Download The British and French Fear Another War

Unit 1:
World War II
Section 1:
The Causes of World War II
p.2
Section 2:
Europe Goes to War
p.5
Section 3:
America: From Isolation to War
p.8
Section 4:
Mobilization
p.11
Section 5:
The War in Europe
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Section 6:
Holocaust
p.18
Section 7:
The War in the Pacific
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Section 1: The Causes of World War II
Officially, World War II began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 and the French
and English declared war against Germany as a result of that invasion. But the war's beginnings came
long before this invasion. World War II was the product of man events coming together in the wrong
way at the wrong time.
The World War I Peace Agreement
When World War I ended, the winners (Britain, France, the United States, and Italy) wanted the losers
(Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire) to pay. Because the AustroHungarian and Ottoman Empires no longer existed, that left Germany to bear the brunt of the victors'
peace agreement, called The Treaty of Versailles. Humiliated and broke, Germany began forming a
grudge over the Treaty. Even some of the victors weren't happy with the outcome. Italy felt cheated;
France felt that Germany hadn't been punished enough, and the U.S. felt that Germany had been
punished too harshly.
In addition, the peace agreement created new nations (Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia) in
Eastern Europe from the wrecked Austro-Hungarian Empire. This created more jealousy, anger, and
resentment in Europe.
The Global Economy
All European nations faced financial troubles following World War I. Most (especially Germany, with the
war debt hanging over its head) were practically broke. Slowly, each made an economic recovery —
just in time for the world economy to spiral downward in the 1930s. The U.S. stock market crashed in
1929, and the economies in Europe tanked shortly after that. Weakened by the war, no European
nation was able to stop the economic downturn.
The Rise of Totalitarianism
With the world in such a mess, people looked toward their governments to solve their problems, and
those countries without a strong tradition of democracy were susceptible to promises made by future
dictators who claimed that by combining all of a government's power in one person, that person could
provide stability and order.
As a result, in Germany and Italy, the struggling democracies gave way to dictatorships and eventually
to totalitarian rule (that is, all aspects of life are controlled by the dictator). In Italy, this dictator was
Benito Mussolini; in Germany, it was Adolf Hitler.
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The Birth of Fascism and Nazism
Fascism is a political system in which the nation and its government is held above all else. It is
considered more important than the citizens' comfort, money, and even families. All effort and
resources are committed to glorifying the government. Individual freedom doesn't exist; there is only the
freedom to serve the nation. Fascists believe that people reach their full potential only through service
to their nation. If the nation is great, the people are great. And the best representation of the nation's
greatness is through war. Mussolini did his best to turn Italy into a Fascist nation after World War I.
Nazism is Fascism with a significant difference: the belief in the racial superiority of the people of that
nation. The Nazis in Germany at this time, led by Hitler, believed that race was the most
important characteristic of a group of people. Just as dogs are genetically predisposed to certain roles
(some hunt and others herd, for example), each race is genetically predisposed to certain roles. Some
are leaders; other races (the "inferior" ones) are meant to be mastered. The Aryan (original German)
race is, according to Nazis, the Master Race. Then, in descending order are, non-Aryan Caucasians,
Asians, Africans, and finally Jews.
The Rise of Hitler
There have always been dictators and people who abused power, and in many ways, Hitler began his
rule no differently than other dictators. He rose to power by eliminating anyone who could oppose him.
He targeted and abused groups he didn't like. He used propaganda (biased information spread by a
government to convince people to support its cause) as a tool to fool the German people into believing
that what he told them was true.
In other ways, Hitler was different. He had the power of an industrialized nation behind him. He had the
capability to export his policies all over Europe through trickery and lies and then through takeovers and
war. And, maybe most frightening of all, he had the ability to make the German people as a whole
believe that, by following him down the path, they were fulfilling their destiny for greatness.
The British and French Fear Another War
The British and French, having just been through one horrific world war, were willing to do just about
anything to make sure that they didn't find themselves in another. For both countries, this determination
to avoid conflict resulted in their policy of appeasement. By giving in to the demands of Hitler, they
hoped to avoid another crisis that would lead to war. When Hitler wanted to expand Germany into
surrounding countries, Britain and France allowed him, hoping that he would be satisfied and not want
to attack other countries. Obviously, this strategy didn't work.
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The Isolationism of the United States
The United States, separated from Europe by an ocean, wanted to remain separated from the potential
of another war in Europe. Like the French and British, the Americans had seen enough of war. As the
drama unfolded in Europe, Americans were much more concerned about ending their country's Great
Depression than they were about dictators in Germany and Italy. So they developed a policy of
isolationism (keeping out of the affairs of other countries) and insisted that what went on in Europe —
or anywhere else in the world, for that matter — was not their concern. The American President at the
time, Franklin D. Roosevelt, understood that the majority of the people in his country wanted
isolationism, so he upheld the policy.
The Empire Building of Japan
Japan, a key player in Asia, wanted to increase its power in that part of the world. Japan wanted to
expand into other nations, much like Germany planned to do in Europe. An obvious target was China,
a large neighbor of Japan. The Japanese military took over the country's government and announced
formal plans to expand. In addition to being a problem for the Chinese, this was also a problem for the
United States, who had interests in Asia, too. It appeared that although the U.S. wanted to stay out of
global conflicts, it may not have a choice.
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Section 2: Europe Goes To War
The Nazis Begin Their Empire
After taking power in Germany and rebuilding the nation's military, Hitler announced plans to expand
his German empire into neighboring countries. He aligned himself with fellow dictator, Benito Mussolini
of Italy, making his large army even more impressive. First, his Nazi troops moved into Austria and
peacefully annexed (added to a country) that nation. The government of Austria knew it couldn't fight
back against the much larger German military, and most Austrian citizens welcomed Nazi troops. The
Austrians saw how quickly the Nazi government had rebuilt Germany and its economy after World War
I, and hoped they would do the same for their country. Following Austria, the Nazis did the same to
Czechoslovakia.
The Munich Conference
After Hitler took those two countries, the leaders of Britain and France demanded to meet with him in
Munich, Germany. The three men met at what became known as the Munich Conference. The British
and French leaders reminded Hitler that according to the Treaty of Versailles, he was not allowed to
have a military, and was certainly not allowed to use it to invade other countries. Hitler secretly
guessed that Britain and France were so afraid of war with him that they would let him off the hook. So,
instead of returning the countries, he simply promised he would not take any more land if they would
allow him to keep Austria and Czechoslovakia. He was right, Britain and France were afraid, and they
agreed to his deal, hoping to appease him. This deal became known as the Munich Pact.
After Munich
The leaders of Britain and France returned to their countries from Munich with the promise of peace for
their people. That promise was based on Hitler's word, however, and he would soon prove his word
was worth nothing. Shortly after Munich, Hitler made plans to attack Poland. First, he signed a nonaggression pact with Poland's powerful neighbor, the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's leader,
dictator Joseph Stalin, also feared war with Hitler, and the pact stated that as long as Germany did not
try to invade the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union would not defend other countries.
Invasion of Poland
One week after securing his pact with Stalin, Hitler and his Nazi military invaded Poland on September
1, 1939. Since Hitler violated the Munich Pact, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking
the official start of World War II. Britain and France, now called The Allies, tried to avoid war with
Hitler, and certainly did not want war. But after the invasion of Poland, they had little choice left.
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War in Poland
Britain, France, and Poland together made an impressive alliance, at least on paper. They had more
soldiers than Germany. Germany, however, had superior firepower-more machine guns, artillery, and
powerful tanks and planes. In addition, the Germans practiced a new form of attack called blitzkrieg
(which translates to "lightning war"). This new military tactic included a fast, concentrated air and land
attack that took the enemy's army by surprise and overwhelmed them. The German dive-bombing
warplanes began the blitzkrieg by shattering defenses and terrorizing civilians. Then the tanks and
mobile cannons punched through enemy lines, encircling and capturing opposing troops. Finally, the
ground troops moved in to defeat the enemy and occupy the country. Using the blitzkrieg tactic,
German troops overran Poland in less than a month. They imposed German laws and imprisoned and
murdered Polish citizens.
Plans to Move West
After Poland, which is east of Germany, fell, Hitler and Germany turned west, to France. France not
only defeated Germany in World War I, they forced Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles afterward.
Hitler desperately wanted to make France pay by taking it over, but France had built the Maginot Line
after World War I. This was a massive line of armed forts and concrete walls along France's border
with Germany. In order to get to France, Hitler would have to avoid it. He could do this by entering
France through Belgium.
War in the West
To take France, first German troops launched a blitzkrieg on the Netherlands, Belgium, and
Luxembourg. Although British and French troops rushed to Belgium to defend their neighbor, they were
too late. The German army overran Luxembourg in a day, the Netherlands in five days, and Belgium in
two weeks. From there, the Nazi army poured into France simply by moving around the Maginot Line,
which proved to be worthless. In the face of Germany's advance, French and British forces in the north
retreated to the French coastal city of Dunkirk, which is across the English Channel from Britain. There,
one of the greatest rescues in the history of warfare took place. While some troops fought to slow the
advancing Germans, others hastily assembled a makeshift fleet consisting mainly of tugboats, yachts,
and other small private ships. Braving merciless attacks by the Luftwaffe (the German air force), about
900 vessels carried some 340,000 soldiers across the English Channel to Great Britain.
The Fall of France
As the Allies retreated, Hitler's army swept through France. The French government abandoned Paris,
the capital. With France's defeat only a matter of time, Italy declared war on France and Britain on the
same day. German troops entered Paris, and France and its more than 1 million soldiers officially
surrendered. Adolf Hitler himself traveled to France to make a brief victory tour of Paris. Britain was
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stunned by the speed of Germany's conquest of France. So far, Hitler had experienced nothing but
success. German armies had conquered most of Europe without suffering a single defeat. He seemed
to be on the verge of destroying the Allies. Eventually, the United States and the Soviet Union would
join the Allies, but at that time Great Britain stood alone in Europe.
Britain Prepares for Attack
As France fell, Hitler amassed troops on the French coast. His next invasion target, Great Britain, lay
just 20 miles away, across the English Channel. The British people prepared for the impending Nazi
invasion. Winston Churchill, Britain's new prime minister, pledged that the British would defend their
island at all costs: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the ground, we shall fight in the
fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender."
The Battle of Britain
Britain's large and well-equipped navy stood between Hitler and England. To neutralize the British
navy, Germany would have to control the air. Hitler turned to the Luftwaffe to destroy Britain's air
defenses. Hitler launched the greatest air assault the world had yet seen. This intense attack, called the
Battle of Britain, would continue for months. Day after day, as many as 1,000 planes rained bombs
on Britain and its capital of London. Germany targeted both military and civilian targets, trying to break
the British people's will to fight back.
Courageous Defense
Britain's Royal Air Force (RAF), although greatly outnumbered, bravely defended its homeland. In a
typical raid, slow-moving German bombers, accompanied by speedy fighter planes, would cross the
English Channel. RAF pilots dodged the German fighter planes while trying to shoot down the bombers.
They inflicted heavy damage on the attackers, sometimes flying six or seven missions a day. Hundreds
of RAF pilots died defending Britain, but German losses were higher. "Never in the field of human
conflict was so much owed by so many to so few," said Churchill, praising the courageous pilots of the
RAF. The British people showed equal bravery. Despite massive losses, the British people kept their
will to fight. Eventually, Hitler called for an end to air raids. 20,000 Londoners had been killed, and
whole sections of the city had been destroyed, but Britain remained standing. While the Nazi military
was still strong and on the move elsewhere in Europe, the world rejoiced as Britain bravely proved that
Germany wasn't invincible.
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Section 3: America: From Isolation to War
Keep Out
After World War I, the United States turned away from international affairs. Instead, the country focused
its energies on solving the domestic problems brought about by the Great Depression. Even as Italy,
Germany, and Japan threatened to shatter world peace, the United States clung to its policy of
isolationism. The horrors of World War I still haunted many Americans who refused to be dragged into
another foreign conflict. President Franklin Roosevelt assured Americans that he felt the same way:
"I have seen war. I have seen war on land and sea. I have seen blood running from the wounded. I
have seen men coughing out their gassed lungs. I have seen the dead in the mud. I have seen cities
destroyed. I have seen children starving. I have seen the agony of mothers and wives. I hate war."
- Franklin D. Roosevelt
Few people in the United States agreed with the actions or the ideas of the Fascists and the Nazis.
Most Americans sympathized with the victims of aggression. Still, nothing short of a direct attack on the
United States would propel Americans into another war.
The United States Chooses Neutrality
To ensure the U.S. remained neutral, (refusing to choose sides in a conflict), Congress passed a
series of laws called the Neutrality Acts. These laws banned the U.S. from providing weapons or
money to nations at war. Later, when the world situation became more desperate, Congress permitted
trade with fighting nations in only non-military goods and only as long as those nations paid cash and
transported the cargo themselves. This policy became known as cash and carry.
The Neutrality Acts prevented the United States from selling arms even to nations that were trying to
defend themselves from aggression. By doing this, as FDR pointed out later, the Neutrality Acts
encouraged aggression. Soon, Italy had conquered Ethiopia, Japan had invaded China, and Germany
had taken Austria and Czechoslovakia. The United States watched from a distance, protected by the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
American Involvement Grows
As the 1930s wore on, the American economy slowly recovered. Unemployment and business failures
no longer required the nation's full attention. At the same time, Germany and Japan stepped up their
aggression against neighboring countries. This combination of events softened Americans' isolationist
views and strengthened the views of interventionists. American opinion shifted even further against
the Axis Powers in September 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. Still, at that time, very few
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Americans believed that America should enter the war against Germany. So President Roosevelt
began to look for ways to send more aid to the Allies without getting the U.S. directly involved.
Debating America's Role
Three weeks after the invasion of Poland, Roosevelt asked Congress to revise the Neutrality Acts to
make them more flexible. Congress did so by allowing the U.S. to sell weapons to Britain and France.
When France fell to the Nazis the following year, most Americans supported "all aid short of war" for
Britain. They believed helping Britain fight the Nazis would decrease the chance that the U.S. would
get involved. Roosevelt also convinced Congress to send 50 destroyers (warships) to Britain. Some
Americans saw this increased involvement as a dangerous step toward direct American military
involvement. But Roosevelt assured American parents as he was running for President again in 1940,
"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars."
Lend-Lease
After winning re-election, Roosevelt was pressed by Prime Minister Churchill to again increase support
for Britain. In a letter to FDR, he confessed that his country was nearly bankrupt. "The moment
approaches," he wrote, "when we shall no longer be able to pay cash for supplies." Roosevelt
introduced a bold new plan to keep supplies flowing to Britain. He proposed providing war supplies to
Britain without any payment in return. Roosevelt explained his policy to the American people by the use
of a simple comparison: “If your neighbor's house is on fire, you don't sell him a hose. You lend it to him
and take it back after the fire is out.” Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act, authorizing the President
to aid any nation whose defense he believed was vital to American security. FDR immediately began
sending aid to Britain. After Germany attacked the Soviet Union, the United States extended lend-lease
aid to the Soviets as well. By the end of the war, the United States had loaned or given away more than
$50 billion worth of aid to some 40 nations.
Japan Attacks Asia
As Hitler took Europe, and Mussolini took North Africa, Japan officially joined them as the Axis
Powers. Although Roosevelt focused his attention on Europe, he was aware of Japan's aggressive
moves in the Pacific. Japan had invaded China, and colonized a region there called Manchuria. Japan
then moved to the Chinese capital of Nanking. There, Japanese soldiers destroyed the city and
massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians. Roosevelt began limiting what Japan could buy from
the United States. He hoped to use the threat of further trade restrictions to stop Japan's expansion. A
year later, however, Japanese forces took complete control of Indochina, a peninsula in Asia made up
of four countries. In response, Roosevelt placed an oil embargo (refusing to sell a product) on Japan.
Final Weeks of Peace
As Japanese politicians tried to peacefully convince the U.S. to remove the embargo, an aggressive
army general took power in Japan. Hideki Tojo, who supported war against the United States, became
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prime minister in October 1941. Yet Roosevelt still hoped for peace, and he continued negotiations. A
year earlier, American technicians had cracked a top-secret Japanese code. By November 27, based
on decoded messages, American military leaders knew that Japanese aircraft carriers were on the
move in the Pacific. They expected an attack, but they did not know where.
The Attack on Pearl Harbor
Indeed, a Japanese fleet of six aircraft carriers and more than 20 other ships was already on the move.
Its target was Pearl Harbor, a naval base on the Hawaiian island of Oahu that served as the home of
the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Japan's leaders had gambled that they could cripple the American fleet and then
achieve their goals in Asia before the United States could rebuild its navy and challenge Japan.
Around 8:00 on a Sunday morning, December 7, 1941, more than 180 Japanese warplanes streaked
overhead. Most of the Pacific Fleet lay at anchor in Pearl Harbor, crowded into an area less than three
square miles. Japanese planes bombed and strafed (attacked with machine-gun fire) the fleet and the
airfields nearby. By 9:45, the attack was over. In less than two hours, some 2,400 Americans had been
killed and nearly 1,200 wounded. Nearly 200 American warplanes had been damaged or destroyed; 18
warships had been sunk or heavily damaged, including 8 of the fleet's 9 battleships. Only the aircraft
carriers, which were out at sea, escaped Japan's wrath.
The United States Declares War
The attack on Pearl Harbor stunned the American people. Calling December 7, 1941, "a date which will
live in infamy," Roosevelt the next day asked Congress to declare war on Japan:
"There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are in grave danger.
With confidence in our armed forces - with the determination of our people - we will gain the inevitable
triumph - so help us God."
-Franklin D. Roosevelt, December 8, 1941
Within hours after Roosevelt finished speaking, Congress passed a war resolution. In response, the
other Axis Powers, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States. For the second time in the
last 25 years, Americans had been drawn into a world war. And again, their contributions would make
the difference between victory and defeat for the Allies.
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Section 4: Mobilization
Preparing for War
Once America joined the war after the Pearl Harbor attack, the government, military, and American
people all realized America would have to change if it were to win the war. From the depressed
economy, its industry would have to roar to life to produce war goods; and its military was nowhere
near large enough. Before America could even worry about fighting on the battlefields, it would
undergo mobilization, a process where a country prepares itself for war.
Populating the Armed Forces
In the weeks that followed Pearl Harbor, feelings of patriotism swept over the United States. Millions of
men volunteered to serve in the military. But it wasn't enough to defeat three large militaries. FDR
realized that the most crucial step he had to take to help the U.S. win the war was to strengthen the
armed forces. The Selective Training and Service Act, or "the draft" required all males age 21 to 36
to register for military service. Millions of men were selected from this pool to serve a year in the army.
Between the draft and volunteers, more than 16 million Americans served in the armed forces during
the war. American troops slogged through swamps, crossed hot deserts and turbulent seas, and flew
through skies pounded by enemy guns. For many, life was a daily struggle just to stay alive. Between
battles, the typical soldier dreamed of home. When asked what he was fighting for, a young marine
replied, "What I'd give for a piece of blueberry pie."
Diversity in the Military
Americans from all ethnic and racial backgrounds fought during World War II. More than 300,000
Hispanic Americans served their country. Some 25,000 Native Americans also served in the military. A
group of Navajos developed a secret code, based on their language, that the enemy could not break.
Nearly a million African Americans joined the military. At first, officials limited most black troops to
supporting roles. But as the war waged on, faced with mounting casualties, military authorities
reluctantly gave African Americans the opportunity to fight. African Americans fought in separate, or
segregated units from white soldiers. One such group, called the Tuskegee Airmen, became the first
African American flying unit in the United States military.
