Download Youth Gangs: Causation, Theory, and Strategies

Youth Gangs: Causation, Theory, and Strategies
By: Joseph Weber, Advisor – Gary Apperson
Youth gangs have, and continue to be a problem for law enforcement, communities, and
families. For decades, gang activity has been rising and law enforcement and the
communities have been trying to reduce the violence. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and
Strain Theory help explain why youths are drawn to the gang life, and why it is difficult
to get out. There have been many studies on gang reduction strategies around the
country. The Los Angeles Gang Reduction Program, Boston’s Operation Ceasefire, and
the Phoenix G.R.E.A.T. program have all been successful in reducing the amount of
violence in their communities. Not only do these programs provide after school
activities, they teach leadership, provide counseling, and even college preparation classes.
Other communities from around the country need to follow in the footsteps of these
cities, and use their programs as tools to provide something better for the kids to embrace
than gang life.
Introduction
Youth Gangs are responsible for a disproportionate amount of juvenile crime and
they continue to frustrate law enforcement efforts, communities, and families. A closer
look at the criminological theories may assist in determining youth gang causation and
then moving forward to develop strategies for reduction of their formation and criminal
activities. This paper will begin by defining specific terms that are relevant to the topic
of youth gangs. The next section will provide a brief history of youth gangs. This will be
followed by a scope of the problem in terms of gang numbers and crime
contributions. The following section will offer a theory framework to account for the
existence of gangs and gang formation. Next, this paper examines current law
enforcement gang reduction polices and strategies in terms of effectiveness. A discussion
section will recommend the most effective gang reduction strategies based on the most
current published research follows. Finally, the last section summarizes and concludes
the important aspects of gang reduction strategies.
The significance of this paper is that it contributes to the criminal justice system
by critically reviewing youth gang policies as they relate to their mission of reducing
gang formation and related crime. This paper is written for colleagues and clerisy who
have a professional or academic interest in gang reduction policies and strategies.
Terms Defined
There is no universally accepted definition of gangs, which many scholars assert
is problematic in the development of gang reduction strategies. Delaney (2006) offers a
“lowest common denominator” definition for gangs as groups that are of common
purpose involved in criminal activity together. Working forward from Delaney’s
definition, youth gangs tend to be in their teens and twenties, align themselves along
geographic locations, ethnicity, age range, or other commonalities, and require some
degree of permanence (2006). Although the variety of gangs in the U.S. have proven to
have groups of various ages from pre-teen to old age, for purposes of the paper on youth
gangs, the term “gang” or “gangs” will be meant to be interchangeable with the term
youth gangs.
The term “criminal justice system” will be used in this paper to describe the law
enforcement agencies used in the prevention and persecution of offenses, including state,
local, public and private agencies.
“Communities” will be used to describe the local area that is being affected by the
presence of gang activity.
Historical Overview of Youth Gangs
The concern over gang violence in the community is nothing new. Gangs have
been terrorizing communities and puzzling the criminal justice system for decades. Jim
Myers (2000) from Youth Today States, “It was a scary sign of the times in the mid1990s: reports that an epidemic of youth gangs was spreading beyond the confines of
troubled inner cities.” Gang activity was increasing in the late 1970s and 80s. Myers
(2000) stresses that soon after the 1980s, the introduction of high-powered, automatic
rifles, and the crack cocaine epidemic facilitated the violence in the gang community to
increase exponentially.
Scope of the Gang Problem
The increased usage of firearms have established a positive correlation in
elevating the number of deaths related to gang violence. The Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention’s National Youth Gang Center conducted a survey on the
homicide rates. The purpose of the survey was to enlighten the criminal justice system
about the homicide problem caused by gangs. From 1990 through 1995 there were a total
of 1,492 gang related homicides reported in the 408 cities that participated (Curry,
Maxson & Howell, 2001). The survey continued into the late 1990s and also showed a
high level of gang related homicides. Between 1996 and 1998 there was an average of
1,204 homicides per year between 237 cities that reported. The high rate of homicides
confirms a dire need for gang reduction strategies.
