.9
14.8
12.1
7.5
8.1
9.1
SEM
5.1
24.1
24.2
14.1
11.9
16.8
11.7
19.9
20.5
7.4
8.6
14.1
4.7
241
227
228
202
152
173
137
140
10th 3
171
197
230
240
220
178
222
127
155
154
148
131
147
Cholesterol (mg)1
354
367
359
365
240
250
237
255
50th 3
296
312
356
395
367
276
359
221
252
261
243
213
243
505
565
553
627
372
351
407
445
90th 3
496
472
532
631
576
413
568
364
398
423
390
354
395
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant
was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A2.1
Nutrients
29
4
3
2
1
8.3
11.3
7.2
5.2
7.7
3.9
4.6
3.0
5.1
3.4
1.7
1.7
4.6
1.4
1.0
1.0
127
125
98
114
80
78
65
73
SEM
112
136
104
122
100
91
74
90
Mean
79
76
64
69
45
48
42
46
72
81
65
74
50
48
40
46
10
th 3
th 3
125
120
95
110
78
76
63
71
108
130
101
116
93
85
72
84
50
Total fat (g)1
179
178
136
163
119
111
90
102
158
200
149
176
158
139
110
139
90
th 3
36
36
35
35
34
35
34
34
36
38
36
37
35
37
37
36
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.3
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.3
1.5
1.1
1.2
0.8
1.3
0.8
1.2
0.6
Mean SEM
25
25
23
24
22
22
23
23
26
26
23
25
21
25
27
24
10
th 3
35
36
35
35
34
35
34
34
36
39
36
38
35
37
36
36
50
th 3
47
46
45
45
46
46
45
46
47
49
46
47
48
49
48
49
90
th 3
TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL
Percent energy from total fat2
32%
33%
43%
37%
47%
42%
45%
44%
42%
24%
33%
32%
40%
33%
31%
34%
360
405
349
373
244
266
243
251
312
489
407
413
304
336
288
317
Meeting
guideline4 Mean
22.6
16.1
10.0
9.7
18.0
7.4
6.5
4.5
32.5
37.5
42.6
19.1
31.5
17.9
24.8
13.1
SEM
207
246
209
226
139
164
142
155
197
265
230
225
161
180
153
171
10th 3
Cholesterol (mg)1
342
387
334
356
234
255
225
239
300
459
381
379
283
315
266
295
50th 3
534
588
508
542
363
384
369
363
442
753
623
646
471
518
450
490
90th 3
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra–individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number
of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
These data were not adjusted for intra–individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from fat for each participant
was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A2.1 cont.
30
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
49
50
48
48
32
32
32
34
Mean
40
51
55
54
44
37
49
36
36
35
29
25
32
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.3
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.9
32
29
28
26
18
19
17
16
48
48
46
46
30
31
30
31
Saturated fat (g)
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
0.4
21
38
3.9
30
48
2.6
35
54
1.3
31
52
1.0
27
42
1.3
23
36
0.7
29
47
2.9
17
33
2.0
20
35
0.7
19
33
0.7
16
28
0.7
15
25
0.5
17
30
1
68
73
71
74
47
45
50
55
90
63
76
77
80
63
53
72
59
55
53
44
37
49
th 2
38
39
38
39
24
25
25
25
1.2
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.7
26
22
24
22
16
16
14
13
37
37
38
37
24
24
24
23
51
58
54
57
33
34
38
39
FATTY ACIDS I
Monounsaturated fat (g)1
Mean SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
31
0.4
17
30
48
40
2.3
25
39
58
44
1.9
28
43
60
42
1.2
26
41
61
35
0.8
23
34
48
28
0.8
18
27
39
38
0.6
23
37
55
28
1.8
15
27
43
28
1.7
15
26
42
26
0.5
15
25
39
23
0.5
15
22
33
19
0.5
13
19
27
25
0.4
14
24
37
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A2.2
16
16
17
15
10
11
11
10
Mean
13
16
17
17
15
13
16
11
12
11
10
9
10
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
9
8
9
7
8
6
6
5
15
14
16
14
10
10
10
9
Polyunsaturated fat (g)1
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
0.2
7
12
1.2
8
15
1.0
10
16
0.5
9
16
0.6
8
14
0.5
8
12
0.3
8
15
0.8
6
11
0.8
6
11
0.3
6
10
0.3
6
10
0.3
5
8
0.2
6
10
24
25
26
24
13
17
16
17
90th 2
21
25
26
26
23
20
24
17
18
16
15
14
16
Nutrients
31
2
1
2.2
1.5
0.8
0.7
2.1
0.7
0.5
0.5
55
54
42
49
34
34
27
31
32
32
26
28
18
20
16
18
32
33
25
30
20
20
16
19
53
52
40
47
33
33
26
30
48
54
42
49
41
37
30
36
78
80
60
73
53
50
40
46
71
86
62
76
73
63
51
63
90
th 2
43
42
32
38
27
26
21
24
41
48
37
42
34
30
24
30
1.8
1.3
0.6
0.7
1.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
2.6
3.8
3.2
1.8
2.4
1.5
1.6
1.0
27
25
21
23
15
16
14
15
25
27
22
25
17
16
13
15
42
40
31
37
26
25
21
23
39
45
36
41
32
28
23
28
60
60
45
55
40
37
30
34
58
72
53
62
53
46
36
46
FATTY ACIDS I
Monounsaturated fat (g)1
Mean SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
17
17
14
16
11
11
10
10
13
19
15
16
12
12
10
12
Mean
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.2
1.0
1.8
1.9
0.9
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.4
9
9
8
8
6
6
6
6
7
9
8
8
6
6
6
6
17
16
13
15
11
10
9
10
12
17
14
15
11
11
10
11
Polyunsaturated fat (g)1
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
27
26
22
25
18
16
15
15
19
30
23
25
18
19
16
18
90th 2
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
4.1
5.6
3.0
2.7
4.1
2.0
2.2
1.5
1
Saturated fat (g)
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
50
58
43
52
45
40
32
39
Mean
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A2.2 cont.
32
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
9
15
15
15
16
14
15
14
15
21
22
22
22
21
21
22
22
Percent energy from saturated fat1
Mean
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
15
0.1
8
15
21
15
0.6
10
16
19
16
0.5
10
16
22
15
0.2
9
15
22
15
0.3
9
14
21
15
0.3
8
14
21
15
0.2
9
15
21
14
0.6
8
15
20
15
0.5
8
15
22
15
0.2
8
15
22
15
0.3
8
14
21
14
0.3
7
14
21
15
0.1
8
15
21
12
12
12
12
11
11
12
11
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
7
7
8
8
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
11
11
12
11
15
16
16
17
16
16
17
16
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
9
8
8
8
8
8
FATTY ACIDS II
Percent energy from monounsaturated fat1 Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat1
Mean SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2 Mean
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
12
0.1
7
11
16
5
0.1
2
4
8
12
0.5
7
13
16
5
0.4
2
4
7
12
0.3
8
12
17
5
0.2
3
4
8
12
0.2
8
12
16
5
0.1
2
4
8
12
0.2
7
11
16
5
0.1
2
5
9
11
0.2
7
11
15
5
0.2
2
5
9
12
0.1
7
12
16
5
0.1
2
4
8
12
0.9
8
11
17
5
0.3
2
4
8
11
0.4
6
11
17
5
0.3
2
4
9
12
0.1
7
11
16
5
0.1
2
4
8
11
0.2
7
11
16
5
0.1
2
5
8
11
0.2
7
10
15
5
0.2
2
5
9
11
0.1
7
11
16
5
0.1
2
4
8
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats.
Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A2.3
Nutrients
33
2
1
0.8
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
16
16
15
15
16
16
16
16
15
15
15
15
14
15
14
15
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
9
10
8
9
6
10
9
9
15
16
14
15
14
15
14
15
16
16
15
16
16
16
15
15
21
22
21
21
20
22
21
21
23
22
23
22
24
22
23
23
Percent energy from saturated fat1
Mean
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
12
12
11
12
11
12
11
11
13
13
12
13
12
12
12
12
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.3
7
8
7
7
6
7
7
7
8
9
8
8
6
7
7
7
12
12
11
12
11
11
11
11
13
13
12
13
12
12
12
12
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
17
18
17
17
18
17
16
17
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
5
5
4
4
5
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
4
8
8
9
8
9
8
8
8
7
9
10
8
7
9
10
9
FATTY ACIDS II
Percent energy from monounsaturated fat1 Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat1
Mean SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2 Mean
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats.
Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A2.3 cont.
34
NZ Food: NZ People
4
3
2
1
SEM
2.0
15.6
14.9
5.6
5.4
5.0
3.5
14.3
6.7
3.3
3.8
4.2
2.2
6.1
6.9
9.0
7.2
3.6
6.2
3.7
4.3
Mean
267
351
362
338
283
252
315
264
255
229
202
189
222
321
323
313
305
222
221
217
226
223
212
222
188
158
168
141
128
10
163
227
239
228
198
183
210
163
173
152
136
136
146
th 3
311
314
306
294
216
217
212
213
th 3
50
255
343
356
331
275
247
305
257
245
223
198
184
214
Carbohydrate (g)
1
434
445
411
436
293
278
300
335
90
385
484
492
457
378
328
434
377
347
315
272
248
306
th 3
45
45
45
45
48
47
47
47
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
Mean SEM
46
0.7
49
1.7
46
1.1
45
0.5
43
0.5
46
0.6
45
0.9
51
1.2
48
1.2
46
0.4
47
0.4
48
0.6
47
0.8
32
32
32
30
36
34
34
35
10
33
38
34
32
30
34
32
37
35
34
35
36
35
th 3
45
45
45
45
48
47
47
47
50
46
48
45
45
42
47
45
52
49
46
47
49
47
th 3
55
60
57
58
59
59
59
61
90
58
61
61
58
56
57
58
62
64
59
58
60
59
th 3
26%
33%
30%
36%
42%
39%
38%
40%
36%
43%
36%
31%
24%
36%
31%
63%
47%
35%
34%
46%
40%
179
180
175
170
116
115
114
119
145
189
192
188
164
140
176
130
122
123
107
102
116
Meeting
guideline 4 Mean
CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH
Percent energy from carbohydrate2
3.3
3.8
5.1
4.8
2.7
2.9
2.5
3.0
SEM
2.8
10.1
8.2
3.5
3.8
3.1
1.9
7.6
3.9
2.3
2.2
2.4
1.4
126
123
119
118
79
85
77
67
10th 3
89
119
136
132
123
107
124
82
80
80
70
71
75
Starch (g)1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy
from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A3.1
175
176
171
167
112
114
112
112
50th 3
138
183
190
185
162
138
172
123
118
120
104
100
112
237
242
234
226
156
147
155
179
90th 3
209
268
250
250
209
175
232
189
168
169
147
135
161
Nutrients
35
4
3
2
1
26.8
13.7
17.9
11.2
18.0
8.8
12.3
7.8
12.5
6.5
4.3
3.5
8.7
3.6
2.7
2.4
367
342
275
318
245
227
196
216
SEM
328
317
259
305
291
243
189
247
Mean
245
236
190
207
165
155
139
152
204
207
157
196
170
146
116
142
10
th 3
362
333
265
307
239
221
193
211
315
310
257
296
282
234
183
235
50
th 3
Carbohydrate (g)1
496
463
370
441
333
305
258
286
467
437
357
427
425
352
271
364
90
th 3
48
45
44
45
49
46
47
47
45
42
40
42
50
46
45
47
1.2
0.5
0.4
0.4
1.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
1.7
1.5
1.6
0.9
1.4
0.8
1.3
0.7
Mean SEM
36
32
32
32
35
34
36
35
33
25
24
28
36
33
33
33
10
th 3
47
45
45
45
50
46
47
47
44
43
41
43
50
45
45
46
50
th 3
61
58
57
58
61
59
58
59
58
54
53
55
65
57
56
59
90
th 3
40%
32%
29%
32%
53%
34%
38%
39%
34%
25%
14%
25%
47%
35%
36%
39%
197
189
157
176
117
120
104
112
169
186
143
170
143
131
107
129
Meeting
guideline 4 Mean
CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH
Percent energy from carbohydrate2
7.6
4.0
2.9
2.1
4.4
2.2
1.6
1.4
16.0
9.1
11.6
6.3
11.4
5.7
7.3
4.9
SEM
132
133
112
119
80
82
72
77
112
126
98
114
78
77
63
74
10th 3
Starch (g)1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due
to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats. Percent energy from
carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A3.1 cont.
194
185
153
172
115
118
102
110
166
183
139
166
134
123
101
121
50th 3
265
249
205
239
157
160
138
149
229
251
194
230
219
194
157
195
90th 3
36
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
141
143
138
135
106
106
103
106
135
135
133
122
102
103
98
96
3.9
4.7
5.2
3.8
2.6
3.8
2.6
2.7
Mean
122
160
169
149
118
112
139
134
131
106
94
87
105
83
75
91
59
63
74
53
48
Total sugars (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
1.2
63
114
7.0
96
154
9.5
88
162
3.5
83
143
3.3
63
111
3.2
65
107
2.1
74
131
8.7
71
127
5.2
72
127
2.3
57
100
2.3
55
91
2.4
52
84
1.4
58
99
207
221
191
226
154
140
159
176
90th 2
190
234
259
224
182
166
215
208
194
163
137
125
160
26
25
23
21
20
20
18
17
Mean
21
27
31
24
21
20
24
23
22
19
18
16
19
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A3.2
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.5
14
11
12
7
11
11
8
7
25
23
22
18
19
19
17
16
SUGARS I
Glucose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
0.3
9
20
1.9
12
26
2.0
13
28
0.6
11
23
0.7
9
19
0.8
9
18
0.5
10
22
1.9
11
21
1.2
10
21
0.6
8
17
0.6
9
17
0.6
9
16
0.3
9
18
40
43
35
39
30
31
30
29
90th 2
35
45
53
40
36
33
40
38
35
31
29
25
31
28
27
24
22
21
21
19
19
Mean
23
29
32
26
22
21
25
24
22
20
19
18
20
0.9
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
14
10
13
7
10
12
8
8
27
24
23
19
20
20
18
17
Fructose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
0.3
10
21
1.9
13
27
2.5
13
29
0.7
12
24
0.8
9
20
1.0
10
19
0.5
11
23
2.2
11
23
1.3
10
21
0.7
9
19
0.6
9
18
0.6
10
17
0.4
9
19
43
47
37
40
34
32
32
31
90th 2
38
47
55
43
38
35
43
40
36
34
30
27
33
Nutrients
37
2
1
Mean
88
79
57
78
76
55
38
53
98
85
64
76
71
61
56
62
15.2
8.0
10.7
6.5
10.5
5.8
10.2
5.0
7.9
3.9
2.6
2.4
5.4
2.8
1.6
1.6
163
147
110
133
122
101
89
99
146
121
106
123
143
104
76
108
Total sugars (g)
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
1
247
231
179
216
187
159
132
150
249
192
178
213
237
181
135
192
90
th 2
31
26
21
24
22
19
18
19
25
20
20
21
22
18
14
18
Mean
1.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.1
0.7
0.4
0.4
2.9
1.5
2.4
1.2
2.2
1.1
1.9
1.0
14
12
9
11
11
9
9
10
10
9
7
9
9
7
6
7
29
24
19
22
21
18
17
18
23
19
18
20
20
16
13
16
SUGARS I
Glucose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
51
41
36
41
34
31
28
30
43
32
35
36
38
31
24
32
90
th 2
32
27
22
26
23
21
19
20
27
22
22
23
23
20
16
20
Mean
1.8
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.3
0.8
0.5
0.4
3.4
2.1
2.4
1.5
2.2
1.2
2.2
1.1
15
12
9
11
11
9
10
10
10
10
7
9
9
7
7
7
30
25
20
23
22
19
18
19
25
21
21
22
21
18
14
18
Fructose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
53
44
37
44
36
34
29
32
47
35
39
40
40
35
28
35
90th 2
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
15–24
160
25–44
129
45+
113
Total
135
Females
15–24
151
25–44
113
45+
82
Total
117
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
169
25–44
154
45+
117
Total
141
Females
15–24
126
25–44
107
45+
92
Total
103
NZ Maori
Males
Table A3.2 cont.
38
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
67
69
70
71
48
48
49
53
Mean
59
82
83
77
55
53
69
69
69
50
42
37
49
2.5
2.8
3.5
2.3
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
31
28
42
26
26
31
22
18
61
61
67
63
45
46
45
46
Sucrose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
1.2
25
53
4.5
42
77
5.8
39
77
2.5
35
71
1.9
25
50
2.2
26
49
1.3
31
62
5.3
32
63
3.8
32
65
1.2
23
46
1.5
21
40
1.4
19
35
0.8
23
45
109
120
103
126
74
66
80
97
90th 2
101
128
136
125
92
85
115
113
111
82
67
57
81
15
17
16
16
13
14
14
14
Mean
15
19
17
17
15
14
16
15
15
14
12
13
14
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A3.3
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.7
6
7
7
4
5
5
4
5
SUGARS II
Lactose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
0.2
5
2.0
6
1.5
5
0.6
6
0.6
5
0.7
6
0.4
6
1.5
4
1.2
5
0.4
5
0.4
4
0.6
5
0.3
5
14
16
15
13
13
12
12
12
50th 2
13
17
15
15
13
13
14
13
13
13
11
12
12
26
28
27
32
23
24
24
25
90th 2
26
35
32
29
27
24
29
28
26
25
22
22
24
5.1
5.4
4.8
5.1
3.2
3.1
3.0
3.2
Mean
4.0
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.0
4.1
5.1
3.9
3.4
3.2
2.8
2.8
3.1
0.23
0.21
0.24
0.24
0.21
0.12
0.14
0.13
3.6
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.6
1.9
1.9
1.4
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.9
Maltose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
0.06
1.9
3.6
0.52
2.3
4.6
0.31
2.6
4.9
0.20
2.7
5.0
0.16
2.5
4.7
0.23
2.1
3.7
0.10
2.5
4.7
0.34
1.9
3.5
0.27
1.8
3.1
0.14
1.7
3.0
0.10
1.6
2.7
0.21
1.4
2.5
0.08
1.6
2.8
6.6
8.6
7.8
9.0
5.1
4.4
4.3
5.3
90th 2
6.5
8.0
8.1
8.9
7.9
6.4
8.2
6.3
5.3
5.1
4.2
4.5
4.9
Nutrients
39
2
1
8.6
5.3
6.5
3.9
7.6
3.7
6.4
3.3
4.8
2.8
1.6
1.5
3.7
1.4
1.4
0.9
89
68
55
71
84
57
40
61
81
78
55
69
64
49
40
47
Mean
41
36
24
31
30
25
21
24
41
32
20
33
37
22
14
22
76
73
49
62
60
46
38
45
81
63
50
65
77
50
35
53
Sucrose (g)
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
1
126
128
92
115
102
78
61
74
149
110
94
117
140
99
72
109
90
th 2
19
17
15
17
14
14
13
14
16
15
12
15
17
15
10
15
Mean
1.7
0.7
0.5
0.4
1.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
2.2
1.3
1.6
0.9
2.6
1.5
1.2
1.4
7
7
6
7
5
5
5
5
5
6
3
5
4
5
4
4
17
15
13
15
13
13
12
13
14
13
10
13
14
13
9
13
SUGARS II
Lactose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
35
30
27
29
26
24
22
24
29
27
24
27
34
29
18
28
90
th 2
5.1
5.4
4.7
5.1
3.4
3.1
2.8
3.0
5.0
5.6
5.0
5.4
4.1
3.7
3.3
3.7
Mean
0.32
0.19
0.13
0.10
0.29
0.11
0.11
0.07
0.74
0.68
0.70
0.40
0.55
0.41
0.42
0.51
2.5
2.9
2.4
2.5
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.4
2.1
2.3
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.7
4.8
5.0
4.3
4.7
3.2
2.9
2.5
2.8
4.6
4.9
4.5
5.0
3.7
3.3
3.1
3.4
Maltose (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
8.2
8.6
7.4
8.1
5.3
4.8
4.4
4.6
8.5
9.5
8.6
8.9
7.1
6.2
5.2
6.2
90th 2
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A3.3 cont.
40
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
25
25
23
22
19
18
18
17
Mean
21
25
23
25
24
22
24
17
17
18
19
19
18
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
17
17
16
15
12
12
12
10
24
24
23
22
19
18
17
17
Dietary fibre (g)
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
0.2
13
20
1.3
14
24
1.1
15
23
0.5
17
24
0.7
15
23
0.6
16
22
0.3
16
23
1.0
10
16
0.6
10
17
0.3
11
18
0.4
12
18
0.5
13
19
0.2
12
18
1
35
34
31
30
27
25
25
25
90th 2
30
36
33
34
33
30
33
24
25
26
26
26
26
13
13
12
11
10
10
9
9
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
8
8
8
7
6
6
6
5
13
13
12
11
10
10
9
9
20
18
17
16
15
14
14
13
FIBRE
Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1
Mean SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
11
0.1
6
11
16
12
0.8
6
12
19
12
0.6
7
11
17
13
0.3
8
12
18
13
0.5
8
12
19
12
0.3
8
12
17
13
0.2
8
12
18
8
0.5
5
8
12
9
0.3
5
8
13
10
0.2
6
9
14
10
0.2
6
10
15
11
0.3
7
10
15
10
0.1
6
9
14
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A4
12
12
11
11
9
9
8
8
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
8
8
8
8
6
6
6
5
12
12
11
11
9
9
8
8
16
16
15
15
12
11
11
12
Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1
Mean SEM
10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
10
0.1
6
10
14
12
0.6
7
12
18
11
0.7
8
11
16
12
0.2
8
12
16
11
0.2
8
11
15
10
0.2
7
10
13
12
0.1
8
11
16
8
0.5
5
8
12
8
0.3
5
8
12
9
0.1
6
8
12
9
0.2
6
8
12
8
0.2
6
8
11
9
0.1
6
8
12
Nutrients
41
2
1
1.1
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
25
25
24
24
16
18
19
18
15
17
15
16
10
12
13
12
13
15
13
14
9
11
9
10
25
24
23
24
16
18
19
18
20
24
20
22
17
18
14
17
35
34
33
35
23
26
26
25
29
33
29
33
27
28
23
27
90th 2
13
13
13
13
8
10
10
10
10
12
11
11
9
10
8
9
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.3
7
8
8
8
5
6
7
6
6
7
7
7
4
5
5
5
12
12
12
12
8
9
10
9
10
12
10
11
8
9
8
9
19
18
19
19
12
14
15
14
15
17
15
16
13
15
13
14
FIBRE
Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
12
12
11
12
8
9
9
8
11
12
10
11
9
9
7
9
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.8
1.2
0.7
1.4
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.3
8
8
7
8
5
6
6
6
7
8
7
7
5
5
5
5
12
12
11
11
8
8
8
8
11
12
10
11
9
9
7
8
17
16
15
16
11
12
12
12
14
17
14
16
14
13
11
13
Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)1
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.0
1.2
0.7
1.0
0.6
Dietary fibre (g)1
SEM
10th 2
50th 2
21
24
20
22
18
19
15
18
Mean
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A4 cont.
42
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
SEM
0.7
3.2
4.4
2.0
2.4
1.6
2.7
1.2
1.5
2.8
1.7
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.8
2.5
2.2
2.8
2.4
1.1
2.4
1.1
0.9
Mean
14
7
18
21
26
13
11
20
3
13
11
7
5
4
8
23
20
18
17
9
10
7
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Alcohol (g)
10th 3
50th 3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
79
57
71
56
35
31
25
17
90th 3
46
14
78
66
80
41
43
66
0
46
36
23
18
15
28
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Percent energy from alcohol2
Mean SEM
10th 3
50th 3
4
0.2
0
0
1
0.8
0
0
4
1.0
0
0
4
0.4
0
0
6
0.6
0
0
4
0.5
0
0
4
0.8
0
0
5
0.3
0
0
1
0.3
0
0
4
0.8
0
0
3
0.4
0
0
2
0.2
0
0
2
0.4
0
0
2
0.3
0
0
3
0.2
0
0
ALCOHOL
18
14
16
15
11
11
10
8
90th 3
3
3
16
14
20
12
16
16
0
15
13
9
11
6
10
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, because intake clusters at zero.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day
repeats. Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g)
divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A5
Nutrients
43
3
2
1
7.9
7.2
8.4
4.5
3.6
2.2
2.1
1.6
3.4
2.0
1.9
1.3
2.3
2.1
0.5
0.9
12
20
21
19
9
11
6
9
SEM
20
24
33
25
10
8
6
8
Mean
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Alcohol (g)1
10th 3
50th 3
45
65
69
63
40
39
21
30
95
66
137
80
43
20
19
20
90th 3
2
4
6
4
3
3
2
3
5
4
7
5
2
2
2
2
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.5
0.2
0.2
2.3
0.9
1.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
14
17
15
9
13
9
11
23
9
30
22
11
7
7
7
Percent energy from alcohol2
Mean SEM
10th 3
50th 3
90th 3
ALCOHOL
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, because intake clusters at zero.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day
repeats. Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g)
divided by the total energy intake.
Percentiles.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A5 cont.
44
NZ Food: NZ People
4
3
2
1
887
792
609
528
657
611
532
456
1195
1119
1357
1374
884
883
918
925
65.4
63.5
246.1
143.7
53.5
32.6
37.4
54.8
10
580
572
523
698
746
769
669
475
443
562
556
649
541
Mean SEM
1065
26.9
1110 118.3
926
64.8
1280
87.1
1332 197.8
1279
86.9
1233
56.1
750
59.8
737
40.7
875
34.7
993
48.6
1149 166.9
900
18.9
th 3
1168
1072
1073
1043
840
858
845
821
50
939
1026
882
1105
1208
1199
1076
725
698
827
902
1048
842
th 3
th 3
1538
1505
2447
2422
1144
1188
1392
1513
90
1646
1771
1389
2027
2054
1892
1939
1060
1079
1248
1531
1773
1284
Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE)
1, 2
0.0
0.0
4.3
8.3
0.0
0.3
1.9
5.8
1.9
6.0
8.3
1.3
0.9
0.7
2.1
3.7
6.1
0.7
1.5
1.6
1.6
intake (%) 4
Inadequate
554
521
672
704
401
358
410
437
44.9
28.0
156.2
111.8
113.6
12.5
33.8
38.9
Mean SEM
524
100.5
505
54.9
476
31.6
682
80.3
545
34.1
442
52.9
638
66.0
342
27.9
364
23.0
406
26.9
428
105.5
423
93.2
408
23.7
307
296
333
280
197
212
169
182
10th 3
223
268
272
313
294
261
295
145
177
200
190
186
185
VITAMIN A
Retinol (µg)1
494
475
518
479
324
337
328
350
863
790
1154
1130
549
528
680
739
2977
3588
3641
3929
3113
2994
3089
2870
50th 3
90th 3 Mean
400
804
3389
469
786
3935
454
711
2702
508
1092
3785
493
842
3634
412
652
5056
485
1033
3745
318
566
2496
337
579
2232
349
603
2825
319
711
3557
319
642
3590
334
605
3033
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. As this nutrient is concentrated in relatively few
foods, one day intake distributions are highly skewed. Therefore, these estimates of usual intakes have large standard errors.
For conversion factors to vitamin B equivalents, see Appendix B, Table I: Analytical techniques for nutrients.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A6.1
163.3
278.2
249.5
302.3
146.0
172.8
185.0
156.3
SEM
79.8
653.7
324.4
236.8
177.6
373.3
121.7
296.3
224.1
157.4
165.6
244.0
76.4
1930
1961
1153
869
1988
2100
1480
1234
10th 3
1428
1026
942
1457
1611
2010
1367
1312
1028
1570
1644
1992
1542
2875
3325
3043
2891
2993
2910
2817
2549
50th 3
2987
3065
2267
3187
3254
4510
3177
2340
2014
2644
3244
3363
2800
β-carotene (µg)1, 2
4162
5545
6931
8302
4395
4000
5049
4926
90th 3
5869
8006
4998
6856
6147
8837
6846
3888
3711
4314
5878
5511
4831
Nutrients
45
4
3
2
1
Mean
550
704
792
712
462
571
595
567
63.1
87.4
267.4
61.4
37.3
40.3
49.5
19.0
952
1100
1263
1093
678
835
937
841
925
1109
1245
1138
858
868
853
861
50
th 3
th 3
1520
1994
2080
1901
968
1245
1569
1320
1701
1712
1993
2072
1406
1351
1313
1368
90
1, 2
6.9
1.1
0.5
1.1
4.2
0.7
0.6
0.8
7.7
0.6
1.7
2.1
4.0
1.6
1.5
2.7
intake (%) 4
Inadequate
490
694
744
686
334
431
453
405
464
537
524
507
455
440
373
432
32.0
92.8
245.4
96.9
19.6
52.3
94.4
27.1
56.0
37.0
78.3
23.0
45.7
30.7
29.9
20.5
Mean SEM
262
321
282
283
160
212
188
199
272
331
270
310
186
229
193
202
10th 3
VITAMIN A
Retinol (µg)1
460
512
490
483
321
342
321
332
432
519
501
486
394
416
353
398
50th 3
759
1119
1229
1128
522
684
645
588
694
767
797
730
797
677
579
696
3075
3568
4056
3690
2187
2866
3592
3083
4010
3786
5807
4485
2795
2878
3216
2971
90th 3 Mean
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. As this nutrient is concentrated in relatively few foods, one day
intake distributions are highly skewed. Therefore, these estimates of usual intakes have large standard errors. Caution should be exercised in the
interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
For conversion factors to vitamin A equivalents, see Appendix B, Table I: Analytical techniques for nutrients.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
530
724
738
664
498
550
548
523
10
190.9
108.9
189.6
112.6
85.9
53.7
82.5
39.6
SEM
th 3
Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE)
15–24 1045
25–44 1174
45+
1319
Total
1283
Females
15–24
916
25–44
919
45+
901
Total
913
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24 1002
25–44 1268
45+
1374
Total
1238
Females
15–24
700
25–44
880
45+
1031
Total
907
NZ Maori
Males
Table A6.1 cont.
300.8
187.5
173.7
118.8
248.5
174.3
170.4
82.5
1509.2
852.4
2163.2
565.2
451.6
293.3
735.6
252.9
SEM
1087
1449
1793
1573
1108
1519
1987
1559
908
1568
1932
1298
1219
1365
1645
1386
10th 3
90th 3
2626
3123
3653
3294
2027
2659
3372
2846
5665
6269
6851
6332
3474
4481
5494
4920
2659 8406
3310 6670
4721 10964
3478 8835
2498 4744
2611 4742
2946 5152
2678 4922
50th 3
β-carotene (µg)1, 2
46
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
SEM
2.1
15.9
9.8
4.5
4.7
4.4
2.6
12.7
8.2
5.1
4.1
4.4
2.7
6.1
5.1
6.4
5.2
5.4
7.4
3.9
4.1
Mean
114
155
137
124
114
102
122
120
108
105
105
101
105
134
115
118
120
102
113
98
109
80
47
52
50
51
53
53
47
10
51
65
60
53
58
50
56
52
45
45
52
51
48
th 2
128
100
106
107
95
100
91
97
50
102
141
124
109
106
95
111
109
96
92
98
94
95
th 2
Vitamin C (mg)1
196
200
198
207
163
185
151
186
90
191
264
230
211
179
163
202
202
184
180
168
161
176
th 2
0.0
1.6
0.9
1.2
0.6
0.5
0.2
1.3
0.8
0.3
0.5
0.9
0.2
0.7
0.5
0.9
1.1
1.3
0.6
0.5
0.9
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
11.7
11.9
12.0
11.5
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
0.31
0.30
0.37
0.32
0.32
0.24
0.24
0.18
7.6
7.0
7.5
7.4
6.0
6.7
5.7
5.0
10th 2
6.2
6.4
7.3
7.6
7.7
7.1
7.4
5.1
5.2
5.6
5.9
5.9
5.6
Vitamin E (mg )1
Mean SEM
10.2
0.11
11.0
0.74
11.8
0.52
12.4
0.29
11.5
0.36
10.8
0.32
11.7
0.18
8.9
1.28
8.7
0.50
9.0
0.19
8.9
0.21
8.5
0.30
8.8
0.13
VITAMINS C AND E
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A6.2
11.3
11.3
11.6
11.0
8.7
8.8
8.3
8.0
50th 2
9.7
10.6
11.5
11.8
11.1
10.4
11.2
8.8
8.3
8.6
8.5
8.1
8.4
16.5
17.5
16.9
16.1
12.8
11.3
12.3
12.6
90th 2
14.9
16.2
16.6
17.8
15.8
15.0
16.7
12.7
12.8
12.8
12.4
11.5
12.5
Nutrients
47
244
195
175
195
181
180
169
175
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.9
1.1
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
2.1
1.1
1.1
1.4
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
12.0
12.1
11.2
11.7
8.8
8.7
8.8
8.8
9.6
13.5
11.7
11.8
8.3
9.7
8.6
9.0
0.59
0.29
0.26
0.18
0.47
0.20
0.19
0.14
0.65
0.95
0.99
0.48
0.52
0.51
0.58
0.28
Mean SEM
7.4
7.5
7.0
7.0
5.1
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.9
8.4
7.2
7.2
5.1
5.5
5.6
5.4
10th 2
11.7
11.7
10.7
11.1
8.4
8.5
8.4
8.4
9.0
13.0
11.3
11.3
8.1
9.1
8.3
8.6
50th 2
3
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
138
107
100
109
97
92
96
94
241
278
225
248
226
180
155
188
90
th 2
Vitamin E (mg )1
2
70
55
52
57
48
46
51
48
116
135
120
125
108
93
87
98
50
th 2
VITAMINS C AND E
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the
interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
9.9
4.8
3.7
2.8
7.4
6.1
3.7
3.3
149
118
108
119
108
105
104
105
53
61
59
57
45
47
45
46
10
th 2
Vitamin C (mg)1
1
18.2
19.1
20.3
10.2
15.0
7.1
10.4
6.2
SEM
135
157
133
142
125
105
95
109
Mean
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A6.2 cont.
17.0
17.2
16.1
17.1
13.0
12.0
12.2
12.2
14.0
19.2
16.8
17.1
11.8
14.6
11.8
13.2
90th 2
48
NZ Food: NZ People
1
3
2
SEM
0.01
0.09
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.08
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
Mean
1.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.7
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
10
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
th 2
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
50
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.7
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
th 2
Thiamin (mg)1
2.3
2.6
2.5
2.2
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.8
90
2.1
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.3
1.9
2.4
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.7
th 2
2.1
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
Mean SEM
1.8
0.02
2.1
0.14
2.2
0.09
2.2
0.05
2.0
0.04
1.8
0.06
2.1
0.02
1.5
0.11
1.6
0.07
1.6
0.03
1.6
0.05
1.5
0.06
1.6
0.02
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A7.1
1.5
1.8
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.9
10
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.4
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
th 2
2.0
2.2
2.0
1.9
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
50
1.8
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.0
1.8
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
th 2
B VITAMINS I
Riboflavin (mg)1
2.7
2.6
3.0
3.1
2.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
90
2.6
3.1
3.0
3.1
2.8
2.4
2.9
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
th 2
0.2
0.0
1.7
4.9
2.2
1.8
6.4
11.6
3.4
3.2
0.7
0.7
1.3
2.1
1.2
13.9
5.6
5.0
4.7
4.0
5.6
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
44
44
44
44
30
29
29
29
Mean
36
43
45
48
43
34
44
28
31
31
29
25
29
1.4
1.1
1.4
1.2
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
SEM
0.3
2.5
2.0
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.6
1.6
1.4
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.4
35
30
28
27
23
24
20
18
10th 2
23
28
31
34
32
25
30
18
21
21
21
18
20
43
43
42
42
29
29
29
28
50th 2
35
42
44
46
42
33
43
27
30
30
29
25
29
Niacin equivalents (mg NE)1
53
60
62
63
37
34
40
43
90th 2
52
60
60
64
57
44
60
39
41
42
38
33
40
Nutrients
49
3
2
1
0.16
0.22
0.08
0.14
0.11
0.05
0.24
0.05
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
1.5
1.9
1.5
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.3
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
Mean SEM
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
10
th 2
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.2
50
th 2
Thiamin (mg)1
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.4
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.6
2.2
2.9
2.0
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.9
90
th 2
2.2
2.3
2.0
2.1
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.9
2.2
1.8
2.0
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.6
0.11
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.15
0.13
0.27
0.07
0.17
0.09
0.09
0.07
Mean SEM
1.4
1.6
1.3
1.5
0.9
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.3
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
10
th 2
2.2
2.2
1.9
2.1
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.1
1.7
1.9
1.6
1.5
1.3
1.5
50
th 2
B VITAMINS I
Riboflavin (mg)1
3.2
3.0
2.7
2.9
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.6
3.1
2.4
2.8
2.8
2.4
1.9
2.4
90
th 2
1.8
0.2
1.3
0.7
8.2
3.1
3.5
2.9
1.3
1.6
3.5
1.5
11.6
8.8
14.4
10.5
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
45
47
40
43
29
31
27
29
39
51
47
47
32
32
28
31
Mean
2.2
1.0
0.7
0.6
1.3
0.5
0.5
0.4
2.9
3.1
4.1
1.7
2.4
1.6
1.7
1.0
SEM
29
33
28
29
20
22
20
21
27
33
30
30
20
20
18
20
10th 2
44
46
38
42
29
30
27
28
38
49
45
45
31
31
27
30
50th 2
Niacin equivalents (mg NE)1
62
63
52
59
39
41
36
38
53
73
67
65
46
46
38
44
90th 2
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A7.1 cont.
50
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
SEM
0.01
0.10
0.10
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.08
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
Mean
1.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.7
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.3
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.7
10
0.9
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.2
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
th 2
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
50
1.4
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.7
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
th 2
Vitamin B6 (mg)1
2.2
2.4
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.9
1.9
90
2.1
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.2
2.0
2.3
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
th 2
5.4
5.7
7.0
6.3
4.2
3.5
3.7
4.1
Mean
4.9
4.9
5.7
6.6
6.3
4.5
6.0
3.2
4.6
3.9
4.1
3.9
3.9
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A7.2
0.65
0.27
0.68
0.41
0.34
0.15
0.17
0.18
SEM
0.21
0.38
0.46
0.38
0.58
0.39
0.30
0.21
0.64
0.14
0.35
0.61
0.12
3.4
3.6
4.1
2.6
2.5
2.0
2.1
2.1
10
2.4
3.0
3.2
4.0
2.8
2.4
3.0
2.0
2.6
2.1
2.1
1.8
2.1
th 2
5.1
5.3
6.3
5.1
3.8
3.2
3.3
3.6
50
4.2
4.7
5.4
6.1
5.0
4.0
5.2
3.1
4.3
3.5
3.5
2.9
3.4
th 2
th 2
7.6
8.1
10.8
11.0
6.5
5.5
5.6
6.6
90
8.2
7.0
8.6
9.9
10.8
7.2
9.7
4.6
6.9
6.1
6.7
6.4
6.2
B VITAMINS II
Vitamin B12 (µg)1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
1.1
0.5
0.9
0.4
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.0
1.1
0.2
0.6
0.6
1.3
0.6
intake (%)
3
Inadequate
290
297
279
277
234
222
212
209
5.5
8.5
9.1
8.7
7.0
6.1
4.6
4.6
Mean SEM
251
2.4
280
13.6
281
17.2
295
6.1
286
5.5
262
7.4
286
4.1
203
13.3
202
7.6
220
3.7
228
5.1
227
7.2
220
2.8
224
203
182
189
157
146
134
131
10
160
189
182
201
202
193
200
125
125
141
151
152
142
th 2
th 2
287
286
270
268
227
216
203
201
50
242
277
272
286
278
256
278
194
195
213
222
217
212
Folate (µg)1
360
403
385
375
320
305
299
296
90
354
376
390
400
381
339
381
292
290
307
313
313
306
th 2
0.1
1.1
3.5
2.0
7.6
11.3
16.9
18.6
7.1
2.8
3.4
1.6
0.8
1.0
1.3
22.2
21.2
13.4
9.8
9.2
13.1
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
Nutrients
51
3
2
1
0.16
0.13
0.09
0.06
0.10
0.07
0.13
0.05
0.10
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.02
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
SEM
1.6
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.3
Mean
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.2
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.2
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.7
10
th 2
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.6
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.2
50
th 2
Vitamin B6 (mg)
1
2.5
2.4
2.2
2.3
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.0
2.2
1.9
2.1
1.7
1.9
90
th 2
5.4
6.6
5.5
5.8
4.0
3.7
3.9
3.8
5.0
8.6
7.9
7.3
4.0
4.6
4.1
4.3
Mean
0.54
0.49
0.46
0.23
0.60
0.17
0.26
0.13
0.49
1.70
1.29
0.72
0.27
0.37
0.41
0.22
SEM
3.0
4.1
2.5
3.1
2.4
2.2
2.0
2.2
3.1
3.9
3.8
3.5
2.3
2.6
2.2
2.5
10
th 2
5.2
6.2
4.4
5.1
3.7
3.4
3.3
3.4
4.9
7.4
7.1
6.4
3.9
4.4
3.8
4.1
50
th 2
th 2
8.2
9.7
9.3
9.1
5.9
5.6
6.5
5.7
7.1
14.8
13.1
12.0
5.8
6.9
6.3
6.4
90
B VITAMINS II
Vitamin B12 (µg)1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the
interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
Percentiles.
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A7.2 cont.
0.2
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.2
intake (%)
3
Inadequate
297
298
281
291
200
222
230
222
233
298
265
280
206
215
198
208
16.1
6.5
5.4
4.7
7.9
4.6
4.6
3.0
21.6
24.9
14.2
40.4
17.4
7.9
12.6
7.7
Mean SEM
201
211
192
198
131
146
151
146
154
187
198
188
105
128
112
119
10
th 2
th 2
291
290
272
282
197
215
222
215
226
283
260
273
194
207
196
198
50
Folate (µg)1
401
394
382
393
271
307
318
307
321
424
338
378
324
311
280
309
90
th 2
1.7
0.8
1.5
1.7
18.7
11.5
9.5
11.5
8.7
2.5
1.0
2.3
28.6
18.4
26.0
23.0
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
52
NZ Food: NZ People
SEM
10.3
75.2
50.0
20.3
21.9
35.3
13.5
56.6
40.7
18.1
18.9
22.4
12.3
28.4
30.9
33.1
24.6
19.8
26.3
21.7
21.8
Mean
819
957
938
959
864
799
908
783
760
759
712
670
735
915
948
927
848
762
741
732
694
590
638
484
426
466
446
391
352
10
445
511
503
546
481
454
504
371
419
436
392
392
409
th 2
th 2
885
922
862
781
733
710
683
632
50
766
894
875
908
809
751
857
740
713
714
676
636
691
Calcium (mg)
1
1279
1292
1425
1355
1094
1077
1134
1112
90
1257
1474
1454
1435
1315
1204
1379
1258
1157
1133
1080
988
1112
th 2
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
20
33
12
9
14
18
14
37
22
21
27
30
25
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
1817
1872
1803
1731
1337
1295
1271
1242
40.4
45.4
47.7
40.8
33.9
30.9
24.4
24.5
1385
1371
1214
1099
930
933
855
786
10th 2
972
1183
1280
1373
1250
1039
1248
818
905
895
856
820
865
1794
1834
1758
1667
1303
1270
1227
1188
50th 2
1477
1779
1848
1891
1712
1428
1761
1241
1305
1295
1239
1112
1247
MINERALS I
Phosphorus (mg)1
Mean SEM
1537
11.6
1824
91.5
1889
81.1
1929
30.0
1757
38.1
1453
41.6
1806
20.4
1291
70.3
1366
64.5
1334
21.0
1267
23.9
1151
30.2
1288
13.8
# NZDep96 Quartiles consist of a range of age groups. As the requirements differ for each age
group, an overall figure could not be calculated.
1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
2
Percentiles.
3
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A8.1
2281
2424
2445
2442
1790
1689
1742
1764
90th 2
2179
2521
2554
2533
2320
1900
2422
1834
1904
1821
1715
1530
1761
388
385
370
358
289
273
275
262
8.2
8.7
10.9
16.3
5.0
6.6
6.1
4.4
Mean SEM
323
2.8
362
17.6
385
15.4
398
7.1
375
8.9
309
7.5
375
4.9
265
13.9
272
9.3
286
4.7
278
5.0
251
6.3
275
2.7
276
296
265
264
189
199
198
161
10th 2
210
240
273
293
287
235
273
167
182
191
186
178
183
378
378
362
352
279
267
267
249
50th 2
309
356
380
388
367
306
365
254
261
275
271
241
265
Magnesium (mg)1
514
481
485
457
400
356
362
378
90th 2
452
493
505
513
473
388
490
378
374
392
379
337
378
Nutrients
53
Mean
533
586
492
529
58.8
23.3
23.6
16.0
417
471
406
442
351
396
315
364
82.5
56.2
49.4
43.6
37.7
21.1
14.3
13.2
482
504
379
467
10
81.6
52.4
48.7
39.0
SEM
th 2
50
th 2
742
745
678
716
954
938
810
885
722
684
512
658
751
841
648
761
Calcium (mg)
1
1191
1131
1064
1096
1543
1455
1295
1408
1429
1153
890
1183
1234
1341
1080
1224
90
th 2
16
25
22
6
13
11
32
18
25
9
26
53
34
12
31
24
40 *
28
43 *
27 *
intake (%) 3
Inadequate
1337
1338
1228
1289
1950
1942
1662
1821
1415
1391
1132
1339
1570
1963
1682
1761
4
3
895
934
859
906
1252
1417
1170
1261
765
845
689
789
1147
1284
1112
1191
1298
1305
1195
1256
1919
1905
1628
1776
1331
1344
1101
1272
1537
1936
1608
1696
50th 2
1829
1782
1638
1712
2685
2512
2191
2440
2174
1998
1614
1975
2034
2640
2335
2408
90th 2
266
284
269
275
393
397
351
377
270
283
238
268
325
374
341
351
6.7
4.9
3.9
2.9
16.4
6.6
6.9
4.7
18.9
14.7
18.8
8.7
21.4
17.5
18.0
10.1
Mean SEM
180
195
185
187
269
297
253
262
157
168
144
157
236
261
252
253
10th 2
257
276
261
266
389
388
340
365
253
275
230
256
319
368
336
345
50th 2
Magnesium (mg)1
363
384
363
372
523
510
462
506
404
405
342
392
423
492
436
455
90th 2
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
The 15–24 years group was subdivided for inadequate intake, as the calcium requirements
differ for the 15–18 and 19–24 years groups (refer Table III, Appendix B).
58.2
23.5
17.4
14.7
88.1
33.1
30.8
21.7
103.4
54.9
69.3
44.4
103.8
112.9
141.9
55.1
10th 2
MINERALS I
Phosphorus (mg)1
Mean SEM
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution
should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number
of repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
2
Percentiles.
15–184
19–244
15–24
822
25–44
891
45+
698
Total
814
Females
15–184
19–244
15–24
826
25–44
743
45+
567
Total
732
NZ European & Others
Males
15–184
19–244
15–24 1008
25–44
990
45+
861
Total
936
4
Females
15–18
19–244
15–24
778
25–44
781
45+
713
Total
749
NZ Maori
Males
Table A8.1 cont.
