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RELIGION 3990-11 Shi@‘ite Islam: Religion, Culture, & Politics Mohammad H. Faghfoory Fall 2014 Office: 303-A Religion Department. Office Hours: Tues. & Thurs. 2.00-3.30 FNGR 210 TR: 09:35-10:50AM CRN: 82538 Email: [email protected] Shi@‘ism is the second largest branch of Islamic tradition. From its origins in the seventh century to the present day, the Shi@‘ites have constituted a very distinct community within the Islamic world. Throughout most of its history as today Shi@‘ite population has accounted for some 15-20% of the world’s Muslim population. However, their contribution to Islamic civilization has been far greater than their numerical strength as Shi@‘ite scholars have contributed immensely to the development of law, theology, philosophy, political thought, literature, and all other fields of Islamic intellectual tradition. This course examines the emergence and development of Shi@‘ism as a branch of Islamic orthodoxy with particular emphasis on its doctrine, practices, theologies, and the laws, and the geographical and political context within which a distinct Shi@‘i identity developed. Its main objective is to understand Shi@‘a doctrine and its relationship with politics, particularly the concept of Ima>mate and the role of the Ima>ms among the Twelvers, the Isma>‘i@lis, and the Zaydi@ branches. To understand the current situation in the Muslim world the course will also examine recent developments in Shi@‘ite theology and politics in light of the Iranian revolution of 1979, Ayatulla>h Khomeini@’s theory of the Rule of Jurist-Consult (Wila>yat-i Faqi@h) and recent developments in Iraq. In this connection, the development of messianic conception surrounding the figure of the Twelfth Ima>m, the emergence of Shi@‘ism as a political ideology, its nature and relationship with modernism, fundamentalism, secularism and nationalism will be studied. The course will conclude with the challenges that Islam in general and Shi@‘ism in particular face in the contemporary regional and international political, religious, cultural, and intellectual scenes. Course Requirements & Prerequisite: Religion 161 or general knowledge of Islam. Students who do not have any background in Islam must read Ideals and Realities of Islam or The Heart of Islam. In addition to a mid-term and a final exam, the course requirements include a term paper. Grades will be determined on the following basis: mid-term exam (25%), final exam (35%), and research paper (30%), and class attendance and participation in discussion (10%). 1 Required Reading: 1. Chittick, W. C The Psalms of Islam: al-S}ah}i@fa al-Sajja>di@ya, (2006, trans.), London: The Muhammadi Trust, 2006. 2. Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi@‘i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi@‘ism, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985. 3. Mottahedeh, Roy. The Mantle of the Prophet, 2nd ed. Oxford: One World, 1985, 2000. 4. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza, The Shi@‘a Revival, W. W. Norton, 2005. 6. T}aba>t}aba>’i@, ‘Alla>mah Sayyid Muhammad H}usayn, Shi@‘ite Islam, Albany, State University of New York Press. 1977. 7. Walbridge, S. Linda (ed.) The Most Learned of the Shi@‘a: The Institution of the Marja‘ -i Taqli@d, Oxford University Press, 2001. 8. Sobh}a>ni@, A@yatulla>h Ja‘far. Doctrines of Shi@‘i Islam: A Compendium of Ima>mi@ Beliefs and Practices, tr. And ed. Reza Shah-Kazemi. London: I. B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2001. Recommended Reading: 1. Ami@r-Moezzi@, ‘Ali, The Divine Guide in Early Shi@ ‘ism: The Sources of Esoterism in Islam, State University of New York Press. 1994. 2. Chittick, William, ed. and tr. A Shi@‘ite Anthology, London: Muhammadi@ Trust, 1980. 3. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, H}ami@d Daba>shi@, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, (eds.) Shi@‘ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. 