Women in the Armed Forces
Not all who served in the military were men. By the war's end, roughly 350,000 American women had
volunteered for military service. Faced with a personnel shortage, officials agreed to use women in
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almost all areas except combat. Many worked as clerks, typists, airfield control tower operators,
mechanics, photographers, and drivers.
Preparing the Economy for War
FDR believed that the federal government would have to coordinate the production of war materials to
meet the military's demand. After Pearl Harbor, the government set up the War Production Board
(WPB) to direct the conversion of peacetime industries to industries that produced war goods. It quickly
halted the production of hundreds of civilian consumer goods, from cars to lawn mowers to bird cages,
and encouraged companies to make goods for the war. For example, the Ford Motor Company built a
huge new factory to make B-24 Liberator bombers using the same assembly-line techniques used to
manufacture its cars.
The Wartime Work Force
Each year of the war, the United States raised its production goals for military materials, and each year
it met these goals. Amazingly, in 1944, American production levels doubled those of all the Axis nations
put together. War production benefited workers by ending the massive unemployment of the 1930s.
Unemployment virtually vanished during the war. Not only did people find jobs, they also earned more
money for their work. Average weekly wages in manufacturing, rose by more than 50 percent between
1940 and 1945.
Daily Life on the Home Front
The war affected the daily lives of most Americans. Nearly everyone had a relative or a friend in the
military, and people closely followed war news on the radio. The end of the Depression helped lift
Americans' spirits. One measure of people's optimism was an increase in the birthrate. The population
grew by 7.5 million between1940 and 1945, nearly double the rate of growth for the 1930s.
Shortages and Rationing
Wartime jobs gave many people their first extra cash since the Depression. Still, shortages and
rationing limited the goods that people could buy. Familiar consumer items were simply unavailable
during the war. Metal to make zippers or typewriters went instead into guns, and rubber went to make
tires for army trucks instead of tires for bicycles. Nylon stockings vanished from shops because the
nylon was needed for parachutes. The supply of food also fell short of demand. The government
needed great amounts of food and fuel for the military, so families had to ration the little meat, fruit,
coffee and gasoline they were allowed to buy.
Life at Home
With so many goods unavailable, Americans looked for other ways to spend their money. Civilians
bought and read more books and magazines. They purchased recordings of popular songs, such as
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"White Christmas" by Irving Berlin, a sentimental favorite of both soldiers and civilians. They flocked to
baseball games, even though most of their favorite players, like Joe DiMaggio and Ted Williams, had
gone off to war. Millions of Americans-about 60 percent of the population-also went to the movies every
week. One other popular idea was the victory garden, a home vegetable garden planted to add to the
home food supply and replace farm produce sent to feed the soldiers. Soon people in cities and
suburbs were planting tomatoes, peas, and radishes in backyards, empty parking lots, and
playgrounds. The war became a part of everyday life in many ways. Men too old for the army joined the
Civilian Defense effort, wearing their CD armbands as they tested air raid sirens, and kept their eyes on
the skies. Women knit scarves and socks or rolled bandages for the Red Cross. The government
encouraged efforts to recycle scrap metal, paper, and other materials for war production. The collection
drives kept adults and children actively involved in the war effort, as their sons, brothers, and fathers
were off at war.
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Section 5: The War in Europe
Americans Join the Struggle
The United States entered the war in December 1941, at a critical time for the Allies. London and other
major British cities had suffered heavy damage during the Battle of Britain. The Germans' blitzkrieg had
extended Nazi control across most of Europe. In North Africa, a mixed German and Italian army was
bearing down on British forces. Many people feared that Germany could not be stopped.
The Battle of the Atlantic
At sea, Britain and the United States desperately struggled to control the Atlantic trade routes vital to
British survival. Britain relied on shipments of food and supplies from the United States, but as
American merchant ships crossed the Atlantic, German U-boats, or submarines, sailed out from ports
in France to attack them. To protect themselves better, merchant ships formed convoys led by
American and British warships. The Germans countered with groups of as many as 20 U-boats, called
wolf packs, that carried out coordinated nighttime attacks on the convoys. After the United States
entered the war, U-boats began attacking ships within sight of the American coast. Although Allied
warships used underwater sound equipment called sonar to locate and attack U-boats, the wolf packs
experienced great success. In the Atlantic, they sank nearly 700 ships in the first 6 months of America's
involvement in the war. Allied convoys later developed better defensive strategies, including the use of
long-range sub-hunting aircraft, and the U-boat success rate plummeted.
The North Africa Campaign
As Italy and Germany stormed through North Africa, Hitler sent General Erwin Rommel to lead the
charge. Rommel, who earned the nickname "Desert Fox" for his shrewd tactics, won several battles.
The Germans pushed deep into British-controlled Egypt and threatened the Middle East. Rommel's
offensive failed, however, when British and American troops combined to defeat his army. This force,
under the command of American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, quickly shifted from defense to
offense, and began to reclaim North African lands from the Axis. This offensive was called Operation
Torch, and was a success for the Allies.
The Invasion of Italy
Control of North Africa freed the Allies to make the next move toward retaking Europe. They decided to
target Italy, which lay to the north, across the Mediterranean Sea. The U.S. Seventh Army, under
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General George S. Patton, invaded the large island of Sicily with British forces. With the Italian
mainland in jeopardy, Italians lost faith in Mussolini's leadership. Many fought with the attacking Allies
against their own government. A series of bloody battles led the advancing Allies toward Rome, the
Italian capital. After two years, dozens of battles, and hundreds of thousands of deaths, the Allies
reached Rome and Mussolini's government was removed from Italy. As he tried to flee across the
Northern Italian border, he was captured and killed.
War in the Soviet Union
As the Allies battled their way across North Africa and into Italy, an epic struggle unfolded in Eastern
Europe. Despite signing a non-aggression pact with the Joseph Stalin, Hitler later called for the
conquest of the Soviet Union, to give the German people "living space." After losing the Battle of
Britain, Hitler decided to turn his war machine to the east. He broke his pact with Stalin and launched
an attack against the Soviet Union. Over 3 million German troops poured across the Soviet border.
Nearly 3 million Soviet soldiers, poorly trained and badly equipped, mobilized to oppose the blitzkrieg.
The intensity and the brutality of the German attack took the Soviet defenders by surprise. Germany
captured hundreds of thousands of Soviet soldiers who were trapped by the German army's quick
advances. Soviet citizens who suffered badly under Stalin, including Ukrainians and Lithuanians,
welcomed the Germans as liberators. Their enthusiasm ended quickly as German troops introduced
forced labor and began executing civilians. Stalin asked Roosevelt for help through the Lend-Lease
program. American aid began to flow and lasted until the end of the war.
The Battle of Stalingrad
The cold and snowy Russian winter stopped Germany's advance, and the Soviets regained some of
their lost territory. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad, a major city. The Germans
began a campaign of firebombing and shelling. Soviet fighters took up positions in the charred rubble
that remained of Stalingrad. There they engaged the advancing German troops in bitter house-to-house
combat. Taking advantage of harsh winter weather, Soviet forces launched a fierce counterattack. As
Hitler had ruled out a retreat, the German army was soon surrounded in the ruined city with few
supplies and no hope of escape. The Soviets launched a final assault on the freezing enemy.
More than 90,000 surviving Germans surrendered. In all, Germany lost some 330,000 troops at
Stalingrad. Soviet losses were over 1 million. But the Battle of Stalingrad proved to be the turning point
of the war in Eastern Europe. Germany's seemingly unstoppable offensive was over. After their victory,
Soviet forces began to regain the territory lost to the Germans.
Opening a Third Front
With British and American troops fighting in Italy, and Soviet troops fighting the Axis on the Eastern
front, the Allies knew they could deliver a decisive blow to the Axis by opening a third front in the West.
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This could be done by attacking Germany through France. But France was well protected. It would
take a massive invasion force to invade and liberate France then move on to Germany. Indeed, it
would be the largest invasion in the history of the world.
The Invasion of Western Europe
The invasion, code-named Operation Overlord, would be launched from Great Britain. General
Eisenhower was the commander of the invasion forces. The Allies began a massive military buildup in
southern England. Polish, Dutch, Belgian, and French troops joined the American, British, and
Canadian forces already in place. In response, the Germans strengthened their defenses along the
French coastline, adding machine-gun nests, barbed-wire fences, land and water mines, and
underwater obstructions. They knew a Western invasion was coming, but they did not know exactly
where or when. The Allies took great pains to keep this information secret.
D-Day
Shortly after midnight on June 6, 1944, almost 5,000 ships slipped out of their harbors in southern
England. As the ships crossed the English Channel, about 1,000 RAF bombers pounded German
defenses at Normandy, a beach region in Northern France. Meanwhile, some 23,000 airborne British
and American soldiers, in a daring nighttime maneuver, parachuted behind enemy lines.
At dawn on D-Day, the full invasion of Western Europe began; Allied warships in the channel began a
massive shelling of the coast. Some 1,000 American planes aided the RAF's air bombardment. Then,
around 150,000 Allied troops and their equipment began to come ashore along 60 miles of the
Normandy coast in the largest landing by sea in history. The limited German force at Normandy
resisted fiercely. At Omaha Beach, the code name for one landing site, the Allies suffered some 2,000
casualties in a few hours. One Allied soldier later explained his experience of landing at Omaha Beach:
"It seemed like the whole world exploded. There was gunfire from battleships, destroyers, and cruisers.
The bombers were still hitting the beaches...As we went in we could see small craft that had gone in
ahead, sunk. There were bodies bobbing in the water, even out three or four miles."
-Lieutenant Robert Edlin
In spite of the heavy casualties of D-Day, the invasion was a success. Within six days, a half million
men had come ashore. By late July, the Allied force in France numbered some 2 million troops.
Liberating France
Allied troops moved from Normandy to Paris with a goal of liberating France from the Nazis. They aced
fierce fighting, but General Patton led the soldiers on a successful sweep across northern France. Two
months after D-Day, the Allies officially liberated Paris. British and Canadian forces freed Belgium a few
days later. Later, a combined Allied force attacked the Germans occupying the Netherlands. At about
the same time, American soldiers crossed the western border of Germany. As the Soviets moved in
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from the east, and the other allies moved north from Italy, the walls were closing in on Hitler from three
sides.
The Battle of the Bulge
The Nazis fought desperately to defend their conquests. Hitler reinforced the army with thousands of
additional draftees, some as young as 15. Then, in mid-December 1944, Germany launched a
counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg. The German attack smashed into the Allied advance and
pushed it back, forming a bulge in the Allied line. The resulting clash came to be known as the Battle of
the Bulge. Many small units, cut off from the rest of the American army, fought gallantly against
overwhelming odds. From his headquarters near Paris, Eisenhower ordered more troops to the scene.
In just a few weeks, the Allies knocked the Germans back and restarted the Allied drive into Germany.
The Battle of the Bulge was the largest battle in Western Europe during World War II, and the largest
battle ever fought by the United States Army. It involved some 600,000 GIs, of whom about 80,000
were killed, wounded, or captured. German losses totaled about 100,000. After this battle, most Nazi
leaders recognized that the war was lost.
The War in Europe Ends
The struggle between German and Soviet forces on the eastern front was brutal, but after Stalingrad,
the Soviets had control. Some 11 million Soviet soldiers died. Several million Soviet civilians were
killed as well. Because of this, Soviet leaders considered the capture of Berlin, Germany's capital, a
matter of honor. In late April 1945, Soviet troops fought their way into Berlin. As they had in Stalingrad,
they fought German soldiers for each ruined house and street in the destroyed city. After successfully
pushing west, they connected with American troops who were pushing east.
Germany Surrenders
As the Soviet army surrounded Berlin, Hitler refused to take his generals' advice to flee the city.
Instead, he chose to commit suicide in his underground bunker in Berlin on April 30, 1945. A few days
later, on May 8, 1945, Germany's remaining troops surrendered. When the fighting in Europe came to
an end, American soldiers rejoiced, and civilians on the home front celebrated V-E Day (Victory in
Europe Day). They knew, however, that the war would not be over until the Allies had defeated Japan.
The Yalta Conference
As the Nazi empire was crumbling, the three main Allied leaders met in the Soviet Union for a meeting
known as the Yalta Conference. It would have an enormous impact on the shaping of the post-war
world. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin (or the “Big Three”) met at Yalta to plan the final defeat of
Germany and to decide the shape of the postwar world. The leaders agreed to split Germany into four
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zones after it surrendered, each zone under the control of one of the major Allies, including France. The
leaders also discussed the formation of the United Nations, a peacekeeping organization made up of
the countries who were committed to stopping another world war from breaking out.
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Section 6: The Holocaust
Before Hitler
Jews in Europe faced persecution, or unfair treatment, for their religious beliefs for centuries. Some
writers claimed that German people whom they called "Aryans" were superior to Jewish people called
"Semites". Although most scholars rejected those theories, a few used them to justify the continued
persecution of "non-Aryans." By the 1800s, the term anti-Semitism was used to describe
discrimination or hostility, often violent, directed at Jews. The suffering caused by World War I and the
hardships of the Great Depression led many to look for someone to blame (a scapegoat) for their
problems. Using theories of anti-Semitism to pin blame on the Jews helped many Germans to regain
national pride and a sense of purpose. As Adolf Hitler rose to power, he revived the idea of Aryan
superiority and expressed an especially hateful view of Jews.
Persecution in Germany
When Hitler became Germany's leader in 1933, he made anti-Semitism the official policy of the nation.
No other persecution of Jews in modern history equals the extent and brutality of the Holocaust, Nazi
Germany's systematic murder of European Jews and other enemies of Hitler. In all, some six million
Jews, about two thirds of Europe's Jewish population, would lose their lives. Some 5 to 6 million other
people would also die in Nazi captivity. The Holocaust didn't begin with murder, however.
Nazi Policies
Early Nazi persecution aimed to exclude Germany's Jews from all aspects of the country's political,
social, and economic life. In 1935, the Nuremberg laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship, and
outlawed marriage between Jews and non-Jews. Nazi-controlled newspapers and radio constantly
attacked Jews as enemies of Germany. Businesses fired Jewish workers. The Nazis then forced Jews
to surrender their own businesses to Aryans for a fraction of their value. Jewish doctors and lawyers
were forbidden to serve non-Jews, and Jewish students were expelled from public schools. Jews in
Germany and German-occupied countries were forced to sew yellow stars marked "Jew" on their
clothing. These practices exposed Jews to public attacks and police harassment.
Hitler's Police
When Hitler first came to power, the Gestapo, Germany's new secret police, was formed to identify and
pursue enemies of the Nazi regime. Hitler formed the SS, another group of officers, to enforce his antiSemitic laws. The duties of the SS included guarding the concentration camps, or places where
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political prisoners were confined, usually under harsh conditions. In addition to Jews, the Nazi camps
soon held many other classes of people whom they considered "undesirable" – communists,
homosexuals, Gypsies, the disabled, and the homeless.
Refugees Seek an Escape
After the discrimination increased, about one in four Jews fled Germany with Nazi encouragement. At
first, most refugees moved to neighboring European nations. As the Nazi threat grew, however, Jews
began to seek protection in the United States. Few countries, however, welcomed Jewish refugees as
long as the Depression prevented their own citizens from finding work. Responding to criticism,
President Roosevelt called for an international conference to discuss the growing numbers of Jewish
refugees. The conference failed to deal with the situation. With the exception of the Dominican
Republic, each of the 32 nations represented, including the United States, refused to open its doors to
more immigrants.
Kristallnacht
Despite the ever-increasing restrictions on their lives, many Jews believed they could endure
persecution until Hitler lost power. Older people believed staying in Germany was safer than starting a
new life with no money in a foreign country. Their illusions were destroyed in 1938, when Nazi thugs
throughout Germany looted and destroyed Jewish stores, houses, and synagogues. This incident
became known as Kristallnacht, or "Night of the Broken Glass," a reference to the broken windows of
the Jewish shops. Nearly every synagogue was destroyed. The Nazis arrested thousands of Jews that
night, and shipped them off to concentration camps. These actions were followed by an enormous fine
to make Jews pay for the damage of Kristallnacht. After that night, Germany's remaining Jews sought
any means possible to leave the country. This night marked the unofficial “start” of the Holocaust.
As Germany Expands
As German armies overran most of Europe, more and more Jews, including many who had fled
Germany, came under their control. In 1939, for example, the invasion of Poland brought some 2
million additional Jews under German control. Nazi plans for dealing with these Jews included the
establishment of ghettos, self-contained areas, usually surrounded by a fence, wall, or armed guards,
where Jews were forced to live. Hunger, overcrowding, and a lack of sanitation brought on disease.
Each month, thousands of Jews died in the ghetto. The Nazis, however, sought more efficient ways of
killing Jews.
The "Final Solution" - Genocide
In 1942, Nazi officials met outside Berlin to agree on a new approach for dealing with the growing
number of Jews in German territories. They developed a plan to achieve what one Nazi leader called
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the "final solution to the Jewish question." Ultimately, the plan would lead to the construction of special
camps in Nazi-conquered lands where genocide, or the deliberate destruction of an entire ethnic
group, was to be carried out against Europe's Jewish population.
The Death Camps
The Nazis outfitted six such camps in Poland. Unlike concentration camps, which functioned as prisons
and centers of forced labor, these death camps existed primarily for mass murder. The Nazis chose
poison gas as the most effective way to kill people. They opened a specially designed gas chamber
disguised as a shower room at the Auschwitz camp in western Poland. Soon other camps had similar
facilities. Jews in Germany and Nazi-controlled lands were arrested and crowded into train cars built for
cattle and transported to these extermination centers. The elderly, women with children, and those who
looked too weak to work were herded into gas chambers and immediately killed. Jewish prisoners
carried the dead to the crematoria, or huge furnaces where the bodies were burned.
Those who were selected for work endured almost unbearable conditions. Men and women alike had
their heads shaved and a registration number tattooed on their arms. They were given one set of
clothes and slept in crowded, unheated barracks on hard wooden pallets. Their daily food was a small
piece of bread, and foul-tasting soup made with rotten vegetables. Diseases swept through the camps
and claimed many who were weakened by harsh labor and starvation. Others died from torture or from
cruel medical experiments. The number of people killed in the labor and death camps is staggering. At
Auschwitz, the main Nazi killing center, 12,000 victims could be gassed and cremated in a single day.
At that camp alone, the Nazis killed over 1.5 million people, some 90 percent of them Jews.
Rescue and Liberation
As rumors of death camps spread in the U.S., President Roosevelt created the War Refugee Board
(WRB) in 1944 to try to help people threatened by the Nazis. Despite its late start, the WRB's programs
helped save some 200,000 lives. As Allied armies advanced in late 1944, the Nazis abandoned the
camps outside Germany. In 1945, American troops were able to witness the horrors of the Holocaust
for the first time. A young soldier described the conditions he discovered as he entered the barracks at
Buchenwald:
"The odor was so bad I backed up, but I looked at a bottom bunk and there I saw one man. He was too
weak to get up; he could just barely turn his head...He looked like a skeleton; and his eyes were deep
set. He didn't utter a sound; he just looked at me with those eyes, and they still haunt me today."
-Leon Bass, American soldier
Horrified by the death camps and by Germany's conduct during the war, the Allies placed a number of
former Nazi leaders on trial. They charged them with crimes against peace, crimes against humanity,
and war crimes. During these Nuremberg Trials, 12 Nazi leaders received a death sentence. More
significant than the number of convictions, the trials established the important principle that individuals
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must be responsible for their actions, even in war. The tribunal firmly rejected the Nazis' argument that
they were only "following orders."