54
NZ Food: NZ People
10th 2
7.8
9.6
11.1
11.0
10.1
9.1
10.3
6.7
6.9
6.8
7.0
6.7
6.8
11.6
10.4
11.0
9.7
7.5
7.7
6.7
6.0
SEM
0.12
0.89
0.63
0.38
0.47
0.35
0.22
0.63
0.55
0.18
0.21
0.38
0.11
0.58
0.38
0.56
0.39
0.31
0.24
0.25
0.19
14.8
14.8
15.2
14.1
10.2
10.2
9.7
9.7
50th 2
12.0
14.7
15.3
15.5
14.1
12.2
14.6
10.1
10.4
10.1
10.1
9.2
9.9
Iron (mg)
1
18.7
20.5
20.8
20.2
14.3
13.1
13.8
14.9
90th 2
18.2
21.5
19.8
21.9
19.6
16.4
20.4
14.5
15.3
14.6
13.9
12.8
14.2
Inadequate
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
14
6
0
0
0
1
1
45
39
42
2
3
26
intake (%) 3
14.9
15.4
15.1
15.5
10.1
10.2
10.1
10.5
Mean
12.6
15.8
15.2
16.7
14.5
12.1
15.2
10.2
10.6
10.7
10.0
9.2
10.2
0.48
0.52
0.56
0.46
0.24
0.27
0.32
0.28
SEM
0.13
1.01
0.64
0.48
0.31
0.40
0.24
0.69
0.58
0.21
0.24
0.31
0.13
10.8
10.4
10.2
9.3
7.6
8.4
6.9
6.3
10th 2
7.9
9.5
10.5
11.2
10.1
8.2
10
6.7
7.3
7.1
7.1
6.7
7.1
14.4
14.8
14.5
14.4
9.9
10.1
9.6
9.8
50th 2
11.9
15.2
15.0
15.9
14.0
11.6
14.5
9.8
10.3
10.1
9.7
8.9
9.8
MINERALS II
Zinc (mg)1
19.8
21.1
20.8
22.9
12.8
12.1
13.8
15.5
90th 2
18.2
23.0
20.1
23.2
19.4
16.6
21.4
14.3
14.4
14.8
13.2
12.1
13.8
Inadequate
0.2
0.5
0.9
2.7
0.2
0.0
1.5
4.8
1.2
3.1
1.0
0.2
0.5
4.8
1.1
2.4
0.9
1.6
1.1
1.3
1.3
intake (%) 4
# NZDep96 Quartiles consist of a range of age groups. As the requirements differ for each age group, an overall figure could not be calculated.
1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
2
Percentiles.
3
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). It was assumed all females 45+ years were not menstruating.
4
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
Mean
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+) 12.6
Males
15–18
15.2
19–24
15.4
25–44
16.1
45–64
14.6
65+
12.5
Total
15.1
Females 15–18
10.4
19–24
10.8
25–44
10.5
45–64
10.3
65+
9.6
Total
10.3
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
15.0
II
15.2
III
15.6
IV
14.6
Females I
10.7
II
10.3
III
10.1
IV
10.2
Table A8.2
4062
4010
3935
3897
3055
3030
2954
2952
Mean
3472
3874
3954
4180
3945
3542
3978
2854
3036
3045
3054
2851
3000
114.5
90.7
101.6
93.5
64.2
75.8
63.8
49.4
SEM
26.2
220.3
162.4
71.3
63.1
96.0
46.2
155.9
118.1
51.8
57.3
70.5
30.7
2993
2902
2876
3239
2245
2326
2057
1913
10th 2
2365
2703
2936
3068
3043
2658
2983
1861
2126
2101
2181
2060
2099
Potassium (mg)1
3994
3919
3872
3880
3001
3000
2883
2866
50th 2
3378
3837
3915
4116
3896
3482
3922
2778
2964
2975
3009
2783
2936
5226
5243
5079
4577
3933
3774
3943
4104
90th 2
4702
5093
5025
5378
4912
4503
5048
3955
4036
4075
3986
3721
3979
Nutrients
55
Mean
9.6
11.3
10.7
11.1
6.3
6.4
6.3
6.2
10.7
10.9
9.5
9.9
6.6
7.1
7.0
7.1
0.77
0.38
2.01
0.35
0.79
0.37
0.31
0.23
0.59
0.20
0.16
0.13
10
0.94
1.31
1.16
0.83
SEM
th 2
10.1
10.1
9.6
9.9
15.5
15.4
13.4
14.5
10.9
10.6
10.2
10.5
13.9
17.1
14.8
15.7
50
th 2
Iron (mg)1
14.7
14.0
13.2
13.6
21.0
21.3
18.9
20.7
16.5
16.1
15.6
16.1
19.3
25.7
19.4
22.1
90
th 2
41
2
24
0
1
1
45
42
4
0
40
6
32
0
0
1
45*
36
7*
0*
intake (%)
3
Inadequate
10.1
10.4
9.6
10.0
15.9
16.3
13.6
15.0
11.6
11.0
10.4
11.1
13.9
18.5
14.5
16.1
Mean
0.55
0.21
0.15
0.14
0.81
0.49
0.26
0.24
0.91
0.71
0.89
0.45
0.89
1.46
0.98
0.72
SEM
7.2
7.5
7.1
7.5
10.2
11.2
9.0
9.8
7.2
6.9
6.6
6.8
9.0
11.0
9.5
9.8
10
th 2
50
th 2
9.8
10.1
9.3
9.8
15.4
15.6
13.0
14.3
11.4
10.6
10.0
10.7
13.5
17.2
14.0
15.2
MINERALS II
Zinc (mg)1
13.5
13.6
12.3
12.7
22.2
22.1
18.9
21.2
16.4
15.7
14.8
16.0
19.2
27.7
20.1
23.5
90
th 2
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.3
1.8
0.2
2.4
1.5
2.7
2.9
4.3
3.2
3.0
0.6
2.0
1.7
intake (%) 4
Inadequate
2943
3030
2981
2993
4106
4157
3830
4005
2929
3219
2752
3023
3434
4285
3696
3885
106.7
55.5
44.0
34.0
176.4
72.9
62.4
49.0
228.2
123.4
213.9
99.3
226.5
282.4
214.6
142.2
Mean SEM
2071
2142
2135
2131
2967
3065
2864
2875
1763
2070
1789
1914
2660
3014
2662
2860
10th 2
Potassium (mg)1
2894
2974
2921
2938
4077
4091
3763
3932
2809
3104
2681
2919
3406
4191
3636
3814
50th 2
3879
3989
3900
3925
5280
5334
4881
5231
4240
4506
3808
4260
4242
5686
4807
5002
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
2
Percentiles.
3
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B). It was assumed all females 45+ years were not menstruating.
4
Calculated by probability analysis (Appendix B).
5
The 15–24 years group was subdivided, as the iron requirements differ for the 15–18 and 19–24 years groups (refer Table III, Appendix B).
NZ Maori
Males
15–185
19–245
15–24
14.2
25–44
17.9
45+
15.0
Total
16.3
5
Females 15–18
19–245
15–24
11.2
25–44
11.0
45+
10.6
Total
10.9
NZ European & Others
Males
15–185
19–245
15–24
15.7
25–44
15.8
45+
13.9
Total
15.0
Females 15–185
19–245
15–24
10.4
25–44
10.4
45+
9.9
Total
10.2
Table A8.2 cont.
56
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
56
60
69
59
46
39
43
47
Mean
52
55
56
65
64
46
60
35
44
47
46
38
44
2.0
2.7
5.8
3.4
3.3
1.3
2.3
4.1
45
37
38
29
31
27
22
23
Selenium (µg)
SEM 10th 3
1.3
28
4.6
31
4.7
34
2.6
43
4.5
34
2.4
29
1.8
36
2.5
23
3.9
28
3.3
25
2.5
25
2.6
24
1.1
25
56
56
62
52
44
37
37
40
50th 3
47
51
53
62
56
43
56
33
41
41
41
36
39
1,2
69
88
107
96
65
54
69
78
90th 3
82
83
83
92
101
68
91
50
63
76
71
56
68
5551
5399
4892
4696
4337
4208
3977
3700
Mean
4599
4597
4368
5295
5466
5231
5162
3055
3384
4093
4326
4563
4071
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE.
These data are unreliable, please refer to the text.
Percentiles.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Table A8.3
130.6
199.4
173.6
120.5
149.7
117.1
106.1
60.6
3202
4264
2899
2530
2451
2395
2318
2027
5241
5337
4701
4461
4140
4039
3832
3503
MINERALS III
Manganese (µg)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
44.7
2508
4327
367.9
2087
4086
314.0
2385
4075
117.4
3176
5088
152.3
3057
5177
140.5
3432
5104
73.4
2943
4935
205.0
1700
2888
197.8
1777
3168
72.0
2283
3914
108.4
2523
4170
126.2
2962
4393
54.7
2293
3891
8283
6614
7136
7167
6483
6223
5825
5611
90th 3
7026
7698
6724
7669
8234
7197
7644
4626
5325
6135
6333
6322
6070
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
Mean
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.8
1.4
1.8
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.3
0.05
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.4
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
Copper (mg)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
0.02
1.0
1.4
0.08
1.2
1.7
0.07
1.3
1.7
0.06
1.3
1.8
0.36
1.2
1.7
0.03
1.1
1.4
0.03
1.3
1.7
0.08
0.8
1.2
0.06
0.8
1.2
0.02
0.8
1.2
0.03
0.9
1.2
0.05
0.8
1.1
0.02
0.8
1.2
2.4
2.3
2.6
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.7
1.8
90th 3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.6
2.4
1.8
2.4
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
Nutrients
57
6.3
5.9
6.0
8.2
2.9
4.8
3.5
5.0
4.8
2.4
2.1
1.7
3.2
3.4
1.8
1.4
47
68
61
67
36
49
43
48
56
64
55
59
42
44
42
42
Mean
34
42
32
35
28
25
24
25
28
39
35
34
21
28
27
26
53
61
50
55
39
39
38
38
44
64
57
58
35
46
41
43
Selenium (µg)
SEM 10th 3
50th 3
1,2
83
89
85
87
59
70
65
65
70
102
93
109
54
74
63
76
90th 3
4799
5446
5470
5333
3317
4107
4495
4149
3305
4682
4722
4216
2965
4190
3783
3730
Mean
333.2
140.2
135.4
83.8
169.0
86.1
87.8
62.8
321.6
260.1
372.2
189.3
215.2
189.9
294.1
126.1
2477
3236
3143
3025
1777
2340
2792
2403
1773
2499
2641
2346
1459
2066
2062
1852
4401
5223
5196
5032
3187
3943
4330
3984
3149
4723
4423
4020
2780
3885
3617
3476
MINERALS III
Manganese (µg)1
SEM
10th 3
50th 3
7594
7945
8150
8041
5034
6085
6388
6100
5040
6625
7181
6338
4711
6709
5720
5938
90th 3
1.8
2.0
1.6
1.8
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.6
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.2
Mean
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.10
0.20
0.13
0.09
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.05
1.3
1.4
1.1
1.2
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
1.8
1.9
1.5
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.2
Copper (mg)1
SEM 10th 3
50th 3
2.3
2.7
2.2
2.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
2.1
2.3
1.9
2.2
1.9
2.0
1.5
1.9
90th 3
Usual intake. These data were adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE. Caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these data for NZ Maori, due to the limited number of
repeat 24 hour diet recalls for this ethnic group.
2
These data are unreliable, please refer to the text.
3
Percentiles.
1
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table A8.3 cont.
58
NZ Food: NZ People
Section B
Dietary Sources
Introduction
In the context of nutrition education it is often useful to either encourage or discourage the
consumption of groups of foods because they are important sources of nutrients. For example,
milk is an excellent source of calcium so the consumption of this group would be encouraged to
augment calcium intake. Therefore, food items have been assigned into food groups on the basis
of their role as a dietary source of a nutrient or nutrients (see Appendix B). This section provides
an insight into the groups of foods which are sources of selected nutrients for the New Zealand
population. As food choices differ with sex and age (see Section E), the contribution of each food
group to nutrient intake is presented for these variables.
It should be noted that the data presented in this section are percentages of nutrient intake obtained
from the various dietary sources. They do not indicate the bioavailability of nutrients from the
dietary sources.
Details of the food groups used and the types of foods included within each food group are
presented in Appendix B (Table 2). This should be studied prior to reading this section.
Key Points
Energy
• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the New
Zealand diet.
• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults
15–24 years.
Total fat
• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the New Zealand diet.
Carbohydrate
• Bread, non-alcoholic beverages and potatoes and kumara contributed 40 percent of carbohydrate
intake of the New Zealand population.
Protein
• Animal products (beef and veal, poultry, fish/seafood, milk) and bread accounted for about half the
dietary sources of protein in the New Zealand population.
Dietary fibre
• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the
dietary fibre intake for New Zealanders.
Calcium
• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the New Zealand population.
Dietary Sources
59
Iron
• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the New Zealand diet was estimated to be the
highly bioavailable haeme iron.
Folate
• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed over 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate
in the New Zealand diet.
Alcohol
• The predominant source of alcohol for females was wine (65 percent), while beer was the
predominant source for males (69 percent).
60
NZ Food: NZ People
B1
Energy
Table B1
Bread (not including bread-based dishes) was the principal source of energy for the New Zealand
population as a whole (11 percent) for all ages and sexes. Potatoes and kumara contributed 7 percent,
butter and margarine 6 percent, and milk, alcoholic beverages, cakes and muffins, non-alcoholic beverages
and sugar/sweets each contributed 5 percent. Bread was the largest source of energy for males and
females of all age groups, except for males 19–24 years for whom bread, potatoes and kumara, nonalcoholic beverages and bread-based dishes all contributed equally at about 9 percent. The contribution
of other food sources varied according to age and sex.
For males, bread (11 percent), potatoes and kumara (8 percent), butter and margarine (6 percent) and
alcoholic beverages (6 percent) were the highest sources of energy. Among females, bread (12 percent),
potatoes and kumara (7 percent) and butter and margarine, milk, cakes and muffins and fruits (all 6
percent) were important sources of energy. There were some age differences in important sources
of energy. For young (15–24 years) males and females non-alcoholic beverages provided 8 percent–
10 percent of energy, but this dropped to 2 percent or less in males and females 65+ years (Figure
A). Fruits provided about twice the proportion of energy in older males and females than younger
males and females (Figure B). The largest contribution of alcoholic beverages to energy intake was in
males 45–64 years (9 percent), while females 15–18 years obtained the smallest percentage of energy
from alcoholic beverages (1 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Non-alcoholic beverages
male
female
8%
6%
4%
2%
male
female
10%
Contribution to energy intake
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
44
Age group (years)
0
0%
0%
0
Contribution to energy intake
12%
Fruits
Age group (years)
Dietary Sources
61
B2
Total Fat
Table B2
Butter and margarine (16 percent) made the largest contribution to total fat intake in the population
as a whole and for all age groups and both sexes. The contribution from butter and margarine
increased with age in both sexes although the magnitude of the increase was greater in females. In
the 15–18 years group 12 percent of total fat (males 13 percent, females 11 percent) came from
butter and margarine, increasing to 21 percent and 25 percent for males and females respectively in
the 75+ years group (Figure A).
Potatoes and kumara, beef and veal, milk and cakes and muffins each provided 6 percent of total fat,
followed by pies and pasties, bread-based dishes and sausages and processed meats, at 5 percent.
Across age and sex groups, young males 19–24 years had the highest total fat intake from potatoes
and kumara (10 percent), pies and pasties (9 percent) and bread-based dishes (11 percent) (Figure B).
Older females 75+ years, had the highest total fat intake from milk (9 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Butter and margarine
male
female
23%
20%
17%
14%
11%
male
female
12%
Contribution to total fat intake
Contribution to total fat intake
26%
Bread-based dishes
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
Age group (years)
62
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
75
+
4
65
–7
4
45
–6
–4
4
25
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
B3
Carbohydrate
Table B3
The principal sources of carbohydrate were bread (20 percent), non-alcoholic beverages (10 percent),
potatoes and kumara (10 percent), sugar/sweets (9 percent) and fruits (8 percent). In the 15–24 years
groups non-alcoholic beverages provided slightly more (18 percent males) or an equivalent proportion
(17 percent – 18 percent females) of carbohydrate as bread. Bread emerged as the predominant
source of carbohydrate in males and females 25+ years (20 percent – 24 percent) with a concomitant
decrease in the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages (Figure A). The decrease in carbohydrate
from non-alcoholic beverages with age was counterbalanced by an increase in fruits and breakfast
cereals as carbohydrate sources (Figure B). The proportion of carbohydrate from cakes and muffins,
and sugar/sweets increased with age in males, while carbohydrate from bread was greatest in older
groups. Grains and pasta (5 percent) although not a major source, and bread-based dishes (3 percent),
contributed a greater percentage of carbohydrate in younger groups. Fruits was consistently a
more important source of carbohydrate for females (10 percent) than males (7 percent), while
potatoes and kumara contributed a larger percentage for males (11 percent, 9 percent respectively).
Figure A
Figure B
male
female
Breakfast cereals
Contribution to carbohydrate intake
20%
16%
12%
8%
4%
male
female
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
44
Age group (years)
0
0%
0%
0
Contribution to carbohydrate intake
Non-alcoholic beverages
Age group (years)
Dietary Sources
63
B4
Protein
Table B4
Animal products (beef and veal, milk, poultry and fish/seafood) and bread were the principal dietary
sources of protein contributing about half of the total (Figure A). Beef and veal was generally the
largest contributor to protein intake, providing 12 percent in females and 15 percent in males. The
bread and milk groups also supplied a substantial portion of dietary protein, 10 percent and 9
percent respectively in males, and 11 percent from both groups in females. Poultry and fish/seafood
supplied 7 percent–8 percent of protein for males and females. Deviations from this pattern were
seen in young females (15–18 years) where bread (12 percent) was the highest contributor to protein
intake, followed by milk (10 percent), beef and veal (9 percent), and bread-based dishes (8 percent);
and in males 19–24 years 13 percent of protein was obtained from bread-based dishes. Poultry (10
percent), milk (9 percent) and bread (9 percent) were the next largest contributors.
Although there were few age-related trends in the major sources of protein the relative importance
of bread-based dishes as a source of protein was higher in the younger groups (Figure B). While
grains and pasta were not a major source for the population (3 percent), intakes were higher in
younger groups (5 percent, 15–18 years) compared with older groups (1 percent, 75+ years).
Figure B
2%
0%
Beef &
veal
Bread
Milk
Food group
64
NZ Food: NZ People
Poultry
Fish/
seafood
4%
2%
0%
Age group (years)
10
0
4%
6%
75
+
6%
8%
–7
4
8%
10%
65
10%
12%
45
–6
4
12%
male
female
14%
Contribution to protein intake
Contribution to intake
14%
44
16%
Bread-based dishes
25
–
male
female
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Protein
0
Figure A
B5
Dietary Fibre
Table B5
There were five major sources of dietary fibre: bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and
breakfast cereals (Figure A). Together these sources provided three-quarters of dietary fibre intake.
Vegetables, including potatoes and kumara, were the greatest source of fibre (28 percent). For females
the main sources of dietary fibre were bread (22 percent), vegetables (18 percent), fruits (16 percent),
potatoes and kumara (10 percent) and breakfast cereals (10 percent). For males, the major sources
were bread (22 percent), vegetables (16 percent), potatoes and kumara (13 percent), breakfast cereals
(12 percent) and fruits (10 percent). The proportion of fibre from fruits increased with age in both
sexes to 20 percent for females and 17 percent for males in the 75+ years group (Figure B). However,
fruits was consistently a more important source of dietary fibre for females (16 percent) compared
with males (10 percent). Breakfast cereals contributed about twice the proportion of dietary fibre in
males 15–24 years (12 percent and 15 percent) compared to females of the same age (6 percent).
The lowest contribution by vegetables to dietary fibre intake was in males 15–24 years (13 percent
and 10 percent).
Figure B
Fruits
Food group
Potatoes & Breakfast
kumara
cereals
0%
10
0
Vegetables
75
+
Bread
–7
4
0%
5%
65
5%
10%
4
10%
15%
45
–6
15%
20%
–4
4
20%
male
female
25%
Contribution to dietary fibre intake
Contribution to intake
25%
Fruits
25
male
female
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Dietary fibre
0
Figure A
Age group (years)
Dietary Sources
65
B6
Calcium
Table B6
Almost half of the population’s calcium intake was from milk and cheese (37 percent, 11 percent
respectively) (Figure A). Other sources of calcium, although relatively small, were bread (6 percent),
vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and dairy products (all 5 percent). The predominance of milk as a
source of calcium increased with age in females (Figure B). For males, the percentage of calcium
from milk decreased with age until 25–44 years and increased in older groups (Figure B). The
percentage of calcium from cheese was fairly constant at about 11 percent across all age groups,
except in the 75+ years group where there was a notable decrease to 6 percent and 7 percent in
males and females respectively.
Overall, milk was a greater source of calcium for females (39 percent) than for males (36 percent)
with the exception of the 15–18 years group (males 38 percent, females 31 percent). However, in
the groups 19–24 and 65–74 years the proportion of calcium from milk was similar between sexes.
Dairy products contributed a slightly larger proportion of calcium intake in females (6 percent)
than in males (4 percent). Conversely, more calcium was obtained from bread-based dishes in males
(4 percent) than in females (2 percent). The latter was largely explained by a large contribution of
bread-based dishes to the diet of 19–24 years males. The proportion of calcium obtained from vegetables
increased with age (3 percent–4 percent to 7 percent–8 percent) while the contribution to calcium
of non-alcoholic beverages was inversely related to age in both sexes (7 percent to 2 percent–3 percent).
While grains and pasta were not a significant source of calcium in the population (2 percent), the
contribution to calcium was higher in the younger groups (4 percent–5 percent, 15–18 years) than
in the older groups (1 percent or less in 75+ years).
Figure B
Food group
66
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
Cheese
75
+
Milk
4
0%
30%
65
–7
10%
34%
64
20%
38%
45
–
30%
42%
4
40%
male
female
46%
Contribution to calcium intake
Contribution to intake
50%
Milk
25
–4
male
female
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Calcium
0
Figure A
B7
Iron
Table B7
Bread and beef and veal provided the greatest proportions of iron intake, followed by breakfast
cereals, vegetables and potatoes and kumara. Together these contributed about half of the iron intake
(Figure A).
For both males and females almost one-third of the iron comes from groups which include meat
and fish (males 33 percent, females 29 percent); 23 percent from all the meat groups combined
(males 24 percent, females 22 percent); 4 percent from bread-based dishes, which include meat (males
5 percent, females 3 percent); and 4 percent from fish/seafood. Therefore, just under one-third of the
dietary iron intake would be haem iron (highly bioavailable) and two-thirds non-haem iron (less
bioavailable).
For females, bread (13 percent) was the single greatest dietary source of iron, supplying an increasing
proportion with age (12 percent 15–18 years, 16 percent 75+ years). Beef and veal was ranked second
for females (11 percent). Conversely, for males, beef and veal was generally the largest dietary
source of iron (14 percent) followed by bread (12 percent). Exceptions were 19–24 years males for
whom breakfast cereals and bread-based dishes made the most substantial contribution to iron intake
(both 12 percent), and for males 75+ years for whom breakfast cereals (15 percent) and bread (14
percent) made the greatest contributions. Breakfast cereals also provided a larger percentage of iron
intake for males in the younger groups (15–24 years) than for females (Figure B).
Non-alcoholic beverages supplied 7 percent of dietary iron for females and 8 percent for males and
declined with age to 75+ years (males 3 percent, females 4 percent). On the other hand, fruits
supplied 6 percent of the dietary iron for males 75+ years, declining to 2 percent in the 15-18 years
group.
Figure A
Figure B
Iron
male
female
16%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
Food group
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
45
–
64
0%
44
Breakfast Vegetables Potatoes &
cereals
kumara
25
–
Beef &
veal
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Bread
0
2%
0%
male
female
16%
Contribution to iron intake
Contribution to intake
14%
Breakfast cereals
Age group (years)
Dietary Sources
67
B8
Folate
Table B8
The principal dietary sources of folate were vegetables (18 percent), bread (13 percent) and breakfast
cereals (11 percent). Additional sources included fruits and potatoes and kumara (Figure A). For
males 15–24 years, breakfast cereals were the largest contributor to folate intake (16 percent) followed
by vegetables and bread contributing similar proportions (about 12 percent each). For all other age
groups (both sexes) vegetables were the main dietary source of folate. For females, in comparison
with males, a larger proportion of folate came from vegetables (20 percent, 17 percent respectively)
and fruits (10 percent, 6 percent) with less from potatoes and kumara (6 percent, 9 percent).
Consequently, the proportion of folate from vegetables, together with potatoes and kumara, was
equivalent in males and females (26 percent). There were no major age-related patterns in folate
sources although the percentage from non-alcoholic beverages increased with age in both sexes (Figure
B). This was most likely due to the presence of fruit juices in this food group. The latter is in
contrast to the negative association seen between the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages and
age for other nutrients presented (e.g. carbohydrate) and indicated a change in type of non-alcoholic
beverages as a dietary source of folate with age.
Vegetables as a source of folate had the lowest contribution in males 15–24 years (12 percent and 13
percent) and females 15–18 years (15 percent). For other age groups vegetables contributed from 18
percent – 24 percent to folate intake. Bread-based dishes contributed higher amounts of folate (3
percent – 6 percent) in the 15–24 years groups, declining to 1 percent or less in the 75+ years
groups.
Figure B
Breakfast
cereals
Food group
68
NZ Food: NZ People
Fruits
Potatoes &
kumara
0%
Age group (years)
10
0
Bread
75
+
Vegetables
74
0%
2%
65
–
5%
4%
64
10%
6%
45
–
15%
8%
44
20%
male
female
10%
Contribution to folate intake
Contribution to intake
25%
Non-alcoholic beverages
25
–
male
female
15
–
19 18
–2
4
Folate
0
Figure A
B9
Alcohol
Table B9
Wine was the predominant source of alcohol for females other than those 15–18 years (Figure A).
Among females 15–18 years approximately half the alcohol consumed was beer, one-quarter spirits
and one-fifth wine. In females, the proportion of alcohol from beer decreased with age compared
with an increasing contribution from spirits. The contribution to alcohol intake of other alcohol 5
generally increased with age, peaking in the 75+ years males and the 65–74 years females.
For males, beer was the predominant source of alcohol, although there was a decrease in the
percentage of alcohol obtained from beer in males and females over 65 years (Figure B). This resulted
from a greater contribution of wine and spirits to alcohol intake in males 65+ years and the 22
percent of alcohol which came from other alcohol in the 75+ years group.
Liqueurs and cocktails were not major sources of alcohol in any age groups although in young males
these contributed almost 10 percent. Unreported data from the Qualitative Food Frequency
Questionnaire suggests the contribution of other alcohol to total alcohol intake was most likely
explained by sherry consumption in the older age groups.
Figure A
Figure B
Wine
male
female
80%
60%
40%
20%
80%
60%
40%
20%
Age group (years)
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
25
–
44
0%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
male
female
100%
Contribution to alcohol intake
Contribution to alcohol intake
100%
Beer
Age group (years)
5 For example, sherry, cider, alcoholic sodas.
Dietary Sources
69
70
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Groups
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Potatoes and kumara
Butter and margarine
Milk
Alcoholic beverages
Cakes and muffins
Non-alcoholic beverages
Sugar/sweets
Beef and veal
Fruits
Bread based dishes
Grains and pasta
Breakfast cereals
Biscuits
Pies and pasties
Poultry
Sausages & processed meats
Vegetables
Fish/seafood
Dairy products
Cheese
Sauces
Pork
Fats and oils
Puddings
Eggs and egg dishes
Lamb/mutton
Nuts and seeds
Soups and stocks
Snack foods
Other meat
Dietary supplements
Total%
Table Bl
11%
7
6
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
11%
8
6
5
6
4
5
5
5
3
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
10%
9
5
6
2
3
9
5
4
2
6
5
4
3
3
4
3
2
2
3
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
100
15–18
9%
9
4
5
5
4
9
4
2
3
9
4
3
2
5
3
3
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
0
<1
100
19–24
11%
7
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
3
4
4
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Male
25–44
12%
7
6
5
9
4
3
4
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
12%
8
7
6
5
5
2
6
6
5
<1
1
4
4
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
12%
8
7
6
5
6
1
5
3
6
3
1
6
5
2
2
2
3
2
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
12%
7
6
6
4
6
5
5
4
6
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
All
11%
7
4
5
1
6
10
6
3
4
5
5
2
2
3
2
3
3
1
4
2
2
2
1
2
<1
<1
1
<1
3
0
0
100
15–18
10%
7
4
6
5
4
8
6
3
5
4
3
2
3
5
3
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
<1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
ENERGY SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
12%
7
5
6
4
6
5
4
4
5
4
4
3
4
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Female
25–44
12%
6
6
6
3
6
3
4
4
7
2
2
4
4
2
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
14%
6
7
6
2
6
2
3
4
8
<1
2
4
4
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
3
2
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
14%
7
9
8
2
5
2
4
4
8
2
1
5
4
1
2
2
3
2
3
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
100
75+
Dietary Sources
71
NZ Pop’n
Food Groups
(Age 15+) All
Butter and margarine
16%
16%
Potatoes and kumara
6
7
Beef and veal
6
6
Milk
6
5
Cakes and muffins
6
5
Pies and pasties
5
6
Bread based dishes
5
6
Sausages & processed meats
5
5
Fats and oils
4
5
Cheese
4
4
Poultry
4
4
Biscuits
3
3
Dairy products
3
3
Fish/seafood
3
3
Sauces
3
2
Pork
2
2
Eggs and egg dishes
2
2
Bread (includes rolls and
specialty breads)
2
2
Nuts and seeds
2
2
Grains and pasta
2
2
Sugar/sweets
2
2
Lamb/mutton
2
2
Puddings
2
1
Breakfast cereals
1
1
Fruits
1
<1
Vegetables
1
<1
Snack foods
<1
<1
Soups and stocks
<1
<1
Non-alcoholic beverages
<1
<1
Other meat
<1
<1
Alcoholic beverages
<1
<1
Dietary supplements
<1
<1
Total%
100
100
Table B2
19–24
12%
10
3
5
6
9
11
6
4
3
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
<1
2
1
<1
1
2
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
100
15–18
13%
8
6
7
3
5
8
6
4
4
6
3
4
2
2
<1
<1
2
2
4
3
2
<1
2
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
2
2
<1
1
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
2
<1
2
3
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
<1
<1
<1
3
2
3
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
3
4
5
<1
2
<1
3
2
4
<1
<1
0
<1
0
100
2
2
2
3
2
2
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
TOTAL FAT SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
Male
Female
25–44 45–64 65–74
75+
All
15–18 19–24 25–44
15%
18%
20%
21%
16%
11%
13%
14%
7
5
4
5
6
8
8
6
7
7
8
4
5
4
4
5
5
5
6
7
6
5
7
6
5
5
5
6
7
6
4
7
6
5
3
4
5
5
9
5
5
5
<1
4
4
6
5
4
6
4
5
4
4
6
5
3
5
4
6
3
4
3
5
4
4
4
4
3
5
4
5
5
4
5
3
2
4
2
4
5
3
3
4
5
4
2
4
4
3
4
4
7
4
5
4
3
3
4
4
2
3
<1
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
1
1
3
2
3
<1
1
2
1
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
18%
4
5
6
7
4
3
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
4
3
3
2
2
<1
1
2
4
2
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
21%
3
6
6
7
3
<1
4
4
5
3
4
4
4
3
2
3
2
1
1
<1
2
2
2
2
1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
25%
3
5
9
6
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
4
3
2
2
3
72
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Groups
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Non-alcoholic beverages
Potatoes and kumara
Sugar/sweets
Fruits
Cakes and muffins
Breakfast cereals
Grains and pasta
Milk
Biscuits
Vegetables
Bread based dishes
Dairy products
Alcoholic beverages
Pies and pasties
Puddings
Sauces
Fish/seafood
Soups and stocks
Snack foods
Sausages & processed meats
Poultry
Beef and veal
Pork
Nuts and seeds
Eggs and egg dishes
Dietary supplements
Lamb/mutton
Cheese
Butter and margarine
Other meat
Fats and oils
Total%
Table B3
20%
10
10
9
8
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
20%
10
11
9
7
5
5
5
4
4
3
4
2
3
2
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
16%
18
12
8
4
3
6
7
4
3
2
5
3
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
15–18
16%
18
10
7
5
4
5
6
5
2
2
6
1
2
3
2
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
0
<1
100
19–24
21%
10
10
10
6
5
4
6
4
4
3
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
23%
6
11
9
8
6
5
3
4
4
3
4
2
4
2
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
21%
3
12
12
9
6
7
2
4
5
5
<1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
20%
2
12
11
11
7
9
2
4
6
4
2
2
2
<1
2
1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
21%
10
9
8
10
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
<1
1
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
18%
18
8
8
7
6
3
6
3
2
3
4
3
<1
1
1
1
<1
<1
3
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
18%
17
9
10
9
4
3
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
21%
10
9
8
9
7
5
6
4
4
4
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
22%
6
9
8
13
8
5
3
5
5
5
2
2
<1
1
1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
AVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
Male
Female
25–44 45–64 65–74
75+
All
15–18 19–24 25–44 45–64
24%
4
10
6
14
6
6
3
5
5
4
<1
2
<1
<l
4
1
<l
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
24%
4
11
7
14
5
7
2
6
5
4
1
2
<1
<l
2
1
<l
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
Dietary Sources
73
Food Groups
Beef and veal
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Milk
Poultry
Fish/seafood
Bread based dishes
Pork
Potatoes and kumara
Sausages & processed meats
Cheese
Vegetables
Lamb/mutton
Grains and pasta
Breakfast cereals
Pies and pasties
Cakes and muffins
Eggs and egg dishes
Non-alcoholic beverages
Dairy products
Biscuits
Fruits
Sauces
Nuts and seeds
Alcoholic beverages
Soups and stocks
Sugar/sweets
Puddings
Other meat
Snack foods
Butter and margarine
Dietary supplements
Fats and oil
Total%
Table B4
11
10
7
7
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
10
9
7
7
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
14%
15%
9
10
9
4
9
2
5
5
3
2
4
5
4
3
1
<1
2
2
1
<1
1
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
15–18
14%
9
9
10
4
13
5
4
5
3
2
1
4
3
6
3
2
1
1
<1
<1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
8%
10
8
6
6
5
5
4
5
4
3
4
3
2
3
2
2
1
1
1
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Male
25–44
16%
11
9
8
8
4
7
4
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
15%
11
11
5
8
<1
3
5
3
3
4
6
1
4
2
2
3
1
2
1
1
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
17%
12
11
6
6
3
5
5
3
2
4
3
1
6
2
3
2
1
1
2
1
1
<1
<1
2
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
13%
11
11
8
7
4
5
4
3
4
4
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
All
12%
12
10
5
4
8
6
4
5
4
3
1
5
2
3
3
1
2
3
<1
1
1
1
<1
<1
2
2
0
1
<1
0
<1
100
15–18
9%
10
10
8
8
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
1
5
2
1
2
2
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
12%
PROTEIN SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
11
11
9
7
4
5
4
2
4
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Female
25–44
12%
11
12
8
7
2
5
3
3
4
4
3
2
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
13%
13
13
6
7
<1
4
4
2
4
4
2
2
4
1
3
3
2
2
1
2
1
<1
<1
2
<1
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
14%
13
14
7
6
2
3
4
2
3
5
3
1
5
<1
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
13%
74
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Groups
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Vegetables
Fruits
Potatoes and kumara
Breakfast cereals
Grains and pasta
Cakes and muffins
Bread based dishes
Non-alcoholic beverages
Biscuits
Pies and pasties
Soups and stocks
Sausages & processed meats
Sauces
Nuts and seeds
Puddings
Snack foods
Sugar/sweets
Fish/seafood
Beef and veal
Poultry
Dairy products
Pork
Eggs and egg dishes
Milk
Lamb/mutton
Alcoholic beverages
Dietary supplements
Other meat
Cheese
Butter and margarine
Fats and oil
Total%
Table B5
22%
17
13
11
11
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
0
0
100
22%
16
10
13
12
4
3
4
3
2
2
1
1
<l
<l
<l
<1
<l
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
<l
<l
<l
0
0
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
18%
13
7
16
15
6
2
4
2
2
2
<1
2
1
<1
<1
2
1
<1
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
0
<1
0
0
0
100
15–18
18%
10
8
15
12
6
3
6
3
1
4
1
3
1
1
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
0
0
0
0
100
19–24
22%
17
10
12
11
5
3
4
3
2
2
<1
2
1
<l
<l
<1
<l
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
0
<l
0
0
0
100
25%
17
11
12
12
3
4
4
3
2
2
1
<1
<l
<l
<l
<1
<l
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
0
<l
<l
0
0
100
22%
22
12
13
11
2
3
<1
2
2
1
2
<1
<l
<l
1
<1
<l
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
0
<l
0
0
0
100
21%
17
17
12
14
2
4
2
1
3
<1
2
1
<l
<l
<l
<1
<l
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
0
0
0
<l
0
0
100
22%
18
16
10
10
4
4
2
3
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
<1
<l
0
0
100
22%
15
14
11
6
6
4
4
2
1
2
<1
1
1
1
<1
4
2
<1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
20%
18
16
12
6
5
3
4
2
3
2
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<l
0
<l
0
0
100
22%
16
15
10
10
5
4
3
3
3
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<l
0
<1
<l
0
0
100
DIETARY FIBRE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
Male
Female
25–44 45–64 65–74
75+
All
15–18 19–24 25–44
21%
20
17
9
10
2
5
2
3
3
<1
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
0
<l
<1
<l
0
0
100
45–64
23%
19
20
9
10
3
4
<1
2
2
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
0
0
0
<l
0
0
100
65–74
23%
20
20
10
13
1
2
1
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<l
0
<1
0
0
0
100
75+
Dietary Sources
75
Food Groups
Milk
Cheese
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Vegetables
Non-alcoholic beverages
Dairy products
Bread based dishes
Cakes and muffins
Fish/seafood
Potatoes and kumara
Fruits
Breakfast cereals
Grains and pasta
Sauces
Sugar/sweets
Eggs and egg dishes
Puddings
Alcoholic beverages
Biscuits
Pies and pasties
Soups and stocks
Sausages & processed meats
Poultry
Beef and veal
Butter and margarine
Snack foods
Pork
Nuts and Seeds
Lamb/mutton
Dietary supplements
Other meat
Fats and oil
Total%
Table B6
6
5
5
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
37%
36%
11
11
5
4
7
6
5
2
1
2
2
3
5
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
1
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
100
15–18
38%
10
6
3
7
3
8
2
1
2
1
2
3
<1
2
1
1
1
<1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
19–24
37%
10
7
5
5
5
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
<1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Male
25–44
34%
13
7
6
4
4
3
3
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
36%
11
6
8
2
5
<1
2
3
2
2
3
<1
1
2
5
1
<1
<l
<1
1
<l
<l
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
<1
<l
<1
<1
100
65–74
42%
9
6
8
2
4
3
3
2
3
3
6
<1
2
<1
1
4
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
38%
6
6
5
5
6
2
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
All
39%
11
6
4
7
7
5
2
1
2
2
2
4
2
3
<1
4
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
0
0
<1
100
15–18
31%
11
5
4
7
5
3
3
4
3
3
<1
2
<1
2
<1
2
1
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
36%
11
CALCIUM SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
6
5
6
5
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Female
25–44
38%
11
6
6
5
5
2
3
3
2
3
2
<1
2
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
<1
100
45–64
40%
10
6
7
3
6
<1
3
2
2
4
3
<1
2
<1
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
<l
<1
100
65–74
42%
10
6
7
3
6
1
2
2
2
5
4
1
1
<1
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
45%
7
76
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Groups
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Beef and Veal
Breakfast cereals
Vegetables
Potatoes and kumara
Non-alcoholic beverages
Fish/seafood
Bread based dishes
Fruits
Sausages & processed meats
Eggs and egg dishes
Cakes and muffins
Pies and pasties
Pork
Poultry
Lamb/mutton
Sauces
Grains and pasta
Sugar/sweets
Milk
Biscuits
Other meat
Soups and stocks
Nuts and seeds
Alcoholic beverages
Puddings
Dairy products
Butter and margarine
Snack foods
Cheese
Fats and oils
Dietary supplements
Total%
Table B7
13%
12
9
8
7
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
12%
14
9
7
8
4
4
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<l
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
10%
13
12
5
10
8
2
8
2
4
1
2
3
1
3
3
2
3
2
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
100
15–18
10%
7
12
4
9
5
2
12
3
4
3
2
7
3
3
<1
3
2
2
2
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
12%
15
7
8
7
4
5
4
3
4
3
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Male
25–44
14%
14
9
8
7
3
6
4
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
12%
15
11
9
7
4
6
<1
4
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
14%
11
15
8
8
3
3
2
6
2
3
4
2
3
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
13%
11
9
9
6
5
4
3
5
3
3
4
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
All
12%
9
8
7
8
7
4
6
5
4
2
3
3
3
1
<1
2
3
3
1
1
0
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
0
100
15–18
11%
11
6
11
8
6
5
4
5
3
2
2
4
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
<1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
19–24
IRON SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
13%
11
9
8
7
5
4
4
5
2
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
<1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Female
25–44
14%
11
9
9
6
5
4
2
6
3
3
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
16%
12
10
10
6
3
3
<1
7
2
3
3
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
4
2
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
16%
11
14
10
7
4
3
1
6
2
4
2
<1
2
2
2
1
<1
2
2
2
2
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
Dietary Sources
77
Food Groups
Vegetables
Bread (includes rolls
and specialty breads)
Breakfast cereals
Fruits
Potatoes and kumara
Non-alcoholic beverages
Sauces
Milk
Bread based dishes
Beef and veal
Eggs and egg dishes
Fish/seafood
Cakes and muffins
Alcoholic beverages
Poultry
Grains and pasta
Biscuits
Dairy products
Nuts and seeds
Soups and stocks
Pies and pasties
Cheese
Lamb/mutton
Snack foods
Sugar/sweets
Other meat
Puddings
Sausages & processed meats
Pork
Butter and margarine
Dietary supplements
Fats and oil
Total%
Table B8
13
11
8
8
6
5
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
13
12
6
9
6
5
4
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
1
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+) All
18%
17%
12
16
5
11
4
7
4
5
4
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
15–18
13%
11
16
6
10
4
5
4
6
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
<1
<1
2
2
2
<1
<1
1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
19–24
12%
14
10
6
8
5
6
4
3
3
2
3
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
<1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
Male
25–44
18%
14
10
6
8
7
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
4
2
2
1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
12
12
6
8
7
5
4
<1
3
4
3
1
1
<1
<1
1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
14
14
8
9
8
3
4
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
<1
1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
13
10
10
6
7
5
4
2
2
2
2
2
<1
2
2
1
1
1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
15
10
9
8
5
6
4
4
2
1
1
2
<1
1
3
<1
2
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
3
1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
100
12
9
11
8
5
4
5
3
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
<1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
13
11
9
7
7
5
5
2
2
3
2
3
<1
2
2
1
1
<1
1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
FOLATE SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
Female
45–64 65–74
75+
All
15–18 19–24 25–44
18%
24%
18%
20%
15%
20%
18%
13
10
10
6
8
5
4
1
2
3
2
2
<1
1
<1
1
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
45–64
22%
13
10
11
6
8
6
4
<1
2
2
2
2
<1
<1
1
1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
65–74
22%
12
13
10
6
9
5
5
<1
2
2
2
1
<1
1
<1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
100
75+
22%
78
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Groups
Beer
Wine
Spirits
Other alcohol
Liqueurs and cocktails
Total%
Table B9
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
53%
32
10
3
1
100
All
69%
17
10
3
<1
100
15–18
81%
10
<1
0
9
100
19–24
76%
15
7
<1
0
100
ALCOHOL SOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
Male
Female
25–44 45–64 65–74
75+
All
15–18 19–24 25–44
70%
72%
43%
45%
16%
48%
24%
16%
18
17
30
17
65
21
64
69
11
8
18
16
12
26
5
11
1
3
8
22
5
0
6
2
<1
<1
<1
0
2
5
2
3
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
45–64
6%
67
18
8
1
100
65–74
5%
59
13
19
4
100
75+
5%
56
24
14
0
100
Section C
Dietary Supplements
Introduction
While New Zealanders obtained most of the nutrients they needed from foods, some chose to
consume ‘supplements’ on a regular or occasional basis. This included prescribed and self-selected
supplements from a variety of sources: tablets; powders or liquid preparations of vitamins and/
or minerals; herbal and botanical preparations; and combinations of these substances.
In this section the patterns of consumption of categories of supplements, by sex, age, ethnicity,
community and NZDep96 quartiles are presented. Nutrients obtained from supplements are not
reported because of the small number of participants reporting supplement consumption in the
previous 24 hours.
Key Points
Vitamin / mineral supplement use
• One-half of the New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over
the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.
• Multi vitamins and/or minerals were the most frequently chosen supplement preparations
over the previous year (19 percent).
Other dietary supplement use
• Almost one-third of the New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements over the
previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17 percent at least once a week.
• Garlic preparations (9 percent), oils (6 percent) and botanical products (5 percent) were those
most frequently chosen.
Dietary Supplements
79
C1
Vitamin / Mineral Supplement(s)
Table C1
Use in the last year
About half the New Zealand population (51 percent) used vitamin and/or mineral supplements
during the last year. Twenty-three percent of the population used supplements on an occasional
basis and 28 percent on a regular basis. A greater proportion of females (59 percent) than males (42
percent) reported taking vitamin and/or mineral supplements (regular and occasional use combined).
The highest use was reported by females 19–24 years (69 percent regular and occasional use combined)
and the lowest use by males 75+ years (24 percent). While there was a trend for occasional use to
decline with age, regular use remained relatively constant across age groups.
NZ Måori were less likely to consume vitamins and/or minerals regularly than NZ European &
Others (Figure A). Pacific males were least likely of the three ethnic groups to use supplements
occasionally and Pacific females were least likely to use supplements regularly. For NZ European
& Others and male NZ Måori, occasional use declined with age. Regular use was higher in females
compared with males for both NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.
Frequency of regular use declined with NZDep96 quartile for both males and females. Combined
(regular and occasional) supplement use was highest in individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I
areas (46 percent males, 68 percent females) and lowest by those living in quartile IV areas (32
percent males, 49 percent females).
Provincial males reported lower use of supplements (regular and occasional use combined) than
metropolitan males (35 percent, 44 percent respectively), whereas provincial and metropolitan
females reported similar use (59 percent, 60 percent).
Type consumed in the last year
Most consumers of supplements chose combinations rather than single vitamins or minerals. Multi
vitamin and/or mineral supplements were the most frequently chosen (19 percent), followed by
vitamin B complex (10 percent). Individual vitamins or minerals were consumed by a relatively
small proportion of the population, with vitamin C (7 percent) and iron (4 percent) supplements
the most common.
Figure A
Figure B
Regular use of vitamin/mineral supplements
Vitamin C supplements
35%
male
female
30%
male
female
40%
25%
NZ population
Population
30%
25%
20%
15%
20%
15%
10%
10%
5%
5%
Ethnic group
80
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
75
+
4
65
–7
64
45
–
4
25
–4
NZ European & Others
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0%
NZ Maori
0
0%
Females were more likely than males to take multi vitamin and/or mineral supplements, anti-oxidant
and other multi nutrient preparations, iron and calcium; whereas males were more likely than females
to take vitamin C. Females 25–44 years were the highest consumers of iron supplements (10 percent),
with use declining after this age to 2 percent in females 75+ years. Calcium supplement use peaked
in the 65–74 years group (9 percent), with 0 percent to 3 percent intake in the 19–44 years groups.