4. Sachedina, ‘Abdulaziz, Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi@ in Twelver Shi@‘ism, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. 5. Shams al-Di@n, Muhammad M, The Rising of al-H}usayn: Its Impact on the Consciousness of Muslim Society, London, Muhammadi@ Trust, 1985. 6. T}aba>t}aba>’i@, ‘Alla>mah Sayyid Muhammad H}usayn, Kernel of the Kernel: Concerning Wayfaring and Spiritual Journey of the people of Intellect. Translated by Mohammad H. Faghfoory, State University of New York Press, 2003. Mu’adhdhin Khura>sa>ni@, Mohammad, Tuh}fah-yi ‘Abba>si: The Godlen Chain of Sufism in Shi@‘ite Islam, Translated by Mohammad H. Faghfoory, University Press of America, 2008 7.-------------- The Qur’a>n in Islam, London, Routledge & Kegan, 1987. SYLLABUS Week One: Aug. 26-28 Introduction: Introductory Remarks on the Advent of Islam Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman Political/Spiritual Authority The Question of Succession to the Prophet READINGS: Nasr, Ideals and Realities…, pp. 1-27, Momen, pp. 1-22. 2 Week Two: Sept. 2-4 Methods of Selection of Prophet’s Successor Majority-Minority: Causes of Separation Sunni Perception of Political Authority: The Caliphate Religious and Spiritual Authority READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 31-55, Nasr, Shi@‘ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality, pp. 11-13 & 65-82, Vali Nasr, pp. 31-61. Week Three: Sept. 9-11 Present State of Shi@‘i Studies: Methods and Approaches Major sources and Scholars of Shi@‘ism The origin and Growth of Shi@ ‘ism Shi@‘i Perception of Political Authority: The Ima>mate Religious and Spiritual Authority: Wila>yah The Image of Ali in Shi@’a Thought READINGS: Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam, chapter 1-4, and, Nasr, “Introduction” in T}aba>t}aba>’i@, Shi@‘ite Islam, , pp. 3-26, & 31-33, 39-55, Nasr, Expectation… pp. 2-6. Week Four: Sept. 16-18 a. Principles of Shi@‘ism: The Doctrine On the Knowledge of God Divine Qualities and its Meaning Divine Justice b. On the Knowledge of the Prophet The Prophets and the Prophet Muhammad The Revelation The Qur’ān in Shi@ ‘i@ Thought Rules of Interpretation of the Qur’a>n Exoteric and Formal Aspects of Religion the hadi@th, Narrations of the Shi@‘ite Ima>ms Rules for Authenticating h}adi@th READINGS: Sobh}a>ni@, pp. 56-60, T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 90-105, Nasr, Doctrine…, pp. 2043. READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i pp. 123-135, 139-156, 173-217, Sobh}a>ni@, pp. 18-32, 3355, & 61-88, Chittick, pp. 27-51, Nasr, Doctrines…, pp. 128-154. Week Five: Sept. 23-25 a. On the Ima>mate Doctrine and the Knowledge of the Ima>ms The Image and Status of the Household of the Prophet in Shi‘ite Doctrine Shi@‘ite Approach to the Concept of Authority: The Ima>m and His Functions The Twelve Ima>ms 1. ‘Ali ibn Abi@ T}a>lib 2. Ima>m H}asan 3. Ima>m H}usayn 4. Ima>m Sajja>d 5.Ima>m Ba>qir 6. Ja‘far al-S}a>diq 7. Ima>m Musa> al-Ka>z}im 8. Ima>m Rid}a> 9. Muhammad Taqi@ 3 10. ‘Ali al-Naqi@, 11. H}asan al-‘Askari@ 12. The Twelfth Ima>m: Occultation and Re-Appearance READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i, pp. 75-84, Sobh}a>ni@, pp. 89-141, 142-200, Chittick, 91-124 & 135-140, Momen, pp. 23-45 & 147-171, Nasr, Expectation…, pp. 8-57. Week Six: Sept. 30-Oct. 2 Shi@‘ism in History-Phase I: Establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty: 661-750 Mu‘a>wiyah and The Status of the Shi@‘ite Community: Yazi@d: Persecution of the Shi@‘ites From Ima>m H}asan to the Martyrdom of H}ussein The Tragedy of Karbala>’ (80/681) Martyrdom of Hussein in Shi@’ite Thought Other Umayyad Caliphs The End of the Umayyad Dynasty READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 31-67; Momen, 61-104; Nasr, Expectation…, pp. 240278, and, Class Lectures. Week Seven: Oct. 7-9 a. Divisions within Shi@ ‘ism Twelver-Ima>mi@s (Ithna>‘ashari@) Isma>‘ili@s & its branches Zaydism & its branches Other branches b. Historical Expansion of Shi@ ‘ism and Present Geography Persia & Iraq