Section 7: The War in the Pacific
Japan Drags the U.S. into War
The bombing of Pearl Harbor was not the only sudden attack in the Pacific. Just hours after striking
Hawaii, Japanese warplanes bombed Clark Field, the main American air base in the Philippines. The
Japanese destroyed hundreds of planes, which were lined up in rows on the ground. Later, a large
Japanese force landed on the Philippines. Douglas MacArthur, the islands’ commanding general,
withdrew most of his troops. President Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to escape to Australia, and the
general reluctantly boarded an airplane for Australia. When he landed, MacArthur made a promise to
the people of the Philippines and to his army: "I shall return."
The Japanese Plan
The Japanese struck Pearl Harbor and Clark Field to try to gain military control of the Pacific. By
shattering American forces everywhere in the region, they hoped that the United States would
withdraw, leaving them easy access to take over countries that contained oil. Japan needed oil to
continue their dominance of Asia, and the U.S. still had an oil embargo in place against Japan.
The Philippines Fall
Following MacArthur's forced escape, the remaining Allied troops surrendered to invading Japanese
forces. The Japanese captured about 70,000 Filipinos and Americans as prisoners of war. Already
weakened by disease and lack of food, these prisoners faced a grueling test in the tropical heat. Their
Japanese captors split them into groups of 500 to 1,000 and force-marched them some 60 miles to a
railroad station. There, the prisoners were boarded on a train that took them to within eight miles of a
military prison camp and then walked the rest of the way. During the march, many prisoners were
treated brutally. They were denied water and rest and many were beaten and tortured. At least 10,000
prisoners died during the 8-day journey. Many were executed by the guards when they grew too weak
to keep up. Their ordeal became known as the Bataan Death March. Those who survived were sent to
primitive prison camps, where an additional 15,000 or more died.
The War at Sea
At Pearl Harbor, Japan had not achieved one of its main goals: to destroy the aircraft carriers that
formed the heart of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. These carriers would prove to be vital American weapons in
the war at sea. Carriers had become floating airfields, greatly extending the area in which warplanes
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could fly. These planes now included dive bombers and torpedo bombers capable of destroying enemy
ships. For example, Japan had used aircraft carriers as a base for the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Japanese forces continued to advance across the Pacific, and the battered American navy fought
desperately to stop them. In May 1942, they engaged a superior Japanese fleet in the Coral Sea,
northeast of Australia, as Japan tried to invade that country. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, aircraft
launched from aircraft carriers bombed and strafed enemy ships more than 70 miles away. During the
five-day battle, both sides lost hundreds of planes and an aircraft carrier. The battle prevented the
Japanese from invading Australia, a result America saw as a victory. The Battle of the Coral Sea also
opened a new chapter in naval warfare. It was the first naval combat carried out entirely by aircraft. The
enemy ships never came within sight of one another. From now on, aircraft and aircraft carriers would
play the central role in naval battles.
The Battle of Midway
Much like the Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point of the War in Europe, the Battle of Midway
changed the course of the war in the Pacific. Midway Island, some 1,000 miles northwest of Hawaii in
the middle of the Pacific, contained a U.S. air base. Whoever controlled Midway had a strategic
advantage. The Japanese attacked Midway in June of 1942 with a wave of bomber attacks on the
island. As in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway was fought entirely from the air. The
Americans swiftly sank three of the four heavy Japanese carriers and finished off the fourth later the
same day. Two American carriers, the Enterprise and the Hornet emerged undamaged. The sinking of
four Japanese carriers, combined with the loss of some 250 planes and most of Japan's skilled naval
pilots, was a devastating blow to the Japanese navy. After the Battle of Midway, Japan was unable to
launch any more offensive operations in the Pacific.
Struggle for the Islands
The victory at Midway allowed the Allies to take the offensive in the Pacific. American forces began
island-hopping, a military strategy of selectively attacking specific enemy-held islands and bypassing
others. By capturing only a few crucial islands, the United States effectively cut off the bypassed islands
from supplies and reinforcements and rendered those islands useless to the Japanese. This strategy
also allowed the Americans to move more quickly toward their ultimate goal - Japan itself. The islandhopping campaign would begin with the island farthest away from mainland Japan - Gudalcanal.
The Battle of Guadalcanal
When more than 11,000 marines landed on the island in August 1942, the 2,000 Japanese who were
defending the island fled into the jungle. The Battle of Guadalcanal provided the marines with their
first taste of jungle warfare. They slogged through swamps, crossed rivers, and hacked through tangles
of vines in search of the enemy. The marines made easy targets for Japanese snipers hidden in the
thick underbrush or in the tops of palm trees. Both sides landed thousands of reinforcements in five
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months of fighting, but the U.S. was able to emerge victorious. The Allies had conquered their first
piece of Japanese-held territory. Island-hopping was underway.
Island-Hopping in the Pacific
After Guadalcanal, the Allies pushed across the Pacific. Forces under General MacArthur leapfrogged
through dozens of island chains. By February 1944, these attacks had crippled Japanese air power,
and helped the U.S. reclaim over half of the land taken by the Japanese. The U.S. was inching closer
to mainland Japan. By the summer, for the first time, Japan was within reach of long-range American
bombers. Island-hopping was working.
The Philippines Campaign
As American forces pushed toward Japan in the summer of 1944, military planners decided to bypass
the Philippine Islands. MacArthur vigorously opposed this strategy, claiming that the United States had
an obligation to free the Filipino people. The general's arguments persuaded Roosevelt, who reversed
the decision. In mid-October, some 160,000 American troops invaded the Philippines. After the beach
was secure, General MacArthur dramatically waded ashore from a landing craft. News cameras
recorded the historic event as MacArthur proclaimed, "People of the Philippines, I have returned." While
American troops fought their way inland, a great naval battle developed off the coast. More than 280
warships took part in the three-day Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Japanese high command directed nearly
every warship still afloat to attack the United States Navy. This was the first battle in which Japanese
kamikazes, or suicide planes, were used. Kamikaze pilots loaded their aircraft with bombs and then
deliberately crashed them into enemy ships to inflict maximum damage. Despite this tactic, the
American force destroyed the Japanese navy and emerged victorious.
Iwo Jima and Okinawa
The fighting grew deadlier as American troops moved closer to Japan. One of the bloodiest battles of
the war took place on the tiny island of Iwo Jima. The island's steep, rocky slopes were honeycombed
with caves and tunnels. The natural terrain protected more than 600 Japanese guns, many encased in
concrete bunkers. In February 1945, marines stormed the beaches. They encountered furious
resistance from the Japanese. After three days of combat, the marines had advanced only about 700
yards inland. Eventually nearly 110,000 American troops took part in the campaign. Although opposed
by fewer than 25,000 Japanese, the marines needed almost a month to secure the island. The enemy
fought almost to the last defender. Only 216 Japanese were taken prisoner. In the Battle of Iwo Jima,
American forces suffered an estimated 25,000 casualties. A photo of servicemen raising the United
States flag on Iwo Jima came to symbolize the struggles and sacrifices of American troops during
World War II.
The Battle of Okinawa followed, and was equally bloody. The small island of Okinawa was the last
obstacle to an Allied invasion of the Japanese home islands. With this in mind, many of the island's
nearly 100,000 Japanese defenders had pledged to fight to the death. The Allies gathered some 1,300
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warships and more than 180,000 combat troops to drive the enemy from Okinawa. Japanese pilots flew
nearly 2,000 kamikaze attacks against this fleet. As American soldiers stormed ashore, defenders
made equally desperate banzai charges-attacks in which the soldiers tried to kill as many of the enemy
as possible until they themselves were killed. In June, the Japanese resistance finally ended after
almost three months. For American forces, the nearly 50,000 casualties made the Battle of Okinawa
the costliest engagement of the Pacific war. At long last, however, the Allies had a clear path to Japan.
The Manhattan Project
The next challenge for American soldiers was to prepare themselves for the invasion of Japan. After
the grueling battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, they knew how costly such an invasion would be.
Unknown to them, however, work was nearly complete on a top-secret weapon that would make the
invasion unnecessary.
In August 1939, President Roosevelt had received a letter from Albert Einstein, a brilliant Jewish
scientist who had fled from Europe. In his letter, Einstein suggested that an incredibly powerful new
type of bomb was being built by the Germans. Determined to build the bomb before Germany did,
Roosevelt organized the top-secret Manhattan Project to develop an "atomic" bomb. To make an
atomic bomb, however, they had to discover how to create a chain reaction, where particles released
from the splitting of one uranium atom would cause another atom to break apart, and so on. In theory,
the energy released by the splitting of so many atoms would produce a massive explosion, much bigger
than anything the world had previously seen from a weapon. After six years of work, Manhattan Project
scientists tested the world's first atomic bomb in the desert of New Mexico. With a blinding flash of light,
the explosion blew a huge crater in the earth and shattered windows over 100 miles away.
The Decision to Drop the Bomb
Once the bomb was ready, the question became whether or not to use it against Japan. There were a
number of alternative possibilities for ending the war:
1. A massive invasion of Japan, expected to cost up to one million Allied casualties
2. A naval blockade to starve Japan, along with continued conventional bombing
3. A demonstration of the new weapon on a deserted island to pressure Japan to surrender
4. A softening of Allied demands for an unconditional surrender
The final decision, rested with new President Harry Truman, who had taken office barely three months
earlier, after President Roosevelt's death in April 1945. Truman had no difficulty making his decision.
He had no doubt that the new bomb should be used. Truman never regretted his decision. "You should
do your weeping at Pearl Harbor," he later said to his critics.
Japan Surrenders
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On August 6, 1945, an American plane, the Enola Gay dropped a single atomic bomb on Hiroshima, a
city in southern Japan. A blast of intense heat annihilated the city's center and its residents in an
instant. Many buildings that survived the initial blast were destroyed by fires spread by powerful winds.
Over 100,000 died and at least as many were injured by fire, radiation sickness, and the force of the
explosion. About 95 percent of the city's buildings were damaged or totally destroyed. A Hiroshima
resident described the scene after the bombing:
"Wherever you went, you didn't bother to take the roads. Everything was flat, nothing was standing, no
gates, pillars, walls, or fences. You walked in a straight line to where you wanted to go. Practically
everywhere you came across small bones that had been left behind."
When Japan didn't immediately surrender, three days later, a second bomb was dropped on the city of
Nagasaki. This finally caused the government of Japan to accept the American terms for surrender.
The next day, Americans celebrated V-J Day (Victory in Japan Day). The formal surrender agreement
was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. The long and destructive war had finally
come to an end. The Allies had won, and the world would never be the same.
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Unit 2:
The Cold War
Section 1:
Origins of the Cold War
p.27
Section 2:
Cold War ‘Heats’ up
p.30
Section 3:
The Korean War
p.32
Section 4:
The Cold War at Home
p.34
Section 5:
The Cold War Expands in the 1950s
p.39
Section 6:
The Cold War in the early 1960s
p.42
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Section 1: Origins of the Cold War
A Breakdown in the Relationship
The World War II cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was certainly a
temporary arrangement. There had been a history of bad feelings between the two nations ever since
the Communist Revolution in Russia in 1917. During that revolt, President Wilson had dispatched
American troops to Russia to support anti-communist resistance. The United States had not even
recognized the existence of the Soviet government for another 20 years. Then, as wartime allies, the
Soviets often disagreed with their American and British partners over battle tactics and postwar plans.
The United States was angered by the 'nonaggression pact that Stalin had signed with Hitler (which
Hitler had broken), and Stalin was angry that the Allies had not invaded Europe sooner, to take the
pressure off the Russian front. As the end of the war approached, relations between the communist
Soviet Union and the democracy of the U.S. grew increasingly tense.
After the war ended, the relationship between the two nations did as well. It was clear the only thing
they two countries had in common was their desire to defeat Hitler. Once he was defeated, both the
U.S. and the Soviets had little time and patience for one another. They soon became fierce enemies,
and threatened each other with invasion and war. Over the next five decades, the two superpowers
(extremely large, rich, powerful countries) would face off in what became known as The Cold War, a
competition for world power and influence.
Differences at Yalta
In February 1945, as the war was ending in Europe, Roosevelt met with Stalin and Churchill at the
Yalta Conference to work out the future of Germany. Germany would soon be defeated, and these
men would decide its post-war fate. Stalin wanted to punish Germany harshly for starting World War II.
Roosevelt and Churchill believed if they helped rebuild Germany after the war, then Germany would be
less likely to start aggression again. Neither side would give. So they agreed to divide Germany into
two sections. The sections would later become two separate nations. Germany ceased to exist.
Stalin’s section became known as East Germany, a new communist nation. The American/British side
became West Germany, a democracy.
The United Nations
One item on which the leaders at Yalta all agreed was the creation of the United Nations (UN), a new
international peacekeeping organization. Soon after the War ended, representatives from 50 nations
met in San Francisco to adopt a charter, or statement of principles, for the UN. The charter stated that
members would try to settle their differences peacefully and would promote justice and cooperation in
solving international problems. In addition, they would try to stop wars from starting and "take effective
collective measures" to end those that did break out. The UN still exists today, now with 193 member
nations who send representatives to meet at the UN world headquarters in New York City.
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Truman Takes Command
Roosevelt never lived to see his dream of the United Nations fulfilled. On April 12, 1945, just two weeks
before the UN's first meeting, and less than a month before the end of the war in Europe, the President
died while vacationing at Warm Springs, Georgia. Although he was in poor health and noticeably tired,
his unexpected death shocked the nation. No one was more surprised than Vice President Harry
Truman, who suddenly found himself President. Roosevelt had never involved him in major foreign
policy discussions.
The Potsdam Conference
Truman's first meeting with Stalin occurred in July 1945 in the Berlin suburb of Potsdam. Truman
insisted that Stalin remove his troops from Poland. The Soviet troops had remained there after
removing the Nazis. Truman was afraid Stalin was trying to take over Poland, and make it a communist
country, like the Soviet Union. At Potsdam, Truman got word that the atomic bomb had been tested in
New Mexico. Hoping to intimidate Stalin, Truman told him that the United States had a new weapon of
extraordinary force. Stalin, who already knew of the bomb from Soviet spies, simply nodded and said
that he hoped it would be put to good use. Stalin's casual manner hid his concern over America's new
strategic advantage.
Conflicting Postwar Goals: What the Americans Wanted
Tensions over Poland illustrated the differing views of the world held by American and Soviet leaders.
Americans had fought to bring democracy and capitalism to the conquered nations of Europe and
Asia. Democracy, of course, allows the citizens to have a say in the political matters of their country.
Capitalism is an economic system where the people have the freedom to pursue any career, buy any
product, and open any business. The United States had flourished with these two systems, and hoped
to spread them to other countries of the world.
Conflicting Postwar Goals: What the Soviets Wanted
After losing millions of people during the war and suffering widespread destruction, the Soviet Union
was determined to rebuild. To better accomplish this, they established satellite nations, countries that
the Soviets took over at the end of World War II and forced to be communist. These nations were on
the western borders of the Soviet Union that would serve as a buffer zone against attacks. The Soviet
Union also looked forward to the spread of communism throughout the world. Communism,
sometimes called socialism, is an economic system where the government has complete control of the
economy. Communist countries have strong governments that do not allow much individual freedom
for their citizens. Communism also stresses equality over individual success. Since communism and
democracy/capitalism are opposite in many ways, the Soviets trying to spread communism while the
U.S. was trying to spread their systems would obviously lead to conflict.
Soviets Tighten Their Hold Over Europe
The Soviet Union quickly gained political control over nations that the Soviet Army had freed from the
Nazis. In each of the countries, Soviet-installed communist governments quickly cancelled elections
and crushed all opposition. People in those countries who spoke out in favor of democracy and
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freedom were often imprisoned or killed. These satellite nations included Albania, Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the new East Germany.
The Iron Curtain
As the Soviets were taking over Eastern Europe, Stalin predicted the ultimate triumph of communism
over capitalism in speeches and writings. Yet he knew that it would be years before the Soviets were
strong enough militarily to directly confront the United States. In the meantime, Stalin called on
Communists to spread their system by other means. Winston Churchill responded. Speaking in
Missouri, he spoke out against the division of Europe that Stalin had already accomplished:
"… an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of Central and
Eastern Europe…The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been
raised to preeminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian
control...This is certainly not the Liberated Europe we fought to build up. “
- "Iron Curtain" speech, Winston Churchill, 1946
Churchill also called on Americans to help keep Stalin from enclosing any more nations behind the iron
curtain of communist domination and oppression. This iron curtain became a symbol of the Cold War.
Although it wasn’t an actual physical barrier, it divided Europe between communist countries and free
countries.
Containment
In a letter to the American State Department in 1946, George Kennan, an American government
worker stationed in Moscow, analyzed Soviet behavior and policy. Kennan warned that the Soviets had
"no real faith in the possibility of a permanently happy coexistence of the socialist and capitalist worlds"
and that they also believed in the inevitable triumph of communism. Therefore, Kennan concluded that
the "United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of a long-term, patient but firm
containment of Russian expansive tendencies." The American policy of containment emerged from
Kennan's letter. This policy recognized the possibility that Eastern Europe was already lost to
communism. It called for the United States to resist Soviet attempts to form Communist governments
elsewhere in the world.The policy of containment would be the main US policy throughout the entire
Cold War.
The Truman Doctrine: Containment in Action
President Truman soon had an opportunity to apply the policy of containment. The Soviet Union had
been making threats against the European nation of Turkey. In addition, a civil war had broken out in
nearby Greece in the closing days of World War II. There, Communists fought to overthrow the
government that had returned to power after the Axis invaders had withdrawn. Truman developed a
plan to provide American aid to Greece and Turkey, hoping to “contain” communism. Congress agreed
to provide $400 million in aid to the two nations, and to establish American military bases there. These
actions kept the two countries from falling to communism. Truman announced to the world that any
other country feeling threatened by communism would be aided by the United States as well. This
idea, which also remained throughout the Cold War, was known as The Truman Doctrine.
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Section 2: The Cold War Heats Up
Setting the Scene
The end of World War II caused a profound change in the way world leaders and ordinary citizens
thought about war. The devastation caused by the atomic bombs dropped on Japan and the efforts of
the Soviet Union to acquire similar weapons caused fear all over the world. In one of his last speeches,
President Truman declared:
"We have entered the atomic age and war has undergone a technological change which makes it a very different
thing from what it used to be. War today between the Soviet empire and the free nations might dig the grave not
only of our opponents, but· of our own society, our world as well as theirs ... Such a war is not a possible policy
for rational men."
-President Harry Truman
Anxiety about a "hot" and catastrophic nuclear war became a constant backdrop to the Cold War
policies of both the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Marshall Plan
In addition to worrying about the new threat of nuclear war, Americans agreed to help restore the wartorn nations so that they might create stable democracies and achieve economic recovery. World War II
had devastated Europe to a degree never seen before. Over 20 million people had been made
homeless. In Poland, some 20 percent of the population had died. 1 of every 5 houses in France and
Belgium had been destroyed. Across Europe, industries and transportation were in ruins. Agriculture
suffered from the loss of livestock and equipment. These conditions led to the U.S. creating a policy to
help Europe rebuild, called the Marshall Plan, in which the United States would support the nations of
Europe with financial aid. Not only would this provide help to the people of Europe, but it would also
help the American economy in the long run. If the European economies were strong, they would be
trading partners for American companies.
The Soviet Union was invited to participate in the Marshall Plan, but it refused and insisted its satellite
nations to do so too. Soviet leaders called the Marshall Plan an American scheme for using dollars to
"buy its way" into European affairs. But seventeen Western European nations joined the plan: Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and West Germany. Over the next five years, the
United States allocated some $15 billion in grants and loans to Western Europe. The region's
economies were quickly restored, and the United States gained strong trading partners in the region, as
well as taking a step to contain communism.