There was no significant variation in use across NZDep96 quartiles or between metropolitan and
provincial groups, for either male or female supplement use.
Vitamin C use was highest in the 15–18 years group and declined with increasing age (Figure B).
This corresponds with the age-related decrease in occasional vitamin and/or mineral supplement
use.
Dietary Supplements
81
C2
Other Dietary Supplements
Table C2
Use in the last year
Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population (29 percent) used other dietary supplements
during the last year, 17 percent on a regular and 12 percent on an occasional basis. As with vitamin
and/or mineral supplements (Section C1), females (34 percent) reported that they were more likely
to be regular or occasional users than males (22 percent). The proportion of consumers of other
dietary supplements (regular and occasional) were relatively consistent across age groups. However,
more females 45+ years and males 65–74 years were regular consumers compared with younger
groups (Figure A). On the other hand, more females 15–18 years and males 15–64 years were
occasional users compared to other groups.
NZ Måori females were less likely to have taken other dietary supplements on a regular basis than
NZ European & Others. Pacific females were least likely to have taken other dietary supplements
on a regular basis compared to the other ethnic groups. Females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas
were least likely to report taking other dietary supplements (28 percent) compared with females
living in quartile I areas (41 percent).
Type used in the last year
A wide variety of other dietary supplements were chosen. The three most commonly chosen
categories were garlic preparations (9 percent); oils such as evening primrose (6 percent); and
botanical products (5 percent). Females were more likely than males to have chosen from the groups
of oils and botanical products, while garlic supplement use was equal for both sexes (Figure B). Bee
products use was highest in males 75+ years (5 percent) and in females 65+ years (4 percent and 6
percent). The highest use of sports supplements was in males 19–24 years (5 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Regular users of other dietary supplements
Consumption of other dietary supplements
male
female
35%
10%
8%
25%
NZ population
NZ population
30%
20%
15%
male
female
6%
4%
10%
2%
5%
0%
Age group (years)
82
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
Botanical
Garlic
Type
Oils
Dietary Supplements
83
84
NZ Food: NZ People
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
20
25
25
16
28
27
23
20
22
18
26
23
26
22
17
16
40
34
35
29
22
17
34
36
Regular 3
28
19
18
21
22
21
19
21
29
33
37
36
35
26
34
15
10
24
23
14
16
14
11
26
28
21
19
3
2
4
5
3
4
2
1
5
4
5
3
11
12
9
9
12
13
13
8
11
9
7
8
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
2
1
2
0
Single B
vitamins 6
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
1
Folic acid
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
9
6
5
7
10
6
8
8
5
4
8
5
Vitamin C
7
26
10
7
5
4
1
8
18
6
4
5
4
2
5
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
1
5
1
2
1
Fat soluble
vitamins &
ß-carotene 7
2
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
7
4
1
1
3
6
2
Percent of the population consuming supplement 2
1
0
7
6
1
1
2
0
7
6
6
8
Iron
4
2
2
1
0
0
4
1
6
8
10
3
3
2
7
VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR
Multi vitamin Anti-oxidant
&/or
& other multi Vitamin B
Occasional 4 mineral
nutrients 5
complex
23
19
3
10
36
17
1
8
33
15
2
17
26
16
3
15
13
10
2
10
4
8
4
1
5
13
2
0
21
14
2
12
37
16
3
6
36
32
5
10
27
27
4
12
20
24
6
6
15
16
3
8
8
11
3
3
25
24
4
9
Consumption
frequency (%) 1
0
1
4
3
1
1
1
1
5
4
3
2
Calcium
2
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
6
0
3
5
9
3
4
2
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
Other
individual
minerals 8
2
0
1
1
4
5
2
2
1
3
1
2
4
4
2
Supplement intake questionnaire.
Consumers of vitamin/mineral supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement.
Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional).
‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year.
‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year.
Includes products containing multiple nutrients, but not claiming to be a multi vitamin or mineral. For example, the products: Immune Support; PMT; and Prostaguard.
Includes individual supplements of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12.
Includes individual supplements of vitamin A, D, and E.
Includes individual supplements of magnesium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and others (e.g. sodium, fluoride, and iodine).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table C1
Dietary Supplements
85
38
16
3
20
20
25
14
21
13*
2
2*
5
12*
14
8*
12
35
29
11
22
43
29
17
26
10
15
11
13
22
29
22
25
8*
9
6*
8
10*
11
12*
11
21
23
22
22
35
39
35
37
Regular 3
17
18
11
15
31
29
20
26
10*
5
0*
5
6*
9
11*
9
11
10
3
9
9
20
18
16
2
3
3
3
5
4
5
5
0*
3
0*
2
0*
0
0*
0
0
1
1
1
2
4
0
3
13
18
7
12
9
13
6
9
3*
0
2*
1
3*
5
1*
4
18
6
5
9
7
8
7
7
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
1
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
Single B
vitamins 6
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Folic acid
18
7
4
8
13
4
5
6
8*
2
4*
4
6*
0
6*
3
15
10
1
9
4
3
1
3
Vitamin C
1
2
2
2
7
1
3
3
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
Fat soluble
vitamins &
ß-carotene 7
Percent of the population consuming supplement 2
3
1
1
1
5
10
3
6
0*
0
0*
0
7*
9
0*
6
2
0
0
1
16
11
4
11
Iron
VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR
Multi vitamin Anti-oxidant
&/or
& other multi Vitamin B
Occasional 4 mineral
nutrients 5
complex
Consumption
frequency (%) 1
0
1
1
1
3
3
6
4
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
1*
1
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
2
Calcium
1
2
4
2
2
1
3
2
0*
0
3*
1
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
4
1
1
1
1
1
Other
individual
minerals 8
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Supplement intake questionnaire.
1
Consumers of vitamin/mineral supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement.
2
Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional).
3
‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year.
4
‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year.
5
Includes products containing multiple nutrients, but not claiming to be a multi vitamin or mineral. For example, the products: Immune Support; PMT; and Prostaguard.
6
Includes individual supplements of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12.
7
Includes individual supplements of vitamin A, D, and E.
8
Includes individual supplements of magnesium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and others (e.g. sodium, fluoride, and iodine).
NZ Maori
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table C1 cont.
86
NZ Food: NZ People
1
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
12
7
12
11
9
3
5
9
24
18
15
12
10
6
14
11
10
10
5
18
14
14
11
10
8
15
12
12
13
13
14
23
21
19
17
13
13
19
23
Occasional 4
17
11
11
9
17
24
15
13
5
9
17
29
28
29
20
Regular 3
Consumption
frequency (%) 1
4
4
7
6
3
5
5
4
9
6
5
6
5
4
4
4
4
3
1
4
4
9
7
7
5
3
7
Botanical 5
9
8
9
10
10
10
9
6
10
10
11
6
9
5
8
9
10
9
5
9
12
6
8
11
10
13
9
Garlic
3
2
9
9
2
2
3
3
10
10
8
8
6
5
2
1
3
8
4
2
5
3
8
15
8
8
9
2
2
5
3
2
2
2
1
6
4
4
4
3
0
0
1
4
3
3
2
2
4
5
4
8
5
4
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
4
3
1
2
2
0
0
1
2
3
5
2
0
1
2
3
6
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
2
2
2
0
1
2
5
3
1
2
1
1
2
Other
1
2
1
1
0
1
1
2
Supplement intake questionnaire.
1
1
2
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
5
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Percent of the population consuming supplement 2
Bee
Sports
6
7
8
Oils
Bran/fibre
products
supplements 9
OTHER DIETARY SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR
Consumers of other dietary supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement.
Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional).
‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year.
‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year.
Includes herbal remedies, brewer’s yeast, spirulina, and acidophilus.
Includes evening primrose, cod liver, and halibut liver.
Includes oat bran, wheat bran, wheat germ, fibre powders, and fibre tablets.
Includes bee pollen, royal jelly, and propolis.
Includes carbohydrate and protein powders, carnitine, and creatinine.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
I
Males
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table C2
Dietary Supplements
87
8
8
14
9
6
14
6
10
0*
5
0*
3
5*
2
3*
3
11
12
7
9
25
16
11
15
18*
1
8*
8
3*
6
6*
5
12
10
19
14
7
18
30
22
Occasional 4
5
10
10
8
9
13
24
15
Regular 3
Consumption
frequency (%) 1
5
4
4
4
8
8
6
7
3*
4
1*
3
4*
1
4*
3
1
5
1
3
4
6
12
7
Botanical 5
8
9
9
9
11
9
12
11
1*
2
4*
2
0*
5
2*
3
2
8
13
8
2
4
4
3
Garlic
4
1
4
3
4
9
13
10
0*
0
0*
0
4*
1
1*
2
0
1
2
1
6
9
4
7
0
1
3
2
4
5
5
5
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
3*
1
0
0
7
2
2
4
1
2
0
1
3
2
1
2
4
3
0*
0
2*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
9
4
2
2
2
2
5
1
1
2
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
5*
1
3
0
0
1
0
2
1
1
Other
Supplement intake questionnaire.
3
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
4*
0
0*
1
0*
0
0*
0
2
3
0
2
1
0
0
1
Percent of the population consuming supplement 2
Bee
Sports
6
7
8
Oils
Bran/fibre
products
supplements 9
OTHER DIETARY SUPPLEMENT USE IN THE LAST YEAR
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Consumers of other dietary supplements were classified to either ‘regular’ or ‘occasional’ categories based on their most frequently used supplement.
2
Includes any supplement use (either regular or occasional).
3
‘Regular’ includes all those who used any supplement at least once per week, during the last year.
4
‘Occasional’ includes all those who used any supplement, no more than 3 times per month, during the last year.
5
Includes herbal remedies, brewer’s yeast, spirulina, and acidophilus.
6
Includes evening primrose, cod liver, and halibut liver.
7
Includes oat bran, wheat bran, wheat germ, fibre powders, and fibre tablets.
8
Includes bee pollen, royal jelly, and propolis.
9
Includes carbohydrate and protein powders, carnitine, and creatinine.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table C2 cont.
88
NZ Food: NZ People
Section D
Eating Patterns
Introduction
Within the New Zealand population, some people choose from all food types available (plant and
animal) and others restrict their choice for a variety of reasons. People change their food choices
not only on a daily basis but throughout life in response to many influences including education
about recommended intake as expressed in food and nutrition guidelines. This section provides
information about dietary change: the timing and direction of change, and the difficulties (barriers)
to achieving change. Respondents were shown lists of possible ‘barriers to change’ for example,
‘barriers to increasing intake of fruits’. These lists were presented on showcards. However,
respondents were able to express other, non-specified, barriers and these are described in this
report as non-showcard responses.
Because most New Zealanders prepare a significant proportion of their food at home, they can
describe cooking and preparation habits, such as the use of fats.
Having access to affordable foods which are liked and acceptable is a key issue in whether or not
they are consumed. This aspect of eating patterns is termed food security. It is to be expected,
therefore, that ethnic and NZDep96 quartile groups will respond differently to statements about
food security.
Key Points
Type of diet
• Ninety-four percent of the New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous) diet.
Current dietary changes
• One-third of New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more females
(39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.
• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22
percent) in the New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of fruits
eaten (14 percent).
Direction of current dietary change attempts
• Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were trying to change the amount of high fat foods
eaten, 94 percent were trying to eat less.
• Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of fruits (14 percent)
and vegetables (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent and 92 percent respectively).
Intended dietary changes
• Over one-fifth of the New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the next six
months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas for changes.
Difficulties involved in making dietary changes
• Cost and don’t always have at home were two frequent difficulties cited by those trying to increase
their fruits and vegetable intake.
Eating Patterns
89
• Almost half of the population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and 32 percent felt it would
be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.
Food preparation practices
• Seventy-four percent of the New Zealand population fried or roasted meat/chicken in fat or
oil, and 69 percent did the same with their vegetables. The most common types of fat used were
other oils (e.g. sunflower, corn oil) and olive/canola.
• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,
while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.
Household food security
• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in
NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile I
areas (least deprived).
90
NZ Food: NZ People
D1
Type of Diet
Table D1
Ninety-four percent of all New Zealanders ate a regular diet which included animal products.
While avoids meats except chicken was uncommon, it was the most prevalent restricted food diet
alongside an other 6 types of diet (both 2 percent). Females 15–18 years were most likely to report
eating a vegetarian diet or avoiding red meat (13 percent). Consumption of a regular diet was
slightly more common in males than females and more common in male NZ European & Others
than females (Figure A). The proportion consuming a regular diet was highest in males 25–74
years and females 65–74 years (both 97 percent), with the lowest proportion in females 15–18
years (85 percent).
A greater percentage of Pacific males reported avoids meats except chicken in comparison with male
NZ European & Others (Figure B).
The type of diet consumed was unrelated to NZDep96 quartiles. The proportion of males consuming
a regular diet was higher in provincial (98 percent) than metropolitan (95 percent) areas.
Figure A
Figure B
Regular diet
male
female
98%
Avoided meats except chicken
96%
8%
Population
Population
male
female
10%
94%
92%
6%
4%
2%
90%
NZ Maori
Pacific people
NZ European &
Others
Ethnic group
0%
NZ Maori
Pacific people
NZ European
& Others
Ethnic group
6 Other included ‘non-specified combinations’
Eating Patterns
91
D2
Current Dietary Changes
Table D2
One-third of all New Zealanders (34 percent) reported that they were currently attempting to
change either the amount or type of foods they consumed. Compared with males, a larger
proportion of females were trying to alter their diet (39 percent, 28 percent respectively). Females
25–64 years had a greater prevalence of attempted dietary change than males of the same ages
(females 43 percent and 39 percent, males 31 percent and 25 percent). Attempted dietary change
was most frequent in the 19–24 years group (females 58 percent, males 44 percent) but subsequently
decreased with age (Figure A).
Male NZ European & Others (26 percent) were less likely than females (38 percent) to be currently
attempting dietary change. A greater percentage of male NZ Måori (37 percent) and Pacific people
(45 percent) were undertaking dietary change compared with NZ European & Others (26 percent).
Proportions attempting a dietary change did not differ according to NZDep96 quartile or
community.
The most popular type of dietary change reported was trying to alter the amount of high fat foods
consumed (males 16 percent, females 27 percent). Fruits followed as the second most commonly
reported dietary change (males 12 percent, females 17 percent) with third highest being breads and
cereals for females (14 percent) and vegetables for males (10 percent) (Figure B). Females living in
NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be trying to change vegetables intake (17 percent)
than those living in quartile I areas (8 percent).
Altering the consumption of high fat foods was the predominant dietary change in all ethnic groups.
A greater proportion of female NZ European & Others than males were attempting to change
their consumption of fruits, breads and cereals and high fat foods. Percentages of NZ Måori and Pacific
people who were attempting the various types of change were similar for both males and females.
A higher proportion of metropolitan than provincial males were attempting to change their
consumption of fruits (14 percent, 7 percent respectively) and vegetables (11 percent, 6 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Currently attempting dietary change
Current dietary change
male
female
60%
30%
25%
NZ population
40%
30%
20%
20%
15%
10%
Age group (years)
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
65
–
45
–
25
–
74
0%
64
0%
44
5%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10%
0
NZ population
50%
92
male
female
Fruits
Vegetables
Breads/cereals
Type of change intended
High fat
foods
D3
Direction of Current Dietary Change Attempts
Table D3
Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of ‘fruits’ (14 percent) and
‘vegetables’ (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent, 92 percent respectively) (Figure
A). However, more males over 45 years were trying to eat less ‘vegetables’ (27 percent). Of those
altering their ‘breads and cereals’ intake, most (60 percent) were trying to eat more, with 36 percent
trying to eat less. The percentage trying to eat more ‘breads and cereals’ decreased with age in females.
Among females over 45 years the majority (55 percent) were trying to eat less ‘breads and cereals’.
There are two types of change possible for ‘high fat foods’ 7, trying to alter the amounts eaten and
changing the type of fats used. Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were attempting to
change their intake of ‘high fat foods’ trying to eat less was the most popular change (94 percent)
while only 31 percent were trying to change type of fat eaten (Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Direction of current dietary change
Attempting change to fat type eaten
eat less
eat more
20%
(NZ population)
NZ population
15%
10%
5%
0%
male female
Breads/cereals
male
female
Vegetables
male
female
Changing
No change
Fruits
7 Includes butter, margarine and oils.
Eating Patterns
93
D4
Intended Dietary Changes
Table D4
The percentage of the population intending to make dietary changes in the future (over the next
six months) was calculated by including all respondents who indicated at least one type of change
(fruits, vegetables, breads and cereals and/or high fat foods).
Respondents who had indicated that they were currently trying to change a specific diet category
(e.g. fruits or vegetables), were not asked about future changes in this category.
Twenty-two percent of all New Zealanders were intending to change their fruits, vegetables, breads
and cereals and/or high fat foods consumption in the future. The proportion intending to make
dietary change in the future decreased with age from 19–24 years in both sexes (Figure A).
The proportion of females intending to change ‘amount/type of food eaten’ increased with
NZDep96 quartile area (I 20 percent, IV 29 percent). The proportion of males intending to change
increased over NZDep96 quartile areas I–III (15 percent to 28 percent) and then decreased to 17
percent among individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas. This pattern was reflected in all
food types intended for change. Place of residence (metropolitan vs provincial) had no effect on
intention to make dietary change in the future or type of change intended. In both sexes a greater
proportion of NZ Måori and Pacific people were intending to make dietary change in the future
than NZ European & Others.
For males, fruits was the most popular area for intended change (11 percent), followed by changing
the amount of high fat foods (8 percent) and vegetables (7 percent). For females, intending to change
the amount of fruits eaten was also the most popular change (12 percent) closely followed by
altering the amount of high fat foods eaten (11 percent) (Figure B).
Fruits was a more popular intended change (22 percent) compared with vegetables for NZ Måori
females (13 percent) and NZ European & Others males and females (10 percent, 7 percent
respectively).
Figure A
Figure B
Intending to change diet in future
Intended dietary changes
male
female
50%
14%
12%
NZ population
40%
NZ population
male
female
30%
20%
10%
8%
6%
4%
10%
2%
0%
Age group (years)
94
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
Fruits
Vegetables Breads/cereals
Type of change intended
High fat
foods
D5
Direction of Intended Dietary Changes
Table D5
At least 95 percent of those who intended to change the amount of ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ eaten
in the future, intended to increase the amount they ate (Figure A). Although very few were intending
to eat less ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ (3 percent), this was highest among those 45+ years, whereas
7 percent of males were intending to eat less ‘vegetables’ and 7 percent of females were intending to
eat less ‘fruits’.
The direction of future changes in ‘breads and cereals’ intake varied with age, with the proportion
intending to eat less increasing with age to over half of males and females 45+ years (51 percent, 63
percent respectively). Proportionately fewer females were intending to eat more ‘breads and cereals’
in the future than males. Most of the 9 percent who intended to make future changes in their
consumption of ‘high fat foods’ were intending to eat less (89 percent) with a small proportion
intending to change type eaten (19 percent) (Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Direction of intended dietary change
eat less
eat more
14%
Intending to change type of fat eaten
(NZ population)
NZ population
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
male
female
Breads/cereals
male
female
Vegetables
male
female
Changing
Not changing
Fruits
Eating Patterns
95
D6
Difficulties Involved in Making
Dietary Changes
Tables D6.1, D6.2, D6.3, D6.4
Respondents who indicated they were currently trying to eat more fruits, vegetables and/or breads
and cereals were asked about any difficulties they had, or were experiencing in attempting the
reported change. They were presented with a showcard but many respondents identified difficulties
not listed (in the tables these are collectively called non-showcard options). The percentage of the
respondents selecting a non-showcard option ranged from 4 percent (high fat foods) to 45 percent
(breads and cereals).
Cell sizes are small for a number of age groups related to fruits, vegetables and bread and cereals,
therefore it is not possible to make statements about the age trends for the change among these
food groups.
The major difficulties associated with trying to eat more fruits were cost (24 percent), don’t always
have at home (22 percent), poor quality (15 percent) and can’t store for long (14 percent). There were
no significant differences between males and females (Figure A).
There were a number of frequently cited reasons why trying to eat more vegetables was hard:
don’t always have at home (16 percent), cost (15 percent), takes too long to prepare (15 percent) and not
enough time (15 percent). In contrast to the difficulties expressed with attempting to eat more fruits,
poor quality was not often cited as a reason why eating more vegetables would be hard (fruits 15
percent, vegetables 4 percent).
Few respondents who were currently attempting to increase their consumption of breads and
cereals identified with the difficulties presented to them on the showcards. Almost half, however,
volunteered a non-showcard option with the most frequent response volunteered being that it was
not hard to eat more breads and cereals. Don’t like breads and cereals (8 percent), was the most
common showcard option followed by need willpower (7 percent) and too many calories (6 percent).
All respondents, regardless of whether they were currently attempting to change their high fat
foods consumption, were asked about difficulties they might find in reducing the amount of high
fat foods they ate. This explains the high proportion (47 percent) that indicated none of the
difficulties applied as they were happy with fat intake (Figure B). The most frequently cited difficulty
Figure A
Figure B
Difficulty with eating more fruits
30%
male
female
Happy with fat intake
70%
60%
NZ population
NZ population
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Cost
Not available
Poor Quality
Responses
96
male
female
NZ Food: NZ People
Storage
0%
15–24
25–44
Age group (years)
45+
in reducing the amount of high fat foods eaten was that they taste good (32 percent), followed by
not as enjoyable (16 percent), convenient (14 percent) and need willpower (11 percent). The percentage
indicating that they were happy with fat intake increased with age in both sexes (males 30 percent to
62 percent; females 25 percent to 61 percent) while the percentage who would find it difficult
because high fat foods taste good and are convenient decreased with age, particularly in the group
45+ years. Food preparation with less fat too hard, others would have to eat less and hard when eating out
were other difficulties cited, particularly by 15–24 years females compared with females 45+ years.
Eating Patterns
97
D7
Food Preparation Practices
Tables D7.1, D7.2
Meat or chicken
Males (78 percent) were more likely than females (70 percent) to report having meat or chicken
fried or roasted in fat or oil (Figure A). The most common choices were other oils (49 percent), olive/
canola oil (35 percent), butter (18 percent) and lard (16 percent). Males 45+ years were less likely to
eat meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil, less likely to use butter and more likely to use lard than
those under 45 years. Females were more likely than males to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ from
meat (72 percent, 60 percent respectively), and ‘remove skin’ from chicken (49 percent, 35 percent).
Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat meat or chicken cooked in fat
or oil (75 percent) than those from quartile I areas (65 percent). Lard was used more among
individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 22 percent, females 18 percent) compared
with those from quartile I areas (males 15 percent, females 10 percent). Olive/canola oil was more
likely to be used by individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles I and II areas when cooking meat or
chicken (males 35 percent, females 53 percent and 42 percent) compared with those living in quartile
IV areas (males 24 percent, females 25 percent). Individuals from the NZDep96 quartile I areas,
compared to those from quartile IV areas, were more likely to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ from
meat (females) and to ‘remove skin’ from chicken (males and females).
Always and often ‘remove skin’ from chicken was more common in metropolitan (52 percent) than
provincial females (43 percent).
NZ Måori and Pacific people were less likely than NZ European & Others to have reported always
or often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat. NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have
used olive/canola oil in cooking meat or chicken. Among females, Pacific people were more likely
to have used margarine and less likely to have used lard in cooking meat or chicken than NZ
European & Others. NZ Måori were less likely to have always or often removed chicken skin than
NZ European & Others (Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil
Removed chicken skin (always or often)
male
female
90%
50%
80%
Population
NZ population
85%
75%
70%
40%
30%
20%
65%
10%
60%
Age group (years)
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
–7
4
65
45
–6
4
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
98
male
female
60%
NZ Maori
Pacific people
Ethnic group
NZ European &
Others
Vegetables
Sixty-nine percent of the population ate vegetables cooked in fat or oil, with young males (15–18
years) having the highest consumption (76 percent) and young females the lowest (57 percent).
The fats most commonly used to cook vegetables were: other oils (44 percent), olive/canola oil
(32 percent) and lard (20 percent). Olive/canola oil was more popular among females than males.
Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely to use olive/canola oil in cooking
(48 percent) compared with those from quartile II–IV areas (27 percent to 35 percent). Use of lard
to cook vegetables varied with NZDep96 quartile for females. The lowest use was reported by
those living in quartile I areas (12 percent) compared to those living in quartile IV areas (21 percent).
NZ Måori were less likely to use olive/canola oil than NZ European & Others. Lard was more popular
with NZ Måori compared to Pacific people. Butter was more likely to be used by Pacific people
(males 31 percent, females 26 percent) than NZ European & Others for cooking vegetables.
Provincial males and females (28 percent, 24 percent respectively) were more likely to use lard
than metropolitan residents (males 19 percent, females 15 percent).
Eating Patterns
99
D8
Household Food Security
Table D8
Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready availability of
nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally acceptable
foods in a socially acceptable way. Subjects responded to eight statements on behalf of themselves
(if they lived alone) or their households. Each of these statements about food relate to the issue of
affordability i.e. the response was to be made in light of whether or not the respondent felt they
had enough money.
I/we8 can afford to eat properly
Thirteen percent of New Zealanders reported that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’
only sometimes; the highest proportion of households in this situation were reported by 19-24
years females (31 percent). More NZ Måori (males 24 percent, females 33 percent) and Pacific
people (males 39 percent, females 37 percent) reported that their households ‘can afford to eat
properly’ only sometimes compared with NZ European & Others (males 9 percent, females 10
percent). Reporting that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes, was lowest in
the older groups (45+ years) of NZ European & Others. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV
areas were more likely to report that their household can afford to eat properly only sometimes
compared with those from the other areas, quartiles I–III (Figure A). There were no differences
between metropolitan and provincial residents.
Food runs out in my/our household due to lack of money
Fourteen percent of New Zealanders reported that in their household ‘food runs out because of
lack of money’ sometimes (12 percent) or often (2 percent). This was reported more by females
(16 percent) compared to males (11 percent). Younger (15-44 years) males and females were more
likely to identify this as an issue for their household than older groups.
‘Food runs out’ often or sometimes was reported by about half of Pacific people (males 50 percent,
females 49 percent) and about one-third of NZ Måori (males 26 percent, females 36 percent),
compared with about one-tenth of NZ European & Others (males 7 percent, females 11 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Can afford to eat properly only sometimes
30%
12%
NZ population
NZ population
male
female
14%
male
female
25%
20%
15%
10%
10%
8%
6%
4%
5%
0%
Use food grants/banks sometimes
2%
I
II
III
NZDep96 Quartile
IV
0%
I
II
III
IV
NZDep96 Quartile
8 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,
depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
100
NZ Food: NZ People
This declined as an issue with increasing age in NZ European & Others but NZ Måori and Pacific
people reported that this was an issue for at least one-fifth of their households regardless of age.
The percentage reporting ‘food runs out’ in their household often or sometimes was also related to
NZDep96 quartile. This was most frequently reported by females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas
(31 percent), compared to quartile I-III areas (7 percent - 19 percent).
I/we9 eat less because of lack of money
For the New Zealand population as a whole, and for NZ European & Others, the pattern of response
to this statement reflects that of the previous question (‘food runs out because of lack of money’).
Between 12 percent and 14 percent reported that their households ‘eat less because of lack of
money’, sometimes or often. Similarly to ‘food runs out’, a relatively large proportion of NZ Måori
and Pacific females, compared to households of NZ European & Others, reported their household
‘eat less’. The proportion reporting ‘eat less’ was affected by NZDep96 quartile. Six percent of
males and 8 percent of females living in quartile I areas said that their household sometimes or often
‘eat less’, compared to 18 percent and 24 percent of those living in quartile IV areas.
The variety of foods I am (we are) able to eat is limited by a lack of money
Twenty-seven percent of the New Zealand population noted that this was an issue for their
household sometimes or often. Compared with older people (45+ years), a greater percentage of the
households of younger people reported ‘variety of foods limited by lack of money’. A higher
proportion of NZ Måori (females 47 percent, males 48 percent) and Pacific people (females 48
percent, males 50 percent) reported that this was an issue for their household compared with NZ
European & Others (females 26 percent, males 20 percent). ‘Variety of foods limited’ was considered
an issue in households across all NZDep96 quartiles, although reported more so by individuals
living in quartile IV areas compared with quartile I–III areas. Provincial males were less likely to
report that their household was concerned with this issue (19 percent) than metropolitan males
(26 percent).
I/we9 rely on others to provide food and/or money for food, for my/our household, when
I/we don’t have enough money
Seven percent of the New Zealand population said that their households sometimes or often ‘rely
on others’ to provide food, or money for food when they don’t have enough money. This issue
was rare (1 percent or less) for those 65+ years and most frequently mentioned by younger people,
particularly females 19–24 years (20 percent). More NZ Måori (males 19 percent, females 22 percent)
and Pacific people (males 29 percent, females 30 percent) compared to NZ European & Others
(males 3 percent, females 5 percent) specified that this was an issue sometimes or often for their
household. Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be in this position than
those from quartile I–III areas. Households of metropolitan females (10 percent) were more likely
to ‘rely on others’ for food than households of provincial females (6 percent).
9 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,
depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
Eating Patterns
101
I/we10 make use of special food grants or foodbanks when I/we do not have enough money
for food
Four percent of the New Zealand population (2 percent males, 5 percent females) stated that in the
last year their household sometimes ‘use food grants/banks when they do not have enough money
for food’. It was not an issue for the households of males, or females 45+ years and was most
frequently reported by younger females (19–24 years, 11 percent and 25–44 years, 7 percent). Those
from NZ Måori households (males 8 percent, females 16 percent) and Pacific households (males
12 percent, females 14 percent) sometimes ‘use food grants/banks’ compared to NZ European &
Others (males 1 percent, females 3 percent). The group most often reporting ‘use food grants/
banks’ sometimes were households of NZ Måori females 15–24 years (19 percent). Those living in
NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported their household ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes (males 6
percent, females 12 percent) more frequently than those in quartile I & II areas (males 0 percent, 1
percent; females 1 percent, 2 percent) (Figure B).
I feel stressed because of not having enough money for food
Twelve percent of households of the New Zealand population had this experience sometimes or
often over the previous year (9 percent males, 15 percent females). The households of older people
(45+ years) had this experience less often than those 19–44 years. It was most often experienced, at
least sometimes, by the households of females 25–44 years (24 percent). Among females, NZ Måori
(31 percent) and Pacific people (32 percent) were more often in this position than NZ European &
Others (12 percent). On the other hand, among males under 25 years 10 percent of NZ Måori and
NZ European & Others and 15 percent of Pacific people said that they felt their household was
‘stressed about lack of money for food’ sometimes or often. Twenty-nine percent of females and 17
percent of males from NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported this stress about their household,
compared with quartile I areas (females 6 percent, males 5 percent).
I feel stressed because I can’t provide the food I want for social occasions
The pattern of New Zealanders reporting this experience for their household reflects that of the
previous question. Overall, 13 percent (9 percent males, 15 percent females) reported that their
household felt stressed about providing food for social occasions sometimes or often. Again, it was
not an issue among older groups, but was highest for females 19–24 years (23 percent). Households
of NZ Måori and Pacific people were more than twice as likely to report this stress than NZ European
& Others. While this stress was experienced to some extent in households of all NZDep96 quartiles,
females living in quartile IV areas (26 percent) were more likely to report it for their household
compared with quartile I–III areas (8 percent to 18 percent).
10 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,
depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.
102
NZ Food: NZ People
Eating Patterns
103
104
NZ Food: NZ People
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D1
Avoids meats
except chicken
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
2
8
2
3
3
2
2
3
1
2
0
3
3
2
5
3
2
1
4
2
Regular
94
95
92
97
97
97
96
96
85
92
94
92
97
94
93
97
96
98
94
92
94
91
94
95
98
92
94
1
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
2
1
1
0
Lacto-ovo
vegetarian
1
0
4
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
Lactovegetarian
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Vegan
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
2
0
2
1
3
2
3
1
Other
2
4
0
1
0
2
2
1
2
3
2
3
1
3
2
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 1.
Ovo-vegetarian
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
TYPE OF DIET
Diet choice (%)
Eating Patterns
105
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
4*
10
8*
8
6*
6
11*
7
1
1
1
1
5
3
3
3
94
97
97
96
88
93
94
93
7
1
1
3
2
4
3
3
89*
89
92*
90
92*
93
89*
92
90
99
99
96
94
94
94
94
Regular
Avoids meats
except chicken
3
0
0
1
2
1
1
1
1*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Lacto-ovo
vegetarian
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1*
1
0*
1
1*
0
0*
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
Lactovegetarian
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
1
Vegan
2
2
1
1
4
2
3
3
4*
0
0*
1
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
Other
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 1.
Ovo-vegetarian
TYPE OF DIET
Diet choice (%)
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
NZ Maori
Males
Table D1 cont.
106
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
11
11
12
14
18
18
14
16
14
7
18
14
28
25
29
30
37
41
38
39
30
24
38
39
11
6
13
12
9
9
7
13
8
13
13
17
17
14
26
28
15
15
15
19
27
29
26
24
Barriers to change questions 4 and 5.
7
5
14
15
5
5
7
10
15
14
14
14
DIETARY CHANGES ATTEMPTED CURRENTLY
Currently trying to
Foods currently trying to change (%) 1
change amount/type
Breads and
of food eaten (%)
Fruits
Vegetables
cereals
High fat foods 2
34
14
11
11
22
25
6
10
6
13
44
25
23
14
19
31
16
11
7
19
25
7
6
5
16
17
3
1
2
11
8
2
2
2
5
28
12
10
7
16
39
18
9
19
22
58
31
26
14
44
43
20
15
17
29
39
13
10
14
28
18
5
3
8
13
6
2
1
2
3
39
17
12
14
27
As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
Includes butter, margarine, and oils.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D2
Eating Patterns
107
19
14
12
15
17
17
9
15
23*
32
14*
25
34*
19
17*
23
17
15
5
11
27
21
9
17
38
37
37
37
48
44
28
41
52*
42
44*
45
52*
39
43*
44
35
29
20
26
51
43
29
38
17
9
4
8
17
15
6
11
27*
33
7*
25
37*
14
16*
21
19
13
11
15
20
18
14
18
14
17
12
14
36
29
20
26
42*
28
32*
33
45*
27
30*
33
20
25
24
23
26
28
24
27
Barriers to change questions 4 and 5.
9
7
4
6
16
18
10
14
27*
8
12*
14
24*
16
8*
16
15
10
5
10
13
14
14
14
DIETARY CHANGES ATTEMPTED CURRENTLY
Currently trying to
Foods currently trying to change (%) 1
change amount/type
Breads and
of food eaten (%)
Fruits
Vegetables
cereals
High fat foods 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Includes butter, margarine, and oils.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table D2 cont.
108
NZ Food: NZ People
1
94
5
69
31
60
36
3
92
5
86
14
83*
14*
96*
4*
97
1
15–24
1
95
4
72
28
61
33
96
1
98
2
25–44
0
94
6
65
35
63*
33*
69*
27*
87
11
45+
1
94
5
72
28
69
27
91
7
96
3
Total
0
95
5
70
30
72
24
100
0
98
2
15–24
0
95
5
66
34
43
55
85
11
96
2
45+
Females
1
94
5
67
33
56
41
93
5
97
2
Total
Barriers to change questions 6–9.
2
94
5
65
35
56
39
94
5
97
3
25–44
DIRECTION OF CURRENT DIETARY CHANGES
Currently attempting change1
Males
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Figures are a percentage of those currently attempting to make a dietary change, in the corresponding food category.
2
‘Don’t know’ responses are not presented.
3
Includes butter, margarine and oils.
1
% trying to eat more
% trying to eat less
92
6
96
3
% trying to eat more
% trying to eat less
% trying to eat more
% trying to eat less
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
Direction of current
attempted change 2
% trying to eat more
% trying to eat less
% not changing amount eaten
Change in type of fat % not trying to change type
% trying to change type
High fat foods 3
Change in amount
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Food category
Fruits
Table D3
Eating Patterns
109
110
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
7
11
16
9
9
10
13
15
10
11
11
13
20
20
24
25
7
7
8
9
5
6
12
8
7
8
8
11
7
8
11
9
5
7
12
7
11
9
10
13
Barriers to change questions 9 and 10.
5
6
8
7
4
5
8
6
4
9
8
11
INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES
Foods intending to change in the future (%) 1
Breads and
Fruits
Vegetables
cereals
High fat foods 2
11
8
7
9
17
8
10
9
20
22
12
16
13
8
5
9
5
3
3
4
2
2
4
4
2
1
0
0
11
7
6
8
22
18
9
15
14
12
19
17
15
11
9
12
7
6
6
9
3
2
2
4
4
1
0
2
12
8
8
11
15
21
28
17
20
24
26
29
Intending to change
amount/type of food
eaten (%)
22
26
36
25
11
8
2
20
38
40
30
18
8
5
25
As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
Includes butter, margarine, and oils.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D4
Eating Patterns
111
24
15
5
15
30
22
13
22
26*
15
1*
15
22*
18
10*
17
17
13
4
10
14
14
5
10
45*
35
9*
32
48*
37
33*
39
29
24
9
18
35
28
12
22
17
7
2
7
13
10
4
7
21*
16
6*
15
20*
20
19*
20
10
15
4
11
21
13
3
13
12
9
4
7
13
11
6
9
11*
13
2*
10
22*
14
3*
13
18
11
1
11
26
19
11
19
Barriers to change questions 9 and 10.
12
4
3
5
13
8
4
7
15*
14
0*
11
29*
8
11*
14
5
14
10
10
19
15
5
14
INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES
Foods intending to change in the future (%) 1
Breads and
Fruits
Vegetables
cereals
High fat foods 2
40
27
15
28
52
36
23
38
Intending to change
amount/type of food
eaten (%)
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Includes butter, margarine, and oils.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table D4 cont.
112
NZ Food: NZ People
% intending to eat more
% intending to eat less
% intending to eat more
% intending to eat less
% intending to eat more
% intending to eat less
Direction 2
1
89
10
81
19
60
34
95
3
96
3
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
2*
95*
3*
93*
7*
80*
18*
99*
1*
99*
1*
15–24
3
88
9
80
20
65*
28*
95
3
98
1
25–44
0*
96*
4*
84*
16*
#
#
93*
7*
98*
0*
45+
2
92
6
85
15
65
29
97
3
98
1
Total
0
98
2
79
21
75*
17*
93
5
94
6
15–24
DIRECTION OF INTENDED DIETARY CHANGES
Future intended change1
Males
# n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate.
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Figures are a percentage of those intending to make a dietary change in the future, in the corresponding food category.
2
‘Don’t know’ responses are not presented.
3
Includes butter, margarine and oils.
% intending to eat more
% intending to eat less
% not changing amount eaten
Change in type of fat % not intending to change type
% intending to change type
High fat foods 3
Change in amount
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Food category
Fruits
Table D5
2
84
14
76
24
32*
63*
91*
4*
92
7
45+
0
87
12
78
22
57
37
93
4
95
5
Total
Barriers to change questions 10–13.
0
83
17
79
21
54
39
94
2
96
4
25–44
Females
Eating Patterns
113
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
24
22
15
14
10
9
9
7
7
4
3
2
1
0
25
15–24*
27
23
11
3
14
12
12
5
1
0
2
0
0
0
27
25–44
17
26
25
24
6
11
11
5
3
5
1
2
2
0
28
45+*
6
6
8
14
17
22
5
5
8
1
4
0
0
0
28
Total
18
22
18
16
11
13
10
5
3
3
2
1
1
0
28
15–24
25
33
9
10
9
1
7
18
12
1
0
1
0
0
14
25–44
33
23
15
16
10
9
10
6
7
7
4
3
0
0
26
DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE FRUITS
Percent citing reason1
Males
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more fruit. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard.
Difficulties
Cost
Don’t always have at home
Poor quality
Can’t store for long
Not enough time
Hassle to eat more
Need willpower
Don’t like
Stomach upsets
Pesticides/chemicals
Hard to chew
Allergy/bad reaction
Too much sugar
Not good for me
Non-showcard option 2
Table D6.1
Total
28
22
12
12
10
7
9
9
10
5
3
2
0
0
23
Barriers to change question 15.
45+
23
7
12
7
10
8
9
4
14
7
6
2
0
0
26
Females
114
NZ Food: NZ People
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
16
15
15
15
12
10
8
5
4
4
3
1
1
0
0
0
26
15–24*
12
14
24
23
16
19
10
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
8
25–44
27
8
22
11
12
10
9
3
10
5
2
0
1
0
0
0
33
45+*
5
0
0
1
0
2
7
7
8
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
9
Total
18
9
19
14
12
12
9
3
6
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
20
15–24*
22
15
22
37
12
13
1
15
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
20
25–44
15
17
16
8
14
9
8
2
6
6
5
3
0
0
1
0
36
DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE VEGETABLES
Percent citing reason1
Males
Females
45+
9
6
9
9
2
4
7
9
3
1
4
2
2
0
0
0
36
Total
16
14
16
16
11
9
6
7
4
5
4
2
1
0
1
0
32
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Barriers to change question 16.
1
Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more vegetables. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard.
Difficulties
Don’t always have at home
Cost
Takes too long to prepare
Not enough time
Don’t like
Can’t store for long
Need willpower
Hard to prepare
Hassle to eat more
Poor quality
Pesticides/chemicals
Stomach upsets
Hard to chew
Allergy/bad reaction
Nowhere to cook
Not good for me
Non-showcard option 2
Table D6.2
Eating Patterns
115
NZ Pop’n
(Age 15+)
8
7
6
5
5
5
4
3
2
2
1
0
45
15–24*
3
9
3
6
2
3
0
3
5
0
0
0
51
25–44*
3
8
0
4
1
0
13
0
0
4
4
0
58
45+*
17
1
0
0
3
9
0
4
0
3
0
0
36
Total
6
7
1
4
2
3
5
2
2
2
2
0
50
15–24*
7
6
5
2
8
11
0
0
4
0
1
0
46
25–44
11
7
13
6
9
3
8
6
2
3
2
1
41
45+*
10
9
4
8
3
7
1
3
0
3
0
1
41
DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING MORE BREADS AND CEREALS
Percent citing reason1
Males
Females
Total
9
7
9
5
7
6
4
4
2
2
1
1
42
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Barriers to change question 17.
1
Percentage of those who were currently trying to eat more breads and cereals. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard.
Difficulties
Don’t like
Need willpower
Too many calories
Cost
Hassle to eat more
Too filling
Fattening
Stomach upsets
Too heavy
Not good for me
Too starchy
Cause wind
Non-showcard option 2
Table D6.3
116
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
15–24
30
46
13
22
5
11
6
8
3
7
4
3
1
3
1
25–44
45
36
18
21
10
8
4
4
5
4
3
3
2
2
5
45+
62
23
16
6
8
4
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
4
Total
49
33
16
15
8
7
4
4
4
3
2
3
2
2
4
15–24
25
43
15
25
12
15
15
12
7
7
3
5
2
2
5
25–44
39
37
19
16
16
10
11
6
7
4
3
2
2
3
3
45+
61
20
15
5
11
5
5
2
4
1
1
2
1
2
6
Total
46
31
16
13
14
9
9
6
6
3
3
3
2
2
5
Barriers to change question 18.
DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN EATING LESS HIGH FAT FOODS
Percent citing reason1
Males
Females
Percentage of all respondents who completed this section, including those who were currently not attempting a
change in this category. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
Reasons volunteered by the respondent, which were not included on the showcard.
NZ Pop’n
Difficulties
(Age 15+)
Happy with fat intake
47
Taste good
32
Not as enjoyable
16
Convenient
14
Need willpower
11
Preparation with less fat too hard
8
Others would have to eat less
6
Hard when eating out
5
Comfort eating
5
Cheap
3
Few low fat alternatives
3
Too much hassle
3
Too long to prepare with low fat
2
Body needs fat
2
4
Non-showcard option 2
Table D6.4
Eating Patterns
117
118
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
35
35
30
24
53
42
31
25
33
28
40
33
80
75
79
80
65
71
71
75
79
76
70
72
18
17
17
20
16
14
18
22
15
16
22
21
16
22
14
19
15
15
19
22
10
16
17
18
8
7
9
12
5
10
8
9
10
8
10
13
49
47
50
49
54
43
48
47
44
45
53
56
70
70
66
72
68
71
72
70
67
69
70
65
30
22
38
33
31
32
25
22
48
35
32
27
14
11
15
17
15
9
14
16
13
12
18
19
6
3
5
5
3
7
3
6
5
4
4
7
42
43
47
43
41
41
44
44
40
42
51
50
11
11
5
3
11
12
10
11
5
4
5
4
Vegetables
Type of fat/oil (%) 1
Butter Margarine Other oils 2 Don’t know
14
5
44
8
9
5
28
21
15
4
34
28
15
5
48
9
12
5
43
6
9
2
40
4
13
12
35
8
13
5
42
11
27
3
50
13
13
6
41
9
17
6
48
5
11
4
43
2
11
4
47
2
19
6
38
1
15
5
46
4
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 8 and 9.
19
28
15
24
21
19
25
21
12
20
19
21
FOOD PREPARATION I
Meat or chicken
Cook in
Type of fat/oil (%) 1
Cook in
fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Butter Lard Margarine Other oils 2 fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Lard
74
35
18
16
9
49
69
32
20
87
34
23
15
6
38
76
30
24
85
31
20
8
8
41
67
23
13
80
32
20
16
8
53
75
29
19
73
30
14
22
8
51
67
27
25
74
29
10
30
9
38
59
27
30
73
22
11
18
8
52
62
23
24
78
31
17
18
8
48
70
28
22
71
40
27
22
10
46
57
25
24
77
42
15
9
14
46
73
42
10
72
38
22
13
9
56
70
34
18
64
43
12
15
7
46
70
43
16
70
33
13
18
17
47
60
35
22
76
25
21
25
12
37
63
25
24
70
38
18
15
10
50
68
36
18
Percentage of those who fry or roast in fat or oil. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
Includes sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D7.1
Eating Patterns
119
12
13
14
13
15
22
15
18
18*
18
38*
22
20*
21
19*
20
38
37
30
34
51
42
40
42
79
90
83
85
86
72
72
76
88*
86
80*
85
83*
80
66*
78
87
78
73
77
71
71
67
69
19
18
12
16
13
20
13
15
35*
39
30*
36
24*
23
26*
24
28
23
16
23
43
32
24
34
9
13
23
16
12
12
18
14
5*
16
16*
13
5*
15
3*
9
23
32
30
29
24
21
24
22
8
8
8
8
11
7
9
9
10*
14
14*
13
19*
18
24*
19
1
4
8
4
16
15
13
15
38
51
46
47
43
54
43
47
30*
59
68*
52
70*
67
75*
69
52
60
64
59
51
63
61
58
71
74
64
69
68
71
67
69
57*
70
57*
63
50*
68
44*
57
73
81
79
78
62
65
73
66
30
33
28
30
42
35
39
38
20*
20
35*
23
11*
25
10*
19
12
10
15
12
17
27
39
28
9
14
11
12
13
15
12
13
8*
44
22*
31
31*
24
29*
26
27
16
10
17
38
25
14
26
5
5
5
5
3
5
3
4
2*
8
10*
7
5*
16
20*
14
4
3
12
6
13
7
8
9
32
46
40
41
42
47
42
44
36*
46
65*
48
65*
59
70*
62
29
60
63
52
49
52
51
51
26
9
6
11
11
4
2
4
38*
11
4*
16
10*
8
0*
7
19
8
3
10
7
6
2
5
Vegetables
Type of fat/oil (%) 1
Butter Margarine Other oils 2 Don’t know
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 8 and 9.