Egypt, Lebanon and Syria Anatolia India READINGS: Sobh}a>ni@, pp. 56-60, T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 90-105; Nasr, Doctrine…, pp. 2043, and, class lectures. Week Eight: Oct. 14-16 a. Tuesday: Oct. 14, MID-TERM EXAM b. Thursday: On Shi@‘i Eschatology Body and Soul Death in Islam Purgatory (barzakh) The day of Judgment-Man’s resurrection b. Religious Practices and Rituals Intercession (Shira>‘ah) Taqi@yah Mut‘ah 4 READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 161-171, Nasr, Doctines…, pp. 245-272 & 331-340, Momen, pp. 172-183. Week Nine: Oct.21-23 Shi@‘i Law and Jurisprudence Sources of Shi@‘i Law Development of Shiite Jurisprudence and Legal Methodology (us}u>l al-fiqh) The Rise of the Notion of ijtiha>d and the Office of Mujtahid as the Supreme Jurisprudent The Emergence of Juristic Hierarchy (Marja‘i@yah) and its Effects on the Structure of Political Authority of Time On Jiha>d READINGS: Momen, pp. 184-189, Nasr, Expectation…, pp. 61-64 & 67-72, Nasr, Doctrines…, pp. 227-242 & 275-278. Week Ten: Oct. 28-30 a. The Way of Intellection & Intellectual Reasoning a. Shi@‘i Philosophy and Philosophers b. Shi@‘ite Theology (kala>m): Shaykh Kulayni@, Mufi@d, T}u>si@ b. Intellectual intuition and mystical Unveiling On Man and God Man: Free Will & Predestination Man and Gnostic Comprehension Shi@‘ism and Sufism: The Infallibility of the Imams and Designations of Saints READINGS: T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 112-117, Momen, pp. 208-219, Nasr, Doctrines…, pp. 101-108. PAPERS DUE DATE Week Eleven: Nov. 4-6 Shi@ ‘ism in History-Phase II: 1500-1900 READINGS: Momen, pp. 105-146. Week Twelve: Nov. 11-13 Shi@‘i Political Thought: a. State and government in Shi'ite thought and history b. Shi'ite clerical structures and institutions c. The Role of Shi@‘i Clergy in Politics READINGS: Chittick, pp. 67-82, Nasr, Expectation…, pp. 92-114, Momen, 189207, Mottahedeh, chapters 1-10 & Epilogue, pp. 378-390, Vali Nasr, pp. 63-117. Week Thirteen: Nov. 18-20 Shi@ ‘ism in Contemporary World: 1890-1963 5 a. Synthesis for Adaptation to Constitutionalism and Modern SocioEconomic Notions: Ayatulla>hs Na>’ini@ and Muhammad Ba>qir al-S}adr b. Shi@i‘te ‘Ulama on the Challenge of Modernity and Response to Imperialism Week Fourteen: Nov. 25 Shi ‘ite Revival: Reform or Revolution: 1963-Present Ayaullya>h Khomeini@, Dr. Ali Shari@‘ati@ & Dr.'Abdulkari@m Soroush Ayatulla>h Sista>ni@, H}asan Nas}rulla>h, & Muqtada S}adr Iran Iraq Lebanon Other parts of the Islamic World The Message of Shi@‘ism READINGS: Sobh}a>ni@, pp. 197-200; T}aba>t}aba>’i@, pp. 215-217; Vali Nasr, pp. 119184, 185-254. November 26-28 Thanksgiving Break Week Fifteen: Dec. 4 REVIEW AND COMCLUSION READING DAYS: Dec.8-9 Final Exam: THURSDAY, December 11, 10:20-12:20 Bibliography on Shi@‘ism– Categorized Thematically Religious Doctrine and Practice: Kohlberg, Etan, ed. Shi@‘ism, Burlington: Ashgate, 2003. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, (eds). Shi@‘ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. Amir-Moezzi, Mohammed Ali. The Divine Guide in Early Shi‘ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. Ayoub, Mahmoud. Redemptive Suffering in Islam, Edited by Leo Laeyendecker, Religion and Society 10. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1978. Cook, Michael A. Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Corbin, Henry. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shi‘ite Iran. Princeton: Bollingen, 1977. Jafri, Seyyed. H}ussain, Origins and Early Development of Shi@ ah Islam. Ka@shif al-Ghit}a'> , Muhammad Husayn The Origin of Shí'a and Its Principles. Rizvi, Sayyid Saeed Akhtar, Imamate: the Vicegerency of the Prophet. Newman, Andrew J. The Formative Period of Twelver Shi@‘ism: Hadith As Discourse Between Qum and Baghdad, Ajami, Fouad. The Vanished Imam: Musa al-Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986. S}adr, Sayyid Muhammad Ba>qir, A Study on the Question of Al-Wila>yah, translated by Dr. P. Haseltine. Walbridge, S. Linda (ed.) The Most Learned of the Shi@‘a: The Institution of the Marja‘ -i Taqli@d, Oxford University Press, 2001. Jurisprudence: 6 Mallat, Chibli. The Renewal of Islamic Law, The Life and works of Muhammad Ba>qir S}adr, Cambridge University Press, 2004. S}adr, Muhammad Ba>qir. The principles of Shi@‘i jurisprudence: According to Shi@‘i Law. London: ICAS, 2003. Messianism: Bashir, Shahzad. Messianic Hopes and Mystical Visions: The Nurbakhshi@ya order between Medieval and Modern Islam. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003. Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein. Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi@ in Twelver Shi@‘ism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. Vaziri, Mos}t}afa>. The Emergence of Islam: Prophecy, Imamate and Messianism in Perspective. New York: Paragon House, 1992. Liyakatali Takim, The Heirs of the Prophet: Charisma and Religious Authority in Shiite Islam SUNY Press, 2006. Ethnography: Fisher, Michael and ‘A@bedi, Mehdi. Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in Postmodernity and Tradition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990. Pinault, David. Horse of Kerbala: Muslim Devotional Life in India, New York: Palgrave, 2001. ---------. The Shi@‘ites. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Daftary, Farhad. A Short History of the Isma>‘i@li@s: Traditions of a Muslim Community. Princeton: M. Wiener, 1988. History, Politics & Revolution: Asfaruddin, Asma. Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimate Leadership. Leiden: Brill, 2002. Akhavi, Shahrough. Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran, SUNY Press 1980. Arjomand, Sai‘d A (ed.) Authority and Political Culture in Shi@‘ism, SUNY Press, 1988. Bill, James A & John Alden Williams (eds.), Roman Catholics and Shi@‘i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics, UNC Press, 2003 Halm, Heinz. Shi@‘a Islam: From Religion to Revolution, translated by Allison Brown (from German), edited by Bernard Lewis and Heath W. Lowry. Princeton Series on the Middle East. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1997. Keddie, Nikkie, ed. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. Litvak, Meir. Shi@‘i Scholars of Nineteenth-Century Iraq: The 'Ulama>' of Najaf and Karbala', Cambridge University Press, 2002 Marcinkowski, Ismail M. Religion and politics in Iraq: Shi@‘ite clerics between Quietism and Resistance, Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd, 2004 Marty, Martin E. Fundamentalisms the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance, University of Chicago Press, 1996. Nakash, Yitzhak. Shi@‘is of Iraq, Princeton University Press, 2003. Pinault, David. The Shiites, Palgrave, 1993. Magnus, Ranstorp. Hizb'Allah in Lebanon, Palgrave, 1997. Rayshahri, Mohammad Mohammadi, Imam Ali and olitical Leadership Translated by Ahmad Rezwani, edited byMohammad Sharif Mahdavi and Zaid Alsalami, 1st ed., 2010, Qum: Dar alHadith, Richard, Yann. Le Shi@‘isme en Iran: Imam et revolution, Paris, 1980. Madelung, Wilfred. The succession to Muhammad: A Study of the early Caliphate, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. ----------- Religious and Ethnic Movements in Medieval Islam, Hampshire, 1992. Literature: Ma’alouf, Ami@n. Samarqand, trans. By Russell Harris, Abacus, 1994. 7 Ali ibn Abu Talib. Nahj ul-Balagha, 12th edition, tr. Askari Jafri. New York: Islamic Seminary Publications, 1999. Arjomand, Sa’id——, ed. Authority and Political Culture in Shi‘ism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. Corbin, Henry. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shi‘ite Iran. Princeton: Bollingen, 1977. Fischer, Michael. Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980. Halm, Heinz. Shiism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991. Lalani, Arzina. Early Shi‘a Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. London: I.B. Taurus in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2000. Pinault, David. The Shiites: Ritual and Popular Piety in a Muslim Community. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Schubel, Vernon. Religious Performance in Contemporary Islam: Shi‘i Devotional Rituals in South Asia. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Amir-Moezzi, M. A. (1994), The Divine Guide in Early Shiism, New York: SUNY Press Arjomand, S. A. (1984), The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: Religion, Political Order, and Societal Change in Shiite Iran from the Beginning to 1890, Chicago: Chicago University Press Arjomand, S. A. (1996), ‘The Crisis of the Imamate and the Institution of the Occultation in Twelver Shi’ism: a Sociohistorical Perspective’ IJMES 28 (4), 491-515 reprinted in Turner, B. (ed., 2003), Islam: Critical Concepts in Sociology Vol. IV, London: Routledge, 207-235. Ayoub, M. M. (1978), Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of `Ashura in Twelver Shi`ism, The Hague: Mouton Publsihers Ayoub, M. (1986), ‘Divine Preordination and Human Hope: a Study of the Concept of Bada in Imami Shii Tradition’ JAOS Vol. 106, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1986), 623-632 Ayoub, M M (2005), The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam, Oxford: Oneworld Publishers Bar-Ahser, M. M. (1993), ‘Variant Readings and Additions of the Imami-Si’a to the Quran’ Israel Oriental Studies 13, 39-72 Bar-Ahser, M. M. (1999), Scripture and Exegesis in Early Imami Shiism, Leiden: EJ Brill Bashir, S (2003), Messianic Hopes and Mystical Visions: The Nurbakhshiya Between Medieval and Modern Islam, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press Blichfeldt, J. (1985), Early Mahdism: Politics and Religion in the Formative Period of Islam Clarke, L. (2005), ‘The Rise and Decline of Taqiyya in Twelver Shi’ism’ in Lawson, T. (2005, ed.), Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. Essays in Honour of Hermann Landolt, London: IB Tauris/Institute of Ismaili Studies, 34 – 63 Cole, J. Sacred Space and Holy War: the politics, culture and history of Shiit̀ e Islam, London: IB Tauris, 2002. Corbin, H. (1990), Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: from Mazdean Iran to Shiite Iran, London : I.B.Taurus Crone, P. (1980), Slaves on Horses, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Crone, P. (2004), Medieval Islamic Political Thought, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Crone, P. & Hinds, M. (1986), God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Dabashi, H (1993), Authority in Islam, London: Transaction Publishers Daftary, F. (1990), The Ismailis: their History and Doctrines, Cambridge: CUP Dixon, A. A. (1971), The Umayyad Caliphate: 65-86/684-705 (A Political Study), London: Luzac & Co. Donner, F. M. (1991), The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Donner, F.M. (1998), Narratives of Islamic Origins, Princeton: The Darwin Press Duri, A. A. The Rise of Historical Writing Amongst the Arabs, Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press al-Fadli, A H (2002), Introduction to Hadith, London: ICAS Press Fisher, M. H. (1999), ‘Women and the Feminine in the Court and High Culture of Awadh, 1722-1856’, in Hambly, G. R. G. (1999, ed.), Women in the Medieval Islamic World : Power, Patronage, And Piety, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 489-519 8 Fisher, W. B. et al. (1968 - ), The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge: CUP Gibb, H. A. R. et al. (1960- ), The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden: EJ Brill Halm, H. (1991), Shiism, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Hawting, G. (2000), The First Dynasty of Islam: the Umayyad Caliphate AD661-750, London: Routledge Hodgson, M. G. S. (1955), ‘How Did the Early Shi’a Become Sectarian?’, JAOS Vol. 75, No. 1, Jan – March 1955, 1-13 Humphreys, R. S. (1991), Islamic History: a Framework for Enquiry, Karachi: Oxford University Press Hussain, J. M. (1982), The Occultation of the Twelfth Imam: A Historical Background, London: The