The Berlin Airlift
After the U.S. and Soviet Union split up Germany following World War II, a similar argument began
about what to do with Germany’s capital city, Berlin. Berlin was in the Soviet zone of East Germany,
but the U.S. wanted influence there as well, and convinced Stalin to divide the city the same way
Germany had been divided. The western part of Berlin, which lay in the Soviet zone, would become
part of West Germany. Free West Berlin and communist East Berlin became visible symbols of the
developing Cold War struggle between the Soviet Union and the United States. Hundreds of thousands
of Eastern Europeans left their homes in Communist-dominated nations, fled to East Berlin, and then
crossed into West Berlin, where they could live freely under democracy.
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Stalin decided to close this escape route by forcing the U.S. to give him West Berlin. He used Soviet
tanks and troops to block Allied access to West Berlin. This was known as the Berlin Blockade. (THIS
IS NOT THE SAME AS THE BERLIN WALL – the Wall wasn’t built until 1961)
All shipments to West Berlin through East Germany were banned, including food, fuel, and medicine.
The blockade created severe shortages of supplies needed by the 2.5 million people in West Berlin.
Truman did not want to risk starting a war by using military force to open the transportation routes. Nor
did he want to give up West Berlin to the Soviets. Instead, Truman decided on an “airlift”, moving
supplies into West Berlin by flying them over the blockade in cargo planes. Over the next year,
American aircraft made more than 200,000 flights to deliver food, fuel, and other supplies. At the height
of the Berlin Airlift, nearly 13,000 tons of goods arrived in West Berlin daily.
The Soviets also didn’t want to risk war by shooting down the planes. They finally gave up the
blockade and the airlift ended. The Berlin Blockade and Airlift became the first direct “conflict” of the
Cold War between the US and the Soviets. In the case of the Airlift, the Soviets backed down.
NATO – Safety in Numbers
As the Soviets took over countries in Europe and threatened others, the smaller European nations
turned to the United States for protection. The U.S responded by creating NATO with its allies. The
United States joined Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Turkey to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Member
nations agreed that "an armed attack against one of them ... shall be considered an attack against them
all." The U.S. hoped this would keep the Soviets from attacking other European countries. If the Soviets
did, say, attack Belgium, they would have to go to war against all members of NATO. This principle of
mutual military assistance is called collective security. This alliance still exists today (even though the
USSR collapsed in the early-1990s). The Soviet Union responded to the formation of NATO by
creating the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance that its satellite nations were forced to join.
China Falls to the Communists
As the U.S. and Soviets were struggling for control of Europe in the 1940s, communism was spreading
in other parts of the world as well, including the world’s most populous country, China. The struggle
between China's Communists and Nationalists (anti-communists) had been going on since the 1920s.
As World War II drew to a close, the Communist leader Mao Zedong and the Nationalist leader Chiang
Kai-shek tried to rally their sides to a victory in the Chinese Civil War. Mao was the much more
popular leader, and it appeared that communism would spread to Asia. Always trying to contain
communism, President Truman provided economic and military aid to the Nationalists.
When Chiang asked for more American help, specifically American troops, Truman and his advisors
concluded that Mao's takeover of China probably could not be prevented. The United States decided to
focus instead on saving Western Europe from Soviet domination. In 1949, China's capital of Beijing fell
to the Communists. Many Americans viewed the "loss of China" as a stain on the record of the Truman
administration. Members of Congress and others who held this view called for greater efforts to protect
the rest of Asia from communism. Truman pledged that the next time an Asian country was threatened
by communism, he would send troops. He would not have to wait long.
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Section 3: The Korean War
Communist Expansion in Asia
While the attention of most Americans was focused on the communist threat in Europe, events were
unfolding in Asia that would cause the Cold War to flare up into a "hot" military confrontation. While the
U.S. and the Soviets never directly engaged in war with each other in Asia, they both engaged in proxy
wars. In these wars, the two superpowers “fought” each other by supporting other groups at war with
each other. The Chinese Civil War was an example of this. The Soviets supported Mao’s communists,
while the U.S. supported the Nationalists. After the communists emerged victorious, the U.S. pledged
to not let that happen again. Just one year later, Korea became the focal point of the Cold War.
Dividing Korea
Like most of Asia, Korea was taken over by Japan during World War II. Japanese rule of Korea was
harsh, and Koreans hoped that their nation would be restored after the Japanese were finally defeated
in World War II. However, the war ended before careful plans for Korean independence could be
worked out. The Allies agreed on a temporary solution. Soviet soldiers accepted the surrender of
Japanese troops north of the 38th parallel, the latitude line running across Korea at approximately the
midpoint of the peninsula; American forces did the same south of the parallel. While the dividing line
was never intended to be permanent, Korea was divided-temporarily into a Soviet-occupied northern
zone and an American-occupied southern zone. Soon a pro-American government, led by Syngman
Rhee, formed in the south and a Communist regime, led by Kim Il Sung, was established in the north.
Occupying forces soon withdrew and the zones became official countries, North Korea a communist
nation, and South Korea, a democratic nation. The Cold War would play out on a peninsula the size of
Florida.
The Korean Conflict
Koreans on both sides of the dividing line wanted to unify their nation under their government. In June
1950, the Korean War broke out when North Korean troops streamed across the 38th parallel,
determined to reunite Korea by force. The invasion took South Korea and the United States by surprise.
It turned out that the action had been planned by the Soviet Union. The fall of China to the Communists
had been a shock to the United States; now it seemed as though communism was on the advance
again. President Truman was determined to respond. He wasted no time. He ordered American air and
naval support for the South Koreans. Later he sent ground troops as well. Although Truman did not go
to Congress for a declaration of war as required by the Constitution, both Democrats and Republicans
praised him for his strong action. Members of the House stood and cheered when they heard of it.
Eventually, 16 member nations of the United Nations contributed troops or weapons, but Americans
made up roughly 80 percent of the troops serving in South Korea.
Waging the War
A hero World War II and a strong anti-Communist, General Douglas MacArthur was Truman's choice
to lead the Allied forces in Korea. Despite a difficult personality, MacArthur was an excellent military
strategist, and he developed a bold plan to drive the invaders from South Korea. With Soviet tanks and
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air power, the North Koreans had swept through South Korea. Only a small part of the country, near the
port city of Pusan, remained unconquered. MacArthur suspected that the North Koreans' rapid
advance had left their supply lines stretched thin. He decided to strike at this weakness. After first
sending forces to defend Pusan, he landed troops at Inchon in northwestern South Korea and attacked
enemy supply lines from behind. MacArthur's strategy worked. Caught between UN forces in the north
and in the south, and with their supplies cut off, the invaders fled back across the 38th parallel. UN
troops pursued them northward. American and South Korean leaders began to boast of reuniting Korea
under South Korean control. Such talk alarmed the Chinese Communists, who had been in power less
than a year and who did not want a pro-Western nation next door.
As UN troops approached North Korea's border with China, the Chinese warned them not to advance
any farther. MacArthur ignored the warning. Chinese troops poured across the border to take the
offensive. The Chinese and the North Koreans pushed the UN forces back into South Korea. A
stalemate (when neither side can gain an advantage) developed. MacArthur wanted a more
aggressive war with China and North Korea, possibly including nuclear weapons. Truman opposed this
strategy, fearing it could lead to a widespread war that would involve the USSR and their atomic
weapons. Truman was able to keep the war limited. However, the struggle dragged on for over two
more years, into the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Finally, a truce was signed in 1953, leaving
Korea divided at almost exactly the same place as before the war, near the 38th parallel.
The Effects of the Korean War
Korea is still divided at the 38th parallel today. North Korea is still communist and is controlled by the
Kim Dynasty (leadership passed from Kim Il Sung to his son, Kim Jong Il in 1994, and then to his
grandson, Kim Jong Un in 2011). South Korea has grown into a thriving capitalist democracy and close
ally with the United States. Even with the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korea remains a threat to
world peace and is considered an enemy of the United States. This explains why the border at the 38th
parallel is the most heavily fortified border in the world today.
The Korean War caused enormous frustration for the United States. Americans wondered why roughly
54,000 of their soldiers had been killed and 103,000 wounded for such limited results. They questioned
whether their government was serious about stopping communism. On the other hand, communist
forces had been pushed back beyond the 38th parallel, and did not take over South Korea. What's
more, this containment had occurred without nuclear war. It seemed that Americans would have to get
used to more limited wars.
One change was in the military itself. Before the war, President Truman ordered the racial integration of
the armed forces, and the Korean War was the first war in which white Americans and African
Americans served in the same units. The Korean War also led to a huge increase in military spending.
The military had taken less than a third of the federal budget before the war, but a decade later, military
spending made up 50 percent of federal spending.
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Section 4: The Cold War at Home
The American Economy During the Cold War
When American soldiers returned from the battlefields after World War II, they wanted to put the horrors
of the war behind them and enjoy the comforts of home. During the war, many items were rationed or
not produced at all. Now most Americans were eager to acquire everything the war-and before that, the
Depression-had denied them. The marriage rate increased dramatically after the war, and the
population boomed. Fueled by a growing economy, suburbs popped up outside big cities. Suburban
families typically enjoyed high incomes and spent large sums of money on recreation. By the end of the
1950s, about 75 percent of families owned a car, and even more owned a TV set. America's consumer
economy was thriving.
A Growing Economy
During the postwar years, the United States embarked on one of its greatest periods of economic
expansion. The gross national product (GNP - the cost of all goods and services produced by a
country in one year) more than doubled, jumping from $212 billion in 1945 to $504 billion in 1960. Per
capita income, the average annual income per person, increased from $1,223 to $2,219 during the
same period. Companies grew as well. As new products were invented, more workers were needed to
produce them. As income grew, the unemployment rate decreased.
A New Kind of Business
In 1954, salesman Ray Kroc was amazed when two brothers who owned a small restaurant in San
Bernardino, California, gave him an order for their eighth Multimixer, a brand of milkshake machine.
Because of the restaurant's fast, efficient service and its prime location along a busy highway, it was
experiencing great success. Intrigued by the possibilities, Kroc purchased the two brothers' idea of
assembly-line food production. He also acquired the restaurant - McDonald's. Kroc copied what the
brothers had done in California, and built a nationwide chain of fast-food restaurants. He did this by
selling eager entrepreneurs (people who start businesses) the right to open a franchise - a business
that offers certain goods and services from a larger parent company. Franchise agreements generally
allow each owner to use the company's name, suppliers, products, and production methods. Each
franchise, then, is operated as a small business whose owners profit from the parent company's
guidance. The success of McDonald’s as a franchise caused any other franchises to follow.
Television Transforms Life
Meanwhile, developments in technology spurred industrial growth. Rushing to keep up with demand,
businesses produced hundreds of new products, such as dishwashers and gas-powered lawnmowers,
aimed at saving the consumer time and money. Eager Americans filled their homes with the latest
inventions. One of those was television. Americans fell in love with television in the 1950s. The
technology for television had been developed throughout the 1930s, but then stalled during the war.
After World War II, television became enormously popular. As had been the case with radio, television
networks raised the money to broadcast their shows by selling advertising time. Television became a
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powerful new medium for advertisers, allowing them to reach millions of viewers. As a result,
Americans watched their favorite shows interrupted by commercials, a practice that continues today.
The Computer Industry
Another innovation appeared in the 1950s that would transform American life in the decades to come.
Research led to the development of ever more powerful calculators and computers. During the 1950s,
American businesses reached out to embrace the computer industry. In 1947, scientists at Bell
Telephone Laboratories invented the first transistor, a tiny circuit device that amplifies, controls, and
generates electrical signals. The transistor could be used in radios, computers, and other electronic
devices, and greatly changed the electronics industry. Because of the transistor, giant machines that
once filled whole rooms could now fit on a desk. The invention of the transistor is looked back upon as
the beginning of the computer age that continues today.
Advances in Medicine
Americans also found hope in developments made in medicine. In 1954, Dr. Jonas Salk and Dr.
Thomas Francis conducted a successful field test of a vaccine to prevent one of the most feared
diseases-poliomyelitis. Before the vaccine, the disease, known commonly as polio, had killed or
disabled more than 20,000 children in the United States every year. President Franklin Roosevelt
suffered the effects of polio throughout much of his life. Salk's injected vaccine effectively eliminated
the threat of polio.
Changes in the Work Force
In earlier years, most Americans made a living as blue-collar workers, producing goods or performing
services that depended on manual labor. After the war, however, new machines assumed many of the
jobs previously performed by people. Most blue-collar workers learned new skills and found whitecollar jobs. Young people, particularly former servicemen with new college degrees, also chose whitecollar jobs as they joined the work force. By the end of the 1950s, for the first time in US history, a
majority of American workers held white-collar jobs. Many were managing offices, working in sales,
and performing professional and clerical duties with little manual labor. Physically, the work was less
exhausting than blue-collar labor, it was not as dangerous, and some workers had the opportunity to
rise into executive positions. But office jobs had their drawbacks. Employment in large corporations was
often impersonal. White-collar workers in large companies had less connection with the products and
services that their companies provided. Employees sometimes felt pressure to dress, think, and act
alike.
Moving to the Suburbs
Seeking more room from crowded, noisy cities, growing families retreated to new suburbs. With more
people purchasing homes, builders began to cater to the demand for housing. To produce homes
faster, builders often made every home in a neighborhood the same size, shape, and color. Suburban
growth brought with it other changes. Following their customers, some stores began to move from cities
to newly built shopping malls located in the suburbs. Many Americans, living in suburbs built beyond
the reach of public transportation, depended more and more on automobiles. To meet the demand,
automakers started introducing new car designs every year. People eagerly awaited the unveiling of the
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latest models. During the 1950s, American automakers produced about 8 million new cars each year,
more than ever before.
Growth in the car industry created a need for more and better roads. The 1956 Interstate Highway Act
provided $25 billion to build an interstate highway system more than 40,000 miles long. The project
provided a grid of new roads which allowed families to travel and businesses to expand. The car culture
inspired the development of many new businesses including gas stations, repair shops, parts stores,
and drive-in restaurants and movie theatres.
Here Come the Kids
With so many people working and making a better living than ever before, and Americans moving into
larger houses in the suburbs, the birth rate of the U.S. began to rise after World War II. The rate
continued to increase for almost two decades. This became known as the baby boom. The baby
boom generation (those born between 1946 and 1962) would become the largest in US history. Kids
became the focal point of American families, and TV shows and advertisements began to gear their
messages to younger viewers.
Fitting In
Most Americans were comfortable during the 1950s, but the nation was still recovering from years of
economic depression and war. Americans applauded the apparent harmony between individuals and
groups in the United States that conformity (trying hard to be like everyone else) seemed to
encourage. Conformity led people to act in a way that wouldn't be viewed as "standing out" in their
families, jobs, or communities. People wanted to enjoy their newly won prosperity and provide even
better opportunities for their children, and Americans believed the best way to do that was to “fit in”.
Individualism and creativity were often discouraged in the 1950s.
Youth Culture
The strong economy of the 1950s allowed more young people to stay in school rather than having to
leave early to find a job. Before World War I, most Americans left school before they turned 16 to help
support their families. However, by the 1950s, most middle-class teenagers were expected to stay in
school, holding only part-time jobs, if they worked at all. With more leisure time, some young people
appeared to devote all their energies to organizing parties and pranks, joining fraternities and sororities,
and pursuing entertainment and fun. Some teenagers baby-sat the growing number of children in their
spare time. Others went to newly constructed community parks or pools, play organized sports at their
schools, and travelled with their families on the new highway system. Teenage girls collected items
such as silver and linens in anticipation of marriage, which for most came shortly after high school. The
number of teenage brides rose in the 1950s, close to half of all brides were in their teens, typically
marrying grooms just slightly older.
Men's and Women's Roles
Americans in the post-World War II years were very aware of the roles that they were expected to play
as men and women. These roles were defined by social and religious traditions. Men were expected to
go to school and then find jobs to support wives and children. The man’s world was the world away
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from home, where they earned money and made important political, economic, and social decisions.
Women were expected to play a supporting role in their husbands' lives. They cleaned the house,
cooked meals, and raised children. Many parents turned to pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock for childcare advice. His best-selling book The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care had a major
impact on child-rearing practices. Most middle-class women settled into the domestic role and took on
the demands of raising children and maintaining their suburban homes.
Youth Challenge Conformity
Some young people were not happy with the conformist culture of the 1950s, challenging the values of
their parents. These young people sought a style they could call their own. In 1951, disc jockey Alan
Freed began hosting a radio show in Cleveland, Ohio, playing what was then called "rhythm-and-blues"
music for a largely black audience. "Moondog Rock 'n' Roll Party" gave important exposure to the
music, which grew out of rhythm-and-blues and came to be called rock-and-roll. Teenagers across the
nation quickly became fans of the beat and melodies that characterized rock-and-roll. They rushed to
buy records of their favorite performers such as Chuck Berry, Little Richard, Bill Haley and the Comets,
and Buddy Holly. One of the best-known rock-and-roll singers was Elvis Presley. Presley's
performances showcased his flamboyant style and good looks. He attracted hordes of screaming
teenage girls everywhere he went. Presley released many records that became huge hits, and
eventually crossed over to TV and movie fame, and was called "The King of Rock and Roll."
From the United States, rock music spread to Europe and Asia, becoming popular with listeners and
influencing musicians. Many adults disliked the new music, fearing it would cause a rise in immorality.
For some people, opposition to rock-and-roll had to do with race. Rock-and-roll, in its appeal to both
black and white teenagers, and in its black rhythm-and-blues origins, threatened many who were
comfortable with racial segregation in the 1950s and who were uncomfortable with the idea of black
and white teenagers attending the same concerts and dancing to the same music. Despite some efforts
to ban rock concerts and keep records out of stores, rock-and-roll's popularity continued to soar.
Fear of Communism at Home
While most Americans were concerned about communism spreading through Europe and Asia in the
1950s, a small number of other Americans were attracted to the idea of communism. A very small
number, a few thousand, even joined the American Communist Party. For the most part, these people
were harmless. They held meetings, passed out literature, and occasionally protested. But to many
Americans, these people represented a growing number of “disloyal” Americans. They feared that
there could be communist spies living among American citizens. Many people grew more paranoid at
the thought of potentially have neighbors, friends, co-workers, and teachers who could secretly be
communist, and maybe even planning the overthrow of the American government. This era became
known as the Red Scare. (“red” was a slang and derogatory word for a communist person.)
The Red Scare
Some government officials made the fear and paranoia worse by encouraging Americans to investigate
those around them, and look for suspicious behavior. During the Red Scare, being accused of being
communist could ruin someone’s life. To investigate communism in America, Congress created The
House Un-American Activities Committee, known as HUAC. HUAC investigated communist
infiltration of government agencies and, more spectacularly, a probe of the Hollywood movie industry.
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Claiming that movies had tremendous power to influence the public, HUAC charged that numerous
Hollywood figures had communist leanings that affected their filmmaking. HUAC also looked into claims
that communists had infiltrated office buildings, schools, and factories. Very rarely were there actual
communists for HUAC to find, and almost never were those communists dangerous. The fear of
communism and the paranoia that came with it did much more damage to the country than the
communists themselves.
McCarthyism, The new “witch-hunt”
The man most responsible for spreading the Red Scare was Joseph McCarthy, a Senator from
Wisconsin. He encouraged Americans to be on the lookout for any suspicious behavior. Using HUAC
as his personal attack squad, McCarthy claimed communists were everywhere in America, including
working for the federal government. When asked for details, the senator would rarely produce actual
evidence to support his claims. But his claims ruined thousands of lives. McCarthy took his crusade to
the floor of the Senate and engaged in the smear tactics that came to be called McCarthyism. Not only
was McCarthy reelected, but he became a hero to many Americans who were told to be afraid of
communism. Merely being accused by McCarthy caused people to lose their jobs and reputations.
