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Transcript
CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION Globalization is a broad term which includes different concepts in different fields and the term is most closely associated with the term economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, the spread of technology and military presence. It is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, socio cultural, political and biological factors. The term can also refer to the translational circulation of ideas, languages or popular culture through acculturation. Globalization is a new contemporary stage of development of capitalism over the world. It is a process of social change in which geographical and cultural barriers are reduced. This break down of barriers is the result of transportation, communication and electronic communication. Globalization in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional things or phenomena into global ones. The term 'globalization' can be traced back to the early 1960s, it was not until a quarter of a century later that it took the public consciousness by storm. 'Globalization' surfaced as the buzzword of the 'Roaring Nineties' because it best captured the increasingly interdependent nature of social life on our planet. At the end of the opening decade of the twenty first century. there were millions of references to globalization in both virtual and printed space Globalization is the inevitable process of a universalizing western 99 civilization battling the parochial forces of nationalism, localism and tribalism. Globalization has been variously used in both popular and academic literature to describe a process, a condition, a system, a force and an age. The term globalization applies to a set of social processes that appear to transform our present social condition of weakening nationality into one of globality. At its core, then globalization is about shifting forms of human contact. Indeed any affirmation of globalization implies three assertion: first we are slowly leaving behind the condition of modern nationality that gradually unfolded from the eighteenth century onwards; second, that we are moving towards the new condition of postmodern globality; and third, we have not yet reached it, indeed, like 'modernization' and other verbal nouns that end in the suffix – 'ization', the term 'globalization' suggests a sort of dynamism best captured by the notion of 'development' or 'unfolding' along discernble patterns. Such unfolding may occur quickly or slowly but it always corresponds to the ideas of change, and therefore, denotes transformation. Globalization is an uneven process, meaning that people living in various parts of world are affected very differently by this gigantic transformation of social structures and cultural zones. 100 Some Definitions:1. "Globalization as a concept refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole". 2. Roland Robertson "Globalization compresses the time and space aspects of social relations" James Mittelman 3. "The concepts of globalization reflect the sense of an immense enlargement of world communication, as well as of the horizon of a world market both of which seems for mere tangible and immediate than in earlier stages of modernity." Fredric Jameson 4. "The diminution or elimination of state-enforced restriction on exchanges across borders and the increasingly integrated and complex global system of production and exchange that has emerged as a result." Tom G. Palmer 5. "Globalization may be thought of as a process (or a set of processes). which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relation and transaction-assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity velocity and impeach-generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction and the exercise of power". David Held 101 6. "Globalization can be defined as the intensification of world wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice-versa." Anthony Giddens Thomas L. Friedman "examines the impact of the 'flattening' of the globe", and argues that globalized trade, outsourcing, supplychaining and political forces have changed the world permanently for both better and worse. He also argues that the pace of globalization is quickening and will continue to have a growing impact on business organization and practice. These definitions point to four additional qualities or characteristic at the core of the phenomena. First, globalization involves the creation of new, and the multiplication of existing, social networks and activities that cut across traditional, political, economical, cultural and geographical boundaries The Second quality of globalization is reflected in the expansion and the stretching of social relations, activities and inter dependencies. Today's financial markets reach around the globe and technology, information, education too reach round the Globe. Third, globalization involves the intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and activities. As the Spanish sociologist Manual Castells has pointed out, the creation of a global network society 102 required a technological revolution- one that has been powered chiefly by the rapid development of new information and transportation technologies. These innovations are reshaping the social landscape of human life. The Internet relays distant information in real time, and satellites provide consumers with instant pictures of remote events. The intensification of worldwide social relations means that local happenings are shaped by events occurring far away and vice-versa. In other words, the seemingly opposing processes of globalization and localization actually imply each other. Rather than sitting at the base and the top of conventional geographical hierarchies, the local and global intermingle mainly with the national and regional in new horizontal scale. Fourth, the global imaginary-globalization processes do not occur merely on an objective, material level but also involve the subjective plane of human consciousness. The compression of the world into a single place increasingly makes global the frame of reference for human thought and action. Hence, globalization involves both the macrostructures of community and the micro-structures of personhood. It extends deep into the core of the self and its dispositions, facilitating the creation of new individual and collective identities