Theory Framework to Account for Gang Causation
There have been many theories published over the years that attempt to
distinguish what makes gangs so attractive to youths. A common criticism is most of
these theories fail to explain why American youth find gang life so attractive. However,
certain aspects of gang causation can be explained within a theory framework.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs can, in part, explain why youth are prone to join
gangs. Maslow believed that there are five stages of needs that every human needs to
fulfill. Based on Maslow’s construct, Kunc (1992) explains the five stages as:
physiological, safety, belonging-love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Kunc (1992)
further explains the gang life can fulfill all five of the stages in a young person’s life.
Using Maslow’s construct, Kunc (1992) makes the case that joining a gang fulfills the
physiological stage by providing food and shelter. Their safety needs are met by
knowing that if anything ever happens, their gang members will protect the member and
otherwise retaliate with extreme prejudice. They are given a strong sense of belonging
within the gang. As such, their belonging is not based on achievement but based on
membership. Kunc (1992) aptly notes, “After passing a one-time initiation ritual, the
sense of belonging provided by gangs is extremely close to unconditional.” With this
near-unconditional love, self-esteem and self-actualization naturally flourish. This theory
is evidenced in youths that are brought up in very poor communities, possibly with
broken families where the youth spends much of his or her time on the streets.
The Anomie-Strain theory as posited by Merton, Alleyne and Wood (2010), and
others, recognizes there are outside sources that cause children to be drawn to gang life.
Alleyne and Wood (2010) explain the concept of strain theory as a set of goals set by
society and society then offers the ability to achieve those goals only to a limited number
of people. The inequality that this produces causes a strain on the cultural goals. Alleyne
and Wood (2010) forward the construct that this causes anomie, a breakdown in the
cultural structure due to a division of cultural norms and the ability for people to act in
line with them. Alleyne and Wood (2010, p. 103) assert, “The consequence of anomie is
that people adapt to their circumstances by adopting a specific form of behavior.”
This results in groups of people who strike out at society and its standards. The
individuals that cannot achieve the goals that are set by society form groups to partake in
delinquent behavior. This delinquent behavior becomes the new values for their
“society”. If they cannot have the same values as middle class citizens, they will then
create their own values. Strain theory also accounts for the lack of sufficient educational
support for these unstructured youth. Alleyne and Wood (2010) posit that youth that are
affected by strain and anomie will feel self-hatred, guilt, loss of self-esteem, and anxiety
because the educational system does not have the ability to support those individuals.
This feeling of guilt and loss of self-esteem will draw the youth towards a life of
crime and gangs. Both the strain theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, in part,
support aspects of gang causation. However, these two theories in concert are a viable
integrated theory that supports causation and continuation of gangs.
Literature Review of Gang Reduction Programs
The Los Angeles Gang Reduction Program (GRP) was developed just outside of
the downtown area of Los Angeles. This site was chosen because of its rich gang history.
There are five major gangs that are active in this area, along with many churches and
community organizations that are still attempting to battle the gang problem. Cahill and
Coggeshall (2008) assert that the LA GRP studied the risk factors that were present in the
community in a research survey mode, rather than traditional confrontation methods.
These risk factors varied from poor school achievement to high drug use. The LA GRP
focused on providing after school and community activities for which the troubled youth
of the cities may participate. College prep classes were created for those individuals that
were struggling but still wanted to attend college. After school athletic clubs were
created for kids attend and be active in a good, healthy way. The LA GRP also gave
schools more freedom to offer counseling to students that needed help. Cahill and
Coggeshall (2008) reported, “ Los Angeles showed a significant reduction in crime
levels, with serious violence, gang related incidents, gang-related serious violence, and
citizen reports of shots fired all decreasing after the implementation of GRP there.”
Boston’s Operation Ceasefire is not specifically a “gang reduction program” but
an anti-gun initiative. The program is focused on reducing the amount of firearms in the
hands of violent individuals. DeMichele and Paparozzi (2008) explain that Operation
Ceasefire utilizes ministers, police gang task forces, probation and parole officers and
others to proactively search for individuals considered at high risk for possessing
firearms. With the combination of problem-oriented policing, gun and drug trafficking
crackdowns, and community anti-gang meetings, Operation Ceasefire was a resounding
success. Kennedy and Braga (2001) established that after the implementation of
Operation Ceasefire, between 1996 and 1998, there was a 63% reduction in monthly
youth homicides from 3.5 homicides per month to 1.3. Operation Ceasefire continued to
show promising results; a 32% reduction in citywide shots-fired calls, and a 25%
reduction in gun assault incidents were reported in the study.