15
18
27
21
14
18
18
17
17*
11
10*
12
4*
9
16*
9
27
31
25
29
24
25
33
27
FOOD PREPARATION I
Meat or chicken
Cook in
Type of fat/oil (%)1
Cook in
2
fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Butter Lard Margarine Other oils fat/oil (%) Olive/canola Lard
* Limited sample size, 25 < n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percentage of those who fry or roast in fat or oil. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
2
Includes sunflower, corn oil, safflower oil etc.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table D7.1 cont.
120
NZ Food: NZ People
1
34
34
32
30
49
48
42
39
33
30
45
43
99
96
99
97
94
96
95
97
97
99
95
95
26
30
28
27
30
28
25
27
29
26
30
24
29
27
22
24
26
28
32
30
19
21
23
28
11
12
5
6
10
11
11
14
3
5
5
9
98
96
97
96
99
95
99
97
95
97
97
98
FOOD PREPARATION II
Pork, beef, mutton, hogget, or lamb
Those who
Trim excess fat (%) 1
Those who
consume (%)
Always
Often
Occasionally
Never
consume (%)
96
39
28
26
8
97
100
29
24
31
16
99
93
30
22
33
15
95
99
26
29
34
11
98
99
35
31
24
10
98
96
47
25
19
9
96
98
51
25
13
12
91
98
32
28
29
12
97
87
47
28
21
4
96
95
44
29
21
6
95
95
38
29
26
6
97
96
47
26
22
5
98
98
55
30
13
2
97
97
58
16
17
9
94
95
45
27
23
5
97
Percentage of those who consume.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D7.2
18
17
25
24
21
19
15
15
26
28
24
20
25
24
27
28
31
23
22
22
27
28
27
27
38
46
21
29
31
41
43
49
18
17
27
33
Never
32
52
39
47
37
27
17
40
24
26
27
22
13
15
23
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 14 and 15.
19
13
27
19
17
18
20
13
29
26
23
19
Always
21
9
14
12
20
32
43
17
18
22
20
27
36
42
24
Chicken
Remove skin (%) 1
Often
Occasionally
21
26
18
21
19
29
17
25
18
26
20
21
18
21
18
25
25
33
22
31
25
28
24
28
32
20
20
23
25
28
Eating Patterns
121
26
23
21
23
13
19
29
20
31*
23
34*
28
29*
43
29*
36
30
27
41
34
55
41
53
48
92
100
98
97
96
96
96
96
99*
100
100*
100
96*
97
100*
98
96
98
98
98
91
95
96
95
22
30
29
28
25
30
25
27
19*
26
28*
24
42*
21
23*
28
26
18
27
23
39
29
25
31
32
33
22
28
15
24
18
20
35*
30
33*
32
25*
33
33*
31
32
38
24
32
41
35
42
39
15
9
8
10
5
5
5
5
16*
21
5*
16
4*
2
15*
6
17
21
29
22
8
16
3
11
96
98
97
97
94
97
97
96
100*
100
100*
100
100*
99
100*
99
100
100
99
100
100
98
99
99
FOOD PREPARATION II
Pork, beef, mutton, hogget, or lamb
Those who
Trim excess fat (%) 1
Those who
consume (%)
Always
Often
Occasionally
Never
consume (%)
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percentage of those who consume.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table D7.2 cont.
19
17
19
18
25
26
26
26
19*
31
5*
22
30*
17
19*
22
14
10
15
13
13
20
18
18
23
27
23
25
32
28
24
27
15*
11
25*
15
19*
25
36*
26
39
21
35
30
36
30
35
33
45
44
31
39
21
24
18
21
44*
54
51*
51
23*
35
35*
32
39
62
46
51
42
41
31
39
Never
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 14 and 15.
12
13
27
19
23
21
33
27
22*
4
19*
12
27*
22
10*
21
8
7
5
7
8
9
16
10
Always
Chicken
Remove skin (%) 1
Often
Occasionally
122
NZ Food: NZ People
1
6
9
11
21
5
10
16
27
12
10
14
14
92
90
87
78
94
88
82
72
86
89
84
85
Can afford to eat
properly
SomeAlways times
86
13
85
10
82
17
81
17
93
7
99
1
98
0
87
12
81
10
68
31
80
19
92
8
98
2
97
2
85
14
The household: 1
1
1
3
2
0
1
1
3
0
1
3
6
11
7
14
13
8
6
11
16
7
8
16
25
Food runs out
SomeOften times
2
12
2
11
0
21
2
12
1
7
0
2
0
0
1
10
1
23
6
22
3
18
1
7
0
2
0
3
2
14
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
1
1
4
12
8
13
11
6
9
11
16
7
10
14
20
Eat less
SomeOften
times
1
12
0
12
1
22
1
12
0
7
0
3
1
0
1
11
1
10
2
23
2
16
1
9
1
4
0
3
2
12
4
3
6
4
1
3
4
6
3
5
6
9
22
16
22
26
13
18
22
31
15
20
26
35
Variety of foods
limited
SomeOften times
5
22
3
30
4
36
4
25
4
12
1
6
0
4
4
21
3
23
9
34
9
30
3
15
1
16
0
9
6
23
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
2
1
4
6
3
8
5
2
4
5
12
4
4
7
13
Rely on others
SomeOften
times
1
6
0
5
1
10
1
7
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
5
1
10
7
13
2
9
0
3
0
1
0
1
2
7
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
3
2
5
4
0
1
2
6
1
2
6
12
1
2
4
2
1
0
1
3
1
2
3
7
2
1
2
2
2
0
1
2
1
1
2
4
9
7
13
14
7
5
10
13
7
9
16
22
Food Security Questionnaire.
10
6
12
14
4
7
9
14
5
10
14
22
The household: 1
Stressed about Stressed when no
Use food
lack of money
food for social
grants/banks
for food
occasions
SomeSomeSomeOften
times
Often times
Often
times
0
4
2
10
2
11
0
5
0
7
1
7
0
4
1
12
1
9
0
2
2
13
2
13
0
2
2
4
1
5
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
1
8
1
8
2
4
3
5
1
11
1
11
5
15
2
21
1
7
5
19
3
16
0
2
2
9
2
10
0
0
1
3
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
3
1
5
3
12
2
13
HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY OVER THE LAST YEAR
Because of lack of money, the household: 1
Percentage of the population response for each question. Options ‘Never’ and ‘Don’t know’ are not reported.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table D8
Eating Patterns
123
21
30
17
24
35
37
23
33
33*
43
36*
39
41*
35
38*
37
11
14
3
9
17
15
4
10
76
68
81
74
62
62
77
66
67*
53
64*
59
53*
62
62*
60
86
85
97
90
78
84
96
89
Can afford to eat
properly
SomeAlways times
The household:
1
0
1
0
0
2
2
0
1
4*
1
10*
4
15*
9
9*
10
3
9
2
5
7
9
4
7
14
8
3
7
20
13
3
10
47*
47
44*
46
25*
45
43*
39
21
22
19
21
31
32
22
29
Food runs out
SomeOften times
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0*
1
0*
1
2*
6
0*
4
2
3
2
3
3
7
4
5
15
8
4
8
14
13
5
10
21*
46
33*
36
34*
32
48*
37
27
26
9
23
26
26
18
24
Eat less
SomeOften
times
3
4
2
3
7
8
2
5
8*
12
16*
12
4*
15
13*
12
3
5
11
6
7
14
8
10
27
21
9
17
23
28
13
21
23*
50
32*
38
42*
35
31*
36
65
40
14
42
48
36
27
37
Variety of foods
limited
SomeOften times
1
0
0
0
3
1
0
1
5*
2
3*
3
0*
4
0*
2
0
4
1
2
11
4
2
5
6
4
1
3
8
6
1
4
28*
26
25*
26
27*
25
34*
28
12
22
13
17
22
17
10
17
Rely on others
SomeOften
times
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0*
2
2*
1
4*
1
2*
2
0
1
1
0
4
0
1
2
2
1
1
1
5
5
1
3
14*
11
14*
12
9*
17
13*
14
9
8
6
8
19
18
8
16
1
1
1
1
4
3
1
2
0*
5
18*
6
0*
9
7*
6
0
5
3
3
6
13
7
9
0
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
5*
6
4*
5
4*
7
5*
6
4
2
3
3
3
6
7
5
7
10
2
6
15
14
7
11
24*
32
25*
29
15*
24
27*
22
10
27
7
17
26
26
18
24
Food Security Questionnaire.
9
10
2
7
9
17
5
10
15*
39
16*
27
21*
26
30*
26
10
23
10
16
18
28
17
22
The household: 1
Stressed about Stressed when no
Use food
lack of money
food for social
grants/banks
for food
occasions
SomeSomeSomeOften
times
Often times
Often
times
HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY OVER THE LAST YEAR
Because of lack of money, the household: 1
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percentage of the population response for each question. Options ‘Never’ and ‘Don’t know’ are not reported.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table D8 cont.
124
NZ Food: NZ People
Section E
Frequently Eaten Foods
Introduction
These data are derived from the food frequency questionnaire which also included questions on
some key food habits. For each food or beverage item respondents were asked to describe their
usual frequency of consumption by choosing one of eight frequency of consumption options for
example, never, less than once a month, etc. If the choice of foods was expected to vary with
season (e.g. fruits, vegetables, porridge, soups, etc) respondents were requested to indicate the
frequency of consumption according to how often the foods were consumed ‘in season’.
Choice of foods and beverages varies widely with individuals, over time and according to sex.
The choice is set against the background of the rich variety which is available for consumption in
New Zealand; both what is grown and produced here, and imported.
This section compared the distribution of demographic groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) across
frequency of consumption categories. These data have been summarised and presented as the
proportion consuming most food and beverage items in the questionnaire, at least once per week.
Key Points
Dairy foods
• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.
• Teenagers (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice cream, at least once per week.
Bread and cereal foods
• Only about one in five of the New Zealand population reached the New Zealand Nutrition
Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.
• Males 15–24 years were the most frequent consumers of bread and the number of servings of
bread per day consumed by females was not related to age group.
Meat and fish
• New Zealanders most frequently (at least once per week) chose beef or veal followed by beef
mince dishes and chicken.
Vegetables
• About two-thirds of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce
(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.
• Only two out of five males aged 15–18 years met the recommended number of daily vegetable
servings.
Fruits
• Almost half of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)
guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.
• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.
Frequently Eaten Foods
125
Beverages
• Tea and coffee were equally consumed by about three out of five New Zealanders at least three
times per week.
• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drank
white wine at least once a week.
Miscellaneous foods
• Two-thirds of the New Zealand population consumed sweet spreads and over half Vegemite or
Marmite at least once per week.
• In winter, half of the New Zealand population had homemade soup at least once per week.
126
NZ Food: NZ People
E1
Dairy Foods
Table E1
Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products (e.g. trim milk, yoghurt, cottage or ricotta
cheeses) than males, who showed a greater preference for some of the higher fat options, e.g.
standard milk, ice cream. Standard milk was a more popular choice among younger males and females.
Compared with older males and females, more younger people consumed flavoured milk and milk
as a beverage while hot beverage made with milk (e.g. Milo, hot chocolate drinks) were more popular
among males 15–18 years. Young people (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice
cream (males 57 percent, females 48 percent) and custard/dairy food (males 25 percent, females
39 percent). With increasing age fewer males consumed yoghurt (Figure A). However, milk puddings
were most popular in the 75+ years group (males 22 percent, females 20 percent).
The most popular cheeses were colby/mild/tasty (65 percent overall). All cheeses, with the exception
of cottage or ricotta and cream cheese were more likely to be eaten by males and females living in
NZDep96 quartile I areas. Standard milk was more likely to be consumed by males and females
living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas compared with males and females living in quartile I areas.
The reverse is true for trim milk. Yoghurt and ice cream were more likely to be eaten by males living
in NZDep96 quartile I areas. In contrast the consumption of hot beverage made with milk was greater
in individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles III and IV areas.
Among NZ Måori and Pacific people, compared with NZ European & Others, standard milk was
more popular (Figure B) and the reverse was true for trim milk. Pacific people were also less
frequent consumers of colby/mild/tasty and edam/gouda cheeses and more frequent consumers of
hot beverage made with milk, than other ethnic groups.
Compared with metropolitan males, provincial males were less frequent consumers of yoghurt,
mozzarella/feta/camembert cheese and all drinks of milk. Ice cream and colby/mild/tasty cheeses were
eaten more often by people in provincial communities.
Figure A
Figure B
Yoghurt consumed (≥1/week)
50%
male
female
Usually chose standard milk
90%
80%
Population
40%
30%
20%
10%
70%
60%
50%
Age group (years)
0
NZ Maori
Pacific people
10
+
75
–7
4
65
4
–6
45
–4
4
25
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0%
0
NZ population
male
female
NZ European
& Others
Ethnic group
Frequently Eaten Foods
127
E2
Bread and Cereal Foods
Tables E2.1, E2.2
Only 18 percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline
of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day with the percentage declining with increasing
age, particularly for males (Figure A). Males were more likely to meet the guideline (28 percent)
than females (9 percent).
The amount of bread consumed was higher among males than females. Males were also more
likely to consume a larger number of servings of cereals with 18 percent of males consuming ≥10
servings of cereals per week compared with 13 percent of females.
Males 15–18 years (47 percent) were most likely to consume at least five servings of bread per day,
with more older males having 3-4 servings per day compared to younger males. In females, the
number of servings of bread per day was not related to age, although the 65+ years group more
frequently had 3–4 servings per day. A higher proportion of younger males and females consumed
10 or more servings of cereal foods per week.
While a higher proportion of people living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas consumed five or more
servings of bread per day, the proportion consuming 10 or more servings of cereals per week was
less.
Pacific people and NZ Måori females were more frequent consumers of five or more servings of
bread per day than NZ European & Others. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely to
consume less than four servings of cereal foods per week than NZ European & Others. Among
females, more NZ Måori and Pacific people (20 percent, 14 percent respectively) met the breads
and cereals guideline than NZ European & Others (7 percent).
Fifty percent of New Zealanders spread butter and 47 percent polyunsaturated margarines (e.g. Miracle
Sunflower) on their bread/crackers. Overall, the percentage using butter or margarine on bread/
crackers was lower among younger people. More common spreads used by NZ Måori and Pacific
people were butter and butter & margarine blend compared to NZ European & Others. Provincial
males were more likely to have used butter than metropolitan males (56 percent, 51 percent
respectively) and less likely to have used polyunsaturated margarines (43 percent, 50 percent) as
spreads.
Figure A
Figure B
Met breads and cereals guideline
(6+ servings/day)
50%
20%
10%
30%
20%
Age group (years)
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
75
+
74
65
–
64
45
–
25
–4
4
0%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
40%
10%
0%
128
50%
NZ population
30%
male
female
60%
male
female
40%
NZ population
Cooked porridge consumed (≥1/week)
A higher proportion of young people consumed pasta, specialty breads, waffles/donuts, fruit/iced buns,
rice and Måori bread than older people while savoury biscuits/crackers and cooked porridge were more
popular among older New Zealanders (Figure B).
About 8 percent of NZ Måori (males 10 percent, females 7 percent) and 5 percent of Pacific people
(males 6 percent, females 4 percent) consumed Måori bread compared with virtually no NZ European
& Others. NZ Måori were less likely to consume savoury biscuits/crackers, pasta (females only) and
rice, but more likely to have had rewena bread, Måori bread, frybread and cooked porridge than NZ
European & Others. A higher proportion of Pacific people consumed rice than the other two ethnic
groups.
In metropolitan areas, rice, pasta and specialty breads were consumed more frequently than in
provincial areas, although cooked porridge consumption was more frequent in provincial
communities.
Females from NZDep96 quartile I areas were higher consumers of rice, pasta, savoury biscuits/crackers
and specialty breads than females living in quartile IV areas.
Frequently Eaten Foods
129
E3
Meat and Fish
Tables E3.1, E3.2
The most common types of meat consumed at least once a week by New Zealanders were beef or
veal (males 57 percent, females 51 percent), beef mince dishes (47 percent, 43 percent), chicken (40
percent, 44 percent), beef or veal mixed dishes (38 percent, 39 percent), and bacon/ham (41 percent, 33
percent). In addition, 36 percent males and 26 percent females chose sausages (including frankfurters
and saveloys) and 34 percent females and 29 percent males consumed chicken mixed dishes. Fishbattered was chosen nearly twice as often among males (20 percent) than females (11 percent).
More younger people ate beef mince dishes, luncheon meats, chicken and chicken mixed dishes (Figure A).
A higher percentage of older females had fish (other than battered or fried) and other offal e.g.
kidneys, while males and females over 75 years were less likely to have sausages.
Males and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat hogget/mutton
(29 percent, 21 percent respectively) compared to those from quartile I areas (18 percent, 13 percent).
The same applied for females for fish-battered (16 percent, 8 percent) and hogget/mutton mixed dishes
(17 percent, 6 percent).
Items more likely to be eaten by both NZ Måori and Pacific people than by NZ European & Others
included: lamb, hogget/mutton, fish-battered, hogget/mutton mixed dishes, pork - roast/ chops/steak, corned
beef, lamb mixed dishes, shellfish and pork bones (Figure B). In addition, a higher proportion of Pacific
people consumed chicken, chicken mixed dishes, fish-canned, fish-steamed/baked/grilled/raw, fish-fried
and pork mixed dishes than the other two ethnic groups.
Figure A
Figure B
Luncheon meats consumed (≥1/week)
male
female
50%
Shellfish consumed (≥1/week)
30%
25%
Population
30%
20%
20%
15%
10%
Age group (years)
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
65
–
45
–
25
–4
74
0%
64
0%
4
5%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10%
0
NZ population
40%
130
male
female
NZ Maori
Pacific people
Ethnic group
NZ European
& Others
E4
Vegetables
Tables E4.1, E4.2, E4.3
Potato (males 95 percent, females 93 percent), carrots (81 percent, 86 percent), tomatoes (72 percent,
81 percent), lettuce (67 percent, 79 percent), onions/leeks (68 percent, 74 percent) and peas (73 percent,
64 percent) were the most common types of vegetables consumed by New Zealanders at least
once a week.
Sixty-seven percent of the population consumed at least three servings of vegetables a day, and
therefore met the New Zealand Nutrition Task Force (1991) guideline. More females (73 percent)
met the guideline than males (62 percent) and the group most likely to meet the guideline was
females 65–74 years (87 percent). Males 15–18 years (42 percent) were least likely to meet the
guideline (Figure A).
The likelihood of meeting the guideline was related to NZDep96 quartile, particularly among
females (quartile I 83 percent, quartile IV 60 percent).
NZ European & Others were most likely (males 65 percent, females 76 percent) and Pacific people
least likely (males 27 percent, females 42 percent) to have three or more servings of vegetables per
day.
The only vegetables eaten at least once per week more often by males than females were peas
(males 73 percent, females 64 percent), hot chips (54 percent, 42 percent) and mixed frozen vegetables
(54 percent, 40 percent). Thirteen other vegetables, including tomatoes, cauliflower and asparagus,
were eaten more frequently by females.
Males and females 15–24 years more often consumed mixed frozen vegetables, mushrooms and hot
chips (Figure B). Older people more often ate potato, carrots, tomatoes, onions/leeks, cauliflower, pumpkin,
green beans, silverbeet/spinach, courgettes (males only), kumara, beetroot, celery, brussels sprouts, asparagus,
parsnip and turnips/swedes.
Compared to New Zealanders living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas a greater proportion of New
Zealanders in quartile I areas ate carrots, sweetcorn (females only), mushrooms, peas (males only),
tomatoes, sprouts (females only), broccoli, courgettes, capsicum, lettuce, cauliflower (females only), celery,
asparagus, and cucumber.
Figure A
Figure B
Met vegetables guideline (3+ servings/day)
Hot chips consumed (≥1/week)
90%
80%
male
female
80%
50%
NZ population
male
female
60%
40%
20%
40%
Age group (years)
10
0
+
75
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
+
75
74
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0%
0
NZ population
60%
70%
Age group (years)
Frequently Eaten Foods
131
There was a higher proportion consuming mixed frozen vegetables among females living in NZDep96
quartile IV areas, compared with quartile I areas.
NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have consumed carrots, tomatoes, lettuce,
onions/leeks, cauliflower, broccoli and green beans, and more likely to have eaten mixed frozen vegetables
and hot chips (females only). Watercress, kamo kamo, and puha were almost exclusively consumed
among NZ Måori and to a lesser extent among Pacific people. The latter were the most likely to
consume taro, green bananas and taro leaf.
Provincial people showed a higher frequency of consumption of potato, hot chips (females only),
pumpkin, kumara, peas, silverbeet/spinach, carrots (females only), cabbage/coleslaw, beetroot, turnips/
swedes, parsnip, cauliflower, brussels sprouts and yams. Mushrooms, capsicum and other green leafy
vegetables were more often eaten by individuals living in metropolitan areas.
132
NZ Food: NZ People
E5
Fruits
Table E5
Forty-six percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline
of at least two servings of fruit per day. Females (56 percent) were more likely to meet the guideline
than males (34 percent), with the highest proportion in the older groups (Figure A).
Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day (34
percent, 19 percent respectively), and less likely to have at least two servings per day (34 percent,
56 percent). Numbers of servings of fruit per day increased with age in both sexes, although the
percentage of females 15–18 years having at least two servings of fruit per day was high (60 percent).
There was an increase in the proportion of males and females eating less than one serving of fruit
per day who lived in NZDep96 quartile IV areas, compared with those from quartile I areas. There
was a similar pattern for vegetable consumption.
Female NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely than NZ European & Others to consume
less than one serving of fruit per day (26 percent and 30 percent, 18 percent).
The fruit consumed most often at least once per week by the New Zealand population was bananas
(females 85 percent, males 78 percent). Other fruit consumed by more than half the population
were apples (73 percent), oranges (67 percent), and stone fruit (peach, nectarine, plum, apricot) in season
(56 percent). Almost all fruits were consumed more frequently by females except for fruit canned in
syrup. Older groups (65+ years) reported a higher frequency of choice of stewed fruit, bananas and
stone fruit (males only) at least once per week.
Individuals from NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely than individuals living in quartile IV
areas to consume grapes, kiwifruit, stone fruit, apples, bananas, berry fruits (strawberries and other berries
or cherries), sultanas and other dried fruit.
While most fruits were eaten equally often among all ethnic groups, Pacific people more often
chose pears and oranges than other ethnic groups. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were less
likely to choose kiwifruit, stewed fruit and other dried fruits than NZ European & Others (Figure B).
The only differences in fruit choice between metropolitan and provincial residents, were the more
frequent consumption of fruit canned in syrup and stewed fruit in provincial areas.
Figure A
Figure B
Met fruit guideline (2+ servings/day)
Kiwifruit consumed (≥1/week)
80%
50%
70%
50%
male
female
40%
30%
Population
40%
60%
30%
20%
10%
Age group (years)
10
0
74
75
+
65
–
64
45
–
44
25
–
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0%
0
NZ population
male
female
NZ Maori
Pacific people
NZ European
& Others
Ethnic group
Frequently Eaten Foods
133
E6
Beverages
Table E6
Non-alcoholic
Water (80 percent), tea (62 percent) and coffee (61 percent) were consumed regularly (at least three
times per week) by the greatest numbers of New Zealanders. Males were more frequent regular
consumers than females of coffee (64 percent, 58 percent respectively), carbonated drinks (30 percent,
18 percent), cordial (7 percent, 4 percent), powdered drinks (23 percent, 18 percent) and sports drinks
(5 percent, 2 percent); whereas for females it was diet carbonated drinks (10 percent, 7 percent), water
(85 percent, 74 percent), herbal tea (11 percent, 4 percent) and tea (65 percent, 58 percent).
Males 19–24 years were the most frequent consumers of sports drinks (20 percent). Apart from tea,
coffee, diet carbonated drinks and herbal tea, younger groups more frequently consumed non-alcoholic
drinks than older groups.
Tea was less regularly consumed by the 15–24 years group (males 25 percent and 26 percent,
females 40 percent and 47 percent), but more frequently consumed by the 75+ years group (males
89 percent, females 86 percent) (Figure A). The highest frequency of consumption of herbal tea was
among females 19–64 years (10 percent – 13 percent).
Powdered drinks and cordial were more regularly consumed by individuals living in NZDep96
quartile IV areas but fruit juice, tea (males only), water (females only) and coffee were more popular
among individuals living in quartile I and II areas.
Compared to the other two ethnic groups, Pacific people were higher regular consumers of fruit
drinks and sports drinks, while NZ Måori more often had cordial and carbonated drinks. Fewer NZ
Måori and Pacific people drank coffee, tea and herbal tea than NZ European & Others.
Alcoholic
More males than females chose beer (51 percent, 10 percent respectively) and spirits/liqueurs (21
percent, 16 percent). White wine was the more popular drink among females (23 percent, 13 percent).
Consumption (at least once per week) of beer among females 45+ years was uncommon (≤ 5 percent).
Red wine consumption was highest among males 25–74 years (15 percent to 17 percent) and females
Figure A
Figure B
Tea consumed (≥3/week)
male
female
100%
White wine consumed (≥1/week)
30%
25%
Population
60%
40%
20%
15%
10%
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
65
25
–
Age group (years)
–7
4
0%
45
–6
4
0%
44
5%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
20%
0
NZ population
80%
134
male
female
NZ Maori
Pacific people
Ethnic group
NZ European
& Others
19–64 years (14 percent to 17 percent). Females 19–74 years (19 percent to 29 percent) and males
45–74 years (17 percent to 25 percent) had the highest white wine consumption on at least a weekly
basis.
The frequency of consumption of beer at least once a week was lowest among Pacific people
compared to the other two ethnic groups.
Red wine and white wine consumption, although common among NZ European & Others (15 percent
to 25 percent at least once per week), was very rare among NZ Måori (3 percent to 8 percent) and
Pacific people (1 percent to 4 percent) (Figure B). Compared with NZ European & Others the
choice of spirits/liqueurs was lower among NZ Måori and Pacific people except for NZ Måori males
15–24 years who had the highest frequency of intake of all groups (27 percent).
Provincial males were less likely than metropolitan males to consume red wine and white wine at
least once per week.
Frequently Eaten Foods
135
E7
Miscellaneous Foods
Tables E7.1, E7.2
Of New Zealanders who ate eggs, almost a quarter consumed at least four eggs per week (males 33
percent, females 16 percent) and about a third ate one or less per week (26 percent, 36 percent).
This did not include eggs used in baking. The proportion consuming at least four per week changed
with NZDep96 quartile areas for both males (quartile I 20 percent, quartile IV 43 percent), and
females (quartile I 10 percent, quartile IV 25 percent). NZ Måori males (59 percent) and females
(34 percent) were about twice as likely to have eaten at least four per week than NZ European &
Others (males 28 percent, females 13 percent).
Sweet spreads (jam, honey, marmalade or syrup) were the most popular ‘toppings/spreads’ (66 percent)
followed by Vegemite or Marmite (53 percent) and peanut butter (36 percent). Tomato sauce was the
most popular ‘sauces/dressings’ (48 percent) though its popularity declined among older groups
(Figure A). Both were consumed at least once per week by a higher proportion of males than
females. Sweet spreads were more popular among those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas and
among provincial rather than metropolitan residents. Sweet spreads were the most frequently used
‘toppings/spreads’ among NZ European & Others (males 72 percent, females 64 percent), NZ
Måori males (62 percent) and Pacific males (51 percent).
Plain sweet biscuits (53 percent) were the most popular of the ‘biscuits/cakes/muffins’ category.
Cream filled/chocolate biscuits were consumed by more males (44 percent) than females (37 percent).
All biscuits, cakes and muffins were eaten less by individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas
than quartile I areas. More provincial males preferred cakes/scones/pikelets than metropolitan males.
At least once per week during winter 50 percent of the New Zealand population had homemade
soup and 37 percent had canned/packet soup.
Only small proportions of the population ate sweet pies/pastries and other puddings/desserts at least
once per week. Males were twice as likely as females to consume sweet pies/pastries (14 percent, 7
percent). The consumption of sweet pies/pastries decreased with age in both sexes.
Chocolate and other confectionery were almost equally popular (35 percent, 34 percent respectively).
There was no sex difference in the frequency of consumption of other confectionery and muesli bars
but chocolate was eaten more by males than females (38 percent, 33 percent). The consumption of
other confectionery, muesli bars and chocolate all decreased with age (Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Tomato sauce consumed (≥1/week)
80%
70%
60%
60%
50%
50%
40%
male
female
70%
NZ population
NZ population
Chocolate consumed (≥1/week)
male
female
40%
30%
30%
20%
20%
10%
Age group (years)
136
NZ Food: NZ People
Age group (years)
10
0
75
+
65
–7
4
4
45
–6
25
–4
4
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
75
+
65
–7
4
4
45
–6
25
–4
4
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
Takeaway style foods (meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger, pizza) were more frequently consumed by
males than females. The percentage consuming meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger and pizza at least
once per week was highest in those 15–24 years and decreased with age. NZ Måori and Pacific
people were more likely to have eaten meat pies/sausage rolls and hamburger than NZ European &
Others. Meat pies/sausage rolls were consumed by a greater proportion of individuals from NZDep96
quartile IV areas (males 46 percent, females 21 percent) compared with quartile I areas (33 percent,
10 percent).
More males than females ate potato crisps (38 percent, 33 percent). There was a marked decrease
with age in the percentage of the population consuming potato crisps while older people were
more likely to consume nuts. Among females, NZ European & Others (32 percent) were less likely
to consume potato crisps than NZ Måori (40 percent) or Pacific people (45 percent).
Coconut cream was only used by a very small proportion of the population with the exception of
Pacific people (males 38 percent, females 40 percent). There was a strong gradient across the
NZDep96 quartiles for coconut cream intake, with the lowest consumption among those living in
NZDep96 quartile I areas (1 percent) and highest in quartile IV areas (7 percent – 8 percent).
Frequently Eaten Foods
137
138
NZ Food: NZ People
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E1
Trim
25
15
24
21
25
27
20
22
30
27
24
30
34
19
27
24
24
23
18
30
27
31
20
23
20
28
24
Standard
60
85
78
72
57
40
51
66
59
57
60
47
41
44
54
61
61
66
77
42
52
57
66
65
69
51
59
Milks chosen
most often (%)
Milk type
39
34
32
33
37
31
37
43
28
34
34
35
21
16
22
20
18
14
19
27
17
19
22
26
18
13
8
6
19
12
13
20
4
8
9
9
41
46
31
34
49
44
39
39
32
31
31
36
28
24
42
41
30
28
24
24
48
43
38
38
18
18
19
18
21
16
17
17
19
21
16
17
15
17
15
15
14
14
18
17
17
12
15
16
6
6
6
8
4
5
7
8
7
6
6
8
17
14
23
23
21
17
15
9
31
23
21
16
3
1
8
8
2
4
1
3
9
8
9
6
5
2
8
4
7
3
2
5
10
6
5
5
5
4
5
5
6
5
3
4
7
6
3
4
3
3
4
3
2
3
6
2
4
4
3
3
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 10 – 11.
65
69
63
68
73
68
61
61
67
64
65
61
Drinks of milk
Other dairy foods
Cheeses
Hot
Brie, blue,
beverage
Cream/ Custard/
Colby,
Cottage Mozzarella,
& other
Milk as a made with Flavoured
sour
dairy
Milk
mild, Edam/
or
feta,
specialty Cream
beverage
milk
milk
Ice cream Yoghurt cream
food
puddings tasty gouda ricotta camembert cheeses cheese
35
20
11
38
35
18
15
6
65
20
5
5
5
3
63
37
42
57
33
11
25
8
52
13
2
7
2
2
50
30
37
35
30
18
19
7
70
19
6
8
4
7
40
20
15
40
29
17
16
4
66
17
2
4
5
3
28
14
8
46
24
20
11
4
66
16
1
3
6
2
25
11
3
48
22
21
12
9
72
10
1
3
6
3
18
14
5
37
9
32
20
22
65
11
1
1
4
2
37
19
16
43
27
18
16
6
66
16
2
4
5
3
51
25
21
48
47
23
39
4
67
19
3
3
0
5
45
25
13
31
44
21
19
5
59
24
8
9
5
1
35
20
8
28
42
17
11
4
65
25
9
8
5
4
23
19
2
29
42
18
8
6
61
25
8
7
5
3
26
20
4
35
42
11
18
15
71
20
8
3
6
2
30
28
2
41
32
27
29
20
71
11
5
2
9
6
32
21
8
32
42
18
15
7
64
24
8
6
5
4
DAIRY FOODS
Percent consuming at least once per week.
Frequently Eaten Foods
139
14
10
20
13
11
18
13
15
17*
14
15*
15
14*
27
29*
24
22
23
25
24
33
25
31
29
92
82
73
83
75
73
85
77
85*
95
69*
86
67*
75
80*
73
78
69
51
63
53
57
41
50
Standard Trim
Milks chosen
most often (%)
Milk type
55
39
27
36
47
33
24
31
61*
30
36*
40
49*
43
22*
40
51
48
22
43
48
40
34
41
29
20
14
18
20
18
20
19
31*
29
35*
31
44*
35
26*
35
50
17
11
26
36
26
37
30
37
14
7
15
12
7
3
6
33*
13
15*
19
14*
11
8*
11
50
23
1
26
37
11
2
16
42
42
46
44
32
29
32
30
36*
46
49*
44
63*
44
33*
47
57
32
35
40
54
26
31
36
33
31
22
27
46
46
41
44
14*
9
37*
17
46*
26
34*
34
28
30
11
24
43
25
24
29
15
16
20
17
24
18
18
19
14*
4
13*
9
15*
12
6*
12
19
21
35
24
17
12
17
15
19
16
12
15
26
10
14
14
34*
14
23*
22
28*
20
11*
20
24
21
7
19
29
14
16
19
6
2
7
5
3
4
10
6
9*
2
25*
9
14*
8
6*
10
12
15
5
12
8
6
17
9
20
20
15
18
26
28
22
25
4*
1
3*
2
8*
9
12*
10
8
6
8
7
13
13
15
13
5
2
1
2
6
10
8
9
0*
6
0*
3
3*
3
11*
5
2
4
2
3
7
5
4
5
7
5
3
5
8
9
5
7
3*
0
0*
1
3*
0
8*
3
11
1
1
4
2
3
2
3
3
6
6
5
4
6
6
6
3*
0
0*
1
1*
1
9*
3
4
1
2
2
0
1
0
1
6
3
2
3
2
5
4
4
5*
2
1*
3
4*
2
8*
4
4
5
1
3
4
3
1
3
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 10 – 11.
69
71
69
70
64
67
66
66
20*
25
33*
25
44*
34
46*
39
53
54
59
55
60
57
59
58
Drinks of milk
Other dairy foods
Cheeses
Hot
Brie, blue,
beverage
Cream/ Custard/
Colby,
Cottage Mozzarella,
& other
Milk as a made with Flavoured
sour
dairy
Milk
mild, Edam/
or
feta,
specialty Cream
beverage
milk
milk
Ice cream Yoghurt cream
food
puddings tasty gouda ricotta camembert cheeses cheese
DAIRY FOODS
Percent consuming at least once per week.
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E1 cont.
140
NZ Food: NZ People
6
5
4
3
2
1
42
44
38
36
48
44
44
41
39
42
44
45
4
3
4
5
4
7
6
7
4
2
7
6
33
40
12
12
27
34
39
42
9
11
12
17
29
34
32
36
25
32
34
34
28
29
34
41
19
15
15
11
23
15
15
19
17
14
13
8
27
32
9
10
24
25
28
36
8
9
9
12
93
96
90
91
89
93
96
94
84
88
93
89
51
56
47
48
49
59
43
50
46
50
41
45
50
43
47
47
55
41
52
48
61
43
45
47
11
11
11
12
13
12
8
10
7
10
10
9
9
6
12
11
6
8
10
8
6
12
15
13
6
6
8
8
4
4
8
6
4
8
8
7
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
5
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
5
4
2
3
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
BREADS AND CEREALS I
% using
Type of butter/margarine used on bread/crackers (%) 2
Cereals Breads & butter on
Butter &
Reduced
Bread Bread Bread Cereals
≥10
cereals
bread/
Polyunsat. margarine Praise/ Low salt Unsalted
fat
<1/day 3–4/day ≥5/day <4/week 3 /week 3 6+/day 4 crackers 5 Butter margarines 6 blend
Olivio margarine butter margarine Other
5
42
23
31
16
18
92
50
47
11
10
7
2
2
0
6
25
47
28
28
39
86
52
49
20
8
6
3
2
1
6
38
40
24
30
33
92
54
53
11
6
4
2
0
3
5
40
35
32
21
29
94
60
41
12
7
5
2
2
0
2
41
34
36
12
26
96
46
53
7
9
9
1
1
0
1
44
33
27
5
22
96
39
50
11
12
4
1
1
0
0
62
15
19
6
15
98
43
51
7
8
12
2
1
0
4
40
35
31
18
28
94
52
48
11
8
6
1
1
1
5
44
15
41
17
12
84
50
58
6
2
6
2
4
0
7
45
13
34
17
8
87
51
53
10
6
8
7
5
0
8
40
13
28
20
10
89
51
46
12
11
8
3
4
0
6
44
10
37
7
8
91
45
44
11
14
8
1
1
0
2
57
10
38
2
6
93
35
45
10
16
9
1
4
0
2
56
13
26
6
8
98
39
49
12
11
7
0
0
1
6
44
12
33
13
9
90
47
47
11
11
8
2
3
0
Frequency of servings 1
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 4, 6 and 13.
Percent of population consuming specified number of servings. ‘< 1/day’ and ‘< 4/week’ includes those who do not eat breads/cereals.
Percent of those who use butter/margarine. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
Servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal.
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
Includes people who use butter and/or margarine products on bread and/or crackers.
For example, ‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E2.1
Frequently Eaten Foods
141
38
32
46
37
35
45
42
41
26*
39
34*
34
49*
32
42*
39
32
41
44
41
46
40
49
45
5
4
2
4
7
8
6
7
0*
9
3*
6
2*
9
18*
9
7
4
2
4
6
8
4
6
42
34
32
35
9
11
9
10
52*
28
31*
36
30*
17
13*
20
42
44
26
39
32
23
22
25
24
27
32
29
32
27
34
31
26*
49
49*
43
50*
29
38*
37
30
52
42
42
50
33
50
42
29
23
11
19
18
20
5
14
16*
3
8*
8
21*
17
18*
19
28
12
1
15
11
15
2
10
36
29
25
28
6
8
6
7
38*
27
28*
30
12*
16
10*
14
35
35
20
31
25
19
13
20
89
93
96
94
84
88
93
89
96*
95
100*
97
99*
95
97*
96
89
97
98
95
87
97
93
94
49
59
43
50
46
50
41
45
59*
69
63*
65
63*
49
48*
53
71
65
57
65
63
61
53
60
55
41
52
48
61
43
45
47
37*
47
46*
44
34*
56
61*
51
42
42
56
46
41
56
41
48
13
12
8
10
7
10
10
9
20*
18
9*
17
23*
24
18*
22
18
13
11
14
10
20
25
19
6
8
10
8
6
12
15
13
13*
3
4*
6
2*
6
3*
4
8
2
11
6
2
8
8
6
4
4
8
6
4
8
8
7
7*
24
8*
16
17*
13
3*
12
7
3
6
5
15
6
6
8
1
2
1
1
5
3
1
2
10*
3
0*
4
1*
1
1*
1
4
1
0
2
7
1
0
2
1
2
1
1
5
4
2
3
4*
0
15*
5
3*
1
0*
1
0
2
5
2
2
3
3
3
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
0*
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
BREADS AND CEREALS I
% using
Type of butter/margarine used on bread/crackers (%) 2
Cereals Breads & butter on
Butter &
Reduced
Bread Bread Bread Cereals
≥10
cereals
bread/
Polyunsat. margarine Praise/ Low salt Unsalted
fat
<1/day 3–4/day ≥5/day <4/week 3 /week 3 6+/day 4 crackers 5 Butter margarines 6 blend
Olivio margarine butter margarine Other
Frequency of servings 1
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 4, 6 and 13.
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percent of population consuming specified number of servings. ‘< 1/day’ and ‘< 4/week’ includes those who do not eat breads/cereals.
2
Percent of those who use butter/margarine. As multiple answers were possible, percentage totals may exceed 100.
3
Servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal.
4
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
5
Includes people who use butter and/or margarine products on bread and/or crackers.
6
For example, ‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E2.1 cont.
142
NZ Food: NZ People
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E2.2
Pasta
54
64
73
61
39
28
24
52
73
71
69
45
23
25
57
58
56
45
49
64
61
51
45
54
46
58
50
Breakfast
cereal
60
70
65
60
59
60
52
60
60
52
60
60
61
66
60
63
60
56
62
62
64
60
53
61
61
59
62
45
43
58
55
54
46
41
37
65
58
55
48
Savoury
biscuits/
crackers
51
41
34
41
50
60
55
45
57
42
54
64
64
67
57
51
33
53
39
52
45
41
45
54
53
47
41
Rice
48
46
55
53
42
26
28
46
40
59
60
43
30
26
49
23
26
19
24
26
25
20
25
19
17
20
23
10
7
14
7
9
9
11
6
15
14
10
7
10
9
6
5
8
12
6
13
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
4
6
5
6
7
5
3
5
4
2
1
1
1
0
0
1
5
0
0
1
4
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
3
Rewena
bread
1
3
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
2
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
1
Frybread
1
3
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 12.
4
2
2
2
3
2
3
4
1
2
2
4
BREADS AND CEREALS II
Percent consuming at least once per week
Crumpets Waffles
Cooked Specialty Fruit or
or
or
Maori
porridge breads iced buns croissants doughnuts bread
23
10
7
5
3
1
13
6
17
10
9
6
8
16
16
8
5
1
23
11
7
7
3
2
28
6
9
4
3
1
39
3
11
4
1
1
52
3
7
3
1
0
24
9
10
6
3
2
7
16
13
7
5
1
10
13
1
6
5
2
19
15
5
4
2
1
22
8
5
4
1
0
30
4
6
2
2
2
39
4
9
3
1
1
20
11
6
4
2
1
Frequently Eaten Foods
143
70
62
36
52
76
73
38
58
66*
48
32*
49
66*
52
29*
51
46*
42
29*
40
68*
51
58*
58
67
62
59
61
55
61
61
61
65
55
24
51
53
51
20
44
Pasta
72
54
52
59
53
61
63
59
Breakfast
cereal
41
43
54
48
52
57
66
60
41*
39
56*
43
28*
56
63*
50
20
24
36
26
37
36
35
36
Savoury
biscuits/
crackers
49
55
37
46
53
62
38
49
77*
62
61*
67
74*
78
59*
72
57
32
25
38
37
44
26
38
Rice
8
21
32
24
6
15
25
18
9*
33
51*
31
18*
36
45*
33
19
30
42
29
16
29
49
29
14
12
5
9
16
17
6
12
3*
9
18*
9
17*
10
1*
10
7
8
5
8
7
8
7
7
19
6
10
11
6
5
6
5
12*
8
17*
11
17*
17
22*
19
10
8
3
7
7
4
8
6
11
7
4
6
6
4
3
4
0*
0
15*
3
13*
8
19*
12
3
6
0
4
5
7
2
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4*
4
12*
6
6*
1
6*
4
13
10
7
10
7
6
7
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
1
2*
1
0*
2
0*
1
7
4
2
5
3
5
13
6
Rewena
bread
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
2*
1
0*
1
6
8
5
6
1
4
8
4
Frybread
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 12.
7
2
2
3
4
2
1
2
7*
9
13*
9
21*
11
10*
14
7
4
1
4
7
1
4
3
BREADS AND CEREALS II
Percent consuming at least once per week
Crumpets Waffles
Cooked Specialty Fruit or
or
or
Maori
porridge breads iced buns croissants doughnuts bread
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E2.2 cont.
144
NZ Food: NZ People
1
Beef
mince
dishes
45
39
55
51
44
41
34
47
37
40
52
40
36
26
43
48
46
50
45
43
45
43
43
47
47
42
47
Beef/
veal
54
59
58
57
60
58
44
57
53
48
52
53
49
45
51
62
52
56
59
55
52
50
46
54
66
50
54
Includes frankfurters and saveloys.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E3.1
42
34
47
39
39
41
38
42
47
45
44
41
36
42
37
42
42
39
34
36
41
42
37
36
40
44
32
37
41
40
43
41
37
36
32
30
33
20
38
25
32
28
30
28
37
35
32
32
33
43
24
31
34
33
37
39
25
24
29
27
27
27
20
18
27
26
31
28
19
19
16
22
Beef/veal
Chicken
mixed Bacon/ mixed
Luncheon
Chicken
dishes
ham
dishes Sausages 1 meats
42
38
38
32
31
23
41
39
39
30
37
40
52
38
45
37
47
32
44
39
43
36
36
35
34
39
43
24
33
18
25
31
28
14
34
18
28
30
37
13
23
7
40
38
41
29
36
27
58
36
33
34
27
22
53
34
42
41
26
26
47
42
36
41
33
25
40
42
30
30
20
13
35
34
27
19
21
10
32
30
28
21
12
6
44
39
33
34
26
19
22
21
19
18
20
15
21
30
19
16
18
24
Lamb
20
25
26
19
23
18
28
22
21
25
16
19
20
21
19
13
14
18
15
11
13
18
15
18
18
14
17
19
23
10
13
16
19
23
24
8
9
12
16
13
8
17
12
11
8
12
14
16
14
12
20
13
19
9
14
10
12
19
18
6
9
12
17
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16.
19
32
14
21
18
19
28
29
13
16
16
21
FishHogget/
steamed/ mutton
Hogget/ FishFishbaked/
mixed
mutton canned battered grilled/raw dishes
20
15
15
13
12
22
9
20
8
13
28
11
31
7
16
22
16
23
12
14
22
13
16
11
13
25
15
10
16
20
19
11
13
15
10
23
14
20
11
14
19
5
12
9
8
14
15
12
13
8
13
21
12
15
10
20
16
9
16
11
17
20
9
22
14
21
13
15
21
15
16
16
11
15
10
MEAT AND FISH I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Frequently Eaten Foods
145
41
57
34
46
50
46
49
47
30*
35
29*
32
31*
37
35*
34
52
51
44
48
37
54
36
43
58
59
60
59
54
47
47
49
52*
67
52*
59
57*
50
51*
52
59
55
58
57
49
53
51
51
Beef/
veal
Beef
mince
dishes
47
45
31
39
54
45
38
43
44*
50
59*
51
57*
60
64*
60
48
38
38
42
59
53
29
48
39
40
37
38
37
43
38
39
29*
36
40*
35
23*
34
43*
33
43
34
22
34
33
39
37
37
44
44
40
42
42
38
29
34
25*
26
35*
28
36*
26
19*
27
42
40
32
39
28
29
26
28
33
37
20
29
36
41
27
34
36*
35
48*
38
56*
41
40*
45
39
26
24
29
39
41
18
35
47
36
32
36
26
33
18
25
8*
23
40*
23
22*
35
33*
30
35
40
33
37
31
37
22
32
35
36
17
27
24
25
11
19
10*
27
23*
22
27*
19
8*
19
44
29
16
31
24
31
19
26
22
16
21
19
22
13
19
17
43*
47
64*
50
52*
40
47*
45
35
29
25
30
21
25
23
24
Lamb
11
14
13
13
11
20
15
16
13*
39
41*
32
21*
27
40*
28
7
19
12
14
7
16
13
14
26
20
13
18
9
11
10
10
17*
35
20*
27
14*
14
17*
15
30
38
24
33
22
18
8
18
6
11
12
10
9
12
18
14
20*
34
39*
32
32*
40
32*
36
10
12
17
13
13
20
19
17
14
12
13
13
4
7
11
9
11*
33
39*
28
28*
27
12*
24
20
22
28
23
17
19
26
20
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16.