nurtured by the intensifying relations between the individual and the globe. Thus, Globalization refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and world-space. Globalization has been used to describe a variety of tendencies At the most general level it has been defined as: 'The forging of a 103 multiplicity of linkages and interconnections between the states and societies which make up the modern world system. The processes by which events, decision and activities in one part of the world can come to have significant consequences for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of globe.' In the long run, globalization is likely to be an unrelenting phenomenon but for significant periods of time, its momentum can be hindered by a variety of factors, ranging from political will to availability of infrastructure. Globalization, in the words of Roland Robertson can be defined as "the concrete structuration of the world as a whole" due to the emergence of a "global" social space where borderless interactions and interdependencies develop between persons. HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION New innovations like computers, Internet, cellular phones, pagers personal digital assistants like the popular 'Blackberry', digital camera, high definition television, satellites, jet planes etc. have played a crucial role in the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world time and world space. The Internet, in particular has assumed a pivotal function in facilitating globalization through the creation of worldwide web that connects billions of individuals, civil society associations and government. Since most of these technologies have been around for less than three decades, it seems to make sense to agree with those commentators who claim that globalization is, indeed, a relatively new phenomena. Globalization is a 104 long-term process that over many centuries has crossed distinct qualitative thresholds. Globalization in the prehistoric period (10000 BCE – 3500 BCE) was severely limited. Advanced forms of technology capable of overcoming existing geographical and social obstacles were largely absent; thus, enduring long-distance interaction never materialized. It was only towards the end of this epoch that centrally administered forms of agriculture, religion, bureaucracy and welfare states slowly emerged as the key agents of intensifying modes of social exchange that would involve a growing number of societies in many regions of the world. During premodern period (3500BCE- 1500 BCE) the invention of writing, wheel amounted to one of those technological and social boosts that moved globalization to a new level. Thanks to the suspicious east-west orientation of Eurasia's major continental axis- a geographical features that had already facilitated the rapid spread of crops and animals suitable for food production along the same latitudes- The importance of these invention for the strengthening of globalization processes should be obvious. Pre modern period was the age of empires. All of these empires fostered the multiplication and extension of long-distance communication and the exchange of culture, technology, commodities and diseases. Globalization is viewed as centuries long processes, tracking the expansion of human population and the growth of civilization that has accelerated dramatically in the past 50 years. Early forms of globalization existed during the Roman Empire, the Parthian 105 empire and the Han Dynasty, when the Silk Road started in China, reached the boundaries of Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards Rome. The Islamic Golden Age is also an example, when Muslim traders and explorers established an early global economy across the old world resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology; and later during the Mongol Empire, when there was greater integration along the Silk Road. Towards the end of the premodern period, then the existing global trade network consisted of several interlocking trade circuits that connected the most populous regions of Eurasia And north=eastern Africa. Although both the Australian and the American continents still remained separate from this expanding web of economical, political and cultural interdependence. The existence of these sprawling networks of economic and cultural exchange triggered massive waves of migration, which is turn, led to further population increase and rapid growth of urban centers. The Early Modern period (1500-1750) The label 'early modern', then refers to the period between the Enlightment and the Renaissance. During these two centuries, Europe and its social practices served as the primary catalyst for globalization. Religious warfare within Europe also created its share of Globalization. Moreover as a result of these protrachad armed conflicts, military alliances and political arrangements underwent continuous modification. Ultimately evolving from the Westphalia states system, the sovereign, 106 territorial nation state had emerged by 1648 as the modern container of social life. As the early modern period drew to a close, interdependencies among nation-states were multiplying as well as increasing in density. Global integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Portuguese and Spanish empires colonized the Americas, followed eventually by France and England. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on cultures, particularly indigenous cultures, around the world. In the 15 th century Portugal's company of Guinea was one of the first chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continent during the Age of Discovery, whose task was to deal with the species and to fix the prices of the goods. In the 17th century- globalization became a business phenomenon when the British East India company (founded in 1600) which is often described as the first multinational corporation, was established, as well as the Dutch East India company (founded in 1602) and the Portuguese East India company (founded in 1628). Because of the high risks involved with international trade, the British East India Company become the first company in the world to share risk and enable joint ownership of companies through the issuance of shares of stock: an important driver for globalization. 