In Phoenix, Arizona the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.)
program was designed to help youth avoid gang life. This program, as Henry Sonlheimer
(2012) explains, is a school based intervention program. The program was developed in
1991 by the Phoenix Police Department, and was modeled after the Drug Abuse
Resistance Education (DARE) program. The program consisted of 13 in-school lessons
with the local police and schoolteachers. The lessons covered what might happen, should
the students become involved in gangs. Sonlheiner (2012) established, “The odds of
gang membership were 39% lower for students completing G.R.E.A.T.”
Recommendations
Based on the three aforementioned gang reduction programs, several
recommendations can be made to help combat the rising gang problem in the United
States. The Los Angeles GRP shows that giving the schools more ability to counsel
students that are in need can have a dramatic effect on the success of a gang reduction
program. Effective counseling is the key to unlocking what the root cause for delinquent
behavior is for a child. When that cause is found, a proper program can be created
around that child to help facilitate him or her to have a successful life. Prep classes are
one of the best things that can be provided for students that may be struggling in school.
If a student is struggling and is not being provided assistance, he or she will get
discouraged and eventually give up. This is something that is easily fixed by providing
more after school or before school prep and assistance classes for those students looking
for a little more help with their education.
The Phoenix G.R.E.A.T. program proves that having a gang reduction program in
the schools is a proven effective method to show children the negative consequences of
gang life. Having the program in a school setting is ideal because the children are
already on site for the lessons, and do not have to rely on a parent or guardian to drop
them off at a different location. Sonlheiner (2012) emphasized that this program has
already proven itself; it just needs to be spread to schools around the county so more
students can participate.
Current published research indicates youth need legitimate, supervised activities
beyond their time in school. After school activities provide a safe place for kids to burn
off energy, and learn a sport or activity. Playing a sport builds many skills, including
teamwork and respect. It also provides a safe place to play, so the kids are not playing on
the streets, where they can be easily introduced into gang life.
Conclusion
Youth gangs have been, and will continue to be a problem in the United States if
reduction strategies are not implemented. Gangs torment communities with violence, and
baffle police with new ways to commit crimes. This paper has provided explanations of
several programs currently in place around the country that have seen great results based
on current research findings. In addition to the programs, it has provided excellent
recommendations that could be implemented in schools and communities to help guide
children to a gang-free life. Implementing these programs will prove to be instrumental
in gang reduction strategies across the nation. They will provide more opportunities for
children to stay off the streets, succeed in school, and transition into successful adults.
Such strategies are encouraging in reducing violent crime in communities, thus, making
them safer for everyone.
References
Alleyne, E., & Wood, J. L. (2010). Gang involvement: psychological and behavioral
characteristics of gang members, peripheral youth, and nongang Youth.
Aggressive Behavior, 36(6), 423-436.
Cahill, M., Coggeshall, M., Hayeslip, D., Wolf, A., Lagerson, E., Scott, M., et al. (2008,
May 29). Community Collaboratives Addressing Youth Gangs: Interim Findings
from the Gang Reduction Program. Retrieved May 6, 2014, from
http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/411692_communitycollaboratives.pdf
Curry, G. D., Maxson, C., & Howell, J. (2001, March). Youth gang homicides in the
1990's. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/fs200103.pdf
Delaney, Tim. (2006). American street gangs. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice
Hall
DeMichele, M., & Paparozzi, M. (2008). Community Corrections: A Powerful Field.
Corrections Today, 70(5), 68-72.
Kennedy, D., Braga, A., Piehl, A., & Waring, E. (2001, September 1). Reducing gun
violence: the Boston gun project's operation ceasefire. . Retrieved May 8, 2014,
from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/188741.pdf
Kunc, N. (1992). The need to belong: rediscovering maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Retrieved from http://www.broadreachtraining.com/articles/armaslow.htm
Myers, J. (2000). IS THERE A YOUTH GANG EPIDEMIC?. Education Digest, 66(3),
34.
Sonlheimer, H. G. (2012). Results From a Multi-Site Evaluation of the G.R.E.A.T.
Program. Criminal Justice Research Review, 14(1), 6-7.