25
19
21
21
14
11
18
15
9*
40
47*
33
39*
26
18*
28
31
39
33
35
19
24
35
25
FishHogget/
steamed/ mutton
Hogget/ FishFishbaked/
mixed
mutton canned battered grilled/raw dishes
MEAT AND FISH I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Beef/veal
Chicken
mixed Bacon/ mixed
Luncheon
Chicken
dishes
ham
dishes Sausages 1 meats
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Includes frankfurters and saveloys.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table E3.1 cont.
146
NZ Food: NZ People
1
9
10
12
18
7
9
10
11
13
10
10
7
11
14
14
16
11
10
7
15
14
14
11
11
Pork-roast/
Fishchops/
fried
steak
12
10
16
12
19
13
13
14
12
10
11
9
19
7
14
12
14
7
12
9
10
11
8
8
16
6
13
10
11
9
Shell fish (e.g. mussels, oysters, paua, kina, pipis).
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E3.2
10
11
7
11
6
9
9
16
3
7
10
14
Corned
beef
9
9
10
9
12
9
11
10
10
9
8
10
7
7
8
10
6
9
5
8
6
10
13
7
6
9
10
Pork
mixed
dishes
9
13
10
11
7
4
8
9
8
8
9
8
7
6
8
8
8
9
10
7
4
12
12
8
7
9
14
Lamb
mixed
dishes
9
8
11
10
6
7
6
8
11
13
9
8
7
9
9
7
7
5
6
4
5
10
10
3
4
3
10
Shellfish 1
6
5
7
9
7
2
3
7
2
11
6
4
3
2
5
3
2
3
2
1
1
3
7
0
2
1
7
Pork
bones
3
4
1
4
2
0
2
3
3
5
3
2
1
0
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
3
2
2
2
1
3
Liver/
pate
2
4
3
2
1
2
3
2
0
1
2
2
5
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
5
3
1
1
4
Other
seafood
e.g.
prawns
2
3
2
3
1
0
2
2
2
6
2
2
0
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
Other
offal
e.g.
Turkey/
kidneys Venison duck
1
1
0
0
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
4
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
2
1
0
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
Mutton
bird
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Eel
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16.
MEAT AND FISH II
Percent consuming at least once per week
Frequently Eaten Foods
147
7
21
12
15
21
14
8
14
12*
29
25*
23
26*
27
8*
22
14
13
9
11
4
9
8
8
16
15
26
18
22
12
6
14
12*
21
26*
20
23*
25
12*
22
18
12
12
13
9
9
11
10
Pork-roast/
Fishchops/
fried
steak
7
7
9
8
5
5
8
6
38*
38
48*
40
37*
26
36*
31
10
17
24
17
17
16
16
16
Corned
beef
13
11
6
9
5
8
7
7
5*
10
32*
14
39*
13
2*
18
7
14
9
10
11
10
10
10
Pork
mixed
dishes
11
7
6
7
11
7
7
8
12*
30
41*
27
28*
28
43*
31
8
20
3
12
14
14
16
14
Lamb
mixed
dishes
5
7
4
5
4
4
2
3
6*
34
35*
26
29*
13
28*
21
11
12
26
15
11
15
14
14
Shellfish 1
1
2
1
1
0
1
1
1
0*
15
29*
14
15*
8
7*
10
5
14
8
10
18
11
12
13
Pork
bones
4
3
2
2
1
2
3
2
0*
2
2*
2
2*
1
6*
3
0
2
1
1
0
2
4
2
Liver/
pate
3
2
1
2
4
1
0
1
3*
13
19*
12
8*
14
11*
11
0
5
3
3
6
4
2
4
Other
seafood
e.g.
prawns
MEAT AND FISH II
Percent consuming at least once per week
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Shell fish (e.g. mussels, oysters, paua, kina, pipis).
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table E3.2 cont.
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
0*
0
1
2
0
1
0
1
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
2
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0*
0
8*
2
0*
1
0*
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
Mutton
bird
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2*
0
0*
1
3*
0
0*
1
2
2
1
2
0
1
0
0
Eel
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 16.
2
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0*
2
0*
1
0*
2
0*
1
0
1
3
1
1
1
5
2
Other
offal
e.g.
Turkey/
kidneys Venison duck
148
NZ Food: NZ People
4
3
2
1
67
42
53
59
72
74
71
62
68
59
71
78
87
77
73
66
66
60
54
83
78
69
60
58
72
70
80
12
24
21
16
13
7
9
15
13
15
10
8
5
6
9
12
12
17
19
4
7
11
16
17
11
10
7
95
93
98
92
97
96
98
95
91
95
92
94
93
90
87
94
98
99
97
95
96
89
90
97
99
97
93
83
80
82
84
89
88
83
78
72
91
87
84
80
75
75
78
84
89
93
81
79
76
86
89
92
90
86
77
72
72
81
80
77
74
72
66
88
81
79
74
60
60
71
77
87
77
72
64
71
81
85
90
86
81
73
65
73
79
79
73
72
64
58
84
82
78
71
70
63
63
71
83
64
67
80
76
77
83
87
68
79
71
68
68
75
72
67
71
69
66
75
80
70
69
44
59
70
71
80
74
68
47
64
77
77
81
78
74
69
80
62
68
76
76
73
65
65
62
64
66
65
66
73
80
67
70
73
63
62
65
66
62
58
64
68
58
66
58
67
60
58
61
62
62
62
59
58
59
56
55
67
68
57
60
58
50
60
67
63
58
61
61
53
60
61
66
60
51
58
52
69
60
59
59
38
53
50
67
63
66
55
68
55
57
69
66
71
62
59
54
54
65
65
63
51
53
45
75
66
62
54
37
54
53
61
55
38
54
57
64
65
67
68
58
65
59
46
55
53
61
50
51
44
49
55
56
54
57
28
35
43
63
66
60
49
42
47
49
64
68
66
55
52
53
55
40
45
53
55
57
53
42
41
43
40
75
75
61
45
24
19
54
63
55
49
32
21
15
42
47
54
57
40
39
54
52
54
55
33
37
41
50
61
65
60
47
32
43
54
56
57
41
33
24
30
40
47
44
49
45
48
48
46
47
42
51
46
42
45
34
39
41
51
67
52
45
41
25
40
54
73
60
47
46
Mixed
Cabbage/ CauliHot
frozen Green
Peas coleslaw flower Broccoli Pumpkin chips 4 vegetables beans
VEGETABLES I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Vegetables Vegetables
Onions/
≤ 1/day ≥ 3/day 2 Potato 3 Carrots Tomatoes Lettuce leeks
Servings 1
Percent of people eating these numbers of servings of vegetables per day (‘≤ 1’ includes
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 3 and 20.
those who don’t eat vegetables). Serving = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1/2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup salad vegetables.
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
Potato: boiled, mashed, baked or roasted.
Hot potato chips or kumara chips/ french fries/ wedges.
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males 15–18
Table E4.1
Frequently Eaten Foods
149
Servings1
11*
28
42*
27
43*
39
47*
42
52
61
74
65
67
74
82
76
54*
43
25*
41
34*
20
38*
28
20
14
10
13
10
8
6
7
91
94
98
96
93
91
98
94
49*
87
77*
74
84*
80
95*
86
87
99
97
95
89
90
94
91
83
79
88
84
79
88
90
88
47*
61
90*
64
76*
83
67*
77
54
75
65
66
70
77
89
78
63
73
80
74
72
82
87
83
52*
56
74*
58
72*
86
64*
77
50
63
66
59
53
70
82
68
66
65
72
68
82
80
82
81
69*
60
86*
68
84*
75
78*
79
65
52
61
59
61
59
81
65
55
71
73
69
57
80
78
75
47*
64
74*
62
71*
68
71*
70
42
68
74
61
52
66
76
64
72
72
77
75
63
64
63
63
21*
54
65*
47
46*
51
42*
47
52
80
70
70
65
73
70
70
60
54
66
59
53
58
64
60
46*
58
79*
60
61*
65
71*
65
52
65
74
63
55
64
69
62
52
49
66
57
66
57
69
64
34*
38
67*
44
40*
49
50*
47
29
56
54
47
49
56
60
55
54
55
58
56
68
68
66
68
22*
26
53*
31
34*
45
44*
42
29
55
43
44
44
56
61
54
34
42
63
50
46
47
66
55
11*
28
74*
34
23*
43
31*
34
29
54
57
47
46
61
73
60
77
63
38
54
58
49
26
40
59*
40
50*
47
41*
45
39*
42
72
51
33
54
64
50
33
50
67
57
42
53
53
36
28
35
36*
70
53*
56
64*
63
77*
66
59
79
51
66
69
64
48
62
39
40
54
47
34
39
60
48
14*
41
44*
34
39*
47
48*
45
36
43
46
42
22
42
51
37
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 3 and 20.
1
Percent of people eating these numbers of servings of vegetables per day (‘≤ 1’ includes those who don’t eat vegetables). Serving = 1 medium potato/ kumara or 1/2 cup cooked
vegetables or 1 cup salad vegetables.
2
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
3
Potato: boiled, mashed, baked or roasted.
4
Hot potato chips or kumara chips/ french fries/ wedges.
44
56
49
50
49
63
76
62
25
17
24
21
22
14
5
14
Mixed
Cabbage/ CauliHot
frozen Green
Peas coleslaw flower Broccoli Pumpkin chips 4 vegetables beans
VEGETABLES I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Vegetables Vegetables
Onions/
≤ 1/day ≥ 3/day 2 Potato 3 Carrots Tomatoes Lettuce leeks
NZ Maori
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E4.1 cont.
150
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
VEGETABLES II
Percent consuming at least once per week
37
29
30
26
55
50
44
43
31
32
48
49
41
37
40
43
40
46
42
48
38
44
43
46
38
36
35
37
37
41
36
36
36
39
34
33
31
29
37
39
33
27
34
27
43
36
36
34
32
23
37
31
35
28
29
26
39
39
34
29
24
23
37
37
29
25
24
19
47
39
33
26
25
30
31
37
27
26
25
28
29
34
30
36
28
18
35
30
33
23
22
20
44
34
28
24
24
32
29
38
25
30
24
24
34
33
26
30
21
18
32
31
25
17
17
19
40
33
26
28
14
15
24
25
18
13
14
11
29
24
21
20
11
12
23
20
14
12
11
9
29
22
19
16
11
12
20
21
14
14
12
6
30
20
18
14
10
20
16
19
13
13
13
12
21
16
16
15
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20.
14
19
20
27
20
14
14
14
27
23
20
19
Silverbeet/
Sweet- MushBrussels
spinach Cucumber Beans 1 corn rooms Courgettes 2 Kumara Capsicum Beetroot Celery sprouts Avocado Asparagus Sprouts Parsnip
42
40
37
34
33
30
30
30
29
26
19
19
16
16
15
20
25
32
35
21
11
15
9
18
13
11
9
4
6
8
37
24
39
29
37
16
17
26
18
10
5
18
4
8
6
32
28
33
35
36
23
25
30
20
17
12
13
11
14
9
51
36
44
29
25
30
33
25
33
24
24
16
15
13
18
62
46
40
15
19
30
34
18
41
32
23
15
20
8
25
51
24
38
18
13
26
31
9
37
29
17
5
15
4
27
40
30
38
31
30
24
27
26
26
19
16
14
12
11
13
23
47
37
39
28
19
20
21
21
25
6
22
9
20
8
28
40
25
43
50
32
32
30
22
29
12
25
17
22
10
40
47
36
44
40
40
29
41
28
29
15
27
20
23
11
51
53
36
34
34
39
37
34
37
35
33
23
25
21
24
63
55
44
21
19
37
43
23
40
40
40
22
31
11
25
69
44
41
22
23
33
38
11
39
39
40
13
38
18
35
43
48
36
38
35
36
32
33
31
32
22
24
22
20
17
Beans (including baked beans), lentils.
Courgettes, zucchini, marrow, eggplant, squash.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E4.2
Frequently Eaten Foods
151
24
29
36
31
45
49
52
50
30*
22
60*
33
67*
52
64*
58
7*
36
74*
36
23*
44
55*
41
30
29
53
40
27
37
55
43
24
24
36
27
27
36
44
35
37
50
54
47
24
50
71
47
40
34
43
39
30
38
39
37
10*
39
47*
33
44*
34
18*
34
30
26
34
29
26
25
35
28
34
36
24
30
42
43
29
37
11*
20
39*
22
29*
36
25*
31
27
29
28
28
46
46
27
42
35
36
23
30
44
44
30
38
16*
32
27*
26
28*
19
23*
23
20
35
19
26
30
27
19
26
15
26
30
25
31
44
39
39
9*
7
29*
13
12*
24
15*
18
12
15
31
18
14
28
32
25
16
23
32
26
26
26
37
31
7*
32
65*
33
21*
26
37*
28
20
35
32
30
33
45
63
46
19
33
21
26
31
45
29
36
10*
19
56*
25
15*
28
32*
26
19
17
23
19
11
24
17
18
19
21
36
27
23
29
39
32
8*
9
30*
13
23*
23
6*
19
19
21
29
23
14
27
36
25
11
18
26
20
31
30
38
34
21*
19
46*
26
34*
32
45*
36
7
13
22
13
9
17
24
16
14
14
14
14
26
28
21
25
21*
4
11*
10
25*
21
26*
24
17
12
19
16
16
24
26
21
5
12
16
12
16
21
29
24
3*
5
21*
8
4*
11
17*
11
0
9
12
6
7
11
17
11
9
16
11
12
26
25
19
22
6*
3
35*
11
1*
8
8*
6
1
6
8
4
8
16
9
12
8
10
22
15
11
13
28
19
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
1*
1
1
6
9
5
4
6
15
8
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20.
9
13
24
17
11
16
36
24
0*
6
32*
10
3*
9
22*
11
2
8
12
7
6
11
23
12
Silverbeet/
Sweet- MushBrussels
spinach Cucumber Beans 1 corn rooms Courgettes 2 Kumara Capsicum Beetroot Celery sprouts Avocado Asparagus Sprouts Parsnip
VEGETABLES II
Percent consuming at least once per week
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Beans (including baked beans), lentils.
2
Courgettes, zucchini, marrow, eggplant, squash.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E4.2 cont.
152
NZ Food: NZ People
1
Such as whitloof.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E4.3
8
10
8
8
15
14
10
11
7
11
11
17
12
10
11
15
16
14
15
14
13
9
16
13
7
6
6
4
5
6
6
10
4
5
5
10
3
5
7
9
4
3
5
3
9
9
8
5
2
4
3
3
0
1
3
6
1
2
2
9
2
2
3
6
1
1
1
7
2
1
4
9
Other green
leafy
Turnips/ Green
Kamo
vegetables 1 swedes bananas Yams Watercress kamo
13
10
7
6
3
3
11
4
6
4
1
0
11
6
5
2
2
0
13
4
8
5
3
2
9
10
7
4
3
4
13
20
5
4
2
3
13
28
1
2
1
1
12
8
6
4
2
2
9
6
11
4
2
0
14
8
5
6
4
2
15
7
8
9
3
4
15
16
4
8
4
5
18
22
3
7
2
5
15
32
6
7
1
1
15
12
6
8
3
3
2
0
3
0
0
0
1
6
0
1
2
6
1
3
1
2
0
0
2
5
1
0
1
6
Taro Puha
2
2
4
0
1
1
3
2
2
3
0
1
0
1
2
2
3
1
3
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
3
2
1
3
2
2
3
3
2
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
0
1
0
3
Taro
leaf
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
2
1
1
Karengo
1
1
0
2
0
0
1
1
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
2
Pacific
Island
yams Cassava
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
Bread
fruit
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20.
Soybeans/
tofu
2
3
2
4
1
0
1
2
3
3
4
2
3
1
3
VEGETABLES III
Percent consuming at least once per week
Frequently Eaten Foods
153
6
4
15
9
9
8
21
14
0*
1
11*
3
1*
4
2*
2
0*
16
32*
16
15*
30
19*
23
13
13
10
12
12
14
16
15
1
5
5
4
2
3
12
5
11
14
15
14
9
13
17
12
3
7
4
5
5
6
3
5
29*
41
49*
40
53*
36
37*
41
9
4
8
7
0
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
6
11
8
9
0*
12
9*
8
3*
12
8*
9
2
2
0
1
0
2
4
2
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
3*
5
28*
10
4*
15
19*
13
6
16
25
15
12
15
22
16
0
0
2
1
0
2
1
1
0*
6
28*
9
0*
7
1*
3
2
11
18
11
3
22
44
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
37*
41
59*
45
39*
42
44*
42
1
4
1
1
4
2
3
4
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0*
2
6*
2
3*
1
0*
1
5
12
24
13
8
12
26
15
Taro Puha
3
4
0
2
3
4
2
3
6*
5
17*
8
4*
10
5*
7
0
2
5
2
0
1
0
1
Soybeans/
tofu
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
7*
3
7*
5
4*
10
8*
8
0
1
2
1
0
1
2
1
Karengo
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3*
12
15*
10
21*
13
16*
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1*
18
21*
14
4*
7
27*
12
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Pacific
Island
yams Cassava
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
4*
3
12*
5
3*
0
8*
3
2
2
0
1
2
1
0
1
Bread
fruit
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 20.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9*
23
26*
20
15*
16
26*
18
0
0
0
0
3
2
3
2
Taro
leaf
VEGETABLES III
Percent consuming at least once per week
Other green
leafy
Turnips/ Green
Kamo
vegetables 1 swedes bananas Yams Watercress kamo
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Such as whitloof.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E4.3 cont.
154
NZ Food: NZ People
43
34
34
28
68
56
51
49
34
37
57
55
26
33
40
42
12
19
21
25
33
36
18
21
Fruit
< 1/day 1
27
37
39
39
31
27
14
34
20
29
22
17
9
5
19
FRUITS
Percent consuming at least once per week
79
75
85
83
81
79
76
76
90
84
82
79
68
65
78
77
72
71
66
61
83
76
74
77
62
59
72
73
66
61
56
58
74
74
73
70
44
48
66
68
50
46
43
42
74
70
63
57
42
39
54
53
42
38
42
41
57
55
48
55
28
29
49
48
34
27
28
23
60
50
45
39
29
29
46
47
31
32
28
24
53
47
44
39
24
22
36
35
28
23
21
21
43
35
32
33
16
19
31
35
17
17
18
17
33
31
31
32
16
14
28
28
15
13
17
17
32
27
24
30
22
28
20
23
24
21
23
27
20
22
20
24
13
12
24
23
15
13
11
10
28
25
20
17
11
15
19
26
10
16
12
11
23
23
18
20
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 2, 21, and 22.
20
22
26
30
26
20
20
15
32
30
23
22
Fruit
Fruit
Stone
Berry
canned
Other
Stewed
2+ /day 2 Bananas Apples Oranges fruit 3 Pears fruits 4 Kiwifruit Grapes Sultanas Feijoas Melon in syrup dried fruit
fruit
46
82
73
67
56
47
39
38
30
24
24
22
22
18
17
36
68
76
66
37
48
31
25
28
19
20
28
26
10
5
30
79
63
62
42
37
19
26
25
15
13
16
24
7
3
32
74
67
57
40
37
25
29
20
20
14
15
21
13
6
36
84
67
65
51
42
30
30
26
22
19
12
26
12
13
40
83
69
62
59
48
45
33
31
24
27
15
27
16
37
53
82
71
57
59
52
29
36
23
31
14
10
32
22
47
34
78
68
61
45
41
28
29
23
20
16
16
24
12
13
60
76
85
72
65
45
38
40
36
17
40
27
28
19
21
48
79
69
65
60
45
41
30
32
22
29
27
22
20
8
49
84
78
74
65
51
50
44
35
30
32
33
19
22
12
60
87
76
74
71
59
53
56
38
26
32
28
19
24
23
74
86
81
74
72
66
53
48
41
30
34
24
23
26
47
71
90
81
74
69
55
41
51
34
36
25
10
35
27
62
56
85
78
72
67
53
49
47
36
27
31
28
21
23
21
Servings
Percent of people eating less than one serving of fruit per day, or no fruit at all.
Serving = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1/2 cup of stewed fruit.
2
Percent of people eating 2 servings or more of fruit per day. NZ Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
3
Peach, nectarine, plum, apricot.
4
Strawberry’s and other berries or cherries.
1
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E5
Frequently Eaten Foods
155
43
23
30
31
48
47
52
49
33*
24
36*
29
57*
49
56*
53
30
34
39
35
55
49
67
57
32
48
38
41
33
28
17
26
35*
45
38*
41
32*
27
34*
30
39
37
27
33
22
21
13
18
72
76
83
78
79
84
88
84
77*
74
88*
78
82*
87
95*
88
85
67
84
76
67
80
84
77
71
68
67
68
76
79
77
78
62*
73
87*
74
80*
86
95*
86
59
62
74
64
75
76
85
77
60
56
63
60
67
74
73
73
73*
75
83*
76
77*
79
88*
80
72
58
64
64
66
67
84
71
42
41
52
46
67
68
71
69
24*
44
74*
46
38*
51
45*
46
38
32
56
40
50
53
71
57
40
34
43
38
42
48
59
52
51*
65
76*
64
75*
72
82*
76
41
44
55
46
48
55
75
58
22
26
33
29
43
55
53
52
19*
24
34*
24
30*
30
28*
30
31
21
34
27
29
29
38
31
30
30
32
31
38
47
54
49
6*
23
44*
23
27*
37
40*
35
13
17
13
15
23
31
45
32
25
20
26
23
36
35
39
37
20
22
24
23
20
32
30
30
6*
13
15*
11
20*
13
5*
14
5
9
15
9
15
20
14
18
14
14
20
16
34
31
31
31
6*
18
30*
18
41*
31
34*
35
24
13
21
19
29
40
34
35
19
13
12
14
26
32
22
27
23*
23
41*
27
38*
46
29*
39
29
26
22
26
30
31
43
33
23
19
27
23
23
17
23
20
12*
33
28*
26
42*
17
33*
28
36
25
24
28
26
27
24
26
9
14
14
13
24
23
26
25
8*
7
18*
10
5*
17
3*
11
6
7
6
6
10
19
21
17
5
5
23
13
16
11
36
23
0*
9
11*
8
8*
12
4*
9
3
10
9
8
4
12
27
14
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 2, 21, and 22.
19*
30
50*
31
30*
34
35*
33
36
9
29
22
25
29
38
30
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Stone
Berry
canned
Other
Stewed
1
2
3
4
< 1/day 2+ /day Bananas Apples Oranges fruit Pears fruits Kiwifruit Grapes Sultanas Feijoas Melon in syrup dried fruit
fruit
Servings
FRUITS
Percent consuming at least once per week
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percent of people eating less than one serving of fruit per day, or no fruit at all.
Serving = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1/2 cup of stewed fruit.
2
Percent of people eating 2 servings or more of fruit per day. NZ Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline.
3
Peach, nectarine, plum, apricot.
4
Strawberry’s and other berries or cherries.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E5 cont.
156
NZ Food: NZ People
1
29
30
28
35
17
17
20
21
34
25
20
16
75
74
84
85
30
20
27
22
36
27
24
19
29
27
22
21
Carbonated Fruit
drinks
juice
24
26
53
31
54
38
34
28
16
22
18
20
20
17
30
27
34
29
42
30
15
25
14
24
13
19
6
24
18
25
78
77
73
71
88
87
82
79
Water
80
76
79
73
75
77
77
74
83
82
83
84
91
89
85
21
26
18
19
17
22
25
27
14
15
19
26
8
6
10
8
8
7
6
6
10
13
8
7
7
9
4
5
5
4
8
14
3
1
4
9
6
4
3
1
5
6
6
7
3
1
3
4
4
3
3
4
3
2
4
5
2
3
5
5
57
64
64
66
65
59
53
55
66
65
63
63
Tea
62
25
26
54
76
81
89
58
40
47
61
72
82
86
65
BEVERAGES
Percent consuming ‘regularly’ 1
Non-alcoholic
Diet
Powdered carbonated
Sports Fruit
drinks
drinks
Cordial drinks drinks
20
8
6
4
3
33
6
13
9
7
35
4
13
20
8
29
7
7
6
3
12
8
5
2
2
8
11
7
0
4
9
7
4
0
1
23
7
7
5
3
33
11
6
4
11
30
11
7
9
3
21
9
5
2
2
10
10
1
1
3
10
7
6
1
2
8
7
3
0
6
18
10
4
2
3
‘Regularly’ includes all those who consume these beverages at least 3 times per week.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E6
65
62
59
56
66
67
63
61
60
59
59
53
Coffee
61
36
51
71
68
65
51
64
32
53
63
62
59
49
58
51
53
10
11
55
55
55
40
10
11
9
8
14
10
22
23
20
14
8
8
32
25
19
12
21
20
15
16
22
24
22
15
20
17
16
10
16
8
13
12
19
15
9
9
18
16
10
5
4
3
1
1
6
2
4
4
1
0
1
1
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 23.
4
4
11
11
6
5
2
4
11
14
11
8
Herbal
tea
8
2
2
6
4
2
1
4
3
10
13
13
6
5
11
Percent consuming at least once per week
Alcoholic
Low
White
Spirits/
Red alcohol
Beer
wine
liqueurs wine
beer
30
18
18
13
2
32
1
16
3
3
56
6
28
8
0
58
13
18
15
3
54
17
19
17
7
40
25
28
15
8
24
8
32
7
5
51
13
21
14
4
17
8
14
4
0
24
19
17
17
2
11
24
14
14
1
5
29
18
16
0
3
19
14
7
1
4
13
17
6
3
10
23
16
13
1
Frequently Eaten Foods
157
63
34
26
40
47
17
13
25
45*
38
21*
36
43*
18
12*
24
52
33
16
29
36
14
12
17
80*
78
86*
81
88*
85
95*
88
79
72
76
75
86
84
86
85
36
31
20
27
31
26
23
26
25*
23
27*
25
36*
22
36*
29
34
14
22
22
22
19
18
20
Carbonated Fruit
drinks
juice
73
73
68
72
67
80
84
77
Water
33
26
10
20
27
18
8
15
36*
50
20*
39
24*
36
24*
30
38
42
24
37
49
34
29
38
6
7
8
7
12
10
9
10
4*
7
11*
7
18*
10
16*
14
2
3
12
5
5
7
5
7
11
6
5
7
2
3
2
2
7*
10
15*
11
10*
8
2*
7
25
13
4
15
20
10
11
13
16
4
0
5
6
2
1
2
32*
8
11*
16
16*
10
0*
9
7
14
0
9
7
5
1
4
9
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
4*
19
19*
15
24*
7
11*
13
0
3
0
1
14
4
6
8
27
52
79
59
45
62
77
66
33*
49
87*
53
56*
63
73*
63
15
65
71
50
38
55
69
53
Tea
BEVERAGES
Percent consuming ‘regularly’ 1
Non-alcoholic
Diet
Powdered carbonated
Sports Fruit
drinks
drinks
Cordial drinks drinks
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
‘Regularly’ includes all those who consume these beverages at least 3 times per week.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E6 cont.
45
73
66
65
46
65
61
60
30*
63
61*
54
33*
62
59*
52
49
65
64
60
46
51
38
46
Coffee
49
59
48
53
24
11
4
10
22*
29
29*
28
7*
6
2*
5
44
58
49
51
15
11
7
11
5
15
19
15
17
28
26
25
3*
3
2*
3
2*
4
6*
4
0
2
8
3
9
5
4
6
23
19
23
21
17
16
18
17
14*
3
3*
6
11*
5
2*
6
27
17
6
17
12
9
9
10
6
17
16
15
15
16
13
15
0*
1
6*
2
0*
1
3*
1
7
7
12
8
1
5
6
5
1
3
7
4
1
1
1
1
3*
1
15*
4
3*
1
1*
2
1
3
6
3
3
0
0
1
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 23.
2
7
3
4
10
15
11
12
0*
3
0*
1
4*
4
9*
5
0
3
1
2
0
8
6
5
Herbal
tea
Percent consuming at least once per week
Alcoholic
Low
White
Spirits/
Red alcohol
Beer
wine
liqueurs wine
beer
158
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
2–3/
week
44
44
34
43
39
51
55
42
35
41
46
49
59
57
48
49
41
36
41
48
47
48
46
43
40
48
47
≤ 1/
week
31
33
32
22
26
30
26
26
49
37
37
37
33
31
36
31
29
27
17
41
39
37
28
27
23
37
34
Frequency 1
Eggs
30
37
15
19
20
31
36
43
10
15
15
25
66
77
59
67
78
73
64
63
64
67
60
56
48
49
56
62
49
49
46
46
58
59
56
56
41
38
32
30
40
39
40
40
32
29
29
34
55
54
41
43
54
57
52
55
40
43
40
45
41
54
38
45
44
46
42
48
41
39
38
43
23
29
24
32
30
28
20
20
29
29
23
25
21
23
26
31
23
22
20
21
29
30
25
26
9
10
15
16
11
13
7
8
19
18
13
12
53
61
53
53
64
61
48
45
59
54
50
46
45
42
38
33
54
41
41
38
45
33
35
33
38
47
37
39
46
46
36
35
41
41
38
32
25
20
29
23
26
33
17
17
33
31
27
18
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 17 – 19.
20
24
22
27
24
25
18
16
28
28
20
19
Biscuits/cakes/muffins
LowCream
White/
calorie Plain
filled/ Cakes/
Mayon- cheese Salad salad sweet chocolate scones/
Gravy naise sauce dressing dressing biscuits biscuits pikelets Muffins
43
26
25
23
12
53
40
39
26
40
19
17
14
8
51
63
38
23
38
34
22
20
14
43
37
35
29
40
23
21
20
7
53
43
39
26
52
26
24
26
11
58
42
42
20
55
26
18
20
14
71
46
49
17
49
16
26
28
8
65
37
60
23
45
25
22
21
10
55
44
41
23
37
39
24
20
6
64
48
35
27
40
24
32
16
13
42
45
26
18
37
25
28
23
16
50
38
37
30
43
26
25
26
20
53
31
39
31
49
26
29
35
21
60
34
50
25
50
33
34
26
10
65
30
48
20
40
27
28
24
16
52
37
38
28
MISCELLANEOUS FOOD I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Sauces/dressings
Vegemite
≥ 4/ Sweet
or
Peanut Tomato
week spreads 2 Marmite butter sauce
24
66
53
36
48
24
54
54
56
75
34
53
50
48
75
35
66
47
43
55
35
80
47
30
48
20
86
50
40
36
19
87
35
23
35
33
70
48
40
54
16
36
67
33
65
22
37
61
38
64
17
61
54
34
48
15
69
57
25
27
8
77
64
29
23
12
85
58
22
27
16
62
57
31
41
Toppings/spreads
Frequency of egg consumption for those who eat eggs (percent).
Includes jam, honey, marmalade and syrup.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E7.1
Frequently Eaten Foods
159
35
31
26
31
33
48
47
43
38*
37
23*
35
34*
44
54*
43
38
45
45
44
40
46
52
48
18*
9
41*
19
41*
24
25*
28
38
24
27
28
46
39
36
39
2–3/
week
9
6
17
9
26
22
20
23
≤ 1/
week
Frequency 1
Eggs
23
29
27
28
14
15
12
13
44*
54
35*
47
26*
32
22*
27
56
63
57
59
41
31
33
34
57
67
82
72
37
63
74
64
24*
55
76*
51
21*
44
46*
39
50
61
79
62
40
50
74
52
55
50
47
49
69
56
58
59
28*
25
32*
27
50*
35
40*
41
45
41
43
43
47
47
75
54
53
45
30
40
36
35
25
30
21*
43
64*
42
11*
33
26*
25
54
38
30
41
43
35
35
37
77
57
43
55
62
50
26
41
49*
52
64*
54
76*
48
40*
54
77
50
52
58
68
40
27
44
40
40
53
46
38
36
46
41
18*
56
65*
48
34*
42
25*
35
40
44
41
42
44
37
42
41
30
26
26
27
30
25
27
27
18*
15
18*
17
37*
26
14*
27
23
15
26
20
27
24
29
26
22
21
24
22
28
27
27
27
8*
6
9*
8
10*
16
15*
14
16
24
21
21
38
36
25
34
12
8
12
10
12
16
19
17
5*
5
19*
8
12*
12
16*
13
9
4
9
7
4
10
21
11
45
55
64
58
54
52
59
56
29*
34
54*
37
43*
40
24*
37
54
46
33
45
42
37
32
38
48
46
44
46
45
40
32
37
20*
38
32*
32
68*
36
10*
39
52
29
30
36
44
31
20
32
37
41
46
43
28
39
45
40
13*
33
42*
29
41*
23
18*
27
36
26
31
30
30
28
25
28
32
28
21
25
22
33
29
29
8*
22
27*
20
40*
18
19*
25
8
14
6
10
16
18
11
15
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; questions 17 – 19.
18
20
24
22
19
24
28
25
11*
18
27*
18
11*
22
20*
19
16
14
29
18
15
10
27
15
Biscuits/cakes/muffins
LowCream
White/
calorie Plain
filled/ Cakes/
Mayon- cheese Salad salad sweet chocolatescones/
Gravy naise sauce dressing dressing biscuits biscuits pikelets Muffins
MISCELLANEOUS FOOD I
Percent consuming at least once per week
Sauces/dressings
Vegemite
≥ 4/ Sweet
or
Peanut Tomato
week spreads 2 Marmite butter sauce
Toppings/spreads
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Frequency of egg consumption for those who eat eggs (percent).
2
Includes jam, honey, marmalade and syrup.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E7.1 cont.
160
NZ Food: NZ People
1
38
38
31
35
42
39
35
38
35
39
38
37
50
50
36
38
57
60
56
47
41
50
52
62
18
19
15
16
23
19
15
15
18
14
15
16
15
12
7
8
16
13
13
13
8
7
8
8
40
34
35
29
39
37
38
39
36
32
32
33
36
33
34
32
38
34
35
31
38
30
31
34
13
14
13
12
14
14
10
12
13
11
14
12
40
34
16
12
33
35
37
46
10
13
16
21
23
15
12
8
20
19
22
24
11
10
10
14
39
37
34
30
41
36
41
36
35
32
31
34
20
18
18
20
22
18
19
21
20
22
15
18
Nuts
19
13
11
18
25
29
14
20
8
8
19
25
21
20
19
4
1
4
1
1
2
3
7
1
2
3
8
Coconut
cream
3
2
2
5
2
0
1
3
4
1
5
2
1
0
3
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 18.
12
11
7
6
13
12
11
10
8
5
7
8
MISCELLANEOUS FOOD II
Percent consuming at least once per week
Soups
Puddings
Confectionery
Other foods
Other
Sweet
Meat pies/
Home- Canned/ puddings/ pies/
Other
Muesli
sausage
Potato
made
packet desserts pastries Chocolate confectionery bars
rolls 1
Hamburger Pizza
crisps
50
37
17
10
35
34
13
26
16
9
35
28
34
27
24
66
67
16
57
42
19
70
30
28
16
24
52
34
14
63
47
30
52
36
35
16
13
38
34
17
39
24
11
43
55
37
20
12
28
28
9
30
9
5
28
69
42
22
6
37
36
3
16
2
4
22
60
46
16
9
20
28
4
14
1
4
7
44
36
19
14
38
35
13
38
21
11
38
53
36
21
16
59
55
28
27
33
12
67
33
44
16
11
54
43
17
28
30
12
56
47
37
14
7
34
33
13
16
12
9
39
66
36
17
8
24
24
11
9
3
4
18
71
40
15
6
20
31
3
6
1
2
14
75
39
20
3
19
30
3
9
0
2
9
55
38
16
7
33
33
12
15
11
7
33
Includes other savoury pastries.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table E7.2
Frequently Eaten Foods
161
31
37
22
32
38
31
37
34
24*
27
26*
26
26*
31
30*
29
31
35
41
37
43
39
38
39
23
22
39
26
27
32
54
36
21*
45
60*
42
47*
59
62*
56
31
37
60
46
44
49
70
57
22
18
20
19
16
14
17
16
11*
13
25*
15
30*
11
24*
20
14
8
15
12
23
14
23
19
26
13
9
14
10
6
6
7
14*
17
29*
19
36*
16
4*
19
17
16
16
16
16
7
12
11
54
41
30
38
54
34
23
32
52*
31
23*
35
50*
30
6*
30
70
24
23
38
69
30
20
39
47
36
30
35
45
34
26
33
31*
13
15*
18
50*
17
5*
24
53
25
25
34
56
32
32
38
15
18
7
13
22
14
8
13
8*
17
14*
14
14*
13
3*
11
18
14
5
13
21
12
5
12
57
39
24
35
20
15
7
12
63*
56
51*
57
55*
25
17*
31
74
40
37
50
45
22
14
27
43
23
7
19
29
10
2
9
29
13
4
12
10
10
3
7
11*
12
15*
12
11*
8
1*
7
15
3
6
7
20
7
4
10
59
44
24
38
60
38
16
32
47*
51
26*
44
64*
43
28*
45
67
33
22
41
62
40
17
40
13
20
24
21
6
18
23
19
6*
15
28*
16
14*
22
20*
19
5
10
31
14
14
21
17
17
Nuts
0
3
0
1
0
3
1
1
24*
44
46*
38
35*
47
31*
40
2
5
1
3
2
4
1
3
Coconut
cream
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire; question 18.
44*
28
30*
33
30*
22
8*
21
55
30
0
30
40
16
7
20
MISCELLANEOUS FOOD II
Percent consuming at least once per week
Soups
Puddings
Confectionery
Other foods
Other
Sweet
Meat pies/
Home- Canned/ puddings/ pies/
Other
Muesli
sausage
Potato
made
packet desserts pastries Chocolate confectionery bars
rolls 1
Hamburger Pizza
crisps
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Includes other savoury pastries.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table E7.2 cont.
162
NZ Food: NZ People
Section F
Health
Introduction
The nutrition-related health of New Zealanders was determined from anthropometric measures,
blood pressure and blood assays. The critical body size data in terms of health are body mass
index (BMI) and waist to hip (W/H) ratio. Blood pressure provides an indication of the prevalence
of an important cardiovascular disease risk factor. While we have confidence in the trends in
blood pressure measurement we note that the equipment used (an automatic electronic
sphygmomanometer) in the NNS97 may be a factor which suggests some caution in the
interpretation of these data. All blood assays were conducted by Dunedin-based Southern
Community Laboratories (an IANZ accredited laboratory) which follows the Royal College of
Pathologists of Australasia quality assurance programme.
Key Points
Body size
• Seventeen percent of the New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females) were
considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males, 30
percent females).
Blood pressure
• Twenty-two percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking
hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure
≥ 95 mmHg).
Blood analyses
• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three
percent of the New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.
• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2
percent of females, respectively.
Health
163
F1
Body Size
Table F1
Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, circumferences, breadths and skinfolds) were
included as indicators of health status and to provide a description of the size and shape of New
Zealanders.
Height and weight
Males on average were 13 cm taller and 12 kg heavier than females. Weight was greatest in the
45–64 years group (males 84.6 kg, females 72.7 kg) (Figure A). NZ Måori (males 87.3 kg, females
75.2 kg) and Pacific people (males 95.0 kg, females 84.7 kg) were heavier than NZ European &
Others (males 78.9 kg, females 67.1 kg) but did not differ significantly in height.
Mean height was greatest in the 19–24 years group (177.4 cm) and decreased in older age groups.
The difference in height may reflect a loss of height with age group and/or a trend to an increase
in height among younger New Zealanders.
Body mass index
Body Mass Index (BMI) is an indicator of excess weight. The proportion of the population who are
overweight 11 or obese 12 can be estimated from BMI. Thirty-five percent of the population
(40.4 percent males, 30.1 percent females) were classified as overweight and a further 17 percent
were considered obese (14.7 percent males, 19.2 percent females). Obesity in the population
increased with age, peaking in the 45–64 years group (males 23 percent, females 26.5 percent),
then declining in the older groups. The proportion of the population classified as overweight was
highest in those 65–74 years (males 57.6 percent, females 47.5 percent).
In females, there was a strong relationship between obesity and NZDep96 quartile. Females living
in NZDep96 quartile I areas had the lowest level of obesity (13.1 percent), compared with quartile
IV areas (25.4 percent). This relationship was not significant in males. The proportion of the
population who were overweight was not associated with NZDep96 quartile.
NZ Måori (males 27.0 percent, females 27.9 percent) and Pacific people (26.2 percent, 47.2 percent)
were more likely to be classified as obese than NZ European & Others (12.6 percent, 16.7 percent).
The proportion of overweight females was not affected by ethnic group. However, Pacific males
Figure A
Figure B
Weight
male
female
85
80%
80
70%
60%
75
70
65
male
female
90%
NZ population
Mean (kg)
90
W/H ratio excess
50%
40%
60
30%
20%
55
10%
Age group (years)
Age group (years)
11 NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2 .
12 NZ Maori and Pacific people with a BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2.
164
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
4
65
–7
4
45
–6
4
25
–4
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
10
0
75
+
4
65
–7
4
45
–6
4
25
–4
15
–
19 18
–2
4
0
0%
were more likely to be classified as overweight (59.2 percent) than NZ European & Others (41.0
percent) and NZ Måori (30.0 percent). NZ Måori males (30.0 percent) were less likely to be classified
as overweight than NZ European & Others (41.0 percent).
Waist/hip ratio
Waist to hip (W/H) ratio is considered an indicator of cardiovascular risk when the ratio exceeds
0.9 for males and 0.8 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994). The proportion
of the population with a W/H ratio excess increased with age from the 15–18 years groups (males
7.7 percent, females 10.2 percent) to the 75+ years group (72.9 percent, 71.8 percent) (Figure B).
With the exception of the youngest and oldest groups, a higher proportion of males had a W/H
ratio excess than females. Pacific people (males 66 percent, females 52.4 percent) had the highest
prevalence of W/H ratio excess compared with NZ Måori (47.5 percent, 38.0 percent) and NZ
European & Others (46.8 percent, 34.4 percent).
Skinfolds
The mean triceps skinfold was 19.5 mm (females 25.0 mm, males 13.9 mm) which was similar to
the mean subscapular skinfold at 20.8 mm (females 23.3 mm, males 18.3 mm). In males, mean
triceps skinfold did not change with age group, but mean subscapular skinfold was highest in the
45–64 years group (21.0 mm). In females, the highest mean triceps and subscapular skinfolds were
measured in the 45–64 years group (triceps 28.4 mm, subscapular 27.0 mm).
The mean subscapular skinfold was higher in females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (25.3
mm) compared with quartile I areas (21.7 mm).
Health
165
F2
Blood Pressure
Table F2
Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures increased with age as described in other studies in
developed societies peaking in the 75+ years group at approximately 160 mmHg (systolic) and
80 mmHg (diastolic).
Males up to 65 years had higher blood pressure than females of a comparable age.
Hypertension
Participants were deemed to be hypertensive in accordance with the World Health Organization
(WHO) cut-off values (≥ 160 mmHg systolic and/or ≥ 95 mmHg diastolic), irrespective of whether
they were taking hypertensive medication. Under these criteria, 16.5 percent of males and 12.3
percent of females were deemed to be hypertensive. Hypertensive levels were lowest in the 15–44
years groups and increased markedly with age, peaking at 48 percent to 51 percent in the 75+
years groups (Figure A). Twenty percent of the population had high blood pressure when all
individuals who reported taking hypertensive medication and those who were hypertensive were
included. This prevalence did not alter across ethnic groups (Figure B).
Close to 10 percent of the population were on some form of hypertensive medication. Of interest,
is the observation that 4.2 percent of respondents (males 4.1 percent, females 4.3 percent) who
reported taking hypertensive medication were still hypertensive at the time of their blood pressure
measurements. Medication of hypertensives was apparently more effective in NZ European &
Others (males 6.1 percent, females 6.4 percent) compared with NZ Måori (1.6 percent, 3.3 percent)
and Pacific people (1.2 percent, 4.4 percent).
Figure A
Figure B
Hypertension
male
female
High blood pressure
25%
male
female
50%
Population
30%
20%
15%
10%
Age group (years)
166
NZ Food: NZ People
10
0
75
+
65
–
45
–
25
–
74
0%
64
0%
44
5%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
10%
0
NZ population
20%
40%
NZ Maori
Pacific people
Ethnic group
NZ European
& Others
F3
Blood Analyses
Table F3
The mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) of New Zealanders was 5.7 with no difference
between males and females. Cholesterol levels increased with age group for females, but for males
it peaked at the 65–74 years group before declining slightly. Twenty-three percent of New
Zealanders had cholesterol levels greater than 6.5 mmol/L, the level which some international
organisations suggest as a cut-off point above which people should be counselled to reduce their
cholesterol levels (Figure A). However, in females, proportions among NZ Måori and Pacific people
were low (10.0 percent and 11.9 percent respectively) compared to NZ European & Others (25.6
percent). Among males, a lower proportion of Pacific people exceeded 6.5 mmol/L (17.5 percent)
than did NZ Måori (27.6 percent) or NZ European & Others (23 percent). Metropolitan residents
(males 21.4 percent, females 22.0 percent) were less likely than provincial residents (27.4 percent,
27.7 percent) to have levels above 6.5 mmol/L.
The overall level of HDL cholesterol in the population was 1.3 mmol/L with females (1.4) having
higher levels than males (1.2). This trend was also evident among the three ethnic groups. HDL
levels decreased from NZDep96 quartile I areas (females 1.5, males 1.2) to quartile IV areas (1.3, 1.1).
Lipid Guidelines developed by The National Heart Foundation (1996) recommend a total cholesterol
of 3.0 mmol/L – 5.0 mmol/L and 31 percent of New Zealanders achieved this guideline. Among
females, NZ European & Others were the least likely to achieve this guideline (29.4 percent)
compared with NZ Måori (43.8 percent) and Pacific people (60.2 percent) (Figure B). Males in the
three ethnic groups had similar percentages meeting the guideline (NZ European & Others 31.1
percent, NZ Måori 26.8 percent, Pacific people 28.7 percent).
The only difference in haemoglobin levels (g/L) was between males (151) and females (135). Males
75+ years had a lower mean haemoglobin level (144) than all other age groups.
Ferritin levels (µg/L) of males (190) were substantially higher than those of females (80). They
were lowest among premenopausal females (38–62) and males 15–18 years (78) and highest among
Pacific males (318). Provincial males (206) had higher concentrations than metropolitan males
(183). There were no apparent differences by NZDep96 quartiles.
