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Behaviourism
Associative learning
i.e. learning that certain events go
together
Learning Theory
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 main theories:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Social Learning Theory
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning
Basics :
• Learning can be best understood in terms of
external or environmental causes than
affective/internal ones (e.g. values/beliefs)
• The environment is seen as providing stimuli
to which individuals develop responses.
• This can be manipulated.
• Reinforcement – reward or punishment
Basics:
Assumptions
• Learning is a result of
environmental forces
• Main aim of learning
is to change behaviour
• Learning occurs
though reinforcement
Primary Focus
– Observable behaviour
– Stimulus-response
connections
• Major Theorists
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Thorndike
Pavlov
Watson
Skinner
2 types of Behaviourism:
Classical Conditioning(CC) (Pavlov):
• learning occurs through "association" of stimuli.
• where a NEUTRAL stimulus is associated with an event.
Operant Conditioning (OC) (Skinner):
• learning occurs through "consequences" of behaviours
• a positive or negative stimulus is associated with an event
Classical Conditioning(CC) (Pavlov):
learning occurs through "association" of stimuli.
where a NEUTRAL stimulus is associated with an event.
Pavlov and dog
Scope of CC:
Generalisation (reaction to similarities):
• a conditioned response is associated with a specific
stimulus:
• Scary dog = all dogs are scary
• Scary teacher = all teachers are scary (Grrrrrr)
• "sitting at a desk" associates with "classroom at
school" and perhaps with "humiliation and failure“…
Skinner (OC) Operant Conditioning (OC) (Skinner):
learning occurs through "consequences" of behaviours
a positive or negative stimulus is associated with an event
Operant Conditioning
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will re-occur;
intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
So key assumptions so far are:
• Observable behaviour rather than internal thought processes:
learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.
• The environment shapes one's behaviour; what one learns is
determined by the elements in the environment, not by the
individual learner.
•
(Merriam & Caffarella 1991: 126)
Skinner on learning (although he
wasn’t ‘into’ education:
Obstacles to learning:
• When there is a fear of failure.
• If a task is not broken down into small enough
steps.
• If there is a lack of direction/clarity in the
directions.
• Positive reinforcement is lacking.
Practical application: Information should be presented in small
amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
5 Principles to prevent obstacles
• Break down the task into small steps.
• Repeat the directions as many times as
possible.
• Work from the most simple to the most
complex tasks.
• Give positive reinforcement – think abut
schedules of reinforcement
• Give the learner immediate feedback.
Task
• When might this theory be useful to you?
• Identify a task you might teach using
behaviourist theory.
• What type of learning is likely to occur?
• Is it always useful learning?
• Are there any negatives with this theory of
learning?
• Are there any positives?
Ciriticism:
Learning as product
• Education is most often seen as a
technical/productive exercise.
• Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, applied,
and the outcomes (products) measured.
• No affective domain
• More of this module 2.
Criticism:
Competence (Burns, 1995)
•
series of discrete activities that people possess the necessary skills, knowledge and
understanding to engage in effectively.
Implications:
• behaviour can be objectively and mechanistically measured.
• questionable assumption - there always has to be some uncertainty about what is
being measured.
• In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units.
The result is often long lists of trivial skills as is frequently encountered NVQ
competency assessments. This can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the
whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant.
• It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a
shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or
has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is side lined.
• More of this module 2.
Conclusions:
• rapidly declining attention’ when the task is
passive:
• Make the task important – lives may depend
on it
• Make it interesting – novelty, variety and
personal relevance
• Make intellectual involvment and challenge
high
Your attention is limited when
• ‘rapidly declining attention’ when the task is
passive:
• Make the task important – lives may depend
on it
• Make it interesting – novelty, variety and
personal relevance
• Make intellectual involvment and challenge
high
References
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Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity, London: Penguin.
Watson, J. B. (1913) 'Psychology as the behavourist views it', Psychological review 20: 158.
Bobbitt, F. (1918) The Curriculum, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Bobbitt, F. (1928) How to Make a Curriculum, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Burns, R. 1995 The adult learner at work Business and Professional Publishing, Sydney.
Burns, S. 1995 'Rapid changes require enhancement of adult learning' HRMonthly June, pp 16-17.
Knowles, M.S. 1978 The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species 2nd edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division.
Knowles, M.S. 1990 The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species 4th edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division
Laird, D. 1985 Approaches to training and development Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Bibliography
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Markle, S. (1969). Good Frames and Bad (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57(4), 193-216.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 8697.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (1968). The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (1971). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopf.
2 words
About
Pedagogy
Andragogy
The learner
Dependant on personality
Increasingly self reliant
Role of learners experience To be built on
To be used as a resource
for learning by self and
others
Readiness to learn
Determined by age and
stage in course
Develops from life tasks
and problems
Orientation
Subject centred
Task or problem centred
Motivation
By external rewards
By internal incentives