The Rosenbergs Help McCarthy’s Cause
During the Red Scare, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a married couple who were members of the
Communist Party, were accused of passing atomic secrets to the Soviets during World War II. The
Rosenbergs admitted to being communist (which wasn’t illegal), but did not admit to being spies. There
was very little evidence to prove they were spies, other than the claims of Ethel’s brother, who was a
soldier in the U.S. Army. After a highly controversial trial, the Rosenbergs were convicted of espionage
and executed in 1953. The chance that the couple might have been spies gave people like McCarthy
more support to keep looking for communists. (The Rosenbergs' executions were debated for years
afterward. Careful work by historians in once-classified American records and in secret Soviet records
opened at the end of the Cold War indicates that Julius Rosenberg was guilty. While Ethel Rosenberg
may have had some knowledge of her husband's activities, she was not guilty of espionage.)
McCarthy's Fall
Even with the support he received from the Rosenberg trial, McCarthy went too far in 1954. He
charged that even the U.S. Army was full of communists. He held trials to try to prove his claims.
Democrats asked that the hearings be televised, hoping that the public would see McCarthy for what he
was. Ever eager for publicity, the senator agreed. For weeks, Americans watched and were horrified by
McCarthy's bullying tactics and baseless allegations. By the time the hearings ended, the senator had
lost even his strongest supporters. The Senate formally condemned him for his reckless actions.
Eventually the Red Scare subsided, but the nation was damaged by the era's suppression of free
speech and open, honest debate.
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Section 5: The Cold War Expands in the 1950s
New Leadership for Both Sides
The Cold War entered a new era in 1953, when both the United States and the Soviet Union got new
leaders. Harry Truman and Joseph Stalin had been the only leaders in the eight year history of the
Cold War, but Truman's term as President was up, and Stalin died. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower
was elected president. Eisenhower had been a general and hero in World War II, and American voters
saw him as the perfect man to lead the U.S. during this tumultuous time. In the Soviet Union, Nikita
Khrushchev replaced Stalin. Khrushchev was much more moderate than Stalin. While Stalin and
Truman had not gotten along personally since the end of World War II, the world hoped Eisenhower
and Khrushchev could form an alliance to stop the Cold War from becoming hot.
A New Policy - Brinkmanship
Eisenhower's Secretary of State, John Dulles, was a harsh anti-Communist who considered winning
the Cold War to be vital to the future of America. Dulles believed that Truman's containment policy was
too cautious. As a military leader, Eisenhower recognized the risks of confronting the Soviets. He acted
as a brake on Dulles's more extreme views. The two of them worked together to come up with a new
way of approaching the War. Dulles made it clear that the United States was prepared to risk war to
protect its way of life. Dulles explained the policy of brinkmanship this way: "The ability to get to the
verge without getting into the war is the necessary art. If you cannot master it, you inevitably get into
war. If you try to run away from it, if you are scared to go to the brink, you are lost."
To many Americans, this new policy of brinkmanship was just what the country needed to intimidate the
Soviets into backing down. But to many others, it was too risky of an approach. What if the Soviets felt
threatened by this new, tough policy? Could they possibly start a hot war? Democratic leader Adlai
Stevenson was one of these skeptical Americans. "I am shocked that the Secretary of State is willing
to play Russian roulette with the life of our nation."
The CIA
In Eisenhower's judgment, the United States could not directly intervene in the affairs of the Soviet
Union and its European satellite nations. When people in those countries tried to rebel against the
Soviet presence in their nations, the United States kept its distance as Soviet troops crushed the
uprisings. Eisenhower felt that any other response risked war with the Soviet Union. He wanted to avoid
that at all costs. But Eisenhower used a new government agency to secretly carry out missions to
spread American interests in those countries without the general public being aware of such tactics.
This agency is known as the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), and its purpose is to gather intelligence
on foreign governments and if necessary, intervene against or with those governments to enhance U.S.
interests. It played a large role in American foreign policy during the Cold War and still does today.
Eisenhower used the CIA to spread democracy and fight communism in Europe, Asia, the Middle East,
and Latin America.
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The Soviet Atomic Threat
As the 1950s began, the President made a terrifying announcement to the American people. The
Soviet Union had successfully tested an atomic bomb. The news jolted Americans. Ever since World
War II ended, the U.S. had been the only country in the world with nuclear weapons. That weapon
superiority gave Americans security. They believed that the Soviets would not start a war with the U.S.
when they were at such a disadvantage. But now the disadvantage was gone. And so was American
security. New York, Los Angeles, and other American cities were now in danger of suffering the
horrible fate of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
To calm American's fears, the President created the Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA).
This new agency educated the nation with posters, pamphlets, and movies about how to survive a
nuclear attack. These materials included plans for building bomb shelters and instructions for holding
air raid drills in schools. Adults and children listened to the advice of the FCDA, and to an extent,
Americans somewhat relaxed. Privately, however, experts knew these methods would not help much if
the Soviets decided to use their new weapons.
The Arms Race
America's response to the Soviet construction of atomic bombs was to try to create a new weapon to
regain America's weapon superiority. This weapon was completed two years later. It was a hydrogen
bomb (H-Bomb) that would be many times more destructive than the atomic bomb. The first successful
test occurred in 1952, reestablishing the United States as the world's leading nuclear power. However,
the Soviets were already close to developing their own H-Bomb. It became clear that the Cold War had
developed a very dangerous arms race, a struggle to gain weapons superiority. The race would
continue throughout the 50s, and into the next three decades.
Less than a year after the United States exploded its first H-Bomb, the Soviet Union successfully tested
its own hydrogen bomb. As part of the policy of deterrence begun by President Truman, Eisenhower
stepped up American weapons development. Deterrence is the policy of making the military power of
the United States and its allies so strong that no enemy would dare begin an attack for fear of
retaliation. The increased weapons development would produce a new type of weapon in the late
1950s, the ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile). ICBMs were rockets that could fly across the world
carrying the explosive power of H-Bombs, but without the need for a plane or pilot. Both the Soviets
and Americans had working ICBM's by the end of the 1950s.
The Space Race
While Americans had always been proud of their technological developments, especially when it came
to the military, the Soviets pulled ahead during the arms race. This became apparent in 1957, when
the Soviets used one of their rockets to launch Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. The
realization that the rocket used to launch Sputnik could carry a hydrogen bomb to American shores
added to American shock and fear. The arms race was about to take on a new component: the space
race. The space race was a struggle for technological superiority in space exploration. Both sides
began to compete to see who could control space, because the belief was, if a country controlled
space, it could use it to place nuclear weapons there. To help America catch up with the Soviets,
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Eisenhower started a government agency which would employ scientists devoted to space technology.
This agency, still working today, is called NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
The U-2 Incident
As the 1950s moved on, Eisenhower and Khrushchev grew closer, and relations between the two
countries seemed to be improving. As a sign of this growing trust, Eisenhower proposed "open skies"
between the two nations. This would allow both militaries to legally use spy planes to fly over the other
to monitor military developments. Khrushchev would not agree to the plan. But secretly, the U.S. went
ahead with the plan and used spy planes to gather information over the Soviet Union for years. In
1960, the Soviet military shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory. The U-2 incident
damaged relations between the countries, as Eisenhower had stated to Khrushchev that the U.S. was
not spying on its rival prior to the downing of the plane. Any progress toward peace between the
nations had been undone.
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Section 6: The Cold War in the 1960s
NOTE: This section refers to President John Kennedy. In this section we will only discuss the Cold
War events he dealt with during his presidency. We will discuss his election, domestic policies, and
assassination in later sections.
Kennedy's View
Although President John F. Kennedy would have liked to dedicate most of his time as president and
most of America's resources to improving conditions at home, he found himself on the front lines of the
Cold War. It was a dangerous and expensive battle, but, as Kennedy argued, it was one worth fighting.
As President at the height of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Kennedy
spoke boldly. In the three crises he faced as President, though, Kennedy found that he had to act more
cautiously to prevent a local conflict from sparking a global war.
Castro Takes Over
Kennedy's first foreign crisis arose in Cuba, an island nation just 90 miles off the Florida coast. The
United States had been concerned about Cuba since 1959, when communist Fidel Castro overthrew
the Cuban government, which had been loyal to the U.S. Some Cubans had supported Castro because
he promised to improve the lives of poor people. Castro claimed that the poor were being exploited by
wealthy Cubans and by U.S. companies operating in Cuba. Once in power, Castro's government took
over large, privately owned farms and factories owned by foreign companies, including some U.S.
businesses. The United States broke peaceful relations with Cuba and refused to accept Castro as the
country's legitimate leader. When Castro developed ties to the Soviet Union and its leader Nikita
Khrushchev, American officials began to fear that Cuba could become a threat to the safety of the U.S.
The Bay of Pigs Invasion: A Plan to Overthrow Castro
After Kennedy became President, he was informed about a plan that President Eisenhower had
approved in 1960. Under this plan, the CIA was secretly training a group of anti-Castro Cubans to
invade Cuba and overthrow the new leader. The training took place in Guatemala, a nearby Central
American country. Kennedy and his advisors expected the Cuban people to help the invaders defeat
Castro once they landed, so he accepted the advice of the CIA and agreed to push ahead with the
plan, called The Bay of Pigs Invasion, based on where it would occur.
A Military Catastrophe
The Bay of Pigs invasion took place in April 1961. It was a total disaster. Cuban troops, who knew of
the attack through spies, were more than a match for the 1,500 U.S.-backed invaders. When Kennedy's
advisors urged him to use American planes to provide air cover for the attackers, he refused. Rather
than continue a hopeless effort, he chose simply to accept defeat. The United States lost a great deal
of prestige in the disastrous attack. To begin with, the invasion was clumsy and incompetent.
Furthermore, America's support of an effort to overthrow another nation's government was exposed to
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the world. Foreign leaders, who had high hopes for the new President, were concerned about the kind
of leadership he would provide.
The Berlin Crisis
Upset by the failure at the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy was now even more determined to prove his
toughness against communism. Later in 1961, he had another opportunity when a new crisis arose
over a familiar issue: Berlin. After the Soviet attempt to cut off access to Berlin in 1948 had failed as a
result of President Truman's successful Berlin airlift, they were eager to find a new way to stop East
Germans from defecting, (illegally moving for political reasons) to West Berlin. Kennedy feared that the
Soviet effort in Germany was part of a larger plan to take over the rest of Europe. Adding to his fears,
his first meeting with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, went poorly. When Khrushchev made public
demands regarding Berlin, Kennedy felt bullied by the Soviet leader.
Upon returning home, Kennedy decided to show the Soviets that the United States would not be
intimidated. He asked Congress for a huge increase of more than $3 billion for defense. At the same
time, he sought more than $200 million for a program to build bomb shelters across the country. He
argued that the United States had to be prepared if the crisis led to nuclear war. The United States, he
said, would not be pushed around: "We do not want to fight-but we have fought before."
The Soviets responded by building a wall to separate communist and non-communist Berlin. The
Berlin Wall became a dark symbol of the Cold War and a physical representation of the Iron Curtain.
Speaking in West Germany after the wall went up, Kennedy declared that, "The United States will risk
its cities to defend yours, because we need your freedom to protect ours." Two days later, the
President addressed a cheering crowd near the Berlin Wall. To symbolize his commitment to the city,
he concluded his speech with the rousing words, "Ich bin ein Berliner" or "I am a Berliner." Despite his
strong words, Kennedy was not willing to use the American military to attack the wall, fearing that this
would lead to nuclear war.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
The following year, Kennedy also had a chance to restore American prestige in another crisis with
Cuba. The Soviet Union, disturbed by the attempted Bay of Pigs invasion, had pledged to support
Castro's government. In October 1962, photographs taken from an American spy plane revealed that
the Soviets were building nuclear missile bases on Cuban soil-dangerously close to America. What
followed was the Cuban Missile Crisis, a terrifying two-week standoff between the United States and
the Soviet Union that brought the superpowers to the brink of nuclear war.
Kennedy's Options
Installing missiles so close to the United States seemed to be an effort by the Soviets to intimidate the
Americans. In addition, the Soviets intended their missiles in Cuba to counter American missiles close
to the Soviet Union in nearby Turkey. Kennedy was convinced that the missiles presented a direct
challenge to which he must respond. But how? The President quickly assembled his top advisors in a
series of secret meetings. They outlined four possible responses:
1. Engage in further negotiations with Khrushchev. This option, although peaceful, risked making
Kennedy look hesitant and weak in the face of the bold Soviet move.
2. Invade Cuba. This would give the US a strong chance of eliminating the missile threat and achieving
the additional goal of ousting Fidel Castro. A Cuban invasion had failed before, though, and this plan
risked all-out nuclear war with the Soviets.
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3. Blockade Cuba. This action would prevent Soviet ships from making further missile deliveries. It
would force Khrushchev either to back off or to take aggressive action against U.S. warships. However,
no one knew how the Soviet leader might react to this step, and it did not remove the missiles already
in Cuba.
4. Bomb the missile sites. A series of airstrikes could quickly knock out the missiles. Yet, would the
Soviets launch a counterstrike, and where?
Attorney General Robert Kennedy, the President's younger brother, argued against the airstrike
option. It seemed, he said, too much like the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. At one point former
Secretary of State Dean Acheson joined the discussions and declared that the United States had to
knock out the Soviet missiles. He was asked what would happen next. He replied that the Soviets
would probably strike US bases in Turkey leading to a broader war. Secretary of Defense Robert
McNamara argued for a blockade to hold the Soviets at bay until negotiation can be reached. Army
officials were in favor of an invasion of Cuba. In the end, one man would decide the course of action to
take, and the stakes could not have been higher. An error in Kennedy's judgment could lead to millions
of deaths and the destruction of the entire United States.
Kennedy Decides
President Kennedy ordered United States forces on full alert. U.S. bombers were armed with nuclear
missiles. The navy was ready to move, and army and marine units prepared to invade Cuba from
Florida. Kennedy listened to the different views of his advisors, grilling them with questions. Then,
privately, he weighed the options, facing one of the most dangerous and agonizing decisions any
President has had to make. Kennedy went on television and radio to respond to the media rumors that
had begun to circulate about Cuba. "Unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of
offensive missile sites is now on that imprisoned island," he said. The President then announced his
decision: He had authorized a naval "quarantine" around Cuba. He had chosen the blockade option,
but was careful not to call the action a "blockade" because a blockade is an act of war. America did not
desire confrontation, Kennedy said, but it would not back down from it either.
The World Waits
The two most powerful nations in the world stood teetering on the brink of disaster. The immediate
public reaction was a mixture of anger and fear. The naval quarantine went into effect, with a dozen
Soviet cargo ships containing more ICBMs steaming toward it. Then, to everyone's great relief, the
Soviet ships suddenly reversed direction. Khrushchev had called them back. The blockade had
worked.
Disaster Avoided
The crisis was not yet over, however. The original missiles remained in Cuba, and Khrushchev sent
Kennedy a long letter in which he pledged to remove the missiles only if Kennedy promised that the
United States would end the quarantine and stay out of Cuba. A second letter delivered the next day
demanded that the United States remove its missiles from Turkey in exchange for the withdrawal of
Soviet missiles in Cuba. Kennedy accepted the terms. With that, the crisis ended, and the world again
began to breathe. As Secretary of State Dean Rusk observed to President Kennedy, "We have won a
considerable victory. You and I are still alive." The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer than
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ever before to nuclear war. Kennedy emerged from the confrontation as a hero. He had stood up to the
Soviets and shown that the United States would not be pushed around.
The Aftereffects
The Cuban Missile Crisis led to a number of efforts to reduce the risk of nuclear war. Once the
confrontation was over, Kennedy and Khrushchev established a "hot line" between their two nations to
allow the Soviet and American leaders to communicate quickly in the event of a future crisis. In
addition, the next summer, the two countries signed the first nuclear treaty since the development of the
atomic bomb. This agreement, the Limited Test Ban Treaty, banned nuclear testing above the ground.
The treaty still permitted underground nuclear testing, and the United States and the Soviet Union
continued to build bigger and bigger bombs. Nonetheless, as Kennedy noted, the treaty marked "an
important first step toward peace, a step toward reason, a step away from war."
America's relationship with Cuba, however, remained strained. Kennedy and Congress placed a full
trade, travel, and immigration embargo against the nation. Castro remained in power for more than five
decades, and pushed communism on his people, even long after it fell in the Soviet Union. As a result,
one of America's closest neighbors was still shut off from the free world and remained one of the
poorest nations in the world well into the 21st century.
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Unit 3:
The Civil Rights Movement
Section 1:
The Start of the Civil Rights Movement
Section 2:
Martin Luther King and Nonviolent Protests p.50
Section 3:
Birmingham and Other Major Victories
p.52
Section 4:
The Government Responds
p.55
Section 5:
The Movement Splits
p.58
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p.47
Section 1: The Start of the Civil Rights Movement
Background
Before and during World War II, African Americans were not treated as equals by a large portion of
American society. Although slaves had been freed during the Civil War in the 1860s, most areas of
American society were still closed to black Americans by the 1940s. After World War II, however, the
campaign for racial equality began to pick up speed. Millions of people believed that the time had come
to demand that the nation live up to its creed that all are equal. This campaign for equality became
known as the Civil Rights Movement. Civil Rights are basic human rights given by a government to its
citizens. Before the movement, most blacks in America did not have access to Civil Rights.
The Great Migration
The Civil Rights Movement made its most significant gains during the 1950s and 1960s, but small
progress was made long before this. The drive for equality began as soon as the Civil War ended in
1865. After the Civil War, many freed black slaves moved from plantations in the south to large
northern cities. This was known as the "Great Migration." Between 1910 and 1940, the black
population of New York City leaped from 60,000 to 450,000. Other northern cities experienced a similar
growth in black population. Out of these expanding black communities emerged a small but growing
number of prominent citizens, including doctors and lawyers, who gained political influence.
World War II
World War II played a key role in starting the Civil Rights Movement for two reasons. First, the end of
the war revealed the horrors of the Holocaust, and opened many people's eyes to the discrimination
taking place in the United States. Many wondered, "How can we fight racism in Germany when we
allow racism in our own country?" This realization did not spread to everyone, nor did it have a sudden
impact. Rather, these new ideas crept into the mind of the country slowly. Secondly, hundreds of
thousands of African-Americans served in the U.S. military. This bravery in fighting for a nation that
was denying them equal rights caused many whites to change their minds about the need to treat black
citizens equally.
Jackie Robinson
Although World War II may have jump-started the Civil Rights Movement, one single man made a
massive impact in the young movement just two years after the war ended. In the 1940s, baseball was
not only America's most popular sport, it was known as "America's pastime," because almost everyone
in the country enjoyed playing, watching, or talking about baseball. But, by 1947, every player on every
major league baseball team was white. Each team owner agreed to not hire minority players.
However, Branch Rickey, the general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, believed this was wrong. He
wanted the best players for the Dodgers, not just the best white players. He called a young black
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player named Jackie Robinson into his office. Rickey told Robinson of his plan to challenge the rule in
Major League Baseball that required black baseball players to play in a separate Negro League. Rickey
wanted Robinson, a promising athlete in college and a World War II veteran, to be the first player to
break the "color barrier". Rickey explained to Robinson that many people would not want him to
succeed, including fans, umpires, and other players. But Ricky also told Robinson he had to be tough
enough to not fight back when he faced discrimination.