107 The Modern Period (1750-1970) By the late eighteenth century, Australia and the Pacific islands were slowly incorporated into the European – dominated networks of political, economic and cultural exchange. In 1847 German Political radicals Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, in famous "Communist Manifesto" capture the qualitative shift in social relations that pushed globalization to a new level in the modern period. Volume of world trade increased dramatically between 1850 and 1914. In order to raise the global visibility of corporation like Brand name packaged goods like coca-cola, Campbell soups, singer sewing machines and Remington type-writers, international advertising agencies launched the first full-blown trans border commercial promotion campaigns. The nineteenth century also sometimes called "The first Era of Globalization" It was a period characterized by rapid growth in international trade and investment between the European imperial power, their colonies, and later the United States. In nineteenth century explosion of science and technology, in the twentieth century mass circulation newspapers and magazines, film and television further enhanced a growing consciousness of a rapidly shrinking world. The modern period also witnessed an unprecedented population explosion. Enormous waves of migration intensified existing cultural exchanges and transformed traditional social patterns. Process of 108 decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s that slowly revived global flows and international exchanges. The new international system of sovereign yet interdependent nation-states anchored in the charter of the United Nations raised the prospect of global democratic governance. The contemporary Period (From 1970) The dramatic, creation, expansion and acceleration of worldwide interdependencies and global exchanges that have occurred since the early 1970s represent yet another quantum leap in the history of globalization. Thus to conclude globalization is not a single process but a set of processes that operate simultaneously and unevenly on several levels and in various dimensions. As a result of planning by economists, business interests, and politicians who recognized the costs associated with protectionism and declining international economic integration. Their work led to the Bretton Woods conference and the founding of several international institutions intended to oversee the renewed processes of globalization, promoting growth and managing adverse consequences. Dimensions of Globalization 1- Economic 2- Political 3- Cultural 109 4- Ecological 5- Educational In order to avoid the ensuring problem of overgeneralizations, it is important to make analytical distinctions between aspects of social life. For example, we associate the adjective 'economic' with the production, exchange and consumption of commodities. If we are discussing the 'political', we mean practices related to the generations and distribution of power in societies. If we are talking about the 'cultural', we are concerned with the symbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning. Given that language, music, and images constitute the major forms of symbolic expression, they assume special significance in the sphere of culture. The Economic Dimension of Globalization New forms of technology are one to the hallmarks of contemporary globalization. Economic globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of Economic interrelation across the globe. Gigantic flows of capital and technology have stimulated trade in goods and services Markets have extended their reach around the world, in the process creating new linkages among national economies Huge transnational corporation, powerful international economic institutions, and large regional trading system have emerged as the major building blocks of the twenty-first century's global economic order. 110 The Emergence of the global economic orders Contemporary economic globalization can be traced back to the gradual emergence of a new international economic order assembled at an economic conference held towards the end of the Second World War in the New England town of Britton Woods. Under the leadership of the United States of America and Great Britain, the major economic powers of Global North reversed their economic policies of the interwar period (1918-39) which for example introduced high tariffs on imported goods to protect the national economy. In addition to arriving at a firm commitment to expand international trade, the participants in the conference also agreed to establish binding rules on international economic activities. Britton Woods also set the institutional foundation for the establishment of three new international economic organization. The International Monetary fund was created to administer the international monetary system. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development later known World Bank, was initially designed to provide loans for Europe's post-war reconstruction During the 1950s, however, its purpose was expanded to fund various industrial projects in developing countries around the world. Finally, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was established in 1947 as a global trade organization charged with fashioning and enforcing multilateral trade agreements. In 1950, the World Trade Organization was founded as the successor organization to GATT. In the 1990s the WTO became the 111 focal point of intense public controversy over the design and the effects of economic globalization. The three most significant development related to economic globalization have been the internationalization of trade and finance, the increasing power of transnational corporation and the enhanced role of international economic institution like the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO. 1. The Globalization of Trade And Finance Globalization has increased free trade. The total value of world trade exploded from $. 57 billion in 1947 to an astonishing $. 12.6 trillion in 2005. Free trade proponents assure the public that the elimination and reduction of existing trade barriers among nations will enhance consumer choice, increase global wealth, secure peaceful international relation and spread new technologies around the world. Some national economics have increased their productivity as a result of free trade, Moreover; there are some benefits that accrue to societies through specialization, competition and the spread to technology. But it is not clear whether the profits resulting from free trade have been distributed fairly within and among countries. The Globalization of trade has gone hand in hand with the liberalization of financial transactions. Its key components include the deregulation of interest rates, the removal of credit controls, and the 112 privatization of government owned banks and financial institution. Globalization of financial trading allows for increased mobility among different segments of the financial industry, with fewer restrictions and greater investment opportunities. 