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2017/05/09 Patricia K. Townsend (2009) Environmental Anthropology: From Pigs to Politics. 2nd Ed. Long Grove: Waveland Press. Chapter 2 Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology Kiyoshi Tadokoro 1 Contents of This Presentation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Homo Sapiens’ Adaptation A Short History of Environmental Anthropology The Cultural Ecology of Julian Steward Evolution in Cultural Anthropology Cultural Ecology and the Last Northern Cod 2 1. HOMO SAPIENS’ ADAPTATIONS 3 人類の進化 Townsendは、「私たち人類」(we humans)と いう言葉を、ホモ・サピエンスを含む、全ての ホミニン(hominine)を指して使っている。 人類の種と存続期間 ホモ・サピエンスの誕生は約20万年前 人類の種の復元図 ホモ・ネアンデルターレンシス ホモ・ハイデルベルク ホモ・エレクトス (フローレンシス) ホモ・サピエンス 狩猟採集時代の長さ 20万年のホモ・サピエンス史を 2mのタイムスケールに変換 変換時間 年代 1月1日 20万年前 12月28日 7万年前 12月31日朝の6時 1万年前 12月31日午後23時頃 500年前 200年前 50年前 1万年は0.001cm(0.01mm)。ホモ・サピエンス が生まれたのが20万年前=0.02cm(0.2mm) 事項 長さ (m) ホモ・サピエンスが誕生 1.3 0.6 0.095 0.003 0.0015 0.0005 認知革命(集団規模が150人に、言語、宗教) 農業革命 科学革命 産業革命 グローバリゼーション 7 狩猟採集時代の長さ 1万年は0.01cm(0.1mm)。ホモ・サピエンス が生まれたのが20万年前=0.02cm(0.2mm) ホ モ ・ サ ピ エ ン ス の 誕 生 認 知 革 命 狩 猟 採 集 時 代 農 業 革 命 科 産グ 学 業ロ 革 革ー 命 命バ リ ゼ ー シ ョ ン 8 人類の拡散 • 300万年前に乾燥した草原が拡大。 • 200万年前にホモ・エレクトスがアフ リカの外へ移動。 氷河時代 ホモ・サピエンスによる 世界へ移動と拡散 大型動物の絶滅 6m 3m 12 [P1] Homo sapiens’ Expansion • No species lives in such a wide range of environments as Homo sapiens. • Human’s expansion: Desert Tropical and temperate forests Subtropical African savanna High altitudes where trees can not grow Extreme arctic environments Space Undersea environments 13 [P2] Homo sapiens’ Genetic Adaptations • By and large, the adaptations that made it possible for humans to spread into so many different places have not been genetic ones. • Homo sapiens remain a single, interbreeding species with relatively minor differences, in spite of our past experience with environmental extremes. • Pale – genetic adaptation in northern environment • Sickle cell trait and certain other variants of hemoglobin – genetic adaptation for Malaria spread 14 Notes: adaptation • Adaptation: A process of change or adjustment that is beneficial for a population, making individual organisms more suited to the stresses of their environment. • 適応 ある個体群(集団)にとって有益な変化や調整の過程。 このような過程を通じて、個々の生物体は環境の与え るストレスに対処する。 Environmental Anthropology, p. 103 15 Notes: evolution • Evolution 進化 – 遺伝子あるいは遺伝的に影響を受ける形質の集 団内の頻度が、世代を超えて累積的に変化する こと。 内田亮子(2008)『生命をつなぐ進化の不思議――生物人類学への招待』ちくま新書。 – The gradual development of plants, animals, etc. over many years as they adapt to changes in their environment. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8th Ed. 16 Note: Sickle cell trait and certain other variants of hemoglobin • • • • 熱帯熱マラリアの死亡率は25% 西アフリカの人々の40%弱がヘモグロビンSを保有 ヘモグロビンS=鎌形赤血球 マラリアに対する抵抗力が強いが、貧血の原因にもなる。 17 [P3] Homo sapiens’ behavioral Adaptations • The adaptations that allow Homo sapiens to thrive in many different environments are largely behavioral, not genetic (adaptations). • Building houses, putting on and off clothing, making tools and using them for capturing useful things (animals, plants, etc.) • Most of these behavioral adaptations are socially learned. → culture • In this adaptive perspective, – Cultures are seen as intimately related to the physical and biological environments. • A culture is a way of life, a tool kit for survival. 18 乳糖耐性を持つ成人割合の地域差 20 [P1] Ecological Anthropology • Julian Steward introduced the idea of cultural ecology to the field of anthropology in the middle of 20th century. → Ecological anthropology • The transformation came in part from adopting the concept of ecosystem from biology. 