Figure A
Figure B
Total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L
70%
50%
Population
60%
50%
40%
30%
40%
30%
10
0
45
–6
75
+
0%
65
–7
4
0%
4
10%
25
–4
4
20%
10%
15
–
19 18
–2
4
20%
Age group (years)
male
female
70%
60%
0
NZ population
Met NHF lipid guideline
male
female
NZ Maori
Pacific people
NZ European
& Others
Ethnic group
Health
167
The zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol) was higher in females (41) than males
(35), which was the reverse of the pattern seen in ferritin concentrations. In females, the ratio was
highest among Pacific people (53) compared to NZ Måori (45) and NZ European & Others (40).
Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia primarily affected females (6 percent,
3 percent, 2 percent respectively). Prevalence was highest among NZ Måori females (11 percent, 9
percent, 6 percent). Males overall were not affected with only 4 percent of the 15–18 years group
and 2 percent of the 75+ years group considered to have low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron
deficiency anaemia.
168
NZ Food: NZ People
Health
169
170
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
0.27
0.41
0.23
0.29
175.4
174.9
162.2
162.2
80.2
81.0
68.6
68.8
79.8
80.6
79.5
81.9
66.7
68.5
68.2
71.7
0.48
0.47
0.43
0.39
0.45
0.33
0.33
0.32
175.5
175.8
175.0
174.6
162.9
162.2
162.0
161.7
0.55
0.76
0.47
0.81
0.96
0.85
0.79
0.89
0.69
0.83
0.92
0.81
Weight
(kg)
Mean
SEM
74.5
0.33
71.2
2.16
77.9
1.42
81.5
0.67
84.6
0.80
78.6
0.92
71.8
1.02
80.4
0.45
61.4
1.67
67.8
1.51
68.6
0.61
72.7
0.75
68.8
0.95
62.5
1.17
68.7
0.41
Height
(cm)
Mean
SEM
168.6
0.21
174.9
0.95
177.4
0.75
176.4
0.31
174.9
0.43
171.9
0.52
168.2
0.65
175.3
0.23
163.3
0.61
164.6
0.88
163.6
0.26
161.5
0.32
159.0
0.57
156.4
0.59
162.2
0.18
26.0
26.4
26.1
26.2
25.9
26.0
25.9
26.9
25.2
26.0
26.0
27.5
0.16
0.22
0.17
0.31
0.25
0.26
0.24
0.26
0.26
0.29
0.35
0.30
BMI
(kg/m2)
Mean
SEM
26.1
0.10
23.2
0.63
24.8
0.40
26.1
0.19
27.6
0.23
26.6
0.28
25.3
0.30
26.2
0.13
23.0
0.63
25.0
0.56
25.7
0.22
27.9
0.27
27.2
0.34
25.5
0.46
26.1
0.15
38.2
45.5
30.2
29.9
39.0
41.9
41.0
40.2
32.3
27.9
30.1
30.3
14.4
15.3
18.5
20.9
14.8
14.5
12.5
16.7
13.1
19.8
19.6
25.4
0.89
0.90
0.78
0.79
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.90
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
46.2
50.8
34.0
39.3
44.9
50.9
45.6
49.1
28.9
36.5
34.3
43.5
14.0
13.7
25.0
25.1
14.4
13.4
13.5
14.1
24.3
25.4
24.8
25.7
0.27
0.37
0.30
0.62
0.47
0.39
0.42
0.39
0.57
0.57
0.62
0.43
18.2
18.4
23.0
23.8
18.2
18.0
18.0
19.0
21.7
23.7
22.7
25.3
0.32
0.52
0.38
0.66
0.56
0.54
0.56
0.50
0.61
0.68
0.72
0.62
BODY SIZE
OverW/H ratio
Subscapular
weight 1 Obesity 2 W/H excess 3 Triceps skinfold
skinfold
(%)
(%)
ratio
(%)
(mm)
(mm)
Mean
SEM Mean
SEM
35.2
17.0
0.84
41.4
19.5
0.21
20.8
0.23
11.7
12.6
0.81
7.7
13.0
1.07
13.2
1.23
34.0
2.1
0.84
12.5
12.2
0.50
14.1
0.66
39.2
14.1
0.89
38.1
14.3
0.35
18.5
0.43
48.2
23.0
0.94
74.2
14.7
0.38
21.0
0.54
57.6
13.9
0.95
77.1
13.1
0.63
19.3
0.57
38.9
7.4
0.95
72.9
12.8
0.45
18.0
0.78
40.4
14.7
0.90
47.6
13.9
0.22
18.3
0.27
23.5
5.3
0.74
10.2
20.8
1.23
18.0
1.22
17.7
17.2
0.75
10.8
23.0
0.98
21.8
1.30
25.7
17.1
0.77
24.8
25.2
0.40
23.0
0.47
36.6
26.8
0.80
48.4
28.4
0.49
27.0
0.59
47.5
22.0
0.83
68.1
24.5
0.68
23.5
0.78
33.3
17.3
0.83
71.8
19.6
0.70
17.7
0.81
30.1
19.2
0.78
35.6
25.0
0.28
23.3
0.33
Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2, NZ European & Others with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2.
Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32kg/m2, NZ European & Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2.
Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table F1
31.7
32.0
30.3
30.2
31.6
31.7
31.6
32.3
29.6
30.2
30.3
31.1
0.13
0.18
0.14
0.25
0.22
0.21
0.19
0.22
0.23
0.22
0.31
0.22
Upper arm
circumference
(cm)
Mean
SEM
31.0
0.09
29.0
0.54
31.3
0.36
32.3
0.16
32.6
0.16
30.9
0.25
29.2
0.24
31.8
0.11
27.5
0.62
29.4
0.47
30.1
0.17
31.9
0.20
30.7
0.27
28.6
0.35
30.2
0.12
Health
171
1.11
0.54
0.89
0.47
0.70
0.49
0.97
0.41
1.78*
1.26*
0.79*
0.85
1.26*
0.60
1.34*
0.61
0.74
0.35
0.37
0.25
0.74
0.30
0.26
0.21
175.6
174.7
172.3
174.4
163.4
162.7
159.5
162.1
177.3*
175.1*
170.1*
174.7
164.5*
161.5
160.7*
162.1
176.6
176.8
173.7
175.4
164.1
163.8
160.2
162.2
Height
(cm)
Mean
SEM
72.2
79.8
80.9
78.9
62.4
66.6
69.0
67.1
101.8*
93.8*
88.9*
95.0
81.9*
79.4
97.5*
84.7
80.9
87.8
93.9
87.3
69.8
77.2
77.8
75.2
1.26
0.71
0.61
0.46
1.30
0.65
0.56
0.43
6.31*
2.15*
2.87*
2.29
5.56*
2.90
4.20*
2.45
3.15
2.26
2.91
1.66
1.94
1.55
2.53
1.13
Weight
(kg)
Mean
SEM
23.2
25.5
26.7
25.6
23.1
24.8
26.9
25.5
32.3*
30.5*
30.7*
31.1
30.2*
30.4
37.7*
32.2
26.2
28.7
31.6
28.7
26.1
29.2
30.7
28.7
0.34
0.19
0.16
0.13
0.48
0.23
0.20
0.16
1.77*
0.60*
0.98*
0.63
1.75*
1.04
1.45*
0.84
0.94
0.72
0.87
0.53
0.72
0.53
0.99
0.42
BMI
(kg/m2)
Mean
SEM
24.5
38.7
50.0
41.0
19.4
23.5
38.9
29.8
57.6*
55.8*
69.7*
59.2
25.5*
34.8
21.6*
28.8
17.4
36.3
33.5
30.0
21.8
36.7
38.4
32.7
2.3
12.1
17.3
12.6
8.3
14.4
21.7
16.7
30.0*
27.4*
18.4*
26.2
40.6*
34.0
78.4*
47.2
17.4
22.2
47.4
27.0
17.7
28.0
39.8
27.9
0.82
0.88
0.94
0.90
0.74
0.76
0.81
0.78
0.88*
0.92*
0.99*
0.92
0.76*
0.82
0.87*
0.81
0.83
0.90
0.95
0.89
0.77
0.80
0.84
0.80
6.3
35.0
73.8
46.8
7.4
21.7
54.7
34.4
33.1*
74.3*
90.0*
66.0
25.4*
53.5
80.6*
52.4
23.2
44.5
81.9
47.5
18.0
34.1
68.8
38.0
11.5
14.1
13.9
13.6
21.3
24.8
25.6
24.6
25.4*
16.0*
15.6*
18.5
26.9*
29.8
38.3*
31.1
13.0
14.5
17.6
14.8
23.5
26.4
30.0
26.4
0.42
0.40
0.28
0.23
0.96
0.46
0.36
0.30
5.48*
1.27*
1.07*
1.84
1.50*
1.60
2.45*
1.15
1.10
0.92
1.94
0.73
1.12
0.88
2.83
0.89
12.0
17.6
19.8
17.5
18.4
21.5
24.0
22.1
30.5*
26.1*
24.6*
27.0
28.0*
34.1
44.3*
34.9
16.4
22.0
27.2
21.5
24.6
29.0
31.6
28.3
0.50
0.47
0.39
0.28
1.12
0.51
0.45
0.36
4.86*
1.76*
1.92*
1.74
1.92*
2.18
2.67*
1.52
1.70
1.38
2.08
1.03
1.70
1.38
2.08
0.91
BODY SIZE
OverW/H ratio
Subscapular
weight 1 Obesity 2 W/H excess 3 Triceps skinfold
skinfold
(%)
(%)
ratio
(%)
(mm)
(mm)
Mean
SEM Mean
SEM
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2, NZ European & Others with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2.
2
Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32kg/m2, NZ European & Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2.
3
Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women.
NZ Maori
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table F1 cont.
29.6
31.8
31.6
31.3
27.8
29.6
30.8
29.8
37.1*
36.2*
34.4*
36.1
32.8*
33.4
39.6*
34.8
32.2
34.2
34.9
33.8
30.0
32.1
32.5
31.6
0.33
0.17
0.13
0.11
0.45
0.19
0.15
0.13
1.40*
0.52*
0.62*
0.52
1.60*
0.75
1.10*
0.69
0.66
0.43
0.58
0.33
0.61
0.39
0.54
0.30
Upper arm
circumference
(cm)
Mean
SEM
172
NZ Food: NZ People
5
4
3
2
1
SEM
0.4
2.0
1.5
0.7
1.1
1.9
2.6
0.6
1.3
1.0
0.6
1.0
2.1
2.7
0.6
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.0
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.1
0.7
1.1
0.7
1.1
Mean 1
132
120
130
131
143
155
160
137
112
113
117
136
152
161
127
135
138
138
137
127
129
127
127
137
137
127
127
Systolic
(mmHg)
80
81
76
77
79
81
81
81
77
77
75
75
Mean 1
78
66
74
80
87
86
81
80
71
70
75
80
79
79
76
Diastolic
(mmHg)
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.5
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6
SEM
0.3
1.9
1.0
0.5
0.7
1.1
1.3
0.4
1.0
1.0
0.4
0.6
1.4
1.6
0.3
61.5%
60.7%
74.6%
70.9%
65.7%
60.8%
58.6%
58.6%
76.3%
73.2%
71.4%
72.8%
7
6
16.6%
16.4%
12.4%
12.1%
11.1%
19.3%
18.5%
18.4%
10.5%
13.0%
12.7%
13.1%
21.9%
22.0%
18.1%
18.6%
16.3%
25.9%
23.0%
23.5%
15.8%
19.9%
18.0%
19.3%
20.0%
2.5%
3.4%
8.5%
36.1%
59.9%
65.5%
21.9%
0.7%
0.4%
5.3%
24.9%
53.0%
72.5%
18.2%
High blood
pressure 6
5.3%
5.6%
5.7%
6.5%
5.2%
6.5%
4.6%
5.1%
5.3%
6.9%
5.3%
6.2%
4.1%
4.1%
4.3%
4.2%
2.3%
5.7%
4.5%
4.2%
3.1%
5.0%
4.6%
4.4%
Medication 7
Not
Effective
effective
5.7%
4.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.4%
0.0%
1.4%
0.2%
7.8%
7.7%
21.4%
13.1%
17.7%
18.1%
5.4%
4.1%
0.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
2.2%
0.2%
8.1%
5.4%
16.5%
14.7%
21.5%
22.0%
5.9%
4.3%
High blood pressure includes all participants on medication plus those in
the hypertensive category (footnote 5) above.
Effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication
and not classified as hypertensive. Non effectively medicated includes all
participants on hypertensive medication and are classified as hypertensive.
The sum of effectively and non effectively medicated is the percentage of
the population on hypertensive medication.
21.9%
22.9%
13.0%
17.0%
23.2%
19.8%
23.0%
22.9%
13.1%
13.8%
15.9%
14.1%
BP categories
(irrespective of medication) 2
NormoHypertensive 3
Borderline 4
tensive 5
67.5%
18.2%
14.4%
93.5%
4.0%
2.5%
76.4%
20.6%
3.0%
75.5%
17.4%
7.1%
42.1%
29.7%
28.2%
26.3%
35.2%
38.5%
20.3%
31.9%
47.8%
61.2%
22.2%
16.5%
99.7%
0.3%
0.0%
97.4%
2.2%
0.4%
90.1%
6.9%
3.1%
57.1%
26.1%
16.8%
35.2%
28.2%
36.6%
21.7%
27.3%
51.0%
73.5%
14.2%
12.3%
BLOOD PRESSURE
Systolic and diastolic pressures are the mean of the participants readings (maximum three).
Participants were classified irrespective of whether they were taking hypertensive medication
or not. Categories were determined hierarchically and are mutually exclusive.
Normotensive: systolic < 140 mmHg and diastolic < 90 mmHg.
Borderline: 140 mmHg ≤ systolic ≤ 160 mmHg, and/or 90 mmHg ≤ diastolic < 95 mmHg.
Hypertensive: systolic ≥ 160 mmHg or diastolic ≥ 95 mmHg.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table F2
Health
173
1.5
2.2
3.5
1.6
1.3
1.8
3.8
1.8
#
2.6*
5.0*
2.3
1.9*
2.1
5.5*
2.4
1.5
0.7
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.7
#
133*
162*
139
112*
117
146*
123
126
130
147
137
112
117
143
128
SEM
125
135
149
136
111
117
151
123
Mean 1
Systolic
(mmHg)
71
79
86
80
70
75
80
76
#
84*
97*
83
72*
73
80*
74
71
83
87
81
70
76
84
76
Mean 1
Diastolic
(mmHg)
1.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.4
#
2.1*
3.5*
1.8
1.6*
1.7
4.7*
1.6
1.5
1.9
2.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
2.5
0.9
SEM
82.1%
78.8%
36.8%
61.3%
98.9%
90.7%
48.7%
73.1%
#
62.4%*
22.3%*
54.2%
92.1%*
91.4%
29.9%*
75.8%
94.3%
58.5%
34.0%
63.1%
98.4%
85.4%
29.7%
76.0%
7
6
3.4%
5.1%
31.3%
16.1%
0.0%
2.5%
24.9%
12.2%
#
14.7%*
66.6%*
21.6%
3.8%*
4.5%
38.8%*
13.1%
1.0%
17.2%
39.9%
18.0%
0.0%
6.3%
41.7%
12.9%
3.7%
6.9%
43.7%
22.2%
0.4%
4.7%
37.0%
18.5%
#
14.7%*
72.1%*
22.7%
3.8%*
4.5%
54.6%*
17.2%
1.0%
17.2%
46.4%
19.7%
0.0%
9.2%
49.9%
16.2%
High blood
pressure 6
0.3%
1.7%
12.3%
6.1%
0.4%
2.2%
12.1%
6.4%
#
0.0%*
5.5%*
1.2%
0.0%*
0.0%
15.8%*
4.1%
0.0%
0.0%
6.6%
1.6%
0.0%
2.9%
8.2%
3.3%
0.0%
0.3%
9.2%
4.1%
0.0%
0.1%
9.7%
4.4%
#
0.0%*
19.3%*
4.0%
0.0%*
0.6%
17.2%*
4.7%
0.0%
0.0%
17.7%
4.4%
0.0%
0.8%
10.2%
2.8%
Medication 7
Not
Effective
effective
High blood pressure includes all participants on medication plus those in
the hypertensive category (footnote 5) above.
Effectively medicated includes all participants on hypertensive medication
and not classified as hypertensive. Non effectively medicated includes all
participants on hypertensive medication and are classified as hypertensive.
The sum of effectively and non effectively medicated is the percentage of
the population on hypertensive medication.
14.5%
16.0%
31.9%
22.6%
1.1%
6.8%
26.5%
14.7%
#
22.9%*
11.1%*
24.2%
4.2%*
4.1%
31.3%*
11.1%
4.7%
24.3%
26.2%
18.9%
1.6%
8.3%
28.6%
11.2%
BP categories
(irrespective of medication) 2
NormoHyper3
4
tensive
Borderline
tensive 5
BLOOD PRESSURE
# n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate.
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Systolic and diastolic pressures are the mean of the participants readings (maximum three).
2
Participants were classified irrespective of whether they were taking hypertensive medication
or not. Categories were determined hierarchically and are mutually exclusive.
3
Normotensive: systolic < 140 mmHg and diastolic < 90 mmHg.
4
Borderline: 140 mmHg ≤ systolic ≤ 160 mmHg, and/or 90 mmHg ≤ diastolic < 95 mmHg.
5
Hypertensive: systolic ≥ 160 mmHg or diastolic ≥ 95 mmHg.
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table F2 cont.
174
NZ Food: NZ People
4
3
2
1
SEM
0.03
0.15
0.12
0.08
0.07
0.10
0.16
0.05
0.13
0.11
0.05
0.06
0.13
0.16
0.04
0.11
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.07
Mean
5.7
4.5
4.9
5.7
6.2
6.3
5.8
5.7
4.7
5.0
5.3
6.3
6.7
6.8
5.7
5.8
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.9
5.8
5.6
5.6
5.9
5.7
5.9
21.4
27.4
22.0
27.7
27.3
21.7
19.7
22.9
21.6
29.0
24.8
18.4
> 6.5 3
23.4
4.2
4.9
20.5
35.7
34.5
20.7
23.2
5.9
5.4
12.2
35.5
57.9
51.9
23.7
Total cholesterol
(mmol/L)
32.8
25.5
33.5
27.2
29.1
31.9
31.9
29.8
34.1
25.8
33.0
34.6
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
Between
3 and 5 4 Mean
31.1
1.3
72.2
1.1
57.3
1.2
31.4
1.2
16.9
1.2
10.5
1.3
21.0
1.2
30.6
1.2
67.2
1.3
51.5
1.4
42.4
1.4
13.1
1.5
8.7
1.4
4.6
1.5
31.7
1.4
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
SEM
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.01
HDL cholesterol
(mmol/L)
Zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol).
Percentage of the population. Participants were only included in this calculation if they
had a value for each of the following: ferritin, c-reactive protein, haemoglobin, and zinc
protoporphyrins. Also their c-reactive protein was ≤ 8mg/L.
Percentage of the population.
Percentage of the population with total cholesterol between 3 and 5 mmol/L.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females 15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Table F3
151
151
135
135
150
152
150
152
135
135
135
136
7
6
5
Mean
143
150
153
152
151
150
144
151
134
134
135
136
137
133
135
183
206
79
82
194
186
184
195
78
84
75
84
Mean
137
78
129
200
225
187
200
190
38
47
62
99
145
131
80
6.55
7.26
3.00
4.91
11.6
8.4
10.7
9.0
4.2
5.5
4.1
6.7
SEM
3.1
7.3
9.4
6.8
12.3
13.1
23.4
5.1
3.7
3.5
2.6
6.3
10.9
13.6
2.6
Ferritin
(µg/L)
36
34
41
41
34
34
36
37
41
40
42
43
Mean
38
35
35
35
35
35
40
35
40
41
42
41
39
44
41
0.4
0.5
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
SEM
0.3
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.9
1.5
0.4
1.8
1.0
0.6
0.9
1.1
1.6
0.4
Zinc protoporphyrin/
haemoglobin ratio 1
1
0
6
6
0
1
1
0
5
5
7
7
0
0
3
3
0
0
1
0
2
2
3
4
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
2
2
3
3
Iron
Low iron
Iron
deficiency
stores 5 deficiency 6 anemia 7
3
2
1
4
4
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
7
6
6
4
2
1
7
3
2
6
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
3
2
Iron status
(%) 2
Ferritin < 12µg/L.
Ferritin < 12µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol.
Iron deficiency anemia; ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol, and
haemoglobin; < 136 g/L (15–19 years male), < 137 g/L (20–49 years male), < 133 g/L (50–69
years male), < 124 g/L (70+ years male), < 120 g/L (15–69 years female), or < 118 g/L (70+
years female).
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
SEM
0.3
1.9
1.0
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.7
0.3
1.0
0.9
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
0.3
Haemoglobin
(g/L)
BLOOD ANALYSES
Health
175
0.16*
0.33
0.23
0.20
0.11
0.09
0.19*
0.08
#
0.27*
#
0.17
#
0.17
#
0.19
0.11
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.04
#
6.0*
#
5.7
#
5.1
#
5.1
4.6
5.6
6.1
5.7
5.0
5.4
6.5
5.8
SEM
5.3*
6.2
6.4
6.0
4.7
5.2
6.1*
5.3
Mean
3.9
18.3
34.4
22.9
6.7
13.3
43.1
25.6
#
28.5*
#
17.5
#
6.2
#
10.9
10.1*
33.8
34.3
27.6
2.4
5.7
30.3*
10.0
> 6.5 3
Total cholesterol
(mmol/L)
67.0
33.0
16.0
31.1
51.4
41.8
10.8
29.4
#
20.4*
#
28.7
#
58.9
#
60.2
44.3*
23.6
12.4
26.8
72.4
41.1
11.5*
43.8
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.5
#
1.1*
#
1.1
#
1.3
#
1.3
1.2*
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.1*
1.2
Between
3 and 5 4 Mean
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
#
0.05*
#
0.03
#
0.05
#
0.04
0.06*
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.06*
0.02
SEM
HDL cholesterol
(mmol/L)
151
152
150
151
134
135
136
135
#
154*
#
155
#
138
#
137
152*
150
151
151
134
135
139*
135
Mean
7
6
5
4
98
186
207
181
40
59
108
78
#
388*
#
318
#
73
#
80
149*
233
323
229
54
73
201*
94
Mean
6.7
5.8
9.5
5.2
2.9
2.8
4.3
2.5
#
73.7*
#
44.5
#
13.2
#
9.5
21.9*
21.3
31.6
16.1
6.1
7.8
59.8*
13.8
SEM
34
34
35
34
39
41
41
40
#
41*
#
41
#
54
#
53
36*
36
40
37
44
46
43*
45
Mean
1.1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.4
#
2.5*
#
1.6
#
5.1
#
3.1
2.1*
1.3
1.5
0.9
2.1
2.0
2.6*
1.3
SEM
Zinc protoporphyrin/
haemoglobin ratio1
2
0
0
1
2
7
4
5
#
0*
#
0
#
2
#
4
0*
0
0
0
14
11
5*
11
2
0
0
0
1
2
3
2
#
0*
#
0
#
2
#
4
0*
0
0
0
12
8
5*
9
Low iron
Iron
stores 5 deficiency 6
Iron status
(%) 2
2
0
0
0
1
2
2
2
#
0*
#
0
#
2
#
4
0*
0
0
0
10
5
5*
6
Iron
deficiency
anemia 7
Percentage of the population with total cholesterol between 3 and 5 mmol/L.
Ferritin < 12 µg/L.
Ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol.
Iron deficiency anemia; ferritin < 12 µg/L and zinc protoporphyrin > 60 µmol/mol, and
haemoglobin; < 136 g/L (15-19 years male), < 137 g/L (20-49 years male), < 133 g/L (50-69
years male), < 124 g/L (70+ years male), < 120 g/L (15-69 years female), or < 118 g/L (70+
years female).
1.1
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.3
#
1.7*
#
1.1
#
2.0
#
1.5
1.9*
1.7
1.4
1.1
1.5
1.1
1.8*
0.8
SEM
Ferritin
(µg/L)
BLOOD ANALYSES
Haemoglobin
(g/L)
# n < 25, sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate.
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
Zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol).
2
Percentage of the population. Participants were only included in this calculation if they had a
value for each of the following: ferritin, c-reactive protein, haemoglobin, and zinc protoporphyrins.
Also their c-reactive protein was ≤ 8mg/L.
3
Percentage of the population.
NZ Maori
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Table F3 cont.
176
NZ Food: NZ People
Section G
Have We Changed?
Introduction
Caution should be exercised when comparing these NNS97 data in this report with previous
national nutrition surveys.
The most recent national survey of nutrition undertaken in New Zealand was the Hillary
Commission’s Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey conducted in 1989 (Russell and Wilson 1991).
Specific differences which may affect the validity of comparisons include the following.
1. Change in the ethnic mix of the population. The proportion of NZ Måori, Pacific people and
other ethnic groups has increased in New Zealand since 1989.
2. The age structure of the New Zealand population has changed since 1989 with an increasing
proportion of older New Zealanders.
3. Methodologies were not identical in the two surveys. Specific differences include:
LINZ
NNS97
Sampling Frame
Electoral roll
Area-based frame
Oversampling
New Zealand Måori
New Zealand Måori and
Pacific people
Location of Interview
Central clinics
Participant’s home
24 hour Diet Recall
Paper based
Two pass
Limited probe questions
Single administration
Data collected over three
months
Computer based
Three pass
Detailed probe questions
Repeat on subsample
Data collected over 12
months
Qualitative Food Frequency
Questionnaire
Two formats
Few ethnic foods
Manually coded
One format
Good choice of ethnic foods
Different questions
Different food combinations
within questions
Checked with respondent by
interviewer
Electronically scanned
Skinfolds
Slimguide calipers
Harpenden calipers
Blood Pressure
Hawksley Random Zero
Sphygmomanometer
Omron 706C Smart-Inflate
Monitor
Not checked with respondent
Therefore, only limited comparisons have been presented in this report. Further comparisons will
be made in research papers which adjust for some of the methodological differences.
Have We Changed?
177
Key Points
Energy and selected foods
• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent in 1989 to 35 percent in
1997.
• While some changes in food choices reflected dietary guidelines (e.g. increased frequency of
consumption of pasta and rice), other choices did not (e.g. decreased frequency of consumption
of many vegetables).
Health
• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg since 1989. Associated with this increase was an
increase in obesity levels from 11 percent in 1989 to 17 percent in 1997.
• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L since 1989. This
was reflected in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol greater than 6.5 mmol/L,
decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.
178
NZ Food: NZ People
G1
Energy and Selected Foods
Tables G1.1, G1.2, G1.3
The mean daily energy intakes (unadjusted for intra-individual variation) reported from the
24 hour diet recall data for the New Zealand population were higher in NNS97 (males 12.0 MJ,
females 8.0 MJ) than the LINZ survey (11.2 MJ, 7.2MJ respectively).
The question of whether this is a ‘true’ increase in energy intake cannot be answered because the
methodological and sampling issues (outlined in the introduction) would also be expected to
increase reported energy intake. However, when unadjusted 90th percentiles of energy intake are
compared (LINZ 14.4 MJ, NNS97 15.8 MJ) it can be concluded that there is an increase in the
proportion of high energy consumers. (These unadjusted percentile data are not included in this
report.)
Sources of energy from macronutrients for the New Zealand population have continued to change.
Between 1989 and 1997, the percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen, from 37.5 percent to
34.9 percent. This trend continues the decrease from the level of about 40 percent reported in the
1977 survey (Birkbeck 1983). This decrease in contribution to energy from fat has been observed in
both males and females (Figure A). The contribution of carbohydrate to energy has shown a
corresponding increase from 43.7 percent to 46.2 percent and that of protein from 14.8 percent to
15.6 percent.
Consumption of selected foods
Foods for which comparable data were available between NNS97 and LINZ surveys, are listed in
Table G1. Some of the changes observed were in the direction recommended by the New Zealand
Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelines: an increase in some lower fat cheeses and in high
carbohydrate foods such as pasta and rice (Figure B). Other changes did not complement the
dietary guidelines, particularly the decrease in frequency of choice of many vegetables.
Figure A
Figure B
Fat contribution to energy
Selected food consumed (≥1/week)
LINZ
NNS97
40%
60%
50%
NZ population
38%
Mean
LINZ
NNS97
36%
34%
32%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Male
Female
0%
Rice
Pasta
Have We Changed?
179
FREQUENCY OF CHOICE OF TYPE OF FOOD CONSUMED 1
Table G1.1
Increase
Food
Category
Food
Dairy
Edam/Gouda
Decrease
2
LINZ
NNS97 Diff.
9%
20% 11%
Meat & Fish
Breads &
Cereals
Fruits
Vegetables
Pasta
Rice
Pears
Feijoas
Melon
Bananas
Grapes
Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Capsicum
Non-alcoholic Carbonated
Beverages
drinks
Alcoholic
Beverages
Miscellaneous Chocolate
Other
confectionery
1
2
39%
31%
34%
12%
14%
75%
25%
41%
15%
25%
54%
48%
47%
25%
22%
81%
30%
59%
19%
29%
16%
16%
14%
13%
8%
7%
5%
18%
5%
5%
42%
50%
8%
30%
35%
6%
21%
34% 13%
Food
LINZ
NNS97
Diff. 2
Cottage/ricotta cheese
Ice cream
Milk puddings
Colby/mild/tasty cheeses
Sausage/frankfurter/
saveloy
Fish/other than fried or
battered
Luncheon meats
Fruit/iced buns
18%
47%
12%
70%
5%
37%
6%
65%
13%
10%
6%
5%
47%
31%
17%
30%
29%
15%
14%
23%
8%
17%
5%
7%
Raisins
Stewed fruit
Canned fruit in syrup
Pineapple
Grapefruit
Green beans
Pumpkin
Peas
Cabbage/coleslaw
Beetroot
Avocado
Bean sprouts
Celery
Decaffeinated coffee
38%
28%
30%
18%
21%
59%
63%
77%
68%
37%
25%
21%
31%
18%
24%
17%
22%
12%
16%
46%
52%
68%
60%
29%
19%
16%
26%
7%
14%
11%
7%
6%
5%
13%
11%
9%
8%
8%
6%
5%
5%
11%
Tea
Beer
77%
41%
69%
30%
7%
11%
Cream filled/chocolate
biscuits
Muesli bars
49%
22%
40%
13%
8%
10%
Percentage of population consuming more than one serving per week.
Due to rounding, the difference between LINZ and NNS97 may differ (+ 1 percent) from the difference presented.
All differences are statistically significant.
180
NZ Food: NZ People
Have We Changed?
181
3
2
1
0.13
0.09
0.21
0.14
0.18
0.08
1.00
0.47
0.39
0.26
0.21
0.15
0.12
0.09
9.2
9.9
11.2
12.0
7.2
8.0
11.7
12.3
7.6
9.0
11.1
11.9
7.2
7.8
Mean
10.7–11.5
11.6–12.2
6.9–7.4
7.6–8.0
9.8–13.7
11.3–13.2
6.9–8.4
8.5–9.5
8.9–9.4
9.7–10.1
10.8–11.6
11.7–12.2
7.0–7.4
7.8–8.1
ENERGY I
Energy (MJ) 1
SEM
95% C.I. 2
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation.
C.I. = confidence interval.
* = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
All
LINZ
NNS
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ Maori
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ European & Others
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
Table G1.2
*
*
*
NS
*
*
*
Difference 3
182
NZ Food: NZ People
5
4
3
2
1
0.29
0.21
0.41
0.33
0.38
0.27
1.55
0.94
1.68
0.67
0.43
0.36
0.39
0.30
43.7
46.2
42.3
45.0
45.1
47.3
38.0
42.4
43.5
46.7
42.6
45.3
45.2
47.2
41.8–43.5
44.6–46.0
44.4–46.0
46.6–47.8
35.0–41.0
40.6–44.2
40.2–46.8
45.4–48.0
43.2–44.3
45.8–46.6
41.5–43.1
44.3–45.6
44.3–45.8
46.8–47.8
*
*
NS
NS
*
*
*
Percent energy from carbohydrate 1
Mean
SEM
95% C.I. 4
Difference 5
14.8
15.3
14.9
16.0
15.4
16.1
13.6
15.3
14.8
15.6
14.8
15.4
14.8
15.8
0.17
0.15
0.17
0.15
0.66
0.51
0.53
0.30
0.11
0.10
0.16
0.15
0.16
0.13
14.4–15.1
15.0–15.6
14.6–15.2
15.7–16.2
14.1–16.7
15.1–17.1
12.6–14.7
14.7–15.8
14.6–15.1
15.4–15.8
14.5–15.2
15.1–15.7
14.5–15.1
15.6–16.1
*
NS
NS
NS
*
NS
*
ENERGY II
Percent energy from protein 2
Mean SEM
95% C.I. 4
Difference 5
These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was
calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated
as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
These figures are not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated
as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
C.I. = confidence interval.
* = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
All
LINZ
NNS
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females LINZ
NNS
NZ Maori
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females LINZ
NNS
NZ European & Others
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females LINZ
NNS
Table G1.3
37.9
35.2
36.6
34.3
41.0
36.8
40.7
36.2
37.5
34.9
38.1
35.4
36.9
34.5
0.36
0.30
0.37
0.27
1.27
0.75
1.51
0.62
0.25
0.18
0.35
0.28
0.36
0.24
37.2–38.6
34.6–35.8
35.9–37.3
33.8–34.9
38.6–43.5
35.4–38.3
37.7–43.7
35.0–37.4
37.0–38.0
34.6–35.3
37.4–38.8
34.8–35.9
36.2–37.6
34.0–35.0
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Percent energy from fat 3
Mean
SEM 95% C.I. 4 Difference 5
G2
Health
Tables G2.1, G2.2, G2.3
Body size
Mean body weight has increased in the New Zealand population from 71.3 kg in 1989 to 74.5 kg.
The increase for males and females was 2.6 kg and 3.6 kg respectively. Changes were not significant
for NZ Måori or male NZ European & Others. Female NZ European & Others increased weight by
2.7 kg. There was no change in height in any groups compared.
BMI has increased in the New Zealand population and this is reflected in the estimated obesity
levels rising from 11.1 percent to 17.0 percent. This increase has occurred for both males and
females (Figure A). The increase was significant for NZ European & Others, but not for NZ Måori.
There has also been an increase in central obesity (as estimated by W/H ratio excess) from 27.4
percent to 41.4 percent of the New Zealand population. This increase has occurred for both males
and females and was significant for NZ European & Others. There was no significant change for
NZ Måori. While methodological differences may account for some, they are not considered to
account for all of the difference.
Serum cholesterol
Mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) has decreased from 5.9 to 5.7 for the population, although
the decrease was only significant for females (NZ European & Others 6.1, 5.8, NZ Måori 5.7, 5.3).
The decrease in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L from 30.2 percent
to 23.4 percent is beneficial, with the greatest impact on females (33.7 percent, 23.7 percent)
(Figure B).
Figure A
Figure B
Obesity
Total serum cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L
LINZ
NNS97
LINZ
NNS97
40%
20%
35%
NZ population
NZ population
15%
10%
30%
25%
20%
5%
15%
0%
Male
Female
Male
Female
Have We Changed?
183
184
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
0.27
0.33
0.34
0.45
0.36
0.41
1.65
1.66
1.70
1.13
0.35
0.46
0.36
0.43
71.3
74.5
77.8
80.4
65.1
68.7
82.3
87.3
72.2
75.2
77.4
78.9
64.4
67.1
Mean
76.7–78.1
78.0–79.8
63.7–65.1
66.2–67.9
79.1–85.5
84.0–90.6
68.9–75.6
73.0–77.4
70.8–71.9
73.8–75.1
77.2–78.5
79.6–81.3
64.4–65.8
67.9–69.5
Weight (kg)
SEM
95% C.I.1
*
NS
NS
NS
*
*
*
Difference 2
C.I. = confidence interval.
* = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
All
LINZ
NNS
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ Maori
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ European & Others
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
Table G2.1
175.4
175.4
162.4
162.2
174.1
174.4
162.7
162.1
168.7
168.6
175.3
175.3
162.4
162.2
Mean
0.20
0.25
0.18
0.21
0.76
0.47
0.71
0.41
0.19
0.21
0.20
0.23
0.18
0.18
175.0–175.8
174.9–175.9
162.0–162.8
161.8–162.7
172.6–175.6
173.5–175.3
161.3–164.1
161.3–162.9
168.4–169.1
168.2–169.0
174.9–175.7
174.8–175.7
162.1–162.8
161.9–162.6
BODY SIZE I
Height (cm)
SEM
95% C.I. 1
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Difference 2
25.2
25.6
24.5
25.5
27.2
28.7
27.3
28.7
25.0
26.1
25.3
26.2
24.7
26.1
Mean
0.11
0.13
0.14
0.16
0.59
0.53
0.61
0.42
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.13
0.14
0.15
25.0–25.4
25.4–25.9
24.2–24.7
25.2–25.8
26.0–28.3
27.6–29.7
26.1–28.5
27.8–29.5
24.9–25.2
25.9–26.3
25.1–25.5
25.9–26.4
24.5–25.0
25.8–26.4
BMI (kg/m2)
SEM 95% C.I. 1
*
NS
NS
NS
*
*
*
Difference 2
Have We Changed?
185
4
3
2
1
0.60
0.70
0.75
1.06
0.94
1.00
4.24
3.80
3.60
3.04
0.75
1.09
0.97
1.07
11.1
17.0
9.5
14.7
12.6
19.2
19.6
27.0
17.5
27.9
8.9
12.6
11.8
16.7
Mean
7.31–10.25
10.42–14.69
9.93–13.73
14.65–18.85
11.29–27.90
19.54–34.43
10.49–24.60
21.93–33.85
9.87–12.24
15.62–18.37
8.02–10.96
12.61–16.78
10.71–14.39
17.26–21.20
Obesity 1 (%)
SEM
95% C.I. 3
*
*
NS
NS
*
*
*
Difference
4
33.1
46.8
20.2
34.4
32.6
47.5
40.9
38.0
27.4
41.4
33.1
47.6
22.0
35.6
Mean
BODY SIZE II
1.29
1.76
1.18
1.44
5.34
4.54
5.20
3.19
0.85
1.03
1.25
1.61
1.17
1.27
30.57–35.65
43.33–50.22
17.90–22.54
31.61–37.27
22.12–43.06
38.62–56.44
30.72–51.12
31.74–44.25
25.75–29.08
39.43–43.47
30.63–35.53
44.41–50.73
19.68–24.28
33.06–38.05
W/H excess 2 (%)
SEM
95% C.I. 3
*
*
NS
NS
*
*
*
Difference 4
Percentage of NZ Maori and Pacific people with BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2, NZ European and Others with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. The LINZ data have
been recalculated for these BMI cutoffs.
Percentage with a W/H ratio > 0.9 for men and > 0.8 for women.
C.I. = confidence interval.
* = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
All
LINZ
NNS
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ Maori
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ European & Others
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
Table G2.2
186
NZ Food: NZ People
2
1
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.13
0.20
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.04
5.9
5.7
5.8
5.7
6.0
5.7
5.6
6.0
5.7
5.3
5.8
5.7
6.1
5.8
5.77–5.91
5.59–5.78
5.98–6.13
5.73–5.89
5.36–5.87
5.64–6.41
5.51–5.96
5.10–5.43
5.88–5.98
5.67–5.78
5.75–5.98
5.63–5.81
5.96–6.10
5.66–5.81
*
NS
*
NS
*
NS
*
27.0
22.9
34.5
25.6
22.6
27.6
22.8
10.0
30.2
23.4
26.6
23.2
33.7
23.7
1.21
1.63
1.41
1.37
4.63
5.46
4.15
3.32
0.89
0.99
1.16
1.54
1.34
1.25
24.58–29.33
19.73–26.13
31.75–37.27
22.96–28.33
13.53–31.68
16.85–38.26
14.66–30.94
3.51–16.53
28.43–31.93
21.49–25.39
24.32–28.89
20.18–26.21
31.04–36.30
21.25–26.14
*
NS
NS
NS
*
NS
*
CHOLESTEROL
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)
Total cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L (%)
1
2
Mean SEM
95% C.I. Difference Mean SEM
95% C.I.1 Difference 2
C.I. = confidence interval.
* = Significant difference at 0.05. NS = Non significant difference.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
All
LINZ
NNS
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ Maori
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
NZ European & Others
Males
LINZ
NNS
Females
LINZ
NNS
Table G2.3
References
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References
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Salmond C, Crampton P and Sutton F. 1998. NZDep96. Index of Deprivation. Research Report No.8.
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188
NZ Food: NZ People
Explanatory Notes
Tables
1. All data have been weighted 13, to compensate for sampling bias, in a three step process:
i.
determination of each participant’s probability of selection into the survey sample supplied
by Statistics NZ
ii.
adjustment of the response rate to correct for differences occurring between days of the
week and months of the year
iii. post-stratification by age, sex and ethnicity to the New Zealand population as at the 1996
Census.
2. Cell sizes are included in Table I for the different sections of the survey. When the sample size
in the cell was less than 25 it was considered insufficient to provide a reliable population estimate
and the data are not presented. Where the sample size was 25 ≤ n < 50, an asterisk (*) is shown
next to the data to indicate that caution should be exercised in interpretation.
3. In some cases where numbers are insufficient to provide reliable estimates, data are presented
in collapsed age groups only. Examples of this are Tables D3 – D5.
4. Sampling error: The NNS97 used a complex sampling design which involved both stratification
and clustering. It is therefore not appropriate to calculate standard errors using formulae that
assume simple random sampling. To assist readers a guide to the level of sampling error present
in population proportions has been prepared (Table 2). These sampling errors have been
calculated as:
sampling error = 1.96
deff x p(1 – p)
n
where deff is the ratio of the variance calculated from the actual survey estimate, to the variance
on the estimate had it been calculated assuming a simple random sample of the same size. Since
deff varies for health characteristics and subpopulations (age groups, sex, ethnic groups etc)
within the characteristics an average deff value (calculated over several subpopulations over a
wide selection of variables) was used in the sampling error equation.
5. Derivation of ethnic group. Where only one ethnic group was given, that category was coded.
In cases where participants stated that they belonged to more than one ethnic group, a single
ethnic category was assigned to that person using a system of priority recording of ethnicity.
The following hierarchical rules 14 were applied:
i.
If NZ Måori was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned to NZ
Måori.
ii.
If any of the Pacific groups was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned
to Pacific people.
iii. All remaining participants were assigned to NZ European & Others.
13 Weighting is based on participation in the 24 hour diet recall. Although individuals did not necessarily participate in all
sections of the survey, only one weight was created (similar to 1996/97 Health Survey). The creation of individual
weights for the different sections were considered but rejected, as drop off rates were similar across demographic
variables (e.g. ethnic groups).
14 This system of hierarchical recording of ethnicity was consistent with the 1996/97 Health Survey.
Explanatory Notes
189
6. NZDep96. This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual
(Salmond et al 1998). The scale ranges from quartile I to quartile IV, where quartile I represents
the least deprived areas to live in and quartile IV the most deprived areas to live in. See Appendix
C for further information.
7. Metropolitan/Provincial. Individuals were classified as living in a metropolitan area if their
residential address was in an urban centre with a population ≥ 30,000. All other individuals
were classified as provincial.
8. SEM. This is the abbreviation used for the standard error of the mean.
Text
Italics have been used in the text to indicate actual response choices of participants.
Only statistically significant differences among various groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) have been
discussed in the text. It was not always possible to carry out an appropriate statistical test because
of factors such as the complex sampling design, and the distribution of the particular health
characteristic (e.g. differences in median alcohol consumption). When this occurs it is noted in the
text.
Differences in nutrient medians were calculated using the following pivotal quantity:
Q=
T1 – T2
ST2 + S2T
1
2
where T1 and T2 are the estimates of the medians from subgroup 1 and subgroup 2 respectively,
and S1 and S2 are the standard errors for these estimates. These pivotal quantities were then
statistically tested for a significant difference by comparing the observed quantity with that of the
two-tailed normal critical value at the 95 percent level of significance. Refer to Appendix B for
further information on the nutrient analysis.
Differences in proportions between subgroups (for example percentage hypertensive) were
considered to be significant if the 95th percentile confidence limits surrounding the two estimates
did not overlap. Differences in means (for example height, blood pressure) were also assessed
using confidence limits. Again the difference was considered significant if the confidence limits
surrounding the two estimates did not overlap. It should be noted that testing for a significant
difference between two subgroups using the above method of comparing confidence intervals is a
conservative method.
No trend analysis was undertaken, nor was any adjustment made for multiple testing.
Figures
Data for age groups have been plotted at the mid-point of each age group.
190
NZ Food: NZ People
Explanatory Notes
191
192
NZ Food: NZ People
1
Initial
4636
109
145
759
588
211
115
1927
137
209
1205
667
296
195
2709
396
430
450
651
486
581
663
979
1290
637
1856
853
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
294
51
391
51
77
49
67
106
94
85
93
124
Repeat
695
26
27
131
82
19
14
299
23
39
186
83
40
25
396
24 hour diet recall
New Zealand
population
(‘000)
2656
99
152
516
345
111
58
1281
96
157
554
352
124
92
1375
Repeat 24 hour recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only.
NZ Pop’n (Age 15+)
Males
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
Females
15–18
19–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Total
NZDep96 Quartiles
Males
I
II
III
IV
Females
I
II
III
IV
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females
Metropolitan
Provincial
Table I
1283
635
1851
848
396
428
447
647
485
580
663
971
1274
630
1837
835
394
425
443
642
484
574
659
955
1283
635
1847
844
396
429
447
646
484
579
663
965
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
Dietary
Qualitative
supplements
food
Barriers to
used over the frequency
change/ food
last year
questionnaire
security
4617
4576
4609
107
105
107
145
142
145
757
746
757
585
585
585
211
209
211
113
117
113
1918
1904
1918
137
133
137
209
203
208
1199
1191
1197
664
660
662
296
292
294
194
193
193
2699
2672
2691
1249
616
1722
792
391
424
440
610
457
548
625
884
Blood
pressure
4379
105
139
733
572
206
110
1865
131
187
1112
637
273
174
2514
1250
622
1746
802
394
422
437
619
462
552
630
904
Anthropometry
4420
104
141
738
572
208
109
1872
132
188
1115
647
284
182
2548
1001
483
1320
565
320
353
360
451
369
424
484
608
Blood
analysis
3369
68
116
586
463
170
81
1484
75
146
867
471
196
130
1885
Explanatory Notes
193
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ European & Others
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
NZ Maori
Males
Table I cont.
168
587
788
1543
198
848
1036
2082
30
53
33
116
47
109
35
191
15
24
12
52
16
27
14
57
190
425
466
1081
188
450
515
1153
56
119
93
268
101
248
87
436
Initial
32
101
95
228
39
128
135
302
8
16
8
32
13
36
5
54
13
14
12
39
10
22
8
40
Repeat
24 hour diet recall
45
67
36
148
48
77
39
165
New Zealand
population
(‘000)
168
586
786
1540
198
844
1033
2075
28
53
33
114
47
109
35
191
56
118
90
264
101
246
86
433
166
580
787
1533
196
845
1030
2071
28
50
33
111
46
105
32
183
53
116
91
260
94
241
83
418
168
585
786
1539
197
843
1028
2068
28
53
33
114
47
109
35
191
56
119
90
265
101
245
86
432
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
Dietary
Qualitative
supplements
food
Barriers to
used over the frequency
change/ food
last year
questionnaire
security
168
569
771
1508
187
799
974
1960
24
49
29
102
42
90
33
165
52
115
88
255
89
223
77
389
Blood
pressure
168
573
770
1511
187
800
999
1986
26
48
31
105
42
93
33
168
51
117
88
256
91
222
81
394
Anthropometry
134
463
634
1231
138
655
735
1528
16
36
19
71
22
57
16
95
34
87
61
182
61
155
46
262
Blood
analysis
194
NZ Food: NZ People
3
2
1
50%
25%
17%
14%
12%
10%
9%
8%
7%
7%
6%
6%
6%
4%
3%
3%
2%
The values in the table are 1.96 x SE, therefore p +/- the value are the 95% confidence limits. For example, if 30% of the sample
choose a particular response (sample size = 100) we can be 95% confident that the correct percentage lies between 19 and
41% (30% +/- 11%).