2. The Power of Multi National Corporation The growing power of MNCs has profoundly altered the structure and functioning of the international economy. These giant firms and their global strategies have become major determinants of trade flows, the location of industries and other economic activities around the world. As a consequence, MNCs have become extremely important players that influence the economic, political and social welfare of many nations. 3. The Enhanced Role of International Economic Institutions The three international economic institutions most frequently mentioned in the context of economic globalization are the IMF the World Bank, and the WTO. In return for supplying much-needed loans to developing countries the IMF and the World Bank demand from their creditor nations the implementation of so-called 'Structural adjustment programmes'. Unleashed on developing countries in the 1990s, this set of neoliberal policies is often referred to as the 'Washington consensus'. It was devised and codified by John Williamson who was an IMF advisor in 1970s. 113 The ten points of the Washington Censuses as defined by Williamson, required governments to implement the following structural adjustments in order to qualify for loans: 1. A guarantee of fiscal discipline and a curb to Budget deficits. 2. A reduction of public expenditure, particularly in the military and public administration. 3. Tax reform aiming at the creation of a system with a broad base and with effective enforcement. 4. Financial liberalization with interest rates determined by the market. 5. Competitive exchange rates, to assist export-led growth. 6. Trade liberalization coupled with the abolition of import licensing and a reduction of tariffs. 7. Promotion of Foreign Direct Investment. 8. Privatization of state enterprises, leading to efficient management and improved performance. 9. Deregulation of the economy. 10.Protection of property rights. The intensification of global economic interconnections does not simply fall from sky rather, it is set into motion by a series of political decisions. The Political Dimension of Globalization Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelation across the globe. These processes raise an 114 important set of political issues pertaining to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing impact of intergovernmental organizations and the future prospects for regional and global governance. This artificial division of planetary social space into 'domestic' and 'foreign' spheres corresponds to people's collective identities based on the creation of a common 'us' and an unfamiliar 'them'. Thus, the modern nation-state system has rested on psychological foundations and cultural assumptions that convey a sense of existential security and historical continuity, while at the same time demanding from its citizens that they put their national loyalties to the ultimate test. Contemporary manifestations of globalization have led to the partial permeation of these old territorial borders, in the process also softening hard conceptual boundaries and cultural lines of demarcation. Pronouncing the wise of a 'borderless world', hyperglobalizers seek to convince the public that globalization inevitably involves the decline of bounded territory as a meaningful concept for understanding political and social change. Consequently, this group of commentators suggests that political power is located in global social formations and expressed through global networks rather than through territorially-based states. The activities of global terrorist networks have revealed the inadequacy of conventional national security structures based on the modern nation-state system, thus forcing national governments to engage in new forms of international cooperation. Political globalization is most visible in the rise of supraterritorial institutions and associations held 115 together by common norms and interests. In this early phase of global governance, these structures resemble an eclectic network of interrelated power centers such as municipal and provincial authorities, regional blocs, international organization and national and international private sector association. On the municipal and provincial level, there has been a remarkable growth in the number of policy initiatives and trans border links between various sub-state authorities. On the regional level, there has been an extraordinary proliferation of multilateral organizations and agreements. Regional clubs and agencies have sprung up across the world, leading some observers to speculate that they will eventually replace nation-states as the basic unit of governance. As globalization tendencies grew stronger during the 1970s, it became clear that the international society of separate states was rapidly turning into a global web of political interdependencies that challenged the sovereignty of nation-states. On a global level governments have formed a number of international organizations including the UN, NATO, WTO and OECD. Full legal membership in these organizations is open to states only and the decision-making authority lies with representatives from national governments. The Proliferation of these Trans world bodies has shown that nation-states find it increasingly difficult to manage sprawling networks of social interdependence. Finally, the emerging structure of global governance is also shaped by 'global civil society', a realm populated by thousands of voluntary non-governmental associations of world wide, reach. International NGOs like Amnesty International or Greenpeace represent 116 millions of ordinary citizens who are prepaid to challenge political and economic decisions made by nation-states and intergovernmental organizations. According to David Held the cosmopolitan democracy of the future would contain the following political features:1. A global parliament connected to regions, states