Download Cultural Ecology and the Last Northern Cod

2017/05/09
Patricia K. Townsend (2009)
Environmental Anthropology: From Pigs to Politics.
2nd Ed. Long Grove: Waveland Press.
Chapter 2
Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology
Kiyoshi Tadokoro
1
Contents of This Presentation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Homo Sapiens’ Adaptation
A Short History of Environmental Anthropology
The Cultural Ecology of Julian Steward
Evolution in Cultural Anthropology
Cultural Ecology and the Last Northern Cod
2
1. HOMO SAPIENS’ ADAPTATIONS
3
人類の進化
Townsendは、「私たち人類」（we humans）と
いう言葉を、ホモ・サピエンスを含む、全ての
ホミニン（hominine）を指して使っている。
人類の種と存続期間
ホモ・サピエンスの誕生は約20万年前
人類の種の復元図
ホモ・ネアンデルターレンシス
ホモ・ハイデルベルク ホモ・エレクトス
（フローレンシス）
ホモ・サピエンス
狩猟採集時代の長さ
20万年のホモ・サピエンス史を
2mのタイムスケールに変換
変換時間
年代
1月1日
20万年前
12月28日
7万年前
12月31日朝の6時
1万年前
12月31日午後23時頃
500年前
200年前
50年前
1万年は0.001cm（0.01mm）。ホモ・サピエンス
が生まれたのが20万年前＝0.02cm（0.2mm）
事項
長さ
(m)
ホモ・サピエンスが誕生
1.3
0.6
0.095
0.003
0.0015
0.0005
認知革命（集団規模が150人に、言語、宗教）
農業革命
科学革命
産業革命
グローバリゼーション
7
狩猟採集時代の長さ
1万年は0.01cm（0.1mm）。ホモ・サピエンス
が生まれたのが20万年前＝0.02cm（0.2mm）
ホ
モ
・
サ
ピ
エ
ン
ス
の
誕
生
認
知
革
命
狩
猟
採
集
時
代
農
業
革
命
科 産グ
学 業ロ
革 革ー
命 命バ
リ
ゼ
ー
シ
ョ
ン
8
人類の拡散
• 300万年前に乾燥した草原が拡大。
• 200万年前にホモ・エレクトスがアフ
リカの外へ移動。
氷河時代
ホモ・サピエンスによる
世界へ移動と拡散
大型動物の絶滅
6m
3m
12
[P1] Homo sapiens’ Expansion
• No species lives in such a wide range of
environments as Homo sapiens.
• Human’s expansion:
Desert
Tropical and temperate forests
Subtropical
African
savanna
High altitudes where trees can
not grow
Extreme arctic environments
Space
Undersea environments
13
[P2] Homo sapiens’ Genetic Adaptations
• By and large, the adaptations that made it
possible for humans to spread into so many
different places have not been genetic ones.
• Homo sapiens remain a single, interbreeding
species with relatively minor differences, in spite
of our past experience with environmental
extremes.
• Pale – genetic adaptation in northern
environment
• Sickle cell trait and certain other variants of
hemoglobin – genetic adaptation for Malaria
spread
14
Notes: adaptation
• Adaptation:
A process of change or adjustment that is beneficial for
a population, making individual organisms more suited
to the stresses of their environment.
• 適応
ある個体群（集団）にとって有益な変化や調整の過程。
このような過程を通じて、個々の生物体は環境の与え
るストレスに対処する。
Environmental Anthropology, p. 103
15
Notes: evolution
• Evolution 進化
– 遺伝子あるいは遺伝的に影響を受ける形質の集
団内の頻度が、世代を超えて累積的に変化する
こと。
内田亮子（2008）『生命をつなぐ進化の不思議――生物人類学への招待』ちくま新書。
– The gradual development of plants, animals, etc.
over many years as they adapt to changes in their
environment.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8th Ed.
16
Note: Sickle cell trait and certain other
variants of hemoglobin
•
•
•
•
熱帯熱マラリアの死亡率は25%
西アフリカの人々の40%弱がヘモグロビンＳを保有
ヘモグロビンＳ＝鎌形赤血球
マラリアに対する抵抗力が強いが、貧血の原因にもなる。
17
[P3] Homo sapiens’ behavioral Adaptations
• The adaptations that allow Homo sapiens to
thrive in many different environments are largely
behavioral, not genetic (adaptations).