Muhammadi Trust Jafri, S. H. M. (2000), The Origins and Development of Shi’a Islam, Karachi: Oxford University Press Kohlberg, E. (ed. 1991), Belief and Law In Imami Shi`ism, Ashgate: Variorum Lalani, A. R. (2000), Early Shii Thought: the Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, London: IB Tauris Lapidus, I. (2002, 2nd Ed.), A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lassner, J. (1980), ‘Propaganda in Early Islam: the `Abbasids in the Post-Revolutionary Age’ Israel Oriental Studies 10, 74-85 Lewis, B (1967), The Assasins. A Radical Sect in Islam, London: Pheonix Madelung, W. (1997), The Succession to Muhammad: a Study of the Early Caliphate, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mahmood, Saba, Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. (Winner of the 2005 Victoria Schuck Award, American Political Science Association.) Malikpur, J. (2004), The Islamic Drama: Ta`ziyah, London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass Miller, WM (1928), Al-Babu ‘l-Hadi `Ashar: A Treatise on the Principles of Shi`ite Theology, London: Royal Asiatic Society Mirza, N. A. (1997), Syrian Ismailism: the Ever Living Line of the Imamate, London: Curzon Minorsky, V. (1942), ‘The Poetry of Shah Isma`il I’ BSOAS Vol. 10, No. 4, pp.1006a-1053a Modarressi, H. (1993), Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shiite Islam, Princeton: Princeton University Press *Momen, M. (1985), An Introduction to Shi’i Islam, London: Yale University Press Moussavi, A. K. (1996), Religious Authority in Shi`ite Islam: from the Office of Mufti to the Institution of Marja`, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC al-Mufid, Shaykh (no date, trans. Howard, I K A) Kitab al-Irshad, Tehran: Ansariyan Publications Nasr, S H (1991), Islamic Spirituality I: Foundations, London: SCM Press Nasr, S H (1991), Islamic Spirituality II: Manifestations, London: SCM Press Newman, A. J. (2000), The Formative Period of Twelver Shi`ism, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Newman, A. J. (2006), Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, London: IB Tauris. Peters, F.E. (1994), A Reader on Classical Islam, Princeton: Princeton University Press Rippin, A. & Knappert, J. (1986), Textual Sources for the Study of Islam, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Sachedina, A. A. (1981), Islamic Messianism: the Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shiism, N.Y. SUNY Press. Sachedina, A. A. (1988), The Just Ruler (al-Sultan al-`Adil) in Shi`ite Islam, Oxford: OUP. Shaban, M. A. (1971), Islamic History: A New Interpretation AD 600-750 (AH 132), Cambridge: CUP. Shah, B. (2005), ‘Al-Qadi Al-Nu’man and the Concept of Batin’ in Lawson, T. (2005, ed.), Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. Essays in Honour of Hermann Landolt, London: IB Tauris/Institute of Ismaili Studies, 117 – 126. Shams al-Din, M M (1985, trans. Howard, I K A), The Rising of al-Husayn: Its Impact on the Consciousness of Muslim Society, London: The Muhammadi Trust Spellberg, D. Politics, Gender and the Islamic Past:the Legacy of Aisha bint Abi Bakr, NY: Columbia U. P. 1994. al-Tabari, A. J. M. ibn J. (1985-, various trans.), The History of al-Tabari (Tarikh al-rusul wa’l muluk), Albany: SUNY Press Takim, L. A. (2000), ‘From Bid`a to Sunna: the Wilaya of ‘Ali in the Shi’i Adhan, JAOS 120.2, 166-177 Turner, C (2000), Islam Without Allah? The Rise of Religious Externalism in Safavid Iran, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press 9 Walker, P. E. (1993), Early Philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani, Cambridge: CUP Walker, P. E. (1998), Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani: Intellectual Missionary, London: IB Tauris Walker, P E (1999), Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: Ismaili Thought in the Age of al-Hakim London: IB Tauris Watt, W M (1948), Free Will and Predestination in Early Islam, London: Luzac & Co. Watt, W.M. 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