and localities; 2. A new charter of rights and duties locked into different domains of political, social and economic power; 3. The formal separation of political and economic interest; 4. An interconnected global legal system with mechanisms of enforcement from the local to the global. Thus, the worldwide intensification of cultural, political, and economic interaction makes the possibility of resistance and opposition just as real as the benign vision of mutual accommodation and tolerance of differences. The Cultural Dimension of Globalization Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe. Obviously, 'culture' is a very broad concept; it is frequently used to describe the whole of human experience. Cultural globalization did not start with the worldwide dissemination of rock 'n' roll, coca-cola, or football, Expansive civilization exchange are much older than modernity. Still, the volume and extent of cultural transmissions in the contemporary period have far exceeded those of 117 earlier eras. Facilitated by the Internet and other new technologies, the dominant symbolic systems of meaning of our age-such as individualism, consumerism, and various religious discourse- circulate more freely and widely than ever before. As images and ideas can be more easily and rapidly transmitted from one place to another, they profoundly impact the way people experience their everyday lives. Today, cultural practices frequently escape fixed localities such as town and nation, eventually acquiring new meanings in interactions with dominant global themes. Does globalization make people around the world more alike or more different? This question is often raised in discussions on the subject of cultural globalization. Some commentators we might call 'pessimistic' hyperglobalizers argue in favour of the former. They suggest that we are not moving towards a cultural rainbow that reflects the diversity of the world's existing cultures. Rather we are witnessing the rise of an increasingly homogenized popular culture underwritten by a western 'culture industry' based in New York and London. Referring to the diffusion of American values and consumer goods as the Americanization of the world the proponents of the cultural homogenization argue that western norms and life styles are overwhelming more vulnerable cultures. Although there have been serious attempts by some countries to resist these forces of 'Cultural imperialism'- for example, a ban on satellite dishes in Iran, and the 118 French imposition of tariffs and quotas on imported film and television the spread of American popular culture seems to be unstoppable. But these manifestations of sameness are also evident inside the dominant countries of the global North. American sociologist George Ritzer coined the term 'Mc Donaldization' to describe the wide- ranging socio cultural processes by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world. On the surface, these principles appear to be rational in their attempts to offer efficient and predictable ways of serving people's needs. However, looking behind the facade of repetitive TV commercial that claim to 'Love to see you smile', we can identify a number of serious problems. For one, the generally low nutritional value of fast-food meals- and particularly their high fat content-has been implicated in the rise of serious health problems such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and juvenile obesity. Moreover, the impersonal, routine operations, of 'rational' fast-service establishments actually undermine expressions of forms of cultural diversity. In the long run, the McDonaldizations of the world amounts to the imposition of uniform standards that eclipse human creativity and dehumanize social relations. It is one thing to acknowledge the existence of powerful homogenizing tendencies in the world, but it is quite clear to assert that the cultural diversity existing on our planet is designated to vanish. In fact, several influential commentators offer a contrary assessment that 119 links globalization to new forms of cultural expression. Sociologist Roland Robertson, for example, contends that global cultural flows often reinvigorate local cultural niches. Hence, rather than being totally obliterated by the western consumerist forces of sameness, local difference and particularity still play an important role in creating unique cultural constellations. Arguing that cultural globalization always takes place in local contexts, Robertson rejects the cultural homogenization and speaks instead of 'globalization'- a complex interaction of the global and local characterized by cultural borrowing. The resulting expressions of cultural 'hybridity' cannot be reduced to clear-cut manifestations of 'sameness' or 'difference'. As cultural globalization has contributed to a remarkable expansion of people's consciousness. It appears that old nations of 'national community' are being complemented by the rise of global imaginary and modernity is slowly giving way to a new 'postmodern' frame work characterized by a less stable sense of identity and knowledge. Those who applaud the spread of consumerist capitalism need to pay attention to its negative consequences, such as the dramatic decline of traditional communal sentiments as well as the commoditization of society and nature. The values disseminated by transational media enterprises secure not only the undisputed cultural hegemony of popular culture, but also lead to the depoliticalization of social reality and the weakening of civic bonds. One of the most glaring developments of the last two decades has been the transformation of news broadcasts and educational programmes into shallow entertainment shows. Given that news is less than half as 120 profitable as entertainment, media firms are increasingly tempted to pursue higher profits by ignoring journalism's much vaunted separation of newsroom practices and business decisions. Partnerships and alliances between news and entertainment companies are fast becoming the norm making it more common for publishing executives to press journalists to cooperate with their news paper's business operations. A sustained attack on the professional autonomy of journalism is, therefore, also part of cultural globalization. Thus above examples present the various aspects of cultural Globalization. In favour of cultural globalization the views of Gandhi, no culture can flourish without intermingling with other culture. Recently these views enforced in ‘United Alliance of Civilization Forum of Doha Round on 12 December 2012. Brazil vice president Michael Temer in the inaugural session emphasized the relevancy of Gandhi in present age. He said his Government will follow the Gandhian Principles. The Ecological Dimension of Globalization The ecological impacts of globalizations are increasingly recognized as the most significant and potentially life threatening for the world as we have inherited it from our ancestors. In modernity, nature has come to be considered as a 'resource' to be used instrumentally to fulfill human desires. The most extreme manifestation of this 'anthropocentric' paradigm is reflected in the dominant values and beliefs of consumerism. The US-dominated culture industry seeks to convince 121 its global audience that the meaning and chief value of life can be found in the limitless accumulation of material possessions. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, however, it has become virtually impossible to ignore the fact that people everywhere on this planet are inextricably linked to each other through the air they breathe, the climate they depend upon, the food they eat, and the water they drink. In spite of this obvious lesson of interdependence, our planet's ecosystems are subjected to continuous human assault in order to maintain wasteful lifestyles. Granted, some of the major ecological challenges the world faces today are problems that afflicted civilizations even in ancient times. But until the coming of the Industrial Revolution, environmental degradation was relatively localized and occurred rather slowly over many centuries. Some of the most dangerous manifestations of the globalization of environmental degradation are:Two of the major concerns relate to uncontrolled population growth and lavish consumption patterns, particularly in the global North. Since farming economies first came into existence about 480 generations ago, the global population has exploded a thousand-fold to more than 6 billion. Half of this increase has occurred in the last thirty years. With the possible exception of some rodent species, humans are now the most numerous mammals on earth. Vastly increased demands for foods, timber, and fiber have put severe pressure on the planet's ecosystem. The global impact of humans on the environment is as much a function of per capita consumption as it is of overall population size. For example the 122 United States comprises only 6 percent of the world's populations, but is consumes 30-40 percent of our planet's natural resources. Global over consumption and uncontrolled population growth present a serious problem to the environment. Unless we are willing to change the underlying cultural and religious value structure that has combined with the social and economic dynamics of unrestrained capitalist accumulation, the health of Mother Earth is likely to deteriorate even further. Globalization processes such as the expansion of trade and transport drive overconsumption and environmental degradation. But, on the other hand, the food crisis also shows how global responses to environmental problems may also lead to new problems such as the aforementioned biofuel issue or the considerable risks associated with nuclear alternatives to carbon-based energy sources. Another significant ecological problem associated with population increases and the globalization of environmental degradation is the worldwide reduction of biodiversity. Seven out of ten biologists today believe that the world is now in the midst of the fastest mass extinction of living species in the 4.5 billion year history of the planet. Trans boundary pollution, global warming, climate change, and species extinction are challenges that cannot be contained within national or even regional borders. They do not have isolated causes and effects. They are global problems, caused by aggregate collective human actions, and thus require a coordinated global response. To be sure, ecological problems aggravated by globalization also have significant economic ramifications. Although these effects will be more significant for less 123 developed countries than for rich countries, they will nonetheless affect all people all nations. Consequences of this vicious circle include increased illnesses, escalating death rates, and crumbling infrastructure. The cost of living will continue to rise, leaving poor households and communities unable to save for future emergencies. Indeed, these issues are not merely environmental or scientific matters. They are economic, political, cultural but above all ethical issues that have been expanded and intensified by globalization processes. Significant agreements exist that certain limitations on carbon emissions must be placed on all nations. Yet, poor countries argue that they should not be bound by the same limits as developed countries. They make this argument for two reasons. Firstly, they need to build up their industries and infrastructures in order to pull themselves out of poverty. Placing significant carbon emission restriction on their industries would seriously impede their economic development. Secondly, they argue that poor countries have not been responsible, for the production of most of the greenhouse gases that have caused the current problem. Identifying developed countries as the primary producers of greenhouse gases, they suggest that the major burden for limiting the production of greenhouse gases should fall on the developed world-at least until developing countries have pulled their populations out of extreme poverty. The United States has expressed strong opposition to these arguments by insisting that all countries should be subjected to the same limitations on carbon emissions. At the Thirteenth Conference of the Parties (COP 13) to the United Nations Frame Work Convention on 124 Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Bali 2007, the US delegation repeatedly blocked negotiations by demanding that developing countries take more responsibility for their contribution to global warming. At the same time, however, America has been reluctant to enter into any agreement that might slow its own economic growth. For better or worse, human-made environmental degradation has emerged as both a powerful cause and effect of globalization. But it remains to be seen whether the growing recognition