Note that the sample error on a proportion estimate p (where p > 50%) is the same as that of a proportion estimate 1-p produced
using the same sized sample.
The lower limit of these confidence intervals are zero.
EFFECT OF SAMPLE SIZE ON ACCURACY OF ESTIMATED PROPORTIONS 1
Proportion 2
Sample size 5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
3
3
3
25
11%
15%
18%
20%
21%
23%
24%
24%
25%
10%
12%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
50
8% 3
3
75
6%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
14%
14%
100
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
11%
12%
12%
12%
150
4%
6%
7%
8%
9%
9%
10%
10%
10%
200
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
250
3%
5%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
300
3%
4%
5%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
350
3%
4%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
400
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
450
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
500
2%
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
1000
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
4%
1500
1%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
3%
3%
3%
2500
1%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
4500
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
Table II
Appendix A
Survey Methodology
Linking with Health Survey
The NNS97 was conducted in association with the 1996/97 Health Survey. The 1996/97 Health
Survey was conducted by Statistics New Zealand and was a nation-wide survey involving
approximately 9,000 New Zealanders over a 12 month period. At the conclusion of the 1996/97
Health Survey interview, individuals were asked to participate in the NNS97. The linkage of the
two surveys had the potential to significantly enhance the value of both data collections and will
provide a comprehensive picture of the health and nutrition patterns of New Zealanders aged 15
years and older. Nevertheless, this approach was not optimal for maximising sample size, since
some respondents were ‘lost to follow-up’.
Survey Design
An area based sampling frame was used with a three stage stratified design consisting of a selection
of primary sampling units (PSUs), households within the selected PSU, and a single randomly
selected respondent within a household. A detailed description of the survey design is included
in Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and
Watts 1997).
Survey Sample
As for most surveys, the sample design was influenced by statistical, financial and operational
considerations. The NNS97 covered rural and urban areas across New Zealand but was restricted
to persons living in private dwellings. Only one person per dwelling was invited to take part in
the 1996/97 Health Survey and, therefore, in the NNS97. The total number of respondents was
4,636, including an oversampling of NZ Måori and Pacific people.
Survey Methods
24 hour diet recall: The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured
into three steps (passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick
list’, involved respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed
in the previous day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight). In the second pass, a detailed
description of each food or beverage item on the quick list was ascertained through a series of
questions and prompts (generated by the programme) which were specific to each item. The third
and final step was a review of the recall. Further details about this methodology are included in
Appendix B Technical Notes.
Food Frequency Questionnaire: This was a self-administered, qualitative questionnaire which
estimated the frequency of intake of foods over the preceding 12 months or in the case of seasonal
foods, the consumption frequency when they were ‘in season’. This questionnaire also included
questions on food preparation habits for example, use of fats/oils in cooking. This instrument was
developed and piloted by the University of Otago’s LINZ® Research Unit under a separate contract
with the Ministry of Health. This questionnaire was designed so the data could be electronically
scanned. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix E.
Appendix A
195
Food-related questions: A number of additional food-related questions on dietary supplements,
barriers to change and food security were included in the survey. These were asked after the
24 hour diet recall and were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS® software.
Environmental chemicals: A small number of questions on exposure to dioxins, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides were included. These data will be reported by
the Ministry for the Environment in a separate report.
Physical measurements: Physical measurements collected were weight, height, circumferences
(waist, hip and arm), two skinfolds (triceps and subscapular) and elbow breadth. Blood pressure
was also measured. These data were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS®
software. The results of physical measurements were sent to the respondent if requested.
Blood sample: A standard blood sample was taken for the purpose of measuring mean cell volume,
haematocrit, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum iron, erythrocyte protoporphyrin, white blood
cell count, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol and environmental chemicals.
Transferrin receptors were measured on females aged 15–34 years.
Details of the methodologies are included in the Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National
Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). This document can be downloaded
from the Ministry of Health Web site at http://www.moh.govt.nz
Quality Control of Data
Quality control of the data was of primary concern and the difficulty of maintaining the control
was compounded by the fact that data collection covered a 12 month period, 16 different sets of
equipment were used, 49 different people were involved in data collection and staff were based
throughout New Zealand. A number of different data quality control initiatives including ongoing
staff training and monitoring, use of computer-based data capture, equipment calibration, ongoing review of interview data and telephone checks were thus required. Details of these procedures
are described in Wilson and Russell (1998).
Collection of Data
The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents by two trained interviewers.
Respondent Burden
This was an important consideration in the design of the NNS97 methodologies. The constraints
of a survey setting are different from those of clinical and epidemiological settings. The NNS97
respondents were selected by Statistics New Zealand according to the procedures outlined above,
so that survey results could be generalised to the New Zealand population. The methods were
developed to be efficient and to burden the respondent as little as possible, both in terms of time
and effort. Respondents in the 1996/97 Health Survey and the NNS97 were visited in their homes
on different occasions by different interviewers for two lengthy interviews. Because participation
was voluntary, most respondents whom NNS97 interviewers encountered were motivated and
comfortable about participating.
Ethical Issues
Ethical approval for the survey was granted by 14 ethics committees throughout New Zealand.
Participation in the survey was voluntary, and written consent before the interview began was
required from the respondent, or from the guardian of respondents under 18 years.
196
NZ Food: NZ People
New Zealand Maori and Pacific People Consultation
The NNS97 project team’s NZ Måori principal investigator, Dr Papaarangi Reid, was supported
by Consultants Professor Mason Durie, medical consultant of Te Pumanawa Hauora Måori Health
Research Unit, Massey University, and Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare
League. Bishop Bennett was also involved through the Måori Statistical Forum which had input
via the Ministry of Health. The principal investigator for Pacific people was Dr Colin Tukuitonga,
Måori and Pacific Health Unit, University of Auckland, with individuals from each of the main
Pacific groups providing advice, guidance and support for the project team and the field staff.
Local New Zealand Måori support people were also involved.
Response Analysis
The response rate for the 1996/97 Health Survey was 73.8 percent (Statistics NZ 1997). Of those
respondents to the 1996/97 Health Survey who were asked to consent to having their personal
information (name, address, telephone number) passed to the University of Otago for contacting
to participate in the NNS97, 80.2 percent agreed (n = 5,613).
Four thousand six hundred and thirty six completed the 24 hour diet recall and 977 did not
participate for the following reasons:
698
refused
147
unable to be located
100
completed the qualitative food frequency questionnaire
27
ill
5
deceased.
Statistics NZ (personal communication Feb 1998) calculated this as a response rate of 84.7 percent,
allowing for the survey design.
The overall response rate taking into account the three step procedure for recruitment of participants
was 50.1 percent.
Survey Non Response
There are several types of bias that can occur in surveys. Selection bias occurs when particular
subgroups of the population do not respond in the same proportion as other subgroups in the
population. This may then cause biased survey estimates of collected variables. For example, a
representative sample size of 500 is selected from a population to investigate nutrient intake.
Suppose also that 400 people from this sample are considered to have excellent health, while 100
are considered to have poor health. Selection bias through non-response will occur if, for example,
75 percent of the people with excellent health respond but only 30 percent of the people with poor
health respond. When estimates of nutritional variables are calculated (such as usual daily mean
energy intake) they may be biased towards a healthy population.
NNS97 was ‘piggybacked’ on the 1996/97 Health Survey. This meant that participants of the
1996/97 Health Survey were also asked to participate in NNS97. There were therefore three stages
at which participants could drop out. Initially, they could refuse to participate in the 1996/97
Health Survey. If they did participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey they could refuse to have their
name passed on to the University of Otago for participation in the NNS97. Finally, participants of
Appendix A
197
the 1996/97 Health Survey who initially agreed to participate in the NNS97 could refuse when
contacted.
Information was not available to investigate non-response of those who did not participate in the
1996/97 Health Survey, and chose not to participate in the NNS97. However, information was
available to investigate non-response of those who participated in the 1996/97 Health Survey, but
then chose not to participate in the NNS97. Non-response for this group of people was
investigated by selecting particular variables collected from the 1996/97 Health Survey that were
thought to be related to diet, for example, age group, ethnic group, sex, marital status, labour
force status, smoking status. Response rates to each variable were then compared between the
two surveys. It was found from this analysis that for the variables selected the two samples were
very similar, suggesting the NNS97 sample had similar characteristics to the 1996/97 Health Survey
sample.
198
NZ Food: NZ People
Appendix B Technical Notes
Development of 24 Hour Diet Recall Methodology
The first step in the development of this methodology was to review the use of methodologies in
use in other large national surveys. The 24 hour diet recall methodology is widely regarded as the
only suitable dietary survey methodology to be used in national surveys which aim to determine
the food and nutrient intake of the population. Following the decision to collect the data in the
home, a decision was made to use methodology similar to that which the Australians used in their
1995 National Nutrition Survey. This was refined from the methodology used by the Continuing
Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals 1994-96 (CSFII) of the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA). Permission was granted to use and adapt the instruments and associated
booklets used in the Australian survey. This methodology was further developed and modified
by the LINZ® Research Unit’s NNS97 Project Team to New Zealand conditions and adapted to a
direct computer data entry system (the LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System –
LEDDAS©).
The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured into three steps
(passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick list’, involved
respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed in the previous
day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight).
In the next stage, a detailed description of each food or beverage item on the quick list was
ascertained through a series of programme-controlled questions and prompts specific to each
item. Questions for each item included: time of consumption, amount eaten, any additions made
prior to consumption (i.e. eaten in combination with other foods, for example, potatoes with butter),
the cooking method, fats used in preparation and recipe where appropriate. If the respondent did
not know the recipe of a mixed item, probe questions about ingredients likely to influence the fat
content of the food (for example type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used) were asked. If the
respondent was able to supply some information about these ingredients it was used to modify a
standard recipe (see nutrient analysis section).
For any foods from a category where fortification was permitted, brand and product names were
requested. Where the respondent had the packaging available, a bar code scanner was used to
record information directly. The amount of food or beverages consumed was described by volume
using cups, spoons, food photographs and shape dimensions. Alternatively, a help file was available
containing weights of common servings or measures of specified items (e.g. one slice of bread)
and conversions from the raw to cooked form. When the respondent supplied a recipe the amount
of each ingredient was obtained and the portion of the whole dish eaten was recorded.
The third and final pass was a review of the recall. The interviewer read aloud the foods eaten in
chronological order and verified the descriptions and amounts consumed with the respondent. A
final question checked whether anything had been omitted from the recall. Any information that
was forgotten or incorrectly entered was added or edited at this stage, although editing facilities
were available throughout the recall. Entry errors were minimised by warning messages, for
example, seeking confirmation of unusually large volumes or amounts of the food eaten.
A comprehensive food list, which comprised all of the known foods and beverages available for
consumption in New Zealand, was contained within the programme. Foods eaten were entered in
a format consistent with the names used in this list to produce standardised descriptions. The
series of item specific questions in the second pass of the recall ensured food items were described
in sufficient detail to enable accurate matching with food composition data. This minimised possible
Appendix B
199
variation between interviewers as they were read from the computer screen to respondents. A
notepad function allowed interviewers to record any additional information about foods eaten by
the respondent.
Dietary Analysis
Nutrient Analysis
Food and beverages from the 24hr diet recall were electronically matched to food composition
data to calculate nutrient intake. The primary source of food composition information was the
New Zealand Food Composition Database (NZFCD) which contains the composition of
approximately 2,000 foods and was compiled by Crop and Food Research Ltd (1998). Detailed
food composition analytical techniques for nutrients included in the NZFCD are in Burlingame et
al (1997). Table I provides an outline of the analytical techniques. If a direct match with information
in the NZFCD was not available and the frequency of use was high relative to other foods, additional
nutrient composition data was sought either from overseas databases (Australian, USDA and
British) if applicable, or the food item was prioritised for New Zealand analysis.
When a food or beverage could not be completely described by the respondent (for example the
person had milk but did not know the type) it was matched to a composite of the various types of
milk weighted to reflect use reported in the survey.
Foods that were fortified at the commencement of data collection (2 December 1996) were identified
by the New Zealand Therapeutic Database (NZTD) which obtained fortificant levels from the
manufacturer. Crop and Food Research Ltd (CFR) then incorporated these levels into existing
nutrient information for the corresponding food to create brand and product name specific nutrient
composition. Products fortified during the 12 month survey period or changes in fortificant levels
could not be taken into account due to an unknown and variable time lag between a change in
manufacturing procedure and product consumption.
If a recipe could not be supplied for a mixed food item eaten it was matched to a standard recipe.
Preparation of ‘standard recipes’ was carried out by examination of appropriate recipes from the
Australian survey and checking commonly used recipes from top selling New Zealand cook books.
Modifications were made to standard recipe ingredients to correspond with frequent responses to
the ingredient probe questions (e.g. type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used). These modified
recipes were matched to mixed food items where the respondent, although unable to supply the
entire recipe, had been able to give some ingredient information in response to the probe questions.
The nutrient composition of these recipes, allowing for weight and nutrient loss in cooking, was
calculated by CFR.
Dietary Sources
Food items reported as consumed in the 24hr diet recall, have been allocated to groups to calculate
dietary sources of nutrients. Table II outlines the groups and illustrates the designation of food
items. The following issues require explanation:
1. Grouping of components of mixed dishes: Respondents who consumed a mixed dish, such as
macaroni cheese, may or may not have known the recipe. If the recipe was supplied by the
respondent the ingredients were entered individually i.e. each ingredient was separately
allocated to the appropriate group. When the exact recipe was unknown, information regarding
content was sought from the participant, for example, whether meat was added to the macaroni
cheese, in order to identify which recipe provided the best nutrient match. In this situation
where there was nutrient composition information only for the dish as a whole, it was grouped
200
NZ Food: NZ People
accordingly. For example, macaroni cheese would be assigned to ‘grains and pasta’ since pasta
is the main ingredient.
2. Alcoholic beverages: These were considered as an aggregate group for all analyses, except sources
of alcohol, where the sub-groups have been used to examine the contribution of the various
beverage types to alcohol intake.
3. Comparisons of dietary sources of nutrients with results of the 1989 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey:
While many of the groups are essentially the same as those used in the LINZ survey, food
consumption patterns have changed considerably in the last eight years and a new food group
classification was required. Consequently, food items may fall into different groups and direct
comparison of results warrants caution. Asterisks (*) in Table II indicate that this is not a directly
comparable group to 1989.
C-SIDE – Software for Intake Distribution Estimation
It is important to assess the distribution of a population’s usual intake for a particular dietary
component (for example protein intake), where usual intake of that nutrient for an individual is
defined as the long-run average for that individual. The distribution of a dietary component based
on an individual’s one day intake is wider than that of individual’s usual intake, since an
individual’s day-to-day diet is likely to be highly variable.
The software package C-SIDE (developed by Iowa State University) was used in the NNS97 to
estimate the distribution of usual intakes of dietary components. This software can be used when
daily intake observations are repeated at least once on a subsample of the individuals in the
population.
To estimate the distribution of usual intakes of a dietary component an assumption that the data
is normally distributed is required. Nutrient data is generally non-normal, and can be particularly
extreme in some nutrients (for example retinol, vitamin A). To remedy this problem C-SIDE uses
a combination of a power and grafted polynomial transformation.
The method used by C-SIDE to estimate usual intake distributions consists of the four major tasks:
preliminary data adjustments, semiparametric transformation to normality, estimation of within
and between individual variances for intakes, and finally back transformation into the original
scale. These tasks, described below, are summaries of those found in the C-SIDE User’s Guide.
Detailed information describing the C-SIDE methodology can be found in Nusser et al (1996) and
Dodd (1996).
a. Preliminary data adjustments
Preliminary data adjustments include shifting observed intake data by a small amount away
from zero, incorporating survey weights by creating an equal weights sample, and correcting
for the effect of sample day (first versus all the rest) on the mean and variance of the distribution
of observed intakes.
Appendix B
201
Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients*
Nutrient
INFOODS
Tagname1
Units
Description/synonym/method
Energy
ENERC
kJ
Energy, calculated (protein = 16.7 kJ/g; total
fat = 37.7 kJ/g; available carbohydrate =
16.7 kJ/g; alcohol = 29.3 kJ/g).
Protein
PROCNT
g
Protein, calculated from total nitrogen; generally
FAO/WHO conversions factors.
Total fat
FAT
g
Total fat/total lipid; several methods depending on
food matrix.
Saturated fat
FASAT
g
Sum of individual saturated fatty acids; GC of
methyl esters.
Monounsaturated fat
FAMS
g
Sum of individual monounsaturated fatty acids; GC of
methyl esters.
Polyunsaturated fat
FAPU
g
Sum of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids; GC of
methyl esters.
Cholesterol
CHOLE
mg
Cholesterol, GC.
Carbohydrate
CHOAVL
g
Available carbohydrate; sum on mono-, di- and oligosaccharides, starch and glycogen; or enzymic
digestion and colorimetry.
Dietary fibre
PSACNS
g
Non-starch polysaccharides/fibre; Englyst method.
Insoluble non-starch
polysaccharides
PSACNSI
g
Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst
method.
Soluble non-starch
polysaccharides
PSACNSS
g
Soluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst method.
Total sugars
SUGAR
g
Total available sugars, sum of individual mono- and
di-saccharides; GC or HPLC.
Glucose
GLUS
g
Available glucose, sum of individual d-glucose
monosaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Fructose
FRUS
g
Available fructose, sum of individual d-fructose
monosaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Sucrose
SUCS
g
Available sucrose, sum of individual sucrose
disaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Lactose
LACS
g
Available lactose, sum of individual lactose
disaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Maltose
MALS
g
Available maltose, sum of individual maltose
disaccharides; GC or HPLC.
Starch
STARCH
g
Starch; enzymic digestion and colorimetry.
Alcohol
ALC
g
Alcohol/ethyl alcohol, hydrometer or GC.
Vitamin A equivalents
VITA
µg
Total vitamin A equivalents/retinol equivalents;
equals (µg retinol ) + (0.166 x µg β-carotene
equivalents); HPLC.
202
NZ Food: NZ People
Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients* cont.
1
Nutrient
INFOODS
Tagname1
Units
Description/synonym/method
Retinol
RETNOL
µg
All trans retinol only, HPLC.
β -carotene
CARTBEQ
µg
Beta-carotene equivalents; equals (µg β-carotene)
+ (0.5 x µg other provitamin A carotenoids); HPLC.
Vitamin C
VITC
mg
Vitamin C; HPLC and titration.
Vitamin E
VITE
mg
Vitamin E/α - tocopherol equivalents; equals (mg α tocopherol ) + (0.4 x mg β - tocopherol) + (0.1 x mg
gamma-tocopherol) + (0.01 x mg delta-tocopherol) +
(0.3 x mg alpha-tocotrienol) + (0.05 x mg β tocotrienol) + (0.01 x mg gamma-tocotrienol); HPLC.
Thiamin
THIA
mg
Thiamin; HPLC, fluorescence detection of
thiochrome.
Riboflavin
RIBF
mg
Riboflavin; HPLC, fluorescence detection.
Niacin equivalents
NIAEQ
mg
Total niacin equivalents; equals (mg pre-formed
niacin (HPLC, UV detection)) + (1/60 x mg tryptophan
(HPLC)).
Vitamin B6
VITB6C
mg
Vitamin B6; HPLC, fluorescence detection.
Vitamin B12
VITB12
µg
Vitamin B12; microbiological.
Folate
FOL
µg
Folate, total; radioassay or microbiological.
Calcium
CA
mg
Calcium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Phosphorus
P
mg
Phosphorus, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Magnesium
MG
mg
Magnesium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Iron
FE
mg
Iron, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.
Zinc
ZN
mg
Zinc, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.
Potassium
K
mg
Potassium; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Selenium
SE
µg
Selenium; fluorometry or wet ashing ICP-AES.
Manganese
MN
mg
Manganese; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Copper
CU
mg
Copper; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.
Klensin JC, Feskanich D, Lin V, Truswell AS, and Southgate DAT 1989. Identification of Food Components for INFOODS
Data Interchange. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. The up-to-date listing can be found on the World Wide Web
[http://www.fao.org/infoods/].
* The information in this table was adapted by R Quigley, Ministry of Health, from Burlingame et al, 1997.
Appendix B
203
Table II: Food Groups
Food Group
Grains and pasta*
Bread*
Breakfast cereal
Biscuits
Cakes and muffins*
Bread-based dishes*
Puddings
Milk
Dairy products
Cheese
Eggs and egg dishes
Butter and margarine
Fats and oils*
Beef and veal
Lamb/mutton
Pork
Poultry
Other meat*
Sausages and processed
meats*
Pies and pasties
Fish/seafood
Vegetables*
Potatoes and kumara*
Snack foods*
Fruits
Nuts and seeds*
Sugar/sweets*
Soups and stocks
Sauces*
Non-alcoholic beverages*
Alcoholic beverages
Beer
Wine
Spirits
Liqueurs and cocktails
Other alcohol
Meal replacements*
Examples of food items included
Rice (fried/risotto), flour, pasta (filled/with sauce /lasagne), bran,
wheatgerm, barley, semolina
All types bread (rolls, pita, foccacia, garlic), bagels, English muffins,
crumpets, sweet buns
All types cereals (muesli, porridge, puffed/flakes/extruded & bran
cereals)
Sweet biscuits, crackers, muesli bars
All cakes and muffins, slices, scones, pancakes, doughnuts, pastry
Sandwiches, filled rolls, hamburgers, pizza, samosas, wontons, spring
rolls
Milk puddings, cheesecake, fruit crumbles & pies, mousse, steamed
sponges, Pavlova
Cow, soy & goat milk, flavoured milk, milkshakes, milk powder
Cream, sour cream, yoghurt, dairy food, ice-cream
Cheddar, edam, speciality (blue, brie, feta etc), ricotta, cream cheese,
cottage cheese, processed cheese
Poached, boiled, scrambled and fried eggs, omelettes, self-crusting
quiches
Butter, margarine (poly- and mono-unsaturated), butter/margarine
blends
Dripping, lard, canola, olive, sunflower and vegetable oils
All muscle meats (steak, mince, corned beef, roast etc), casseroles/
stews, stir-fries
All muscle meats (chops, mince, roast etc), casseroles/stews, curries
All muscle meats (roast, chop, schnitzel etc), bacon, ham, casseroles/
stews, stir-fries
All chicken, duck, turkey and muttonbird muscle meats (breast, leg,
wing etc), casseroles/stews and stir-fries
Venison, rabbit, tongue, kidney, heart, liver (lambs fry), pâté (liver),
sweetbreads
Sausages, luncheon, frankfurters, saveloy/cheerios, salami, meatloaf
and patties
All pies including potato top, pasties, savouries, sausage rolls, quiche
with pastry
All fish and dishes (canned, battered, fingers etc), shellfish, squid
All vegetables including mixes, coleslaw, green salads, legumes and
pulses, tofu
Mashed, boiled, baked, scalloped etc potatoes and kumara, hot chips,
crisps, hash browns
Corn chips, popcorn, extruded snacks (burger rings etc), mixes
(scroggin)
Fresh, canned, cooked and dried fruits
Peanuts, almonds, sunflower and sesame seeds, tahini, coconut milk &
cream
Sugars, syrups, confectionery, chocolate, jam, marmalade, honey, jelly,
sweet toppings
All instant and home-made soups, stocks and stock powder
Gravy, tomato & cream based sauces, mint, tartare and cheese sauces,
mayonnaise, oil and vinegar dressings, chutney, marmite
All teas, coffee & substitutes, Milo, hot chocolate, juices, cordial, soft
drinks, water
All types including reduced alcohol
White, red, sparkling, mulled, saki (rice wine)
Vodka, gin, brandy, rum
All types including spirits and mixes, cream based
Wine cooler, cider, alcoholic soda, sherry, port
Complan, Ensure, Vitaplan
* Not comparable with 1989 LINZ Survey
204
NZ Food: NZ People
b. Semiparametric transformation to normality
Observed intake data (whether adjusted or not) generally have non-normal distributions. For
nutrients such as vitamins and some micro nutrients, skewness is quite extreme.
Most statistical procedures rely on the assumption of normality. The C-SIDE procedure
transforms adjusted dietary intake data into normality as part of obtaining estimates of usual
intake distributions.
The transformation into normality in C-SIDE is done in two steps. In the first step, data are
transformed so that their distribution is as close to normal as possible, by using a power
transformation. However, power transformed data are not necessarily normal. Thus, a second
transformation which takes the power transformed intakes into the normal scale is employed.
This second step in the transformation is nonparametric and is based on a grafted polynomial
model. The power transformation plus the grafted polynomial function make up the
semiparametric transformation into normality.
c. Estimation of within and between individual variances in intakes
C-SIDE uses a measurement error model for observed daily intakes, similar to the model
proposed by the National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation
(1986). The model states that the observed intake for an individual on any day is equal to that
individual’s usual intake plus a measurement error. The variance of the usual intakes is the
between individual variance. The variance of the measurement errors is the within individual
variance, and reflects the day-to-day variation in intakes for an individual.
Estimates for both the within (intra) and the between (inter) individual variances are obtained
under the measurement error model, under the assumption of normality. The variances are
used to estimate the distribution of usual intakes in the normal scale.
d. Back-transformation into the original scale
The final step in the methodology is to transform the estimated usual intake distribution from
the normal scale into the original scale. More than “undoing” the transformation into normality
by applying the inverse transformation is required because the original transformation is
nonlinear. The inverse transformation makes an adjustment for the fact that the mean of a
nonlinear function of a random variable is not the nonlinear function of the mean. The inverse
transformation is based on an approximation to the mean function. This back-transformation is
called mean transformation, since it brings the distribution of usual intakes (true individual
means) back into the original scale.
The programme estimates statistics of interest from the estimated usual intake distribution. For
example, estimates for the mean and the variance of the usual intake distribution for a nutrient,
for a set of percentiles, or for the proportion of the population below (or above) a given threshold
are available.
Appendix B
205
Adequacy of nutrient intake (probability analysis)
The adequacy of vitamin A, riboflavin, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin C, iron, calcium and zinc
intakes were evaluated by probability analysis (National Research Council Subcommittee on
Criteria for Dietary Evaluation 1986). Comparison with the mean requirement (short-cut probability
approach) was used to evaluate the intake of these nutrients except iron intakes in menstruating
females which were evaluated using full probability analysis (see below). Nutrient requirements
formulated by the United Kingdom Panel on Dietary Reference Values (UK Department of Health
1991) were used in the analysis (Table III). Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium, phosphorus
and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by probability analysis, as there were no suitable
mean requirement estimates. Niacin, thiamin and vitamin B6 could not be evaluated by probability
analysis, because the mean requirement estimates are based on a ratio, for example, vitamin B6 is
13 µg/g protein. The current C-SIDE programme does not allow for ratios to be adjusted for intraindividual variation.
Probability analysis compares nutrient intakes with the corresponding requirement distribution
and calculates the likelihood (probability) that a particular nutrient intake would fail to meet
requirement. Lower nutrient intakes are associated with a higher probability of inadequacy as
they are less likely to meet requirement, while higher nutrient intakes have a low probability of
inadequacy.
To perform full probability analysis it is necessary to know the distribution of requirements
(symmetry, mean and standard deviation) or to be able to make a reasonable assumption about
the distribution. It is reasonable to assume that the distribution of requirements for most nutrients
is normal. The only nutrient for which there is evidence to the contrary is iron requirements in
menstruating females, which are positively skewed. Each nutrient intake is compared to the
requirement distribution and the area under the requirement distribution to the right of the intake
value is the probability that intake is inadequate to meet requirement. The probabilities are then
averaged to obtain the percentage of the population with inadequate intakes.
The probability approach has been criticised because the variation in requirement (standard
deviation) is not known for many nutrients. However, it has been demonstrated that when the
requirement distribution is symmetrical (not necessarily normal) the probability approach is
relatively insensitive to the variance of requirement (National Research Council 1986). Provided
the intake distribution is wider than the requirement distribution, the mean requirement is known,
and a symmetrical (not necessarily normal) distribution can be reasonably assumed; the percentage
of the population with intakes below the mean requirement will approximate the prevalence of
inadequate intakes determined by full probability analysis (Beaton 1994). In other words, for those
whose intake is below the mean requirement, the prevalence of inadequacy is over-estimated, and
for those whose intake is above the mean requirement the prevalence is underestimated, as the
requirement distribution is symmetrical and the errors of over- and under-estimation tend to cancel
each other out.
206
NZ Food: NZ People
Table III: Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis*
Nutrient
EAR
Basis of requirement
Vitamin A
500 µg RE males
400 µg RE females
for all age groups
Supports all vitamin A dependent
functions & maintains liver stores
Riboflavin
1.0 mg males
0.9 mg females
for all age groups
Saturation of tissues with riboflavin
Folate
150 µg
for all age and sex groups
Adequate red blood cell folate &
liver storage levels (NOT the
requirement to prevent neural tube
defects)
Vitamin B12
1.25 µg
for all age and sex groups
25 mg
for all age and sex groups
Maintains liver stores
Vitamin C
Iron
Calcium
Zinc
8.7 mg males 15-18 years
6.7 mg males 19+ years
5.7 mg non-menstruating females**
Menstruating females*** : Iron intakes
were converted to absorbed iron
(assuming 15 percent absorption). Basal
losses of 0.86 mg were subtracted from
the absorbed iron intakes.These values
were log transformed & compared
with the log normalised distribution
of menstrual iron losses (-0.734 mean,
0.777 SD, log units)
750 mg males 15-18 years
625 mg females 15-18 years
525 mg males & females 19+ years
7.3 mg males
5.5 mg females
for all age groups
Mid-point between requirement to
prevent scurvy & intake which
produces measurable plasma
concentrations
Maintains normal clinical function
and supply of iron to tissues
(includes menstrual loss in women
of child-bearing age)
Support growth and match any
obligatory losses
Match losses
*
**
The EARs are from the UK Dietary Reference Values (1991)
The requirement of 5.7 mg differs from the published UK value (6.7 mg) as the UK had incorrectly assigned
the same basal loss to men and women over 50 years (G Beaton, personal communication)
*** The assumption has been made that all women under 45 years are menstruating and all women 45+ years
are not menstruating.
Appendix B
207
The requirement estimates from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values (United Kingdom
Department of Health 1991) were chosen as they are currently the only recommendations which
document the mean requirement (with the exception of some FAO/WHO reports) and they have
been formulated more recently than the Australian Recommended Nutrient Intakes. As the United
Kingdom diet is similar to the New Zealand diet in factors affecting requirement estimates (e.g.
intake of animal products), the United Kingdom nutrient requirements may be applied to the
New Zealand population. The mean requirements and the criteria the requirements are intended
to satisfy are presented in Table III.
The probability of intake being inadequate was calculated using nutrient intakes first adjusted to
remove the effects of day to day (intra-individual) variation. Details of this methodology are
included in the previous section on C-SIDE. This is important because on any given day a number
of people will have unusually low or high intakes, which are not reflective of their ‘usual’ intake.
Nutrient requirements, however, represent the required long-term average (usual) intakes, not
amounts that must be consumed each day. Without adjusting for intra-individual variation the
prevalence of inadequate intakes would be over- or under-estimated depending on where the
intake distribution lies in relation to the requirement distribution.
Evaluating nutrient intakes by probability analysis is preferable to making direct comparisons
with recommended intakes as the variation in requirement between individuals is taken into
account (National Research Council 1986). Directly comparing nutrient intakes with recommended
intakes fails to recognise that the recommended intakes are devised to be sufficient to meet the
needs of almost all healthy individuals. Consequently, an individual may still meet their own
requirement although not consuming the recommended intake.
When interpreting the prevalence of inadequate intakes it is important to note:
• The prevalence of inadequate intakes reflects the criterion on which requirement is based.
For example, if the requirement for nutrient X is based on maintaining body stores (assuming
normal losses) and it is estimated 15 percent of the population have inadequate intakes; this
indicates 15 percent are not consuming enough nutrient X to maintain body stores but does not
indicate functional impairment or a deficiency disorder. It also does not indicate which specific
individuals in the population have inadequate intakes to maintain their body stores. Table III
outlines the criteria on which the requirement estimates were based.
• Accurate assessment of whether dietary intakes are adequate requires a combination of
biochemical, anthropometric and dietary measurements. The estimates of the prevalence of
inadequate intakes serve to highlight areas which may be of concern. However, the body is
highly adaptable and enhances the absorption and/or decreases the obligatory losses of many
nutrients if dietary intake is inadequate. Conversely, it is possible that dietary intake appears
adequate but due to a high content of absorption inhibitors in the diet and/or high nutrient
losses (due to physiological or pathological factors), a deficiency results. In addition, errors in
the nutrient intake data (from over- or under-reporting and the translation of food into nutrient
intakes) introduce error into the estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intakes. Therefore,
biochemical and anthropometric measurements are required to accurately determine nutritional
status as the net effect of dietary intake and the body’s response must be taken into account
(Gibson 1990).
208
NZ Food: NZ People
Under-reporting
Under-reporting is an acknowledged problem in all types of dietary surveys. A common method
of estimating under-reporting is to calculate the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolism. Basal
metabolic rate (BMR) is most frequently computed based on height and weight using the age
specific formulas of Schofield, Schofield & James (1985). The Australian Survey (Australian Bureau
of Statistics 1998) used a formula based on weight only. However, the population on which the
Schofield equations were developed was ‘normal’ (to a maximum weight of 84 kg) and not obese.
Extrapolating the calculation of BMR for weights beyond 84 kg has an inherent error as the
assumption being made is that Lean Body Mass (the primary determinant of BMR) increases in
proportion to absolute mass. Over 25 percent of this survey population had a weight exceeding 84
kg, and thus further work will be required before an appropriate BMR can be calculated for the
84+ kg group, and an accurate estimation of under-reporting calculated.
Appendix B
209
210
NZ Food: NZ People
Appendix C Glossary of Terms
Blood Pressure: Blood pressure was measured using an Omron 706c smart-inflate blood pressure
monitor. A large cuff was used for individuals with an upper arm circumference greater than
32 cm. The measurement was repeated three times and the measurements averaged.
BMI: Body Mass Index is an indicator of body fatness. It is calculated from the formula weight/
height2 where weight is in kilograms and height in metres.
Cholesterol (Serum Concentrations): These data were provided by Southern Community
Laboratories who used an enzymatic method for total cholesterol (Boehringer Mannheim, on a
Hitachi 717 automated analyser). High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was measured
directly using PEG modified enzymes (cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase) linked to a
peroxidase colorimetric reaction (Boehringer Mannheim). These methods were operated with
International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control procedures and
underwent fortnightly peer review through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality
Assurance programme.
C-reactive Protein: The C-reactive protein was measured by Southern Community Laboratories
using nephelometry on a Behring Nepelometer (BNA). This method was operated in accordance
with International Accreditation New Zealand approved quality control procedures and peer
reviewed through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality Assurance programme.
C-SIDE: This is the abbreviation for the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation developed
by Iowa State University. This programme allows for the estimations of the distribution of usual
intakes of nutrients for a population when daily intake observations are repeated at least twice on
a subsample of the individuals in the population (Nusser et al 1996).
EAR: Estimated Average Requirement of a group of people for energy or protein, or a vitamin or
mineral. About half will usually need more than the EAR; about half will need less. This EAR
definition and values for EAR were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values
(UK DRVs).
Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin: The free erythrocyte protoporphyrin in serum was measured by
Southern Community Laboratories and expressed as a zinc protoporphyrin/haeme ratio using a
ProtoFluor Z Haematofluorometer (Helena Laboratories). This method was standardised using
high and low calibrators as supplied with the Protofluor Reagent Kit (Helena Laboratories).
Ferritin: Serum ferritin was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using a sandwich
chemiluminometric immunoassay on a Ciba Coring ACS: 180 automated immunoassay analyser.
World Health Organization reference materials were used to standardize the assay which is in
accordance with International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control and
peer reviewed monthly through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Endocrine Quality
Assurance Programme.
Food Security: Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready
availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally
acceptable foods in a socially acceptable way.
Height: Measurements were made without footwear using a portable stadiometer. Two
measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 cm. If these differed by more than 0.5 cm a third
measurement was taken. The height measurement for each individual was the average of the two
closest measurements.
Appendix C
211
LINZ®: Life in New Zealand Activity & Health Research Unit, University of Otago. This Unit
managed the NNS97 contract on behalf of the University.
LRNI: Lower Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of the
nutrient that is enough for only the few people in a group who have low needs. This LRNI definition
and values for LRNI were sourced from the UK DRV.
New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) Guidelines: Sourced from Food for Health (Department
of Health 1991). For example, breads and cereals 6+ servings/day; vegetables 3+ servings/day;
fruit 2+ servings/day.
NNS97: The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey.
NNSTAC: National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee consisting of 12 members
supported by 18 Ministry of Health officials. The names of these individuals are included in the
Introduction.
Nutrient database: The nutrient composition of foods was supplied by Crop and Food Research
Ltd (Palmerston North) and included the New Zealand Food Composition Data, additional
composition data sourced from overseas, brand and product specific food composition of fortified
foods, and the nutrient composition of standard and modified recipes used in the survey.
NZDep96: This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual
(Salmond et al 1998). The index is based on eight dimensions of deprivation: income, access to a
car, living space, home ownership, employment, qualifications, support, access to a telephone.
The usual NZDep96 consists of a principal components score, scaled to a mean of 1,000 with a
standard deviation of 100, from which it is broken into 10 equal categories. The Ministry of Health
worked from the principal components score to create four categories (instead of 10) for the 1996/
97 Health Survey, and then this NZDep96 category (or quartile) was supplied to LINZ® for the
NNS97 analysis. Quartile I is defined as individuals living in the least deprived areas and quartile
IV as individuals living in the most deprived areas.
Obesity: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a BMI ≥ 30 for
all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).
Overweight: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 26 and < 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a
BMI ≥ 25 and < 30 for all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).
PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls, formerly used in electrical transformers.
PSU: This is a small geographic unit known as a Primary Sampling Unit. New Zealand is divided
into 18,800 PSUs and most contain between 50 and 100 dwellings, with an average of 65 dwellings
per PSU.
QFFQ: Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire, which
asks about the frequency of consumption of foods and preparation/cooking practices.
RNI: Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of nutrient that is
enough, or more than enough, for about 97 percent of people in a group. If the average intake of
the group is at RNI, then the risk of deficiency in that group is very small. This RNI definition and
values for RNI were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.
Safe Intake: A term used to indicate intake or range of intakes of a nutrient for which there is not
enough information to estimate Reference Nutrient Intake, Estimated Average Requirement, or
Lower Reference Nutrient Intake. It is an amount that is enough for almost everyone but not so
large as to cause undesirable effects. This ‘safe intake’ definition and values for ‘safe intake’ were
derived from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.
212
NZ Food: NZ People
Skinfolds: Subcutaneous skinfolds were measured with Harpenden calipers at two sites: triceps
and subscapular using standardised procedures (Lohman et al 1988). All measurements were
made to the nearest 0.1 mm. Two measurements were made at each site and if they differed by
more than 0.5 mm a third measurement was taken. The mean of the two closest measurements
was used as the skinfold measure for the participant.
Stadiometer: An instrument for measuring the standing height of an individual.
Therapeutic Database: A database of brand-name foods compiled from manufacturer information
primarily to produce lists of food products free from certain components (e.g. gluten) and additives
and includes nutrient composition. This database is maintained by Auckland Hospital under a
contract with the Ministry of Health.
Transferrin Receptor: The serum transferrin receptor concentration was measured by Southern
Community Laboratories using a quantitative immunoenzymetric kit from Orion Diagnostics.
There was no commercial control available so the performance of this assay was monitored by:
• in house patient control which is run with each batch,
• comparison of the coefficient of variation of duplicates to the kit manufacturers
recommendations.
Twenty-Four Hour (24hr) Diet Recall: An individualised interviewer administered recall of all
foods and beverages consumed in the previous 24 hours (midnight to midnight), using the three
pass technique (quick list, specified probe questions for each item on the quick list, and a review).
UK DRV: United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values resulting from the report of the 1991 Panel
on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. These include
Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), Reference Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), Lower Reference
Nutrient Intakes (LRNIs) and ‘safe intake’.
Weight: Measured on a SECA Model 770 scale to the nearest 0.1 kg with the respondent in light
clothing. The reported data have been corrected for a clothing weight of 1.2 kg. Scales were
calibrated with standard weights each day. Two measurements were taken and if these differed
by more than 0.5 kg a third measurement was taken. The weight measurement for each individual
was the average of the two closest measurements.
W/H Ratio: Waist circumference/Hip circumference ratio. Waist circumference was measured at
the natural narrowing midway between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. The measurement
was taken at the end of a normal expiration. The hip measurement was taken at the maximum
circumference around the buttocks when viewed from the side (Lohman et al 1988). Both
measurements were made to the nearest 0.1 cm. Two measurements at each site were taken and if
these differed by more than 1.0 cm a third measurement was taken. The measurement used for
each individual was the average of the two closest measurements.
W/H Ratio Excess: The W/H Ratio is judged excessive when the ratio is > 0.90 for males and
> 0.80 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994).
1996/97 Health Survey: The New Zealand Health Survey was completed by Statistics New Zealand
under contract to the Ministry of Health. The results are reported in Taking the Pulse (Ministry of
Health 1999).
Appendix C
213
214
NZ Food: NZ People
Appendix D
Pacific People and Community Nutrient
Intakes
Data in this appendix are presented but not interpreted.
Pacific people
a. The number of Pacific people (191 females, 116 males) who completed a 24 hour recall was too
small to allow a reliable estimate of usual nutrient intake using the C-SIDE programme. Thus,
these nutrient data are not adjusted for intra-individual variation and cannot, therefore, be
compared with nutrient data presented in the main body of the text.
b. Interpretation of these nutrient data are compounded by small numbers across the age groups,
differences in migrant status, and the heterogeneity of the group given their varying countries
of origin.
For these reasons it is not possible to interpret the Pacific people nutrient data in the same way as
has been done for other ethnic groups or to make comparisons between groups. At best, these
nutrient data provide a broad picture of the nutrient intake of Pacific people and allow a basis on
which further work can be developed.
Nevertheless, these nutrient data make an essential contribution, ensuring the nutrient intake of
the New Zealand population as a whole, is representatively described.
Community
Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only, and therefore, provincial
nutrient data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation using the C-SIDE programme.
These nutrient data are, therefore, not comparable with the nutrient data presented in the main
body of the text.
Appendix D
215
216
NZ Food: NZ People
895.7*
959.3
757.3*
579.9
542.2*
613.3
1037*
412.1
166.4
268.1
97.6
158.6
11944*
12475
9740*
11726
9395*
8246
8504*
8630
11717
12504
7929
8072
Mean
90th 3
6565
7057
4335
4620
10913
11843
7503
7418
17651
18603
11681
12375
6620* 10435* 21686*
4093 11036 21740
6228* 9118* 17694*
5816 10532 20643
5523* 8217* 13949*
3916 7471 15243
4134* 8182* 15330*
4269 8122 13965
Energy (kJ)
SEM 10th 3
50th 3
106
115
74
73
107*
118
106*
112
66*
81
87*
78
1.9
2.9
1.1
1.4
8.6*
12.0
10.6*
6.9
4.4*
8.7
11.9*
5.3
53
59
40
40
51*
31
47*
39
41*
28
41*
33
97
106
69
66
107*
87
105*
100
64*
66
80*
67
169
178
112
113
185*
243
186*
206
99*
165
188*
126
15
16
16
16
15*
15
19*
16
12*
16
18*
15
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.8*
0.8
1.3*
0.6
0.6*
0.7
1.3*
0.5
10
11
10
10
10*
9
10*
10
9*
10
11*
10
15
15
15
15
15*
14
18*
15
11*
15
18*
14
21
22
22
21
20*
24
26*
24
19*
24
29*
22
UNADJUSTED ENERGY AND PROTEIN 1
Protein (g)
Percent energy from protein 2
Mean SEM 10th 3
50th 3
90th 3 Mean
SEM
10th 3 50th 3
90th 3
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who
participated in the survey was low.
2
Percent energy from protein for each participant was calculated as the energy from protein (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
3
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D1
Appendix D
217
9.7*
10.7
10.9*
6.7
7.6*
7.6
17.0*
5.9
2.0
3.4
1.2
1.8
113*
114
94*
109
81*
79
81*
80
111
123
74
77
Mean SEM
50
57
30
34
47*
42
33*
40
34*
30
22*
28
10th 3
Total fat (g)
102
113
69
70
113*
97
84*
95
67*
65
77*
65
50th 3
180
198
122
126
203*
209
168*
198
153*
142
138*
139
90th 3
35
36
34
35
36*
34
36*
35
31*
35
32*
33
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.4
2.3*
1.9
2.6*
1.3
1.8*
0.9
2.4*
1.0
Mean SEM
23
26
22
24
21*
17
20*
20
19*
22
16*
22
10th 3
35
37
34
35
38*
34
36*
37
31*
36
32*
34
50th 3
46
46
46
47
48*
47
54*
48
46*
47
51*
47
90th 3
39%
32%
44%
40%
30%*
49%
39%*
41%
61%*
38%
59%*
49%
guideline 4
Meeting
UNADJUSTED TOTAL FAT AND CHOLESTEROL 1
Percent energy from total fat 2
362
426
263
259
392*
502
409*
450
238*
311
343*
298
Mean
9.1
15.9
6.7
7.6
44.6*
67.4
63.7*
37.9
31.6*
40.0
73.4*
29.3
SEM
117
152
79
85
118*
101
119*
117
83*
36
65*
57
10th 3
90th 3
296
363
211
211
685
723
502
490
329* 819*
274 1160
336* 995*
318
996
211* 526*
212
810
264* 678*
216
720
50th 3
Cholesterol (mg)
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the
survey was low.
2
Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
3
Percentiles.
4
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends fat provides ≤ 33.0% of energy intake.