21 Note: Ecosystem 22 [P2] Developments of USA and Europe in the 1970s • Ecological anthropology got a big boost from developments in the wider society of the US and Europe in 1970s. • Population growth, economic development → Outrunning of the supply of petroleum and other nonrenewable resources • Health effects of industrial wastes →Public interest in environmental issues Text books of Ecological Anthropology 23 Rachel Carson [P3] 1980s • In 1980s, anthropology was not paying much attention to environmental questions. • A loss of public interest in environmental issues • Ronald Reagan’s presidency 24 [P4] 1990s • By the 1990s, environmental anthropology was again at the forefront. • The United Nations Conference in Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992) (国連環境開発会議) – Deforestation and the loss of biodiversity • United nations conference in Kyoto (in 1997) – Global climate change and called for a 55% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions 25 [P5] Academic disciplines in 1990s • AAA (American Anthropological Association) – Anthropology and Environment section • Graduate Departments (Univ. Georgia, Univ. Washington) – Programs with concentrations in environmental anthropology • Environmental anthropology was no longer just an academic discipline discussed by researchers, college professors, and students. – Many practitioners • Applied environmental anthropologist in government agencies, NGOs, and businesses 26 [P6] Environmental Anthropology • Anthropologist’s involvement with environmental issues has become more differentiated, with a variety of methods, theories, and specialized research interest. • Evolutionary ecology, historical ecology, political ecology, ethnoecology • Environmental anthropology – An umbrella for all of those approaches 27 [P7] Ecological Anthropology 生態人類学 • In this book, • Ecological anthropology means – One particular type of research in environmental anthropology – Field studies that describe a single ecosystem including a human population • Studies in ecological anthropology – A small population of only a few hundred people, such as a village or neighborhood 28 3. THE CULTURAL ECOLOGY OF JULIAN STEWARD 29 [P1] Steward’s Background • Julian Steward – Development of ecological anthropology – At Columbia Univ. (in the late 1940s to early 1950s) – Anthropologists with cultural ecology and evolution • Univ. California in 1930s – Great Basin area (Nevada and Utah) – Western Shoshoni, Paitute, and Ute 30 [P2] Situation in the Great Basin • The indigenous societies of the Great Basin had been drastically affected by the intrusion of miners and ranchers. • Grazing sheep and cattle → Reduction of wild seeds (the traditional native diet) • Large game = scarce in this area • Deer, mountain sheep, bison, or antelope • Small game were important (Rabbit etc.) • Seasonal migrations – the plant life 31 [P3] Steward’s research • The Indian's 19C war with settlers – The Indians left their old system of subsistence based on foraging on the land to work on ranches or in mines and tows. • Steward patched together … – 19C description and census – His own plant collections and observations – Data he collected by interviewing Indians, such as their list of the names and uses of plants 32 [P4] The Shoshoni Indian’s subsistence activities • During the pre-settler period, – The Shoshoni Indians engaged in subsistence activities – By one or two families moving to forage for plant foods and small game – Only in the winter, – They camped with 20 or 30 families living close enough to visit each other. 33 [P5] Concept of Cultural Core • Steward rejected the notion that the culture of the Shoshoni could explained only by tracing historical links. • Although Steward agreed that their material culture was mostly derived from the Southwest, • He considered that their economic and social organization was the result of using that technology to exploit a particular environment, the arid Great Basin with its unpredictable resources. • The features of social and economic life that are most closely related to subsistence = part of the Cultural core 34 [P6] The Method of Cultural Ecology • It is not possible to know what is in the cultural core in advance. • The method of cultural ecology 1) Analyzing the relationship of the technology used in production to the environment 2) Relating other behavioral patterns to subsistence • Do people work alone or cooperatively? 