of the ecological limits of our planet will translate into a much-needed revision of ideologies rooted in the desire for the unlimited accumulation of material things. Educational Dimension of Globalization Education is an important investment in building human capital that is a driver for technological innovation and economic growth. It is only through improving the educational status of a society that the multifaceted development of its people can be ensured. In the postindustrialized world, the advanced countries used to derive the major proportion of their national income not from agriculture and industry but from the service sector. Since the service sector is based on imparting skills or training to the students and youth, the education sector is the most sought after. It must provide gainful employment so that the sector is developed in a big way. Education as a service industry, is part of globalization process under the umbrella of General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). However, there is every possibility that this might 125 force countries with quite different academic needs and resources to conform to systems inevitably designed to service the interest of corporate educational providers and thereby breeding inequality and dependence. Thus, several teachers' organizations are on record opposing the inclusion of education in the GATS, on the ground that education was not a commodity. Incidentally, there is an emerging threat from the process of globalizations in the recent times. Because in the words of Arun Nigvekar of the World Bank's Task Force 2000, "Globalization can lead to unregulated and poor quality higher education, with the worldwide marketing of fraudulent degrees or other so-called higher education credentials". It seems that countries like India, are likely to turn into "an increasingly attractive market for foreign universities and hence other nations are going to use 'GATS' provisions to their advantage". Nobel Laureates T.W. Schultz and Gary Becker in 1961 and 1963 respectively propounded the new economics of education. According to this, all investments in education are they private or public, were guided by profitability. It was the profit motive that exhibited in the concern for the 'rate of return' to the money spent on education, which was the main factor-behind, one's investment decisions in education. The private investments were based on the private 'rates of return' calculated by counting the private costs and gains that were expected as the result of acquiring one kind of education rather than the other. The objective of education was the same, be it for individual or for society as a whole, to 126 get the best economic value for the money and effort spent. Rather, there is high dropout rate, called as a key symptom of the system's inability to reform itself. Decades of under-investment in education have created shocking shortages of buildings, laboratories, libraries, sanitary facilities and even drinking water and sanitation facilities in the nation's decaying education sector. In the wake of globalization process and to cope up with the changing priorities of the people, the planners are bound to revise their strategies in the education sector. Thus, several specialist committees, involving the elites and captains of industry and education, constituted by the union ministry are engaged in the process. Whereas the public interest demands a wider domain for the national debate on syllabus and curriculum reform among other related aspects. Liberalization and deregulatation the education system to encourage promotion of new schools, colleges, vocational and other institutions of higher education is going on. Higher education, confer institutional autonomy and decentralize syllabus designs. Central and state governments changed their roles within the education system, reinventing themselves as facilitating and supervisory organizations. Obviously, F.C. Kohli, the vice Chairman of Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) recommended, "Through the wider use of computers and technology, curriculums and faculties can be shared by schools and 127 colleges across the country". a variety of private 'educational entrepreneurs', otherwise known as, edupreneurs', have promoted internationally recognized institutions of higher education Teachers and Globalization Teaching might not be the most popular profession in the world, but it is undoubtedly the most populated: there are indeed some 57 million teachers in the world, about two-thirds of whom work in the developing world. The irony in this statement hides a preoccupying truth. Teachers are an important force in our societies, not only because of their sheer numbers, but much more because they are the guarantors of the education of future generations, especially in developing countries, where few other resources are made available to schools. At the same time, teachers feel weakened and complain about loss of their status and diminishing respect. A complaint reflected in parents' criticism that teachers and schools are offering an irrelevant and medicore education. Although statements about teaching are easily made, by both teachers and policy-makers, those relating to concepts as status or quality are difficult to verify. The World Education Report 1998 investigates how changes in the demographic, economic and technological environment have affected teachers and asks if education policies have successfully drawn benefit from these changes to improve teachers' motivation and performance. 