• Building houses, putting on and off clothing,
making tools and using them for capturing useful
things (animals, plants, etc.)
• Most of these behavioral adaptations are socially
learned. → culture
• In this adaptive perspective,
– Cultures are seen as intimately related to the physical
and biological environments.
• A culture is a way of life, a tool kit for survival.
18
乳糖耐性を持つ成人割合の地域差
20
[P1] Ecological Anthropology
• Julian Steward introduced the idea of cultural
ecology to the field of anthropology in the
middle of 20th century.
→ Ecological anthropology
• The transformation came in part from
adopting the concept of ecosystem from
biology.
21
Note: Ecosystem
22
[P2] Developments of USA and Europe in
the 1970s
• Ecological anthropology got a big boost from
developments in the wider society of the US and
Europe in 1970s.
• Population growth, economic development
→ Outrunning of the supply of petroleum and other
nonrenewable resources
• Health effects of industrial wastes
→Public interest in environmental issues
Text books of Ecological Anthropology
23
Rachel Carson
[P3] 1980s
• In 1980s, anthropology was not paying much
attention to environmental questions.
• A loss of public interest in environmental
issues
• Ronald Reagan’s presidency
24
[P4] 1990s
• By the 1990s, environmental anthropology
was again at the forefront.
• The United Nations Conference in
Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, in 1992)
（国連環境開発会議）
– Deforestation and the loss of biodiversity
• United nations conference in Kyoto (in 1997)
– Global climate change and called for a 55%
reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
25
[P5] Academic disciplines in 1990s
• AAA (American Anthropological Association)
– Anthropology and Environment section
• Graduate Departments (Univ. Georgia, Univ.
Washington)
– Programs with concentrations in environmental
anthropology
• Environmental anthropology was no longer just
an academic discipline discussed by researchers,
college professors, and students.
– Many practitioners
• Applied environmental anthropologist in government
agencies, NGOs, and businesses
26
[P6] Environmental Anthropology
• Anthropologist’s involvement with
environmental issues has become more
differentiated, with a variety of methods,
theories, and specialized research interest.
• Evolutionary ecology, historical ecology,
political ecology, ethnoecology
• Environmental anthropology
– An umbrella for all of those approaches
27
[P7] Ecological Anthropology
生態人類学
• In this book,
• Ecological anthropology means
– One particular type of research in environmental
anthropology
– Field studies that describe a single ecosystem
including a human population
• Studies in ecological anthropology
– A small population of only a few hundred people,
such as a village or neighborhood
28
3. THE CULTURAL ECOLOGY OF
JULIAN STEWARD
29
[P1] Steward’s Background
• Julian Steward
– Development of ecological anthropology
– At Columbia Univ. (in the late 1940s to early 1950s)
– Anthropologists with cultural ecology and evolution
• Univ. California in 1930s
– Great Basin area (Nevada and Utah)
– Western Shoshoni, Paitute, and Ute
30
[P2] Situation in the Great Basin
• The indigenous societies of the Great Basin had
been drastically affected by the intrusion of
miners and ranchers.
• Grazing sheep and cattle
→ Reduction of wild seeds (the traditional native diet)
• Large game = scarce in this area
• Deer, mountain sheep, bison, or antelope
• Small game were important (Rabbit etc.)
• Seasonal migrations – the plant life
31
[P3] Steward’s research
• The Indian's 19C war with settlers
– The Indians left their old system of subsistence
based on foraging on the land to work on ranches
or in mines and tows.
• Steward patched together …
– 19C description and census
– His own plant collections and observations
– Data he collected by interviewing Indians, such as
their list of the names and uses of plants
32
[P4] The Shoshoni Indian’s subsistence activities
• During the pre-settler period,
– The Shoshoni Indians engaged in subsistence
activities
– By one or two families moving to forage for plant
foods and small game
– Only in the winter,
– They camped with 20 or 30 families living close
enough to visit each other.
33
[P5] Concept of Cultural Core
• Steward rejected the notion that the culture of the
Shoshoni could explained only by tracing historical links.
• Although Steward agreed that their material culture was
mostly derived from the Southwest,
• He considered that their economic and social
organization was the result of using that technology to
exploit a particular environment, the arid Great Basin
with its unpredictable resources.