3) Asking how these behavioral patterns affect other aspects of the culture, such as kinship warfare, or religion 35 4. EVOLUTION IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY 36 [P1] Steward’s methods of cultural ecology • Reintroduction of the concept of cultural evolution • 19C anthropology (e.g. L.H. Morgan, E.B. Tylor) (文化進化) – All cultures evolved through a similar series of stages from simple to complex. • Cultural relativism (文化相対主義) – Each culture was accepted on its own terms as a product of its unique history. – Attempts to find general laws or causal explanations → × • Steward – There were regularities to be discerned in the way that cultures change. – Determining these cause and effect sequences through empirical study, that is, scientific research based on observation and comparison. • Multilinear evolution (JS) / unilinear evolution (19C) (多系進化) (単系進化) 37 [P2] Adaptation / Evolution • The concept of multilinear evolution • Elman Service and Marshall Sahlins – General evolution / specific evolution (一般進化) (特殊進化) • General evolution = Increase in scale and complexity • Specific evolution = Cultural adaptation 38 [P3] Maladaptive cultural practice • Some cultural practices are environmentally maladaptive. (適応性に欠けている) – Manicured front lawns – Chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides → Offsetting gains → Reducing their use in agriculture – The runoff from lawns → water pollution → kids, pets • People who are environmentally aware – using lawn chemicals 39 [P4] Focus on the process of adaptation • Outcome of adaptation < Process of adaptation – The outcome may not always be favorable • Cultural ecologists who follow in Steward’s path today look at the way societies respond to change in their environment and in the cultural core. 40 Practice: • グループワーク。 • 適応性に欠けるが、実行している文化=生活 様式はないだろうか。 41 5. CULTURAL ECOLOGY AND THE LAST NORTHERN COD 42 [P1] Fishing industry in Canada • The northern cod became scarce → moratorium in 1992 • The Cod-fishing industry collapsed • Thousands of fishing crews and plant workers lost their jobs. → Collapse or Catastrophe • Most social scientists – Economic and political factors • An anthropologist – Relationship of specific aspects of fishing technology 43 [P2] Process of Cod-Fishing Industry • 1960s- Foreign factory freezer trawlers started fishing intensively. • 1968- A peak of catch → Steep decline – Regulation of cods catch was ineffectual. • 1977- Canada barred the foreign fleets, declaring exclusive control (200-mile zone). • Fisheries Department- regulation. – Limitation of issuing fishing licenses and keeping the total catch at a level set by the best scientific knowledge. • The fisheries agency ignored the local knowledge of inshore fishing crews. – In1980s, Danger signals, Catching smaller fish than previously. 44 45 [P3] Change of Technology • Changes in the technology of fishing accompanied the declining catch. – Japanese cod traps – Echo sounders – Advanced navigation equipment →Catching “the last northern cod” →The Atlantic cod were commercially, if not yet biologically, extinct. 46 Japanese cod traps(底建網) https://www.hro.or.jp/list/fisheries/marine/o7u1kr000000dhif.html 47 ハタハタの漁獲量の推移 「県民と漁業者が一丸で守るハタハタ文化」 http://www.mizu.gr.jp/kikanshi/no29/08.html 48 沖合: 底引き網 沿岸: 底刺し網 沿岸: 定置網 49 [P4] Progress of Cultural Ecology • Steward’s approach continues to be useful. • Many anthropologists and geographers – Cultural ecologists / culture ≈ ecology 1. culture > ecology (Chap. 3) 2. culture < ecology (Chap. 4, 5) – Individuals or population (≠ culture) – the adaptive units that respond to the environment and form the basic units of ecosystem – Human behavior (≠ culture) = focus of analysis 50