128 The recent economic environment has taken its toll on the teaching profession. High unemployment levels, which seems endemic in much of the developed and the developing world, are-rightly or wrongly-linked to weakness in the education system, which reflects badly on teachers. At the same time, some people enter the teaching profession as a stopgap measure, in the absence of anything better. This has resulted in a lack of faith in education, a feeling probably strengthened by the ideological mood of the moment, which has turned opinion against the public service and in favour of the introduction of market forces in the education. Teachers are considered to be "carriers of light into dark places, be it tolerance, international understanding or respect for human rights, and, on the other hand, as costly 'factors of production' in an enterprise which absorbs a significant proportion of public budgets." In a number of countries, this pro-market mood has led to breaking down some of the hard earned privileges of teachers and, there are several other strategies which has adverse impact on the teaching profession. At the same time-public authorities- and teachers – are requested to work harder towards Education For All or EFA. In the least developed countries especially, achieving EFA is becoming every year more challenging-because of the continued rapid population growth. Combine this with the financial squeeze, in which these countries find themselves, and it is easy to imagine the headaches 129 with which education planners wake up. The temptation to save on what is the largest budget item (teachers) is difficult to resist, in particular when some research seems to show that such saving can be obtained without sacrificing quality. Before looking in some detail at how education policies have reacted to this complex environment, the question needs to be asked if technological changes-and the information revolution in particular, could not help improve both the access to and the quality of education. Internet has the potential to render teaching methodology more creative, interactive and individualized. This revolution has so far benefited mainly the developed countries and the more affluent groups. Teaching has seldom made use of, or demanded, technological innovations. One reason for this, beyond the obvious financial one, probably lies in the nature of the sector's work: an activity which has at its heart human interaction and which relies for its success on the quality of that interaction. Reluctance to innovate what is felt to be at the core of teaching is therefore to be expected. On the other hand, it is true that the computer is probably the most child friendly (and hence the most teacher- threatening?) of these recently developed fools. Depending on the context and especially the financial room for maneuver – policy – makers have responded in different ways to the challenges. In the less developed countries, spending on the main input', namely the teachers has been cut in three main ways by: 130 - hiring teachers on specific contracts with lower remuneration and fewer rights; - employing teachers with less qualifications; - Increasing pupil/teacher ratios and introducing 'Staff saving' modes of teaching, e.g. double-shifts schools and multi grade classes. The last two strategies in particular have been promoted by for instance, the World Bank, which refers to a number of studies showing that the quality of education does not suffer from these measures. With regard to pupil/teacher ratios, the debate so far has focussed on cognitive outcomes and little is known about the acquisition of personal and social skills and attitudes especially among poor learners. Large classes- moreover are bound to have an impact on teachers' motivation and stress. In addition, when pleas are made to raise pupil/teacher ratios to 45 or 50 to one, little attention is given to the fact that these are averages, which naturally hide extremes, within the country and between grades. The early school years will be particularly overloaded, because of the high drop-out rates. The fact finally that the more developed countries have almost systematically tried to increase the qualifications of teachers and to lower the pupil/teacher ratios seems to show that these options, when affordable, are preferable. These 'teacher-cost-saving' policies are fed by an undiscriminating use of the cost-effectiveness approach to education, which views teachers as an input rather than, a 'creative partner'. Interestingly, what 131 seem to be more 'innocent' policies have also led to greater demands on teachers, in part because of a poor understanding of their needs and situation. The emphasis on creating competition between schools, for instance, is justified by the belief that such competition will almost automatically lead to improved teacher and school performance. However, so far, little is known about the ways in which teachers change their practice and how to motivate them to do so, except for the fact that it is not sufficient to point out that they are not doing well. Moreover, improving education quality might well need more co-operations between schools and teacher rather than more competition. There are present concern with improving quality and setting up mechanism to monitor learning achievements. Teachers are aware that this concern "has not generally been matched up to now by a greater willingness in national development policies to provide more resources for education". This has led to an increased sense of isolation among teachers. The above should not be read as an indication that all countries have disregarded teachers' needs. Several developing countries recently increased teachers' salaries significantly. Surprisingly enough, this has apparently not led to visible improvements in their efficiency or performance. Perhaps this is not so startling: it confirms that to change teachers, it is not sufficient just to raise their salaries, but that more comprehensive policies are necessary. The World Education Report 1998 gives few indications on how teacher policies should be changed. 132 Recent research shows that such policy packages should include strategies to improve their working conditions, to strengthen feedback and support, including through practice-oriented an school –based in service training, to set up structures which allow more interaction and co-operation between teachers, to develop motivational career ladders, to get communities to show an interest in their teachers. It is only by giving teachers more support and more authority that more can be expected from them. Conclusion: Thus, we can say that, each country should decide about the nature and extent of globalization that can be constructively introduced in their socio-economic and educational systems. While it is difficult to resist the temptations of falling in line with the international community, it is necessary that while doing so, the paramount of national interests should be kept in view. This is more so in the field of education, which is intimately concerned with the development of human capital. Ultimately, any hasty involvement in the global educational market can end up in harming the vital interests of students, and particularly of poor and down trodden for generations to come. 133