In 1947, Robinson joined the Brooklyn Dodgers. Despite many instances of prejudice and
discrimination, Robinson behaved with dignity and bravery and had an amazing first season. He was
named Rookie of the Year in 1947, and led the Dodgers to a World Series appearance. In 1949, he
was voted the league's most valuable player. Just as important, Robinson fostered pride in African
Americans around the country and paved the way for others to follow him into previously all-white
professional sports and other areas of America life. With the success of Jackie Robinson in Major
League Baseball, the Civil Rights Movement was underway.
The NAACP
Amidst these cultural changes, the NAACP (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People) worked hard in the courts to challenge discrimination laws throughout the country. (While
"colored" was an acceptable term for black Americans at the time of the founding of the NAACP, it no
longer is. The organization has chosen to keep its original name, however.) The NAACP was a group
of both white and black Americans who raised money and hired lawyers to fight segregation.
Segregation is the practice of a society using separate facilities for different groups of people. From the
Civil War until the Civil Rights Movement, almost city in the U.S., especially the south, was segregated.
Cities had separate schools, bathrooms, pools, hotels, busses and everything else for each of the
races. The NAACP was trying to get courts to rule segregation illegal, thereby forcing integration, or
the bringing together of races.
Separate but Equal
For decades the NAACP had tried to get the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision
overturned. That decision said that segregation of the races in public facilities was legal and
constitutional as long as the facilities were "separate but equal." In other words, cities could legally
segregate the races as long as they provided equal facilities for both races. In practice, equal facilities
were rarely - if ever - the case. Leading the NAACP's legal charge for integration was Thurgood
Marshall. Known as "Mr. Civil Rights," Marshall fought many battles over segregation in the courts and
achieved great gains. Little by little, Marshall and his fellow NAACP lawyers managed to chip away at
the "separate but equal" clause of Plessy v. Ferguson. Finally, they took on the greatest and most
important fight yet.
Brown v. Board of Education
In 1951, Oliver Brown sued the Topeka, Kansas Board of Education to allow his 8-year-old daughter
Linda to attend a nearby school for whites only. Every day, Linda walked past the school on her way to
the bus that took her to a distant school for African Americans. After appeals, the case reached the
Supreme Court. There, Thurgood Marshall became the first black lawyer to appear in front of the
Supreme court when argued on behalf of Brown and against segregation in America's schools. In 1954,
in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court issued its historic ruling.
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"Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprive the children of the
minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does... We conclude that in the
field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities
are inherently unequal."
Reaction to Brown v. Board of Education
The public's reaction to the Supreme Court's ruling was mixed. African Americans rejoiced. Many white
Americans, even if they did not agree, accepted the decision and hoped that desegregation could take
place peacefully. President Eisenhower, who disagreed with the Brown ruling, said only that "the
Supreme Court has spoken and I am sworn to uphold the constitutional processes in this country, and I
am trying. I will obey."
Not everyone, however, was willing to obey. The ruling in Brown v. Board of Education caused many
southern whites, especially in the deep South, to react with fear and angry resistance. In Georgia, the
Governor made it clear that his state would "not tolerate the mixing of the races in the public schools or
any other institution." The Ku Klux Klan also became more active, threatening those who tried to help
integrate schools.
Some members of Congress from states in the South joined together to protest the Supreme Court's
order to desegregate public schools. More than 90 members of Congress expressed their opposition to
the Court's ruling in what was known as the "Southern Manifesto." The congressmen stated that the
Supreme Court had overstepped its bounds and had "no legal basis for such action." The decision, they
claimed, violated states' rights, and the politicians proclaimed that their states would not obey the ruling
to integrate.
Resistance in Little Rock
One state that offered resistance to the ruling was Arkansas. The governor of the state announced
Arkansas would not integrate its schools. When the high school in Little Rock, the capital city, tried to
allow black students on the first day of school, the Governor called out Arkansas National Guard troops
and instructed them to turn away the African American students who were supposed to attend the
school that year. Outside the school, mobs of angry white protesters gathered to prevent the entry of
the black students. One of those students, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford, remembered that day:
"The soldiers glared at me with a mean look and I was very frightened and didn't know what to do. I
turned around and the crowd came toward me. They moved closer and closer. Somebody started
yelling 'Lynch her! Lynch her!' I tried to see a friendly face somewhere in the mob-someone who maybe
would help. I looked into the face of an old woman and it seemed a kind face; but when I looked at her
again, she spat on me."
-Elizabeth Eckford
Although President Eisenhower was not an ally of the civil rights movement, the Arkansas governor's
actions were a direct challenge to Eisenhower's authority as President. Eisenhower acted by ordering
the National Guard to stand down. He then sent U.S. Army soldiers to Arkansas to protect the black
students. In a speech to the nation a week later, Eisenhower told the nation that his actions were
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necessary to defend the authority of the Supreme Court. This was a clear message to the south from
the federal government: integration is happening.
Section 2: Martin Luther King and Nonviolent Protests
Rosa Parks
In 1955, the nation's attention shifted from the courts to the streets of Montgomery, the capital city of
Alabama. In December, Rosa Parks, a seamstress who had been the secretary of the Montgomery
NAACP for 12 years, took a seat at the front of the "colored" section of a bus. The front of the bus was
reserved for white passengers. African Americans, however, were expected to give up their seats for
white passengers if no seats were available in the "whites only" section. When a white man got on at
the next stop and had no seat, the bus driver ordered Parks to give up hers. She refused. Even when
threatened with arrest, she held her ground. At the next stop, police seized her and ordered her to
stand trial for violating the segregation laws.
Technically, Montgomery's bus segregation laws were legal, because of the Plessy v. Ferguson
decision that said "separate but equal" facilities were legal. But African-Americans had had enough.
They were tired of settling for second-class and inferior accommodations. Civil rights leaders in
Montgomery decided to challenge the law with a boycott (refusing to buy a product until a company
changes a policy.) They used Rosa Parks' arrest as an opportunity to convince black bus riders to
refuse to pay their ten-cent bus fare until the city changed the law. An unkown, 26-year-old minister
became the leader and spokesperson of the boycott. His name was Martin Luther, King, Jr.
"There comes a time when people get tired...tired of being segregated and humiliated, tired of being
kicked about by the brutal feet of oppression. We have no alternative but to protest."
-Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
The morning of the first day of the boycott, King roamed the streets of Montgomery. He was anxious to
see how many African Americans would participate, and recorded his observations:
"The sidewalks were crowded with workers, many of them well past middle age, trudging patiently to
their jobs and home again, sometimes as much as twelve miles. They knew why they walked, and the
knowledge was evident in the way they carried themselves. And as I watched them I knew that there is
nothing more majestic than the determined courage of individuals willing to suffer and sacrifice for their
freedom and dignity."
-Martin Luther King, Jr.
Over the next year, 50,000 African Americans in Montgomery walked, rode bicycles, or joined car pools
to avoid the city buses. The city lost hundreds of thousands of dollars. Finally, in 1956, the Supreme
Court ruled that bus segregation, like school segregation, was unconstitutional. The Montgomery bus
gave minority groups hope that steps toward equality could be made through peaceful protest. In
addition, it made Martin Luther King, Jr. a national hero. Requests from all over the country poured into
King's office as people wanted him to come to their towns to help end segregation there. He went on to
play a key role in almost every major civil rights event. His work earned him the Nobel peace prize in
1964.
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King's Philosophy of Nonviolence
As rising new leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr., preached a philosophy of nonviolence,
integration slowly spread across the south. But growing opposition to the gains made by African
Americans resulted in increasing violence and hostility toward nonviolent protestors. King and the other
leaders asked anyone involved in the fight for civil rights not to retaliate with violence out of fear or hate.
King became not only a leader in the African American civil rights movement but also a symbol of
nonviolent protest for the entire world. As he became more and more involved in the civil rights
movement, King was influenced by the beliefs of Mohandas Gandhi. Gandhi had been a leader in
India's long struggle to gain independence from Great Britain, an effort that finally succeeded in 1947.
Gandhi preached a philosophy of nonviolence as the only way to achieve victory against much stronger
foes. Those who fight for justice must peacefully refuse to obey unjust laws, Gandhi taught. They must
remain nonviolent, regardless of the violent reactions such peaceful resistance might provoke-a tactic
that requires tremendous discipline and courage.
SCLC and SNCC
After the Montgomery boycott, as King tried to recruit and train volunteers to help in his attempt to
conquer segregation, two major groups formed. King and other African American ministers began the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). SCLC led nonviolent protests wherever they
were needed. Southern African American church leaders moved into the forefront of the struggle for
equal rights. But they were not alone. A much larger group also joined the struggle. SNCC,
(pronounced "snick"), or the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was made up of high
school and college students who were committed to defeating segregation through nonviolent protest.
SNCC caused the focus of the civil rights movement to shift away from church leaders alone and gave
young people a chance to make decisions about priorities and tactics.
The Movement Grows
Throughout the rest of the 1950s and into the 1960s, hundreds of members of SCLC, and thousands of
members of SNCC, along with NAACP members, used non-violence to protest segregation. It wasn't
easy. Often the protestors were threatened, beaten up, arrested, and in rare cases, killed. Some
protestors challenged segregation laws in court, while others used boycotts, marches, and sit-ins to
challenge segregation in areas of everyday life. During a sit-in, a group of volunteers simply sat down
at a segregated facility, like a lunch counter or other public place. If they were refused service at first,
they simply stayed where they were. It often worked because it forced business owners to decide
between serving the protesters or risking a disruption and loss of business. In some places, sit-ins
brought strong reactions. Soon, thousands of students were involved in the sit-in campaign, which
gained the support of SCLC. Martin Luther King, Jr. told students that arrest was a "badge of honor." By
the end of 1960, some 70,000 students had participated in sit-ins, and 3,600 had served time in jail for
doing so. These protests began a process of change that could not be stopped.
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Section 3: Birmingham and Other Major Victories
The Freedom Rides
In Boynton v. Virginia (1960), the Supreme Court expanded its earlier ban on segregation to include
interstate buses. Any bus travelling from one state to another had to be integrated, as did any bus
station that serviced those busses. Bus stations used to include restaurants, hotels, and waiting rooms.
However, just like the Supreme Court's ruling on school segregation, not all places in the south obeyed.
To force these bus stations to go along with the new rule, SNCC organized and carried out the
Freedom Rides in 1961. Freedom Riders, mostly high school and college students on summer break,
boarded busses in Washington D.C. and planned on travelling through the entire south before making it
to New Orleans, Louisiana. They would stop at bus stations along the way, testing to see if they were
obeying the Court's ruling.
Violence Greets the Riders
Both black and white volunteers boarded the buses heading south, knowing they were helping fight
racism, but also nervous about what they might encounter. At first the group encountered only minor
conflicts. But as the busses headed into the deep south, the trip turned dangerous. In Anniston,
Alabama, a heavily armed white mob met a bus at the station. The bus attempted to leave. James
Farmer, a director of the Rides, described what happened next:
"Before the bus pulled out, however, members of the mob took their sharp instruments and slashed
tires. The bus got to the outskirts of Anniston and the tires blew out and the bus ground to a halt.
Members of the mob had boarded cars and followed the bus, and now with the disabled bus standing
there, the members of the mob surrounded it, held the door closed, and a member of the mob threw a
firebomb into the bus, breaking a window to do so. Incidentally, there were some local policemen
mingling with the mob, fraternizing with them while this was going on." -James Farmer
Most riders escaped before the bus burst into flames, but were then beaten by the mob as they
stumbled out of the vehicle, choking on the smoke. The local hospital refused to treat their injuries.
They had anticipated trouble, since they meant to provoke a confrontation. But this level of violence
took them by surprise. As a result of the savage response, Farmer considered calling off the project.
SNCC leaders, though, begged to go on. Farmer warned, "You know that may be suicide." Student
Diane Nash replied, "If we let them stop us with violence, the movement is dead!" The rides continued.
Reactions to the Violence
Photographs of the smoldering bus in Anniston horrified the country. But the resistance in the south
continued. The violence intensified in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama, when the KKK attacked
riders. Upon their arrival in Jackson, Mississippi, the riders met no mobs but were arrested immediately.
New volunteers arrived to replace them and were also arrested. This first Freedom Ride died out in
Jackson, but about 300 Freedom Riders continued the protest throughout that summer.
President Kennedy and his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, were reluctant to lend federal
support to the protest. John was afraid showing too much support to the protestors would hurt his
popularity among whites in the south. Following the bombing, Robert suggested a "cooling off period"
for the riders. Farmer replied, "We've been cooling off for 350 years, and if we cooled off any more, we'd
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be in a deep freeze." When violence escalated, the Kennedy's reluctantly took action. Robert Kennedy
pressured the Interstate Commerce Commission to issue a ruling that prohibited segregation in all
interstate transportation-trains, planes, and buses. The Justice Department sued local communities that
did not comply. The violence that was meant to hurt the protest ended up being the thing that helped it.
Because of how extreme the violence was, the President intervened on behalf of the protestors, and
everyday people who saw it on television felt sympathy for the movement, giving it even more
momentum.
Integration at The University of Mississippi
While Brown v. Board of Education ensured integration in elementary and high schools, many southern
colleges stayed segregated and admitted only white students. In 1961, James Meredith, an African
American Air Force veteran, fought a personal battle for equal rights. Meredith was a student at
Jackson State College, but he wanted to transfer to the University of Mississippi, also known as "Ole
Miss." Ole Miss had been all-white since it opened 114 years earlier. After being rejected because of
his race, Meredith got legal help from the NAACP. It filed a lawsuit on Meredith's behalf. In the summer
of 1962, the Supreme Court ruled in his favor, saying race cannot be the reason someone does not get
into a college.
Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett, however, declared that Meredith still could not attend the school,
regardless of what the Court said. Barnett personally physically blocked the way to the admissions
office when Meredith tried to enroll. Barnett's defiance of the Supreme Court decision forced a
reluctant President Kennedy to act. Kennedy sent federal marshals to accompany Meredith to the
campus. Crowds of angry white protesters, who had gathered around campus, destroyed their vehicles.
As a violent riot erupted on campus, tear gas covered the grounds. Two bystanders were killed and
hundreds of people hurt. Finally, President Kennedy sent army troops to restore order, but federal
marshals continued to escort Meredith to class throughout the year.
The following year, two black students were admitted to the previously all-white University of Alabama.
Again, the governor of that state, George Wallace, blocked the door to the admissions building as the
students tried to register. And again, President Kennedy intervened by sending U.S. troops to escort
the students. The governor stood down and the college was integrated. As the movement wore on,
President Kennedy proved that he was willing to help fight segregation. This helped the movement, but
did not please many whites in the south.
Plans for Birmingham
Elsewhere, civil rights leaders continued to look for chances to protest segregation nonviolently.
Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, a movement leader from Birmingham, Alabama, invited Martin Luther
King, Jr., and the SCLC to visit the city in April 1963. Birmingham's population was 40 percent African
American, but King called it "the most segregated city in America." Victory there could be a model for
the rest of the south. King and Shuttlesworth planned boycotts of downtown stores and attempts to
integrate local churches. Business leaders, fearing disruptions and lost sales, tried to negotiate with
Shuttlesworth to call off the plan, without success. When reporters wanted to know how long King
planned to stay, he drew on a biblical story and told them he would remain until "Pharaoh lets God's
people go." Birmingham police chief Eugene "Bull" Connor, a determined segregationist, replied, "I
got plenty of room in the jail."
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Birmingham Violence
The campaign began nonviolently with protest marches and sit-ins. City officials declared that the
marches violated a regulation prohibiting parades without a permit. Connor then arrested King and
other demonstrators. The protests continued without him. When a group of white ministers criticized
the campaign as "not well-timed", King responded from his cell. In his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," he
defended his tactics and his timing:
"Frankly, I have yet to engage in a campaign that was 'well-timed' in the view of those who have not
suffered from the disease of segregation. For years now I have heard the word 'Wait!' It rings in the ear
of every Negro with piercing familiarity. This 'Wait!' has almost always meant 'Never’."
-"Letter from Birmingham Jail," Martin Luther King, Jr., 1963
After more than a week, King was released. Soon after, he made a difficult decision: to let young
people join the campaign. Though dangerous, it would test the conscience of the Birmingham
authorities and the nation. As the children marched, "Bull" Connor arrested more than 900 of the young
people. When the jail was full, police used high-pressure fire hoses, which could tear the bark from
trees, on the demonstrators. They also brought out trained police dogs that attacked marchers' arms
and legs. When protesters fell to the ground, police beat them with clubs
.
The Nation Watches and Reacts
Television cameras brought the scenes of violence to people across the country. Even those
unsympathetic to the civil rights movement were appalled. The angry public put pressure on the
government to act. In the end, the protesters won. A compromise arranged by Kennedy's
administration led to desegregation of city facilities and fairer hiring practices. An interracial committee
was set up to aid communication. The success of the Birmingham marches was just one example that
proved how effective nonviolent protest could be. Most importantly, after the Birmingham protest,
President Kennedy appeared on television to make a major announcement. He would soon send to
Congress a proposed law that, if passed, would end segregation in all areas of American life.
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Section 4: The Government Responds
Kennedy on Civil Rights
As president, Kennedy believed in equal rights, but not publically do much to support the movement
during his first two years in office. He did not want to anger southern senators whose votes he needed
on other issues. But as the civil rights movement gained momentum and violence began to spread,
Kennedy could no longer avoid the issue. He was deeply disturbed by the scenes of violence in the
south that flooded the media. The violence surrounding the Freedom Rides in 1961 embarrassed the
President when he met with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Observers around the world watched the
brutality in Birmingham early in 1963. Aware that he had to respond, Kennedy spoke to the American
people on television:
"We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it, and we cherish our freedom here at home, but
are we to say to the world, and much more importantly, to each other that this is the land of the free
except for the Negroes? The time has come for this nation to fulfill its promise."
-President John F. Kennedy, television address, June 1963
Kennedy announced he would propose a strong civil rights bill to Congress. The bill would prohibit
segregation in all public places, and ban discrimination wherever federal funding was involved. Hours
after Kennedy's broadcast, civil rights leader Medgar Evers was gunned down outside his home. Evers
worked for the NAACP in Mississippi. Police charged a white supremacist, Byron de la Beckwith, with
the murder. After two hung juries failed to convict him, Beckwith was set free in 1964. (Beckwith was
convicted of murder in 1994 after the case was reopened.) Evers' murder was a reminder that passing
this law was not going to be easy, because many in the south still strongly opposed equal rights.
The March on Washington
Kennedy's bill was stalled in Congress. Segregationists from the south refused to vote for it. To focus
national attention on Kennedy's bill, civil rights leaders proposed a march on Washington, D.C. The
March on Washington took place in August 1963. Almost 250,000 people came from all over the
country to show support for the bill. Participants included religious leaders and celebrities such as writer
James Baldwin, entertainer Sammy Davis, Jr., and baseball player Jackie Robinson. The march was
peaceful and orderly. After many songs and speeches, Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered what was to
become his best-known address. With power and eloquence, he spoke to all Americans:
"I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed, 'We hold
these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.’' I have a dream that one day on the red
hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down
together at the table of brotherhood...I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a
nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character..."
"I Have a Dream" speech, Martin Luther King, Jr., August 28, 1963
King's words echoed around the country. President Kennedy, like millions of other Americans, watched
the march and King's speech on television. But still the civil rights bill remained stalled in Congress.
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President Kennedy is Assassinated, Lyndon Johnson Takes Over
Three months after the March on Washington, President Kennedy was assassinated, and his civil rights
bill was not much closer to being passed. Kennedy's Vice President, Lyndon Johnson, a former
member of Congress from Texas, took over the Presidency. President Kennedy had become a strong
supporter of the Movement during the past year, and Johnson was from the south, so integrationists at
first were skeptical of how much Johnson would help. But upon becoming President, he was eager to
use his political skills to build support for Kennedy's bill. In his first public address, he told Congress
and the country that "nothing could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the
earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill."