• The features of social and economic life that are most
closely related to subsistence
= part of the Cultural core
34
[P6] The Method of Cultural Ecology
• It is not possible to know what is in the
cultural core in advance.
• The method of cultural ecology
1) Analyzing the relationship of the technology used
in production to the environment
2) Relating other behavioral patterns to subsistence
•
Do people work alone or cooperatively?
3) Asking how these behavioral patterns affect
other aspects of the culture, such as kinship
warfare, or religion
35
4. EVOLUTION IN CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
36
[P1] Steward’s methods of cultural ecology
• Reintroduction of the concept of cultural evolution
• 19C anthropology (e.g. L.H. Morgan, E.B. Tylor)
（文化進化）
– All cultures evolved through a similar series of stages from simple
to complex.
• Cultural relativism
（文化相対主義）
– Each culture was accepted on its own terms as a product of its
unique history.
– Attempts to find general laws or causal explanations → ×
• Steward
– There were regularities to be discerned in the way that cultures
change.
– Determining these cause and effect sequences through empirical
study, that is, scientific research based on observation and
comparison.
• Multilinear evolution (JS) / unilinear evolution (19C)
（多系進化）
（単系進化）
37
[P2] Adaptation / Evolution
• The concept of multilinear evolution
• Elman Service and Marshall Sahlins
– General evolution / specific evolution
（一般進化）
（特殊進化）
• General evolution = Increase in scale and complexity
• Specific evolution = Cultural adaptation
38
[P3] Maladaptive cultural practice
• Some cultural practices are environmentally
maladaptive. （適応性に欠けている）
– Manicured front lawns
– Chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides
→ Offsetting gains → Reducing their use in agriculture
– The runoff from lawns → water pollution → kids, pets
• People who are environmentally aware – using lawn
chemicals
39
[P4] Focus on the process of adaptation
• Outcome of adaptation < Process of adaptation
– The outcome may not always be favorable
• Cultural ecologists who follow in Steward’s path
today look at the way societies respond to
change in their environment and in the cultural
core.
40
Practice:
• グループワーク。
• 適応性に欠けるが、実行している文化＝生活
様式はないだろうか。
41
5. CULTURAL ECOLOGY AND THE
LAST NORTHERN COD
42
[P1] Fishing industry in Canada
• The northern cod became scarce → moratorium in 1992
• The Cod-fishing industry collapsed
• Thousands of fishing crews and plant workers lost their
jobs.
→ Collapse or Catastrophe
• Most social scientists
– Economic and political factors
• An anthropologist
– Relationship of specific aspects of fishing technology
43
[P2] Process of Cod-Fishing Industry
• 1960s- Foreign factory freezer trawlers started
fishing intensively.
• 1968- A peak of catch → Steep decline
– Regulation of cods catch was ineffectual.
• 1977- Canada barred the foreign fleets, declaring
exclusive control (200-mile zone).
• Fisheries Department- regulation.
– Limitation of issuing fishing licenses and keeping the total
catch at a level set by the best scientific knowledge.
• The fisheries agency ignored the local knowledge of
inshore fishing crews.
– In1980s, Danger signals, Catching smaller fish than
previously.
44
45
[P3] Change of Technology
• Changes in the technology of fishing
accompanied the declining catch.
– Japanese cod traps
– Echo sounders
– Advanced navigation equipment
→Catching “the last northern cod”
→The Atlantic cod were commercially, if not yet
biologically, extinct.
46
Japanese cod traps（底建網）
https://www.hro.or.jp/list/fisheries/marine/o7u1kr000000dhif.html
47
ハタハタの漁獲量の推移
「県民と漁業者が一丸で守るハタハタ文化」
http://www.mizu.gr.jp/kikanshi/no29/08.html
48
沖合： 底引き網
沿岸： 底刺し網
沿岸： 定置網
49
[P4] Progress of Cultural Ecology
• Steward’s approach continues to be useful.
• Many anthropologists and geographers
– Cultural ecologists / culture ≈ ecology
1. culture > ecology (Chap. 3)
2. culture < ecology (Chap. 4, 5)
– Individuals or population (≠ culture)
– the adaptive units that respond to the
environment and form the basic units of
ecosystem
– Human behavior (≠ culture) = focus of analysis
50