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D2.1
218
NZ Food: NZ People
5.6*
4.7
4.6*
3.2
3.5*
2.4
5.9*
2.1
0.9
1.6
0.6
0.9
48*
48
38*
46
35*
31
34*
33
47
54
32
33
Mean
18
20
12
12
22*
13
13*
14
13*
13
10*
11
42
48
29
29
38*
36
36*
36
30*
27
30*
28
Saturated fat (g)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
81
92
55
57
99*
96
76*
91
67*
51
66*
62
90
th 2
37
41
24
26
39*
39
36*
39
27*
27
27*
27
0.8
1.1
0.4
0.7
3.1*
4.0
4.9*
2.5
2.8*
3.2
6.4*
2.3
15
18
9
11
18*
12
13*
12
11*
7
6*
7
34
39
22
22
40*
31
31*
34
20*
21
21*
21
64
62
42
44
65*
82
77*
69
53*
58
53*
51
UNADJUSTED FATTY ACIDS I 1
Monounsaturated fat (g)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D2.2
16
16
10
11
15*
15
11*
14
11*
12
12*
12
Mean
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.3
2.0*
1.8
1.4*
1.1
1.3*
1.9
3.6*
1.3
6
6
3
4
5*
3
3*
4
2*
3
2*
3
13
14
9
9
13*
11
10*
11
10*
11
7*
9
29
32
19
20
33*
31
21*
30
22*
23
24*
22
Polyunsaturated fat (g)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
Appendix D
219
1.3*
0.9
1.0*
0.7
0.9*
0.5
1.1*
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
15*
14
14*
14
13*
14
14*
14
15
16
15
15
9
10
8
9
6*
5
7*
7
7*
7
7*
7
15
16
15
15
15*
14
16*
15
13*
13
13*
13
21
22
22
21
26*
21
20*
21
21*
20
22*
21
Percent energy from saturated fat
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
12
12
11
12
13*
12
14*
12
10*
12
11*
11
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.9*
0.8
1.3*
0.6
0.7*
0.5
1.0*
0.4
7
8
7
7
7*
6
7*
6
6*
6
4*
6
12
12
11
11
14*
11
14*
12
10*
12
10*
11
16
16
16
16
18*
19
24*
19
16*
17
20*
17
5
5
5
5
5*
5
4*
5
4*
6
4*
5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.6*
0.4
0.5*
0.3
0.5*
0.4
0.6*
0.3
2
2
2
2
2*
2
2*
2
1*
2
1*
2
4
5
4
5
4*
4
4*
4
3*
5
4*
4
8
8
8
8
10*
8
8*
8
9*
10
9*
10
UNADJUSTED FATTY ACIDS II 1
Percent energy from monounsaturated fat Percent energy from polyunsaturated fat
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2 Mean
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the
number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. Percent energy from fat for each participant was calculated as the
energy from fat (conversion factor = 37.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D2.3
220
NZ Food: NZ People
23.8*
26.4
25.2*
15.8
18.2*
13.9
18.7*
10.6
5.1
7.1
2.8
4.5
323*
322
249*
306
312*
235
241*
258
313
323
222
221
Mean SEM
168
170
120
122
196*
100
137*
116
160*
116
109*
120
10
th 3
292
299
209
208
284*
314
186*
289
315*
209
230*
246
50
th 3
Carbohydrate (g)
484
519
336
336
612*
549
421*
520
495*
366
373*
388
90
th 3
45
44
48
47
46*
45
43*
45
56*
49
50*
51
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.5
2.1*
2.7
2.8*
1.6
2.3*
1.3
2.7*
1.3
Mean SEM
32
32
35
34
35*
30
20*
30
38*
35
30*
35
10
th 3
45
44
48
47
46*
44
40*
44
59*
50
51*
51
50
th 3
58
56
60
58
60*
65
68*
62
68*
64
71*
68
90
th 3
34%
24%
41%
37%
29%*
33%
32%*
32%
78%*
52%
52%*
60%
guideline 4
Meeting
UNADJUSTED CARBOHYDRATE AND STARCH 1
Percent energy from carbohydrate 2
174
180
116
115
177*
192
171*
183
165*
146
150*
152
Mean
3.2
4.5
1.5
2.6
16.5*
16.7
20.5*
10.8
10.2*
11.5
15.8*
7.2
SEM
87
87
60
54
84*
46
53*
58
85*
58
66*
67
10th 3
Starch (g)
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who
participated in the survey was low.
2
Percent energy from carbohydrate for each participant was calculated as the energy from carbohydrate (conversion factor = 16.7 kJ/g) divided by the total energy intake.
3
Percentiles.
4
The New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline recommends carbohydrate provides ≥ 50.0% of energy intake.
1
Pacific People
Males
15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males
Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D3.1
161
172
109
107
153*
205
138*
159
156*
121
136*
144
50th 3
277
286
181
180
294*
316
326*
311
246*
283
271*
266
90th 3
Appendix D
221
19.4*
16.0
9.0*
10.1
12.6*
6.3
9.8*
6.3
3.1
4.1
1.8
3.2
138
142
105
105
53
54
41
42
44*
31
19*
31
46*
29
32*
33
121
123
97
92
114*
99
66*
91
148*
77
73*
88
Total sugars (g)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
146*
129
78*
123
146*
88
90*
105
Mean
244
260
181
179
327*
255
155*
251
262*
165
194*
189
90th 2
24
24
19
19
20*
20
12*
18
27*
15
16*
18
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.8
3.7*
2.8
1.5*
1.8
4.7*
1.5
2.3*
1.9
6
6
4
5
1*
2
2*
2
4*
3
4*
3
20
20
16
17
14*
16
11*
14
25*
12
12*
14
48
48
35
35
51*
47
27*
40
58*
33
35*
44
UNADJUSTED SUGARS I 1
Glucose (g)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D3.2
25
25
20
20
20*
21
13*
19
27*
17
17*
20
Mean
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.8
4.0*
3.1
1.7*
2.0
4.4*
1.6
2.5*
1.8
SEM
6
5
4
5
1*
1
2*
2
3*
2
5*
3
21
21
17
17
14*
18
12*
15
26*
13
12*
15
Fructose (g)
10th 2 50th 2
51
52
40
38
51*
55
31*
48
55*
37
35*
43
90th 2
222
NZ Food: NZ People
16.5*
10.0
6.3*
7.3
7.9*
3.8
6.1*
3.6
1.9
2.8
1.1
1.8
68
71
50
49
19
18
13
12
19*
15
3*
15
24*
13
13*
14
56
57
42
41
63*
46
31*
45
65*
40
38*
45
Sucrose (g)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
92*
73
41*
72
77*
46
47*
55
Mean
134
143
93
96
209*
168
96*
178
152*
86
104*
110
90th 2
16
17
14
14
10*
10
7*
9
10*
8
7*
8
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.6
2.2*
1.8
1.4*
1.1
1.7*
1.0
1.2*
0.7
2
3
2
2
0*
0
0*
0
0*
1
0*
0
13
13
11
10
4*
6
5*
6
8*
5
5*
6
33
33
28
27
25*
23
18*
23
30*
16
17*
18
UNADJUSTED SUGARS II 1
Lactose (g)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D3.3
4.9
5.5
3.1
3.1
4.4*
5.9
4.4*
5.1
4.3*
2.9
2.8*
3.3
Mean
0.14
0.23
0.10
0.13
0.61*
1.34
1.03*
0.70
0.49*
0.46
0.65*
0.29
SEM
1.1
1.4
0.8
0.7
0.3*
0.1
0.0*
0.2
1.5*
0.3
0.1*
0.4
4.0
4.4
2.4
2.4
3.8*
3.0
3.7*
3.2
3.9*
2.0
2.1*
2.3
Maltose (g)
10th 2 50th 2
9.6
10.2
5.8
5.7
8.4*
16.7
11.4*
12.3
7.6*
7.2
8.3*
7.3
90th 2
Appendix D
223
2.1*
1.9
2.1*
1.3
1.3*
1.0
1.9*
0.9
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.4
17*
21
19*
20
21*
18
21*
19
24
24
18
18
Mean
11
12
9
10
5*
6
7*
6
9*
7
11*
9
23
23
17
17
16*
23
17*
20
22*
16
18*
18
Dietary fibre (g)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
38
40
29
28
25*
35
38*
33
32*
32
35*
32
90th 2
12
13
10
10
8*
10
9*
9
11*
9
11*
10
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
1.2*
1.0
0.9*
0.7
0.7*
0.5
1.1*
0.5
5
6
4
5
2*
3
3*
3
4*
3
6*
4
11
11
9
9
7*
11
8*
9
10*
8
9*
9
21
23
16
16
14*
16
17*
15
18*
16
19*
18
11
12
9
9
9*
11
10*
10
11*
9
10*
10
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.0*
1.0
1.2*
0.7
0.6*
0.5
0.8*
0.4
6
6
4
4
3*
3
3*
3
5*
4
5*
4
11
11
8
8
8*
12
8*
10
12*
8
9*
9
18
19
13
13
13*
19
19*
18
16*
16
16*
16
UNADJUSTED FIBRE 1
Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (g) Soluble non-starch polysaccharides (g)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2 Mean
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D4
224
NZ Food: NZ People
11.9*
13.1
4.9*
7.7
2.3*
0.7
0.4*
0.8
1.5
2.4
0.6
2.2
19*
31
10*
23
3*
2
0*
2
20
21
8
10
Mean
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
65
66
27
28
102*
157
74*
106
0*
0
0*
0
5
5
3
3
3*
6
3*
5
1*
1
0*
1
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.5
2.0*
2.9
1.4*
1.6
0.5*
0.3
0.2*
0.2
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0
0
0
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
0*
0
16
16
11
10
16*
31
24*
24
0*
0
0*
0
UNADJUSTED ALCOHOL 1
Alcohol (g)
Percent energy from alcohol 2
SEM 10th 3
50th 3 90th 3 Mean SEM 10th 3
50th 3 90th 3
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and
the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percent energy from alcohol for each participant was calculated as the energy from alcohol (conversion factor = 29.3 kJ/g) divided by
the total energy intake.
3
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D5
Appendix D
225
161.0*
428.2
94.2*
216.8
98.8*
60.9
154.9*
56.0
53.8
110.2
59.8
41.9
857*
1164
712*
976
734*
665
744*
703
1195
1346
941
969
350
327
276
311
176*
177
163*
178
287*
89
104*
157
857
953
678
728
601*
684
616*
616
609*
549
660*
548
2196
2457
1633
1739
1837*
1618
1547*
1575
1408*
1383
2479*
1394
Vitamin A equivalents (µg RE)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
572
681
435
422
492*
756
325*
585
311*
305
307*
307
42.3
99.2
56.0
31.8
170
176
102
113
73.8* 115*
317.9
65
41.9* 47*
158.3
65
41.6* 61*
40.0
44
72.2* 24*
29.3
40
420
495
308
331
328*
369
298*
328
270*
239
204*
241
854
979
626
667
1117*
1067
662*
1013
694*
665
999*
681
UNADJUSTED VITAMIN A 1
Retinol (µg )
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial
areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low. As these nutrients are concentrated in
relatively few foods, one day intakes are highly skewed. Therefore, the estimate of intake has large standard errors.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D6.1
3738
3986
3033
3276
2192*
2435
2336*
2342
2534*
2162
2620*
2377
Mean
185.7
243.5
99.4
161.4
783.6*
706.5
479.9*
429.7
465.6*
285.9
586.0*
248.7
367
449
310
405
52*
162
168*
119
461*
129
24*
172
1886
2087
1753
1760
772*
969
1219*
886
1539*
1017
1892*
1382
β-carotene (µg)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
9217
10809
7410
7792
7125*
6474
5104*
5057
6506*
6546
8049*
6702
90th 2
226
NZ Food: NZ People
23.6*
17.4
20.0*
11.9
12.4*
9.7
12.5*
7.0
4.3
5.0
2.8
7.9
104*
131
105*
118
112*
94
110*
103
127
113
104
111
Mean
23
28
21
24
6*
9
21*
13
20*
12
23*
17
95
82
78
83
55*
95
93*
90
105*
57
101*
75
279
236
218
220
281*
330
291*
306
265*
221
221*
219
11.7
11.9
8.7
9.2
9.7*
14.0
11.2*
12.1
9.3*
10.4
9.1*
9.8
0.22
0.38
0.16
0.23
1.21*
1.84
1.78*
1.07
0.74*
1.21
1.55*
0.69
5.1
5.2
4.0
4.4
0.9*
3.8
3.7*
3.6
3.9*
4.1
2.9*
4.1
10.4
11.0
7.7
8.1
11.0*
10.4
9.3*
9.5
8.8*
7.4
7.2*
7.6
UNADJUSTED VITAMINS C AND E 1
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin E (mg)
th 2
th 2
th 2
SEM
10
50
90
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D6.2
19.7
20.1
14.1
15.2
16.9*
30.8
23.5*
23.6
16.7*
25.7
19.1*
18.8
90th 2
Appendix D
227
0.17*
0.14
0.13*
0.09
0.07*
0.09
0.15*
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.02
1.7
1.8
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.5*
0.4
0.4*
0.4
0.8*
0.4
0.4*
0.4
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.2
1.3*
1.3
1.1*
1.3
1.3*
0.9
0.9*
1.1
Thiamin (mg)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
1.5*
1.5
1.2*
1.4
1.3*
1.1
1.1*
1.1
Mean
2.7
2.8
1.9
1.9
2.7*
2.5
2.3*
2.4
1.8*
2.2
2.4*
2.0
90th 2
2.1
2.2
1.6
1.5
1.8*
1.8
1.4*
1.7
1.3*
1.3
1.3*
1.3
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.26*
0.20
0.11*
0.13
0.08*
0.10
0.14*
0.07
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.8*
0.5
0.6*
0.6
0.6*
0.4
0.5*
0.5
1.9
2.0
1.5
1.4
1.4*
1.4
1.5*
1.4
1.3*
1.2
1.3*
1.2
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
3.4*
3.5
2.4*
3.4
2.2*
2.2
2.4*
2.2
UNADJUSTED B VITAMINS I 1
Riboflavin (mg)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial
areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D7.1
43
46
30
29
45*
50
47*
48
29*
33
35*
32
Mean
0.8
1.2
0.4
0.6
3.8*
5.1
5.5*
3.1
1.7*
3.7
4.0*
2.1
22
24
15
15
22*
14
19*
16
16*
11
17*
13
39
43
27
26
45*
39
41*
42
26*
26
35*
27
70
73
45
46
75*
100
98*
91
44*
66
75*
56
Niacin equivalents (mg NE)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2 90th 2
228
NZ Food: NZ People
0.24*
0.17
0.14*
0.11
0.28*
0.11
0.17*
0.12
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.03
1.6*
1.8
1.5*
1.7
1.8*
1.4
1.6*
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.2
Mean
0.7
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.6*
0.4
0.5*
0.6
0.4*
0.4
0.6*
0.4
1.6
1.6
1.2
1.1
1.2*
1.5
1.5*
1.5
1.6*
1.2
1.5*
1.4
Vitamin B6 (mg)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
3.0
2.7
2.2
2.1
3.6*
3.8
2.3*
3.2
3.8*
2.5
2.8*
3.0
90
th 2
5.5
7.2
4.0
3.7
5.8*
6.7
6.4*
6.3
3.0*
4.4
4.7*
4.1
0.22
0.58
0.21
0.14
1.07*
1.16
1.38*
0.71
0.34*
0.74
1.00*
0.45
1.6
1.7
1.0
1.1
0.6*
1.0
1.4*
1.2
0.9*
0.5
0.8*
0.8
4.0
4.6
2.8
2.8
4.6*
3.7
4.8*
4.2
2.4*
3.0
3.8*
3.2
10.2
14.6
6.4
6.7
11.6*
16.7
22.2*
12.5
5.7*
9.4
15.4*
7.8
UNADJUSTED B VITAMINS II 1
Vitamin B12 (µg)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D7.2
285
287
222
216
211*
258
209*
234
217*
195
226*
209
Mean
5.3
6.8
3.4
4.2
22.9*
22.6
19.6*
13.4
21.1*
11.6
22.0*
10.5
131
147
105
113
73*
50
90*
65
94*
78
108*
93
261
275
207
199
193*
267
209*
230
202*
187
187*
194
Folate (µg)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
456
434
349
336
313*
450
335*
393
359*
329
385*
359
90th 2
Appendix D
229
86.5*
89.9
70.2*
51.4
53.1*
42.3
50.8*
27.8
19.8
27.2
13.2
19.4
612*
652
541*
616
512*
494
453*
489
910
912
740
723
Mean
354
365
283
288
171*
161
197*
171
224*
183
144*
183
803
801
659
645
522*
593
469*
508
416*
417
371*
412
Calcium (mg)
SEM 10th 2
50th 2
1533
1559
1281
1258
1210*
1139
1154*
1144
916*
814
948*
907
90
th 2
1778
1875
1297
1269
1575*
1741
1474*
1634
1110*
1144
1293*
1170
27.7
43.3
19.8
23.5
170.6*
165.2
121.1*
101.1
75.4*
84.5
179.5*
64.8
912
998
697
696
849*
540
869*
675
738*
414
525*
525
1678
1760
1228
1167
1462*
1422
1376*
1415
1025*
1055
1233*
1056
2658
3015
2009
1956
2510*
3280
2441*
2868
1742*
2071
1999*
1965
UNADJUSTED MINERALS I 1
Phosphorus (mg)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed
in provincial areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D8.1
373
377
276
273
305*
443
389*
391
308*
322
294*
311
Mean
5.6
9.1
3.8
4.5
31.5*
58.8
80.5*
35.8
21.3*
30.2
28.6*
17.9
194
210
149
157
163*
154
162*
160
133*
99
126*
126
348
355
257
260
298*
368
316*
316
283*
255
302*
270
Magnesium (mg)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
571
576
416
404
521*
914
488*
600
514*
712
513*
538
90th 2
230
NZ Food: NZ People
1.44*
1.50
1.08*
0.84
0.68*
0.88
1.62*
0.60
0.26
0.47
0.18
0.20
13.0*
16.0
12.5*
14.4
10.9*
10.8
12.2*
11.2
14.6
16.2
10.3
10.3
Mean
7.4
7.7
5.1
5.4
6.6*
5.5
6.5*
6.7
6.5*
3.8
4.0*
4.6
Iron (mg)
SEM 10th 2
13.4
14.5
9.5
9.4
13.0*
14.5
11.9*
13.3
9.6*
8.6
10.3*
9.6
50
th 2
22.8
26.6
16.1
16.4
24.0*
30.6
23.8*
24.4
16.8*
21.1
28.8*
19.4
90
th 2
14.9
16.1
10.3
10.1
13.0*
19.7
16.7*
17.1
10.5*
13.7
13.1*
12.7
0.31
0.51
0.18
0.24
1.10*
2.92
2.90*
1.61
1.13*
1.73
1.76*
0.99
7.0
7.4
4.8
5.0
6.0*
6.1
6.8*
6.1
5.0*
4.0
5.5*
5.0
13.1
14.1
9.1
8.7
13.6*
13.4
10.7*
13.3
7.6*
9.5
11.4*
9.6
24 .0
27.5
17.2
16.6
20.4*
45.3
37.6*
32.4
20.3*
36.9
31.0*
26.7
UNADJUSTED MINERALS II 1
Zinc (mg)
Mean SEM 10th 2
50th 2
90th 2
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial
areas, and the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
Percentiles.
1
Pacific People
Males 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Females 15–24
25–44
45+
Total
Community
Males Metropolitan
Provincial
Females Metropolitan
Provincial
Appendix D8.2
3898
4178
2995
3014
2801*
4250
3623*
3689
3195*
2869
3406*
3090
Mean
57.3
103.4
39.4
52.7
242.9*
395.2
344.1*
242.1
224.7*
197.3
408.6*
162.8
1969
2249
1582
1646
1250*
947
1826*
1072
1269*
1092
1251*
1152
3619
3958
2857
2851
2728*
4500
3642*
3372
3328*
2536
3244*
3009
Potassium (mg)
SEM
10th 2 50th 2
5879
6444
4491
4527
5024*
7937
5931*
6472
4966*
5647
6592*
4966
90th 2
Appendix D
231
Mean
21*
12
20*
18
16*
10
16*
12
20
21
15
14
17.4*
27.5
8.9*
14.9
3.0*
6.6
10.9*
4.3
2.3
3.1
1.5
3.6
44
49
31
30
49*
60
80*
58
30*
30
51*
33
Selenium (µg)
50th 3
SEM 10th 3
2
108
114
79
82
173*
185
136*
157
57*
111
152*
111
90
th 3
5122
5269
4095
4040
3603*
4523
4029*
4146
3262*
3640
3496*
3500
110.0
159.6
71.4
100.9
452.0*
426.5
527.6*
290.3
188.2*
204.9
280.9*
142.3
2117
2105
1721
1785
965*
1437
1018*
1024
2023*
1214
1687*
1562
4633
4621
3760
3747
3980*
4167
3453*
3979
3049*
3435
3709*
3091
8745
9010
6740
6473
6271*
8373
9572*
7545
5463*
6906
5740*
5869
UNADJUSTED MINERALS III 1
Manganese (µg)
Mean SEM 10th 3
50th 3
90th 3
* Limited sample size, 25 ≤ n < 50, caution should be exercised in interpretation of data.
1
These data were not adjusted for intra-individual variation. Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas, and
the number of Pacific people who participated in the survey was low.
2
These data are unreliable, please refer to the text.
3
Percentiles.
Pacific People
Males 15–24
78*
25–44
106
45+
77*
Total
92
Females 15–24
34*
25–44
50
45+
65*
Total
49
Community
Males Metropolitan 59
Provincial
64
Females Metropolitan 43
Provincial
45
Appendix D8.3
1.7
1.8
1.3
1.3
1.3*
2.0
1.5*
1.7
1.2*
1.4
1.2*
1.3
Mean
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.12*
0.24
0.17*
0.13
0.09*
0.10
0.13*
0.06
0.9
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.5*
0.4
0.7*
0.5
0.7*
0.6
0.7*
0.7
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.1
1.2*
1.8
1.5*
1.4
1.2*
1.1
1.0*
1.1
Copper (mg)
SEM
10th 3 50th 3
2.6
2.8
2.0
2.0
2.0*
3.7
2.5*
2.9
1.9*
2.4
2.5*
2.2
90th 3
Appendix E
Questionnaires
Dietary Supplement Questions
1.
Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the year?
YES
232
NO
➤
Q3
DON’T KNOW
➤
Q3
NZ Food: NZ People
Appendix E
Folic Acid
Potassium
Iron
Calcium
Anti-Oxidant Vitamin
Vitamin E
Vitamin D
Vitamin C
B Complex Vitamins
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B6
Niacin (B3)
Riboflavin (B2)
Thiamin (B1)
Vitamin A or carotenoids
Multi/vitamins with other minerals
Multi/vitamins with iron
Multi/vitamins or minerals
Type
Brand
Name
No.
Taken
Dose
Units
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
More
than
once
per week
Frequency
Daily
Episodic
Don’t
Know
2.
What vitamins and/or minerals did you take? Use Supplement Show Card 1
233
3.
Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the past
24 hours?
YES
4.
NO
➤
Q5
DON’T KNOW
➤
Q5
Which vitamins and/or minerals did you take?
USE SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 1
Type
Brand Name
Number Taken
Dose
Units
Multi/vitamins or Minerals
Multi/vitamins with Iron
Multi/vitamins with other
Minerals
Vitamin A or Carotenoids
Thiamin (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
B Complex Vitamins
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Anti Oxidant Vitamin
Calcium
Iron
Potassium
Folic Acid
5.
Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessed
bran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets, lecithin, evening primrose oil,
performance enhancers, etc. at any time during the last year?
YES
234
NO
➤
Q7
DON’T KNOW
➤
Q7
NZ Food: NZ People
Performance Enhancers
Yeast
Evening Primrose Oil
Codliver Oil
Herbal Supplement
Kelp
Garlic
Lecithin
Fibre Tablets
Wheat Germ
Oat Bran
Wheat Bran
Type
Brand
Name
No.
Taken
Dose
Units
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
More
than
once
per week
Frequency
Daily
Episodic
Don’t
Know
6.
Which fibre etc. supplements did you take?
Appendix E
235
7.
Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessed
bran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets; lecithin, evening primrose oil,
performance enhancers, etc. during the past 24 hours?
YES
8.
NO
➤
End
DON’T KNOW
➤
End
Which fibre supplements etc. did you take?
USE SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 2
Type
Brand Name
Wheat Bran
Oat Bran
Wheat Germ
Fibre Tablets
Lecithin
Garlic
Kelp
Herbal Supplement
Codliver Oil
Primrose Oil
Yeast
Performance Enhancer
236
NZ Food: NZ People
Number Taken
Dose
Units
SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 1
SUPPLEMENT SHOW CARD 2
Examples Include:
Examples Include:
Multivitamins or Minerals
Wheat Bran
Vitamin A
Oat Bran
Thiamin (B1)
Wheat Germ
Riboflavin (B2)
Fibre Tablets
Niacin (B3)
Lecithin
Vitamin B6
Garlic
Vitamin B12
Kelp
B Complex Vitamins
Herbal Supplement
Vitamin C
Codliver Oil
Vitamin D
Primrose Oil
Vitamin E
Yeast
Calcium
Performance Enhancers
Iron
Potassium
Appendix E
237
Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire
Identification Number:
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
This survey will help us to find out about New Zealander's food patterns
and assist with health promotion and health policy development.
How can you help?
• By telling us what YOU usually eat (not someone else in your household!)
• Please fill out the form yourself.
• Be accurate, but don’t spend too much time on each food.
• Please answer EVERY question.
• If you don’t know the answers to the cooking questions, please ask the person
who usually cooks your food.
• Answer by FILLING the OVAL that best applies to you.
INSTRUCTIONS:
PENCIL ONLY
• Use the pencil provided
• Do not use red pen or felt tip pen
• Erase mistakes fully
• Make no stray marks
Please MARK LIKE THIS:
NOT LIKE THIS:
✔ ✘
If you have any questions, please ring:
0800 78 75 74
Thank you for contributing to this important project.
© Ministry of Health
238
NZ Food: NZ People
How to answer:
Please answer by filling in the oval which best describes how often you eat or
drink a particular food.
Please use the pencil and rubber provided. Ensure that only one oval is filled
in per food item for computer scanning.
Here are some examples:
How often do you usually eat these foods?
Never
If on average you . . .
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Never eat any sort of mince dish
then you would mark
Eat cooked porridge 5 times
per week in the winter, but never
in the summer, then you would mark
Eat fresh peaches about 3 times
a week when they are in season,
then you would mark
Eat onions or leeks; onions 4 times
per week, but leeks only once a
month, then you would mark
Appendix E
239
First of all, we have some questions about your general eating habits
1. How would you describe your eating pattern? (Please mark one only)
Eat a variety of all foods, including animal products
Eat eggs, dairy products, fish and chicken but avoid other meats
Eat eggs and dairy products but avoid all meats and fish
Eat eggs but avoid dairy products, all meats and fish
Eat dairy products but avoid eggs, all meats and fish
Eat no animal products
Other (please specify)
2. On average, how many servings of fruit (fresh, frozen, canned or stewed)
do you eat per day?
Do not include fruit juice or dried fruit. (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1⁄2 cup of stewed fruit)
e.g. 1 apple + 2 small apricots = 2 servings
Per Day
I don’t eat fruit
Less than 1 per day
1 serving
2 servings
3 or more servings
3. On average, how many servings of vegetables (fresh, frozen, canned)
do you eat a day?
Do not include vegetable juices. (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1⁄2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup of salad vegetables)
e.g. 2 medium potatoes + 1⁄2 cup of peas = 3 servings
Per Day
I don’t eat vegetables
Less than 1 per day
1 serving
2 servings
3 servings
4 or more servings
240
NZ Food: NZ People
4. On average, how many slices or rolls of bread (or toast) do you eat per day?
Per Day
I don’t eat bread or toast ➞ Go to question 6
Less than 1 per day
1–2
3–4
5–6
7 or more
5. What type(s) of bread, rolls or toast do you eat most often?
(Please mark only those you usually eat.)
White
White – high fibre
Wholemeal or wholegrain
Other (please specify)
6. On average, how many servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge,
or breakfast cereal do you eat per week? (Please mark one only)
(a ‘serving’ = 1 cup cooked rice/pasta or porridge or cornflakes or 1⁄2 cup muesli or 2 weetbix)
e.g. 1 cup of rice 3 times per week + 2 weetbix 4 times a week = 7 servings per week
Per WEEK
I don’t eat these foods
Less than 4 per week
4–6 servings
7–9 servings
10–12 servings
13–15 servings
16 or more servings
Appendix E
241
7. Do you usually eat breakfast cereal?
No ➝ If no, go to question 8
Yes ➝ What breakfast cereal(s) do you have most often?
(Please mark only those you usually have.)
Weetbix
Cornflakes or Rice Bubbles
Toasted muesli
Untoasted muesli
Special K
All-Bran, San-Bran, Bran Flakes
or Weetbix – ‘Hi-Bran’
Just Right, Light and Tasty
or Good Morning
Nutrigrain, Cocoa Pops or Honey Puffs
Puffed Wheat or Mini-Wheats
Porridge
Other (please specify)
8. Do you eat meat or chicken fried or roasted in fat or oil?
No ➝ If no, go to question 9
Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?
(Please mark only those you usually use)
Butter
Margarine
Butter margarine blend
Lard or dripping
Olive or canola oil
Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,
safflower oil etc
Don't know
Other (please specify)
9. Do you eat vegetables fried or roasted in fat or oil?
No ➝ If no, go to question 10
Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?
(Please mark only those you usually use)
Butter
Margarine
Butter margarine blend
Lard or dripping
Olive or Canola oil
242
NZ Food: NZ People
Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,
safflower oil etc
Don't know
Other (please specify)
We would now like to ask in more detail about the foods you eat.
10. How often do you usually eat these foods or drinks?
Please fill one oval for each food or drink.
Never
Dairy Foods
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Flavoured milk
(e.g. milkshake, iced coffee)
Milk as a drink
Milk on breakfast cereals
Milk added to hot beverages made
with water (e.g. coffee, tea, milo)
Hot beverages make with milk
(e.g. milo, cocoa, hot chocolate drinks)
Cream or sour cream
Ice cream
Custard or dairy food
Yoghurt, plain or flavoured
(including fromage frais)
Milk puddings
(e.g. rice, semolina, instant)
Cream Cheese
Cottage or ricotta cheese
Mozzarella, feta, or camembert
Edam or Gouda cheese
Colby, Mild, Tasty cheese
Brie, blue and other specialty cheeses
11. Do you drink or use any type of milk?
No ➝ If no, go to question 12
Yes ➝ What type(s) do you have most often?
(Please mark only those you usually have)
Standard, homogenised milk
(blue top)
Trim milk (green top)
Super Trim
Skim milk or low-fat
powdered milk
Light Blue
Whole or powdered
whole milk (silver top)
'Calci-trim'
'Slim and Fit'
Soy Milk
Other (please specify)
Appendix E
243
12. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Never
Bread and Cereal Foods
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Focaccia, bagel, pita or other
speciality breads
Paraoa Parai (frybread)
Rewena bread
Doughboys or Maori bread
Crumpet or croissant
Waffle or doughnut
Fruit or iced buns
Savoury or dry biscuits, crispbread,
or crackers
Cooked porridge
Breakfast cereal (including muesli)
Rice (including white or brown)
Pasta eg. spaghetti, ravioli,
macaroni, noodles
13. Do you use butter or margarine on bread or crackers?
No ➝ If no, go to question 14
Yes ➝ What type(s) do you use most often?
(Please mark only those you usually use)
Butter
Unsalted butter
Butter and margarine blend
Low salt margarine
‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc.
(ie Polyunsaturated margarines)
Reduced fat margarine e.g. ‘Slimarine’
‘Praise’ or ‘Olivo’ margarine
Other (please specify)
14. Do you eat pork, beef, mutton, hogget or lamb?
No ➝ If no, go to question 15
Yes ➝ Do you trim any excess fat off these meats?
(Please mark one only)
Always
Often
244
NZ Food: NZ People
Occasionally
Never cut the fat off meat
15. Do you eat chicken?
No ➝ If no, go to question 16
Yes ➝ Do you remove the skin from chicken?
(Please mark one only)
Occasionally
Never remove the skin from chicken
Always
Often
16. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Meat and Fish
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Beef mince dishes
(e.g. rissoles, meatloaf)
Beef or veal mixed dishes
(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)
Beef or veal – roast, chop, steak,
schnitzel
Corned beef (including canned)
or brisket
Hogget or mutton mixed dishes
(e.g. stews)
Hogget or mutton – roast, chops
Lamb mixed dishes
(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)
Lamb – roast, chop, steak
Pork mixed dishes
(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)
Pork - roast, chop, steak
Pork - boiled bones
Sausage, frankfurter or saveloy
Bacon or ham
Luncheon meats, salami or brawn
Liver (including pate)
Other offal (e.g. kidneys)
Chicken mixed dishes
(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)
Chicken – roast, fried, steamed, BBQ
Turkey or duck
Venison
Appendix E
245
16. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Never
Meat and Fish
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Mutton bird
Canned tuna, salmon, sardines
Eel
Fish, battered
Fish, fried (including fish fingers
or fish cakes)
Fish, steamed, baked, grilled or raw
Shellfish (e.g. mussels, oysters,
paua, kina, pipis)
Other seafood (e.g. prawns)
17. Do you eat eggs?
No ➝ If no, go to question 18
Yes ➝ Not counting eggs used in baking cakes etc, how many eggs
do you usually eat per week? (Please mark one only)
Per WEEK
Less than 1
1 egg
2 eggs
3 eggs
4 eggs
5 or more eggs per week
18. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Miscellaneous
Cakes, scones or pikelets
Muffins - all types
Sweet pies or sweet pastries
Other puddings or desserts
(not including milk-based puddings)
Plain sweet biscuits
Cream filled and/or chocolate biscuits
Canned or packet soup (in winter)
Home-made soup (in winter)
246
NZ Food: NZ People
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
18. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Never
Miscellaneous
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Hamburger
Meat pie, sausage roll or other
savoury pastries
Pizza
Muesli bars
Chocolate (including chocolate bars
e.g. Moro bars)
Other confectionery
Jam, honey, marmalade or syrup
Peanut butter, other nut spreads
Vegemite or marmite
Nuts
Potato crisps, corn chips, Twisties etc.
19. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Dressings and Sauces
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Mayonnaise
Low-calorie salad dressing
Salad dressing
Tomato sauce
Gravy
White sauce/cheese sauce etc.
Coconut cream
Appendix E
247
20. How often do you usually eat these foods?
(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)
Please fill one oval for each food.
Vegetables
(including fresh, frozen or canned)
Potato; boiled, mashed, baked
or roasted
Hot potato chips or kumara chips/
french fries/wedges
Pumpkin; boiled, roast or mashed
Kumara; boiled, roast or mashed
Peas
Mixed frozen vegetables
Green beans
Silver beet, spinach
Carrots
Cabbage, coleslaw
Sweet corn
Mushrooms
Tomatoes
Beetroot
Taro
Taro leaf (e.g. palusami)
Green bananas
Watercress
Puha
Sprouts (e.g. alfalfa, mung)
Turnips or swedes
248
NZ Food: NZ People
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
20. (Cont. . .) How often do you usually eat these foods?
(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)
Please fill one oval for each food.
Vegetables
(including fresh, frozen or canned)
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Parsnip
Karengo (seaweed)
Onions or leeks
Soybeans, tofu
Beans (including baked beans), lentils
Cauliflower
Broccoli or broccoflower
Brussel sprouts
Courgette/zucchini, marrow,
eggplant, squash
Kamo kamo
Pacific Island yams
Yams
Capsicum (or peppers)
Celery
Cassava
Asparagus
Breadfruit
Cucumber
Avocado
Lettuce
Other green leafy vegetables
e.g. Whitloof etc.
Appendix E
249
21. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Never
Fresh Fruits
– when they are in season
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Once
per
week
2–4
times
per
week
5–6
times
per
week
Once
per
day
2 or
more
times
per day
Apple
Pear
Banana
Orange, mandarin or tangelo
Grapefruit
Peach, nectarine, plum or apricot
Mango, paw-paw or persimmons
Pineapple
Grapes
Strawberries and other berries
or cherries
Melon
(e.g. watermelon, rockmelon etc.)
Kiwifruit
Feijoas
Tamarillos
22. How often do you usually eat these foods?
Please fill one oval for each food.
Other Fruits
Sultanas, raisins or currants
Other dried fruit
(e.g. apricots, prunes, dates)
Preserved or canned fruit in syrup
Preserved or canned fruit in water
or juice
Stewed fruit
250
NZ Food: NZ People
Never
Less
than
once a
month
1–3
times
per
month
Well done, just one more question!
(Please note that the possible categories you
have to choose from have changed.)
23. How often do you usually have these drinks?
Please fill one oval for each drink.
Drinks
Never
or
rarely
3 times
a
month
or less
1–2
times
per
week
3–6
times
per
week
1–2
times
per
day
3–5
times
per
day
6 or
more
times
per day
Fruit juice e.g. Just Juice, Fresh-up, Robinson's
or Rio Gold etc.
Vegetable juice (e.g. tomato juice)
Fruit drink e.g. Choice, Rio Splice etc.
Powdered drinks (e.g. Raro, Vita-fresh etc.)
Low-calorie cordial
Cordial
Diet carbonated drink (e.g. diet sprite)
Carbonated drinks (e.g. coke, lemonade etc.)
Sport's drinks (e.g. Gatorade, Powerade etc.)
Water (including unflavoured mineral water,
soda water, tap water)
Coffee
Coffee – decaffeinated
Coffee substitute (e.g. Inka)
Koko
Tea
Herbal tea
Soy beverages
Beer – low alcohol
Beer – ordinary
Red wine
White wine or champagne / sparkling wine
Wine cooler
Sparkling grape juice
Sherry or port
Spirits, liqueurs
Appendix E
251
Are there any other foods, not included in this questionnaire,
that you eat at least once a week? If so, please tell us:
Who completed this questionnaire?
Myself
Interviewer
Someone else
19
Today’s date is:
DATE
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Thank you for your time and effort in completing
this questionnaire.
It is much appreciated.
252
NZ Food: NZ People
Barriers to Dietary Change Questions
INTERVIEWER TO COMPLETE:
1.
Servings of fruit per day?
number
See Q2 in QFFQ
2.
Servings of vegetables per day?
number
See Q3 in QFFQ
3.
Servings of bread per day?
number
See Q4 in QFFQ
Servings of cereals per week?
number
See Q6 in QFFQ
(Totals per day
4.
number)
I’d now like to ask you some questions about changes to your choice of foods.
Are you trying at present to make any changes to your choice of foods?
(For example, trying to change the amounts or types of foods you eat)
Yes
➤
Q5
No
➤
Q10
Don’t Know
➤
Q10
Appendix E
253
5.
We’d now like you to think about four particular groups of foods.
For each group of foods, can you tell me if you are trying at present to change the amount
you eat?
(Interviewer to show each card in turn then note all positive responses that apply)
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1
fruits
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2
vegetables
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3
breads and cereals
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4
butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high in
fat
fruits
➤
Q6
vegetables
➤
Q7
breads or cereals
➤
Q8
butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat
➤
Q9
IF NONE OF THESE
➤
Q10
Comments
If in answering Q5, the subject has already described whether they are trying to eat more or less of the
food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q6-9 unnecessarily.
6.
About fruit, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit only
7.
➤
Q10
About vegetables, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables only
254
NZ Food: NZ People
➤
Q10
8.
About bread or cereals, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables and/or bread and cereals only
9.
➤
Q10.
About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you trying to change
your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both questions).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6
9a
Eat more foods high in fat
Eat less foods high in fat
No change in amount eaten
9b
Change type of butter, margarine or oils used
No change in type eaten
Comments
If the respondent is presently changing a food group, then you are unable to ask about an intending
change to that food group.
Appendix E
255
10.
In the last question, we asked about any changes you are making now.
We’d now like to ask about whether you are thinking about making any changes to the foods you eat
in the future.
We’re interested in whether you intend or plan to make any changes over the next 6 months.
Are you intending to change the amount you eat of any of these groups of foods?
(Interviewer to show each card in turn, then note all positive responses)
(DO NOT ASK, SHOW SHOW CARDS 1-4)
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1
fruits
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2
vegetables
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3
breads and cereals
DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4
butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high in
fat
Tick all that apply:
fruits
➤
Q11
vegetables
➤
Q12
breads or cereals
➤
Q12
foods such as butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat
➤
Q14
IF NONE OF THESE
➤
Q15
Comments
___________________________________________________________________________
If in answering Q10, the subject has already described whether they are intending to eat more or less
of the food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q11-14 unnecessarily
11.
About fruit, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit only
256
NZ Food: NZ People
➤
Q15.
12.
About vegetables, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables only
13.
➤
Q15.
About bread or cereals, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
more
less
don’t know
If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables and/or breads and
cereals only ➤ Q15.
14.
About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you intending to
change your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both
questions).
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6
14a
Eat more foods high in fat
Eat less foods high in fat
No change in amount eaten
14b
Change type of butter, margarine or oils needed
No change in type eaten
Comments
Appendix E
257
15.
If Q1 < 2 OR Q6 = ‘eat more fruit’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of fruit they eat. We’re interested in the sorts of
things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more fruit.
Would any apply to you?
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 7
FRUIT
Cost too much
I don’t like fruit
Can’t store fruit for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion
It’s hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Not enough time
Don’t always have fruit at home
Contains too much sugar
Fruit is not good for me
Would need willpower to eat more
Pesticides or chemicals on fruit
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤
258
Q16
NZ Food: NZ People
16.
If Q2 < 3 OR Q7 = ‘eat more vegetables’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of vegetables they eat. We’re interested in the sorts
of things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more vegetables.
Would any apply to you?
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 8
VEGETABLES
Cost too much
I don’t like vegetables
Can’t store them for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
They cause stomach upsets or indigestion
Vegetables are hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Take too long to prepare
Don’t always have them at home
It’s hard to prepare vegetables
I have nowhere to cook vegetables
Not enough time
Would need willpower to eat more
They’re not good for me
Pesticides or chemicals on vegetables
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤
Q17
Appendix E
259
17.
If Q3 < 6 (total) OR Q8 = ‘eat more breads or cereals’ (ask this question).
People often find it hard to increase the amount of breads and cereals they eat (Use DIETARY
CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 to remind them of foods in this group). We’re interested in the sorts of
things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more breads and cereals.
Would any apply to you?
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 9
BREADS AND CEREAL FOODS
Cost too much
I don’t like them
They’re fattening
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
They’re too filling
They upset my stomach
They’re too heavy
They provide too many calories
They’re too starchy
They’re not good for me
They cause wind
Would need willpower to eat more
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other (describe)
➤
260
Q18
NZ Food: NZ People
18.
ALL subjects to answer:
People often find it hard to cut down the amount of butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in
fat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change.
Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about cutting down on butter, margarine, oils or
other foods high in fat.
Would any apply to you?
U S E D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1 0
BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
They taste good
It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat
They’re convenient
There are few low-fat alternatives
Cheap
The people I live with would have to eat less too
Would need willpower
It’s hard when I eat out a lot
My body needs fat
Preparing meals with less fat takes too long
I like to eat these foods for comfort
It’s a hassle to try and eat less
I wouldn’t enjoy food as much
None of the above, I’m happy with my fat intake
Other (describe)
End Barriers Questions
Appendix E
261
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 4
FRUITS
Butter, margarine, oils, and
Also includes:
OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
coconut
For example:
pawpaw
FRIED FOOD AND PASTRIES
watermelon
figs
mango
guava
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 5
EAT MORE
EAT LESS
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 2
V E G E TA B L E S
Also includes:
manioc/cassava
taro
kumara
puha
green bananas
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 6
FOODS HIGH IN FAT
AMOUNT
EATING MORE
EATING LESS
EATING THE SAME
choko
TYPE OF BUTTER, MARGARINE OR OILS
CHANGED THE TYPE
HAVEN’T CHANGED
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 3
BREADS AND CEREALS
Also includes:
breakfast cereals
porridge
muesli
rice
pasta
262
NZ Food: NZ People
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 7
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 8
FRUIT
VEGETABLES
Cost too much
Cost too much
I don’t like fruit
I don’t like vegetables
Can’t store fruit for long
Can’t store them for long
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
Often of poor quality
Often of poor quality
Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion
They cause stomach upsets or indigestion
It’s hard to chew
Vegetables are hard to chew
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Causes allergy or other bad reaction
Not enough time
Vegetables take too long to prepare
Don’t always have fruit at home
Don’t always have them at home
Contains too much sugar
It’s hard to prepare vegetables
Fruit is not good for me
I have nowhere to cook vegetables
Would need willpower to eat more
Not enough time
Pesticides or chemicals on fruit
Would need willpower to eat more
I would not find it hard to eat more
They’re not good for me
Other
Pesticides and chemicals on vegetables
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other
Appendix E
263
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 9
D I E TA R Y C H A N G E S H O W C A R D 1 0
BREAD AND CEREALS
BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR
OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT
Cost too much
I don’t like them
They’re fattening
It’s a hassle to try and eat more
They’re too filling
They upset my stomach
They’re too heavy
They provide too many calories
They’re too starchy
They’re not good for me
They cause wind
Would need willpower to eat more
I would not find it hard to eat more
Other
Taste good
It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat
They’re convenient
There are few low-fat alternatives
Cheap
The people I live with would have
to eat less too
Would need willpower
It’s hard when I eat out a lot
My body needs fat
Preparing meals with less fat takes too long
I like to eat these foods for comfort
It’s a hassle to try and eat less
I wouldn’t enjoy food as much
None of the above, I’m happy with my
fat intake
Other
264
NZ Food: NZ People
Food Security Questions
INTRODUCTION
I now want to ask you some questions about particular foods you choose, and the buying of food or
gifting of food. We are interested in whether you feel you always have sufficient resources to have the
food you need for yourself and the people you live with. We are not concerned with your budget, or
how you spend your money, but we are more interested in finding out about how people get the food
that they need for their household to eat and share.
(In all questions ‘we’ refers to the household, unless it is a one-person household).
First of all, we know that some people can’t afford to eat properly and we are interested in whether
you think you eat properly. It’s what you think eating properly is - not what I or anyone else thinks.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 1
I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY
Always
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
2.
We are interested in whether you run out of basics, like bread, potatoes, etc. because you do
not have enough money. We are NOT referring to treats or special foods.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 2
FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
Appendix E
265
3.
Now we are interested in whether a lack of money leads you to sometimes have smaller meals
than you would like or whether a lack of money means there isn’t enough for seconds or you
sometimes skip meals?
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 3
I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
4.
Now we are going to talk about the variety of foods you eat. By variety we mean the number
of different kinds of foods you have.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 4
THE VARIETY OF FOODS I AM (WE ARE) ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACK
OF MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
5.
Some people rely on support and assistance from others for supplying their regular food and
we are interested in find out how many people fall into this group.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 5
I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD, FOR
MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
266
NZ Food: NZ People
6.
Also, some people have to rely on other sources of help such as food grants or food banks.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 6
I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WE
DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
7.
We know that some people get quite stressed and worried about providing enough food even
though they don’t actually go without food.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 7
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
8.
We recognise that for some people food and sharing food with others is important, to the
point that they won’t have enough food for themselves. In this question we are only interested
in social situations which are gatherings within, or outside, the household. As a result people
may find themselves stressed/whakama (embarrassed) about their koha (gift) when providing
food for others.
USE FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 8
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR SOCIAL
OCCASIONS
How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
Appendix E
267
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 1
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 5
I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY
I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE
FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD FOR
MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE
DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY
Always
Sometimes
Never
Often
Don’t Know
Sometimes
Never
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 2
FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR
HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 6
I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD
GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WE
DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR
FOOD
Don’t Know
Often
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 3
Sometimes
Never
I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF
MONEY
Don’t Know
Often
Sometimes
Never
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 7
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT
HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD
Don’t Know
Often
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 4
Sometimes
Never
THE VARIETY OF FOOD I AM (WE ARE)
ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACK
OF MONEY
Don’t Know
Often
FOOD SECURITY SHOW CARD 8
Sometimes
I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T
PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR
SOCIAL OCCASIONS
Never
Don’t Know
Often
Sometimes
Never
Don’t Know
268
NZ Food: NZ People
Appendix E
269