Johnson promised African American leaders that he would push for the measure "with every energy
[he] possessed," and he made good on that commitment. Johnson let Congress know that he would
accept no compromise on civil rights. After the House of Representatives passed the bill, civil rights
opponents in the Senate started a lengthy filibuster, using their right of unlimited debate to delay
voting on the bill. (A filibuster is a tactic in which senators prevent a vote on a measure by refusing to
stop talking. This usually causes the other side to give in.) But Johnson was able to use his political
power, influence, and connections to end the filibuster after several weeks. In June 1964, the bill
passed with support from both Democrats and Republicans, and President Johnson signed the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 into law.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Act had an impact on many areas, including voting, schools, and jobs. It gives the federal
government the authority to act on claims of segregation from minorities. If a city or state is
discriminating against a race, the federal government can without funds from that area. The law's major
sections (called titles) included these provisions:
-Title II prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, such as motels, restaurants, gas stations,
theaters, and sports arenas.
-Title VI allowed the withholding of federal funds from public or private programs that practice
discrimination.
-Title VII banned discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, or national origin by employers, and
also created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to investigate claims of job
discrimination.
Fighting for the (Actual) Vote
African Americans were granted the right to vote by the 15th Amendment after the Civil War in 1870.
But segregationists believed keeping blacks from voting was the most important thing they could do to
protect their way of life, so they found ways around the wording of the 15th Amendment. Southern
states used poll taxes and literacy tests to block blacks from voting, claiming it had nothing to do with
race. Even with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, change came slowly, because racists in the
South would use other means of intimidation to prevent African Americans from registering to vote.
Once the Civil Rights Act was passed, civil rights workers began to focus on getting voting rights for
those in the south.
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Freedom Summer
In 1964, leaders of the major civil rights groups organized a voter registration drive in Mississippi. About
a thousand black and white volunteers, mostly college students, joined in what came to be called
Freedom Summer. Many white Mississippians were already angry about the new Civil Rights Act
before the volunteers arrived. The Ku Klux Klan held rallies to intimidate the volunteers. Soon, three
young civil rights workers, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner, were
reported missing. Later in the summer, FBI agents found their bodies buried in a mud dam a few miles
from where their burned-out car had been found. These three murders were only part of the violence
reported that summer. Civil rights leaders also reported about 80 mob attacks. Volunteers were beaten
up and a few wounded by gunfire. Several hundred were arrested. African American churches and
homes were burned and firebombed.
The Selma March
Even after Freedom Summer, many black southerners still had trouble obtaining their voting rights. In
Selma, Alabama, police and sheriff's deputies arrested people just for standing in line to register to
vote. To call attention to the voting rights issue, King and other leaders decided to organize a protest
march. They would walk from Selma to the state capital, Montgomery, about 50 miles away. As the
marchers set out on a Sunday morning in March 1965, armed state troopers on horseback charged into
the crowd with whips, clubs, and tear gas. Video of the attack again shocked many television viewers.
In response, President Johnson sent members of the National Guard, along with federal marshals and
army helicopters, to protect the march route. When the Selma marchers started out again, supporters
from all over the country flocked to join them. By the time the march reached Montgomery, its ranks
had swelled to about 25,000 people.
Voting Rights Protected
Reacting to Selma and the violence during Freedom Summer, President Johnson went on national
television, promising a strong new law to protect voting rights. That summer, despite another filibuster,
Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Act eliminated literacy tests, and also allowed
federal officials to enter counties and help minorities register if there were complaints of intimidation.
Another legal landmark was the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1964. This
amendment outlawed the poll tax, which was still being used in several southern states to keep poor
African Americans from voting. In the two years after the new laws passed, more than 600,000 African
Americans registered to vote in Mississippi and Alabama alone. These voters elected politicians who
were sympathetic to the cause of equal rights, and in some cases, black politicians.
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Section 5: The Movement Splits
Growing Impatience
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and The Voting Rights Act of 1965 were major victories for the nonviolent
movement, and had helped to start a new era in America. But for some African Americans, new laws
were not nearly enough. While the laws eliminated de jure segregation, or segregation by law, they did
little to remove de facto segregation, or segregation by custom. Impatient with the slow pace of
progress, these people were ready to listen to more militant leaders.
Malcolm X
The most well known of these leaders was Malcolm X. His father died when Malcolm was a child.
Growing up in ghettos in Detroit, Boston, and New York, he turned to crime. At age 20, he was arrested
for burglary and served seven years in prison. While in jail he joined the Nation of Islam, a group often
called the Black Muslims. Viewing white society as evil, the NOI preached black separation, and
opposed the integration that King and his followers were working to accomplish. The NOI believed
blacks and whites could never peacefully coexist, so each should have its own separate societies.
Black Nationalism
According to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, one of the keys to self-knowledge
was knowing one's enemy. For him, the enemy of the Nation of Islam was white society. Members of
the Nation of Islam did not seek change through political means or non-violent protest, they instead
pushed for a separate “Black Nation.” In the meantime, they tried to lead righteous lives and become
economically self-sufficient. After he was released from prison, Malcolm Little changed his name to
Malcolm X. (The name Little, he said, had come from slave owners.) He spent the next 12 years as a
minister of the Nation of Islam, spreading the ideas of black nationalism, a belief in the separate
identity and racial unity of the African American community. His fiery speeches won him many
followers, including a large number of young people who were growing impatient with King's message.
Opposition to Integration
As a member of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X disagreed with both the tactics and the goals of the
early civil rights movement. He called the March on Washington the "Farce on Washington," and voiced
his irritation at "all of this non-violent, begging-the-white-man kind of dying . . . all of this sitting-in,
sliding-in, wading-fn, eating-in, diving-in, and all the rest." Instead of preaching love, he rejected ideas
of integration. Asking why anyone would want to join white society, he noted:
"No sane black man really wants integration! No sane white man really wants integration! The
American black man should be focusing his effort toward building his own businesses, and decent
homes for himself. That's the only way the American black man is ever going to get respect."
-Malcolm X
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In 1964, after a disagreement with Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam. He then made
a pilgrimage, or religious journey, to Mecca, the holy city of Islam, in Saudi Arabia. Seeing millions of
people of all races worshipping and working together peacefully had a profound effect on Malcolm X. It
changed his views about separatism and hatred of white people. When he returned to the U.S., he was
ready to work with other civil rights leaders and even with white Americans. His change of heart,
however, had earned him some enemies. Malcolm X had only nine months to spread his new beliefs. In
February 1965, he was shot to death at a rally in New York. Three members of the Nation of Islam were
charged with the murder. Malcolm X's message lived on, however. He particularly influenced younger
members of SNCC, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.
SNCC Shifts Gears
One SNCC leader who heard Malcolm's message was Stokely Carmichael. At Howard University in
Washington, D.C., he and other students became actively involved in SNCC. Carmichael participated
in sit-ins, the Freedom Rides, and marches with Dr. King. For this, he had been jailed over twenty
times. While King told him to be proud of his arrests, he did not believe the sacrifice he was making
was paying off enough. He grew more attracted to Malcolm X’s message of demanding equal rights.
As Carmichael rose to SNCC leadership, the group became more radical. He called on SNCC workers
to carry guns for self-defense. In 1966, at a protest march in Greenwood, Mississippi, while King's
followers were singing "We Shall Overcome," Carmichael's supporters drowned them out with "We
Shall Overrun." Then Carmichael, just out of jail, jumped into the back of an open truck to challenge the
moderate leaders:
"This is the twenty-seventh time I have been arrested, and l ain't going to jail no more! We been saying
freedom for six years-and we ain't got nothin'. What we gonna start saying now is 'black power!'"
-Stokely Carmichael, public address, June 1966
The Black Power Movement
As he repeated "We ... want ... black ... power!" the audience excitedly echoed the new slogan.
Carmichael's idea of black power resonated with many African Americans. It was a call "to unite, to
recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community ... to begin to define their own goals, to lead
their own organizations and support those organizations." King was still the most popular leader in the
Civil Rights Movement, but was losing followers to leaders who followed this new type of thinking.
The Black Panthers
One of these new groups, started in 1966, was the Black Panthers. They were a militant group
formed by activists Bobby Seale and Huey Newton in Oakland, California. The Panthers wanted African
Americans to lead their own communities. They demanded that the federal government rebuild the
nation's ghettos to make up for years of neglect. The Panthers also wanted to combat what they saw as
police brutality. Often, as a result of their monitoring the police, they became engaged in direct
confrontation with white authorities. The Panthers became popular among young blacks in cities, and
soon every big city had a chapter of the Black Panther Party.
Riots in the Streets
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The early civil rights movement focused on battling de jure segregation, racial separation created by
law. Changes in the law, however, did not address the more difficult issue of de facto segregation, the
separation caused by social conditions such as poverty. De facto segregation was a fact of life in most
American cities, not just in the South. There were no "whites only" signs above water fountains in
anymore, yet discrimination continued in education, housing, and employment. African Americans were
kept out of well-paying jobs, job training programs, and suburban housing. School districts drew
boundary lines to keep black families’ homes out. Inner-city schools were rundown and poorly
equipped.
Residents of ghetto neighborhoods viewed police officers as dangerous oppressors, not upholders of
justice. Eventually, frustration and anger boiled over into riots and looting. In 1964, riots ravaged a
dozen American cities. One of the most violent riots occurred in the Los Angeles neighborhood of
Watts. Police in Watts pulled over a 21-year-old black man for drunk driving. When the suspect
resisted arrest, one police officer panicked and began swinging his riot baton. A gathered crowd was
outraged, and the scene touched off six days of rioting. Thousands of people filled the streets, burning
cars and stores, and exchanging gunfire with authorities. When the National Guard and local police
finally gained control, 34 people were dead and more than a thousand had been injured. Violence
spread to other cities in 1966 and 1967. Cries of "Burn, baby, burn" replaced the gentler slogans of the
earlier civil rights movement.
The Movement Slows
By 1968, the Civil Rights Movement had accomplished much. However, a series of events slowed I
down as the 1960s came to an end. The Vietnam War was raging on halfway around the world, and
was taking up much of the government’s time and the media’s attention. At home, young people
shifted their anger from racism to the war. Anti-war marches and protests replaced anti-segregation
protests. Outside of Vietnam, two political assassinations also slowed the movement.
Martin Luther King Jr., Is Assassinated
In 1968, Dr. King turned his attention to economic issues. Traveling around the United States to
mobilize support for poor Americans, he went to Memphis, Tennessee in early April. There he offered
his assistance to striking garbage workers who were seeking better working conditions. While in
Memphis, as King stood on the balcony of his motel, a bullet fired from a high-powered rifle tore into
him. An hour later, King was dead. King's assassination sparked violent reactions across the nation. In
an outburst of rage and frustration, some African Americans rioted, setting fires and looting stores in
more than 120 cities. The riots, and the police response to them, left 50 people dead. President
Johnson ordered flags to be flown at half mast to honor King. For many Americans of all races, King's
death eroded faith in the idea of nonviolent change.
Robert F. Kennedy Is Assassinated
Since the assassination of President Kennedy, his brother, Senator Robert F. Kennedy had come to
support racial equality. In 1968, he decided to enter the race for the Democratic presidential
nomination. President Johnson had lost support from many Democrats because of America's
involvement in the Vietnam War. Kennedy’s candidacy received a critical boost in March when Johnson
stunned the nation by announcing that he would not run for a second term as President. In the years
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since his brother's death, Robert Kennedy had reached out to many Americans, including Hispanics,
Native Americans, African Americans, and poor white families.
Kennedy spent the spring of 1968 battling in the Democratic primary elections. On June 4, he won a
key victory in California's primary. It looked like another Kennedy would win the White House. But just
after midnight, after giving his victory speech in a Los Angeles hotel, Robert Kennedy was shot by an
assassin. He died the next day. When the shooting was reported, several campaign workers who had
watched the speech on TV were waiting for Kennedy in his hotel room. One of them, civil rights leader
John Lewis, later said, "We all just fell to the floor and started crying. To me that was like the darkest,
saddest moment." Kennedy's death ended many people's hopes for an inspirational leader who could
heal the nation's wounds.
Legacy of the Movement
Before and during the Movement, both black and white Americans wondered whether real progress in
civil rights was possible. Many young activists felt frustrated and discouraged when the movement
failed to bring changes quickly. Lyndon Johnson was devastated by the violence that exploded near the
end of his presidency. "How is it possible," he asked, "after all we've accomplished?" Still, the
measures passed by his administration had brought tremendous change. Segregation was now illegal,
and racism was declining. Because of voter registration drives, millions of African Americans could now
vote without having hurdles to leap over. The power they wielded changed the nature of American
political life. Positive racial changes in business, education, sports, the military, and show business also
reflected the powerful impact the Civil Rights Movement had on American society.
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Unit 4:
The 1960s
Section 1:
JFK and the New Frontier
p.63
Section 2:
LBJ and the Great Society
p.66
Section 3:
The Women’s Movement
p.69
Section 4:
The Counterculture
p.71
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Section 1: John F. Kennedy and the New Frontier
The Election of 1960
John F. Kennedy, a Democrat from Massachusetts, had served in the United States House of
Representatives and Senate for 14 years, following distinguished service in the United States Navy in
World War II. Yet the senator faced serious obstacles in his quest for the presidency. John Kennedy
was only 43 years old, and many questioned whether he had the experience needed for the nation's
highest office. He would be the youngest American ever to be elected president. In addition, Kennedy
was a Roman Catholic, and no Catholic had ever been elected President. And he was from a very
wealthy northern family, and had trouble appealing to poor Southerners.
But he campaigned hard, promising to spur the sluggish economy. While the economy had boomed
after World War II, during the last years of the Eisenhower administration in the late 1950s, the
economy suffered a recession. A recession occurs when an economy fails to grow, or shrinks.
America was also dealing with the Cold War, and racial equality issues. During the campaign, Kennedy
proclaimed that it was time to "get America moving again."
Kennedy was running against Republican Nixon, who was Eisenhower’s Vice President. Opinion polls
from the summer before the election showed that Nixon and Kennedy were engaged in a very close
race. That fall, for the first time, the presidential debates were televised. Kennedy commanded the
camera. His good looks, charm, and relaxed manner won over viewers. While Nixon was a fine
speaker, he looked uncomfortable on camera. This was made worse by the flu he was suffering from.
Radio listeners thought that Nixon won the debate. But many more Americans watched on television
than listened on the radio, and TV viewers believed Kennedy had won.
A Narrow Kennedy Victory
Kennedy and his running mate, Lyndon Baines Johnson, won the election by an extraordinarily close
margin. Although the electoral vote was 303 to 219 in Kennedy's favor, he won by fewer than 119,000
popular votes out of nearly 69 million cast, a difference of less than one-half of one percent. As a result
of this razor-thin victory, Kennedy entered office without a strong mandate, or public endorsement of
his proposals. Without a mandate, Kennedy would have difficulty pushing his more ideas to improve
America through Congress. Kennedy’s inauguration speech indicated his belief that Americans would
have to work together to improve the nation: “My fellow Americans – ask not what your country can do
for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
Kennedy's Domestic Programs
President Kennedy had an ambitious domestic agenda (domestic refers to anything happening IN
America). He wanted to improve many aspects of American life, including education, equal rights, the
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military, the space race, and the economy. He created a group of plans to do this, including new laws
and programs. This group of plans was called The New Frontier.
The New Frontier - The Economy
Concerned about the continuing recession, Kennedy hoped to work with business leaders to promote
economic growth. Often, however, he faced resistance from executives who were suspicious of his
plans. Consumer confidence fell, and the stock market suffered its steepest drop since the Great Crash
of1929. To help end the economic slump, Kennedy proposed a large tax cut over three years. At first,
the measure would reduce government income and create a budget deficit (when the government
spends more in a year than it takes in). Kennedy believed, however, that the extra cash in taxpayers'
wallets would encourage them to spend more, thereby stimulating the economy and eventually bringing
in added taxes. However, as often happened, the President's proposal became stuck in Congress.
The New Frontier - Poverty
Kennedy also was eager to take action against poverty and inequality. In his first two years in office, he
hoped that he could help the poor simply by stimulating the economy. In 1962, though, author Michael
Harrington described the lives of the growing number of poor Americans in his book, The Other
America. Harrington's book revealed that while many Americans were enjoying the prosperity of the
1950s, a shocking one fifth of the population was living below the poverty line. Kennedy became
convinced that the poor needed direct government aid. But Kennedy's ambitious plans for federal
education aid and medical care for the elderly both failed in Congress. Some measures did make it
through Congress, however. For example, Congress passed both an increase in the minimum wage
and the Housing Act of 1961, which provided $5 billion to help provide housing for poor Americans in
cities.
The New Frontier - The Space Program
Kennedy was also successful in his effort to breathe life into the space program. Following the Soviet
Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) had been working to place a manned spacecraft in orbit around Earth. In April 1961, the Soviet
Union announced that Yuri Gagarin had circled Earth on board the Soviet spacecraft Vostok, becoming
the first human to travel in space. Gagarin's flight rekindled Americans' fears that their technology was
falling behind that of the Soviet Union. Less than a year later, on February 20, 1962, American John
Glenn successfully completed three orbits around Earth and landed in the Atlantic Ocean. Over the
course of the decade, NASA flights and Kennedy’s New Frontier funding to NASA brought the country
closer to its goal of landing an American on the moon. Unfortunately, Kennedy would not live to see
the fulfillment of the goal he set in motion.
Other New Frontier Plans
Other plans from the New Frontier included orders on providing equal opportunity in housing and
establishing an expanded program of food distribution to needy families. The New Frontier also
proposed the following:
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1. providing food to unemployed Americans;
2. the largest, fastest military buildup in peacetime history, as Kennedy boosted missile programs
during the arms race;
3. changes in Social Security extending benefits to 5 million people and allowing Americans to retire
and collect benefits at age 62;
4. a law doubling federal resources to combat water pollution;
5. the expansion and increase of the minimum wage;
6. the creation of the first federal program to address juvenile delinquency;
7. signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the first nuclear weapons agreement.
Camelot
The name Camelot came to represent the energetic, idealistic image of the Kennedy White House. The
musical Camelot, which opened on Broadway the same year Kennedy won his election, portrayed the
legendary kingdom of the British King Arthur. The media noticed the Kennedy family resembled the
royal, romantic spirit of Camelot. The President and First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy, an intelligent and
beautiful woman, brought an atmosphere of style and grace to the White House. The couple's young
children, Caroline and John, Jr., added to the lively atmosphere. They played with their father in the
Oval Office and in a swimming pool and tree house on the White House lawn. Magazine photographers
and the growing medium of television captured the Kennedy family during moments of everyday life
and transformed them into celebrities reaching beyond the world of politics. The fact that the Kennedys
had young children made it all the more tragic when Camelot came to a sudden end.
Kennedy Is Assassinated
On November 22, 1963, as Kennedy looked ahead to his reelection campaign the following year, he
traveled to Texas to gather support. Texas Governor John Connally and his wife, Nelly, met the
President and the First Lady, at the airport in Dallas. Together they rode through the streets of
downtown Dallas in an open limousine, surrounded by Secret Service agents and police officers.
Newspapers had published the parade route ahead of time so supporters could welcome the
Kennedys, and it was jammed with thousands of people hoping for a glimpse of the President. The
motorcade (group of cars) slowed as it turned a corner in front of the Texas School Book Depository. Its
employees had been sent to lunch so they could watch the event outside. Yet one man stayed behind.
From a sixth-floor window, he aimed his rifle. Suddenly shots rang out. Bullets struck both Governor
Connally and President Kennedy. Connally would eventually recover from his injuries. The President,
slumped over in Jacqueline's lap, was mortally wounded. The limousine sped to a nearby hospital,
where doctors made what they knew was a hopeless attempt to save the President. Kennedy was
pronounced dead at 1:00 P.M. An aide delivered the news to a stunned Lyndon Johnson, addressing
him as "Mr. President."
The prime suspect in Kennedy's murder was Lee Harvey Oswald, a former U.S. marine and supporter
of Cuban leader Fidel Castro. He was apprehended later that afternoon, but revealed little information
to the police. Two days after Kennedy's assassination, the TV cameras rolled as Oswald was being
transferred from one jail to another. As the nation watched, a Dallas nightclub owner, Jack Ruby,
stepped through the crowd of reporters and fatally shot Oswald before the assassin revealed any
information about the murder or was put on trial.
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Ruby’s murder of Oswald led many to believe that multiple people were in on the assassination, making
it a conspiracy. Without Oswald to gather information from, rumors about the assassination spread
quickly. To combat these rumors, President Johnson appointed The Warren Commission, after its
chairman, Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren, to investigate the assassination of President
Kennedy. After months of investigation, the Warren Commission determined that Oswald had acted
alone in shooting the President. Since then, the case has been explored in thousands of websites,
books, and articles that suggest a larger conspiracy.
Section 2: Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society
LBJ's Path to the White House
The grief of a nation, and the responsibility for healing it, hung upon the new President. Lyndon B.
Johnson (LBJ) began the recovery process in a speech to Congress just days after Kennedy’s
assassination:
"All I have I would have given gladly not to be standing here today...No words are sad enough to express our
sense of loss. No words are strong enough to express our determination to continue the forward thrust of America
that [Kennedy] began...”
-Lyndon Johnson, November 27, 1963
Although he came to the White House through tragedy, Johnson found himself in a job he had long
wanted. Lyndon Johnson arrived in the United States House of Representatives in 1937 as a Democrat
from Texas. In 1948, he won a seat in the Senate. In the Senate, Johnson demonstrated both political
talent and an unstoppable ambition. During his first term in the Senate, he became the youngest
Senator ever to be elected Minority Leader. When the Democrats won control of the Senate the
following year, LBJ became Majority Leader. In this powerful post he became famous for his ability to
use the political system to accomplish his goals. He controlled the votes to get bills passed by
rewarding his friends and punishing his enemies. Johnson inspired fear and awe among his colleagues.
He was "not a likeable man," a fellow politician once told him. But Johnson was more concerned with
accomplishment than popularity, and his single-minded intensity enabled him to get his way.
Other senators marveled at the "Johnson treatment," in which he carefully researched a bill, and then
approached in a hallway or office the legislator whose vote he needed. If he thought it was the best way
to persuade the legislator, he would attack, "his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes
widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling." Johnson might grab his victim by the lapels
or by the shoulders, flattering, insulting, and shouting in turn. Nearly without fail, he got the vote he
wanted. When Johnson's bid for the Democratic nomination failed in 1960, he accepted Kennedy's
invitation to run for the vice presidency. Once elected, however, Johnson was frustrated with the job,
which lacked any real power. He was also unhappy being away from Congress, where he had been so
effective. Yet Johnson was not powerless for long. While it had been a long journey to the vice
presidency, it was a tragically short trip to the Oval Office in 1963.
Johnson’s First Year in Office
LBJ inherited the presidency in November of 1963, with just one year left on JFK’s term. Johnson was
well aware that Americans had not voted for him for President. So he was hesitant to make any big
changes during that first year. He kept all the members of Kennedy’s cabinet. He continued Kenney’s
Civil Rights Bill, continued to fund the space race, and fought to help improve the economy, just as
Kennedy did. But LBJ also spent the year campaigning to be elected in 1964.
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The Election of 1964
Johnson's ability to help the nation heal after the assassination paved the way for his landslide victory
over Republican Barry Goldwater in the election of 1964. Goldwater, a senator from Arizona, held views
that seemed excessive to many Americans, as well as to many members of his own party. For
example, he believed that the U.S. should use nuclear weapons to win the Cold War. The Johnson
campaign took advantage of voters' fears of nuclear war. It aired a television commercial in which a
little girl's innocent counting game turned into the countdown for a nuclear explosion. Johnson received
61 percent of the popular vote and an overwhelming 486 to 52 tally in the Electoral College. The
Democrats won majorities in both houses of Congress: 295 Democrats to 140 Republicans in the
House of Representatives and 68 to 32 in the Senate. LBJ now had the mandate to move ahead even
more aggressively.
The Great Society
Once Johnson won his own term as President, he used all the talents he had developed as Senate
Majority Leader to push through Congress an extraordinary program of reforms on domestic issues.
Johnson's agenda included Kennedy's civil rights and tax-cut bills. It also embraced laws to aid public
education, provide medical care for the elderly, and eliminate poverty. He began to use the phrase
“Great Society” to describe his goals. Johnson's Great Society was a series of laws and programs that
emerged in his second term. The Great Society programs included major poverty relief, education aid,
healthcare, voting rights, conservation and beautification projects, urban renewal, and economic
development in depressed areas.
Great Society - Major Legislation, 1964 -1966
Civil Rights Act, 1964
Economic Opportunity Act, 1964
Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), 1964
Voting Rights Act, 1965
Medicare, 1965
Medicaid, 1965
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
Immigration Act of 1965
The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 1965
The National Foundations of the Arts and Humanities, 1965
Water Quality Act, 1965;
Clean Water Restoration Act, 1966
The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act, 1966
The War on Poverty
Growing up in an impoverished area of rural Texas, Johnson was one of the few presidents to have
experienced the pain of poverty firsthand. He now pressed for the largest anti-poverty program that the
U.S. has ever passed. In his 1964 State of the Union message, Johnson vowed, "This administration
today, here and now, declares unconditional war on poverty in America." The Economic Opportunity
Act, passed in the summer of 1964, was created to combat several causes of poverty, including
illiteracy and unemployment. The Act provided nearly $1 billion for ten separate projects, including
education and work-training programs such as the Job Corps. Two of the best-known programs created
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under the act were Head Start and VISTA. Head Start is a preschool program for children from low
income families that also provides healthcare, nutrition services, and social services. Volunteers in
Service to America (VISTA) sent volunteers to help people in poor communities.
Aid to Education
LBJ had been a teacher for a short time before his career in politics, and knew how important education
was to the future of America. Johnson's education programs moved through Congress as well. The
Education Act of 1965 provided $1.3 billion in aid to states to improve schools in low-income
neighborhoods. The funds went to public and private schools. Johnson signed the Education Act into
law in the small Texas school he had attended as a child.
Medicare and Medicaid
President Johnson’s Great Society also focused attention on the increasing cost of medical care. In
1965, Johnson used his leadership skills to push through Congress two new programs, Medicare and
Medicaid, both still active today. Medicare provides low-cost medical insurance to most Americans age
65 and older. "No longer will older Americans be denied the healing miracle of modern medicine,"
Johnson declared. "No longer will illness crush and destroy the savings that they have so carefully, put
away." Medicaid provides low-cost health insurance coverage to poor Americans of any age who
cannot afford their own private health insurance.
Immigration Reform
The Great Society also revised the immigration policies that had been in place since the 1920s. Laws
passed in the 20s had set quotas, or limits, for newcomers from each foreign nation. Low quotas had
been established for some countries from Europe, and immigration from Asia had almost been
eliminated. The Immigration Act of 1965 replaced the varying quotas with a limit of 20,000 immigrants
per year from any country outside the Western Hemisphere. This greatly increased the number of
immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. each year. In the 1960s, some 350,000 immigrants entered the
United States each year; in the 1970s, the number rose to more than 400,000 a year.
Effects of the Great Society
At first, the Great Society seemed enormously successful. Opinion polls taken in 1964 showed Johnson
to be more popular than Kennedy had been at a comparable point in his presidency. However, some
Americans complained that too many of their tax dollars were being spent on poor people. For decades
following the Great Society, a major political debate continued over the criticism that anti-poverty
programs encouraged poor people to become dependent on government aid and created generations
of families on welfare instead of in jobs. Other critics argued that Great Society programs put too much
authority into the hands of the federal government. They opposed the expansion of the federal
government that accompanied the new programs. Nevertheless, the number of Americans living in
poverty in the United States was cut in half during the 1960s and early 1970s.
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Section 3: The Women’s Rights Movement
Background of the Women's Movement
The crusade for women's rights was not new in the 1960s. In the late 1800s, women had worked for the
right to vote, something afforded to them by neither the federal government nor most states. The term
feminism, which came to be associated with the 1960s, had first come into recorded use in 1895 to
describe the idea of equality of men and women. Feminists were those who believed in this equality or
took action to bring it about in both the social and economic areas of life.
By the time the 1960s came, American women were strongly encouraged to fall into traditional roles as
wife, mother, and homemaker, as their husbands earned a living to financially support the family. Many
women were happy in this role, but a growing number of others, especially young women, pursued a
change in America that would offer females increased educational and work opportunities. The
women's movement of the 1960s sought to change traditional aspects of American life that had been
accepted for decades. The 1950s stereotype of women still placed them in the home, married and
raising children. Feminists in the 1960s sought to shatter that stereotype, encouraging women to go to
college, pursue careers, play sports, and run for political office.
Education and Employment
An increasing number of women began going to college after World War II. Better-educated women
had high hopes for the future, but they were often discouraged by the discrimination they faced when
they looked for jobs or tried to advance in their professions. In many cases, employers were reluctant to
invest in training women because they expected female employees to leave their jobs after a few years
to start families. Other employers simply refused to hire qualified women because they believed that
home and family should be a woman's only responsibility. Women who did enter the work force often
found themselves underemployed, performing jobs and earning salaries below their abilities. This
inequality created a growing sense of frustration among women.
Women's Groups Organize
As the 1960s unfolded, women began to meet in groups to compare experiences. The movement was
born as these groups grew and merged. The growing movement drew women who were active in other
forms of protest and reform. They included female civil rights workers, opponents of the Vietnam War
and the draft, and workers for other social issues. Another major influence on the movement was Betty
Friedan's 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. Her book criticized the different expectations America
had for men and women. The dissatisfied housewives that Friedan described in her book began
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meeting, too, to discuss their lives and their roles in society. Friedan's book is often credited with
igniting the desire for change in millions of American women.
Organizing NOW
In 1966, a group of 28 women, including Betty Friedan, established the National Organization for
Women (NOW). The goal of NOW was "to take action to bring American women into full participation in
the mainstream of American society." NOW sought fair pay and equal job opportunities. It attacked the
"false image of women" in the media, such as advertising that used sexist slogans or photographs.
NOW also called for more balance in marriages, with men and women sharing parenting and
household responsibilities. A year after NOW was founded, it had over 1,000 members. NOW served
as a rallying point to end gender discrimination and to promote equality for all women, and still does
today.
A Shift in Attitudes
Slowly the women's movement brought a shift in attitudes and in the law. For example, in 1972,
Congress passed a prohibition against sex discrimination as part of the Higher Education Act. A survey
of first-year college students revealed a significant change in career goals-and opportunities. In 1970,
men interested in fields such as business, law, engineering, and medicine outnumbered women by
eight to one. Five years later, the margin had dropped to three to one. More women entered law school
and medical school. Women were finally admitted to military academies to be trained as officers.
Women also became more influential in politics, which paved the way for Sandra Day O'Connor's
appointment as the first female Supreme Court Justice in 1983 and Geraldine Ferraro's selection as
the Democratic Party's vice presidential candidate in 1984. Many women did not actively participate in
or support the women's movement. Still, most agreed with NOW's goal to provide women with better
job opportunities. Many were also pleased that the women's movement brought a greater recognition of
issues important to women. These issues included the need for child-care facilities, shelters for
homeless women, more attention to women's health concerns, and increased awareness of sexual
harassment.
Roe v. Wade
One issue that had the potential to divide the movement was abortion. NOW and other groups worked
to reform the laws governing a woman's decision to choose an abortion instead of continuing an
unwanted pregnancy. Many states had outlawed or severely restricted access to abortion. Women who
could afford to travel to another state or out of the country could usually find legal medical services, but
poorer women often turned to abortion methods that were not only illegal but unsafe. A landmark social
and legal change came in 1973, when the Supreme Court legalized abortion in the controversial Roe v.
Wade decision. The justices' decision struck down state regulation of abortion in the first three months
of pregnancy. However, the ruling still restricts abortions during the later stages (2 nd and 3rd trimesters)
of pregnancy. The case was, and remains, highly controversial, with radical thinkers on both sides of
the argument.
Opposition to the Women's Movement
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Not all Americans were happy with the women's movement. Many men and even some women fought
to keep the traditional roles of the sexes. It was a conservative woman, Phyllis Schlafly, who led a
national campaign to block laws that NOW supported.
Legacy of the Women's Movement
Despite the opposition, the women's movement continued to make gains, to change minds, and to
expand opportunities for women. In so doing, it increased the number of women in college, the
workforce, business, politics, and athletics.
Section 4: The Counterculture
A Time of Change
In the 1960s, many young people adopted values that ran counter to, or against, the mainstream
culture that they saw around them. Members of this counterculture valued youth, spontaneity, and
individuality. Also called hippies, these young people promoted peace, love, and freedom. And they
experimented with new styles of dress and music, freer attitudes toward sexual relationships, and the
recreational use of drugs. The result was often a generation gap, or a lack of understanding between
the older and younger generations.
The youth generation had an enormous influence on American society. First of all, it was the largest
generation in American history. The "baby boom" that followed World War II resulted in a huge student
population in the 1960s. By sheer numbers, the baby boomers became a force for change. The music
industry rushed to produce the music they liked; clothing designers copied the styles they introduced;
and colleges changed courses and rules to accommodate them.
Sixties Style
The look of the 1960s was unique and free. But it was also a sign of changing attitudes. The
counterculture rejected the rules and restrictions their parents and teachers tried to force upon them. In
the 1950s, it was important to conform, or fit in. But in the 1960s counterculture, it was important to
stand out. Many young women gave up the structured hairstyles of the 1950s, while young men let
their hair grow long and free, while wearing facial hair – two things that were not done by most men in
the 1950s. Their clothing was as different from the conformity of the 1950s as they could make it.
“Hippie dress” became a kind of uniform for the youth generation, including jeans, floral blouses,
ponchos, tie-dye, and jewelry from Native American and African cultures.
The Sexual Revolution
Just as participants in the counterculture demanded more freedom to make personal choices in how
they dressed, they also demanded more freedom to choose how they lived. Their new views of sexual
conduct, which rejected many traditional restrictions on behavior, were labeled "the sexual revolution."
Some of those who led this revolution argued that sex should be separated from its traditional ties to
family life. Many of them also experimented with new living patterns. Some hippies rejected traditional
relationships and lived together in communal groups, where they often shared property and chores.
Others simply lived together as couples, without getting married. The sexual revolution in the
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counterculture led to more open discussion of sexual subjects in the media, and more depiction of
sexual situation in movies and television.
The Drug Scene
Some members of the 1960s counterculture also turned to psychedelic drugs. In the 1960s, the use of
drugs, especially marijuana, became much more widespread among the nation's youth. Just like today,
the possibility of death from an overdose or from an accident while under the influence of drugs was
very real. Three leading musicians of the 1960s-Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison, and Jimi Hendrix-died of
complications from drug overdoses. And they were not the only ones. Their deaths represented the
tragic excesses to which some people were driven by their reliance on drugs to enhance or to escape
from reality. The increased drug use and the increased number of overdoses led to more strict laws and
more harsh punishments for drug crimes that would be passed in the 1980s.
The Music World
Music both reflected and contributed to the cultural changes of the 1960s. The rock and roll of the late
1950s had begun a musical revolution, giving young people a music of their own that worried many
adults. The year 1964 marked a revolution in rock music that some called the "British Invasion." It was
the year that the Beatles first toured America. The "Fab Four", as the Beatles were called, had already
taken their native England by storm. They became a sensation in the United States as well, not only for
their music but also for their style and look. The Beatles heavily influenced the music of the period, as
well as the spirit of the counterculture as a whole. Other British rock groups, like the Rolling Stones
and the Who followed the Beatles to the U.S. and influenced the counterculture as well. The young
people of the counterculture came together to celebrate their music and way of life in the summer of
1969. About 400,000 people gathered for several days at the Woodstock Music and Art Fair on a
farm in rural New York to listen to the major bands of the rock world and to celebrate the
counterculture. The counterculture would eventually die out as a major force in the 1970s, but elements
of it remain today. Their free attitudes towards drugs and sex changed America, and their individualism
has become a major part of 21st century America.
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Unit 5:
The Vietnam War
Section 1:
Section 2:
Section 3:
Section 4:
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Background of Vietnam War
America's War in Vietnam
The Home Front During the Vietnam War
The End of the Vietnam War
p.74
p.77
p.80
p.83
Section 1: Background of the Vietnam War
Why was the U.S. Involved?
American involvement in Vietnam began during the early years of the Cold War. It was based on
President Harry Truman's policy of containment, which called for the United States to resist Soviet
attempts to spread communism around the world. At a news conference in 1954, President Dwight D.
Eisenhower described the principle that became associated with American involvement in Asia:
" You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one
is that it will go over very quickly. " -Dwight D. Eisenhower
The domino theory, described above, refers to the fear that if one Asian nation fell to the communists,
the others would also fall. While Vietnam’s falling to communism wouldn’t pose much of a threat to the
U.S., Eisenhower painted a picture of an entire continent falling to communism because Vietnam fell.
This convinced the American people to support U.S. action in Vietnam, so the first domino wouldn't get
knocked over.
French Control
Vietnam had a history and culture that extended back nearly 2,000 years. The Vietnamese spent much
of that time resisting attempts by neighboring China to take over their small country. In the 1800s,
France established itself as a power in Indochina. Indochina is a part of Asia in between Indonesia
and China, that consists of four countries: Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos. The French
military and government established these four countries as colonies of France. The people of Vietnam
resisted this French takeover.
The resistance was led by a man named Ho Chi Minh. Ho Chi Minh aroused his people's feelings of
nationalism against French control, and the people began to demand their independence from France.
War between the French and Vietnamese rebels began, and the U.S. offered military aid to the French
to defeat Ho Chi Minh's Vietnamese rebels. This was because Ho Chi Minh was a communist, and the
U.S. feared that if his rebels defeated the French, he would take over the country and install a
communist government. Despite American aid, the French surrendered in Vietnam in 1954.
A Divided Vietnam
After the French defeat in Vietnam, representatives of Ho Chi Minh, France, and the United States
arranged a peace settlement. Known as the Geneva Accords, the treaty called for Vietnam to be
divided near the 17th parallel into two separate nations. Ho Chi Minh became president of the new
communist-dominated North Vietnam, with its capital in Hanoi. Ngo Dinh Diem, a former Vietnamese
official who had been living in the United States, became president of anti-communist South Vietnam,
with its capital in Saigon. The agreement called for elections to be held in two years to re-unify the
country as Vietnam under one government. South Vietnam refused to support this part of the
agreement, claiming that the Communists would not hold fair elections. As a result, Vietnam remained
divided for years.
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Early United States Involvement
After World War II, President Truman had pledged American aid to any nation threatened by
communists. The U.S. did just that to the French soldiers fighting in Vietnam, although the effort failed.
After the French defeat, the United States began to support anti-communist South Vietnam. President
Eisenhower pledged his support to South Vietnam's Diem. This included about 600 United States
military advisors sent to South Vietnam in 1959 to assist in that country's struggle against the North.
Thus the United States became involved in the Vietnam War.
Kennedy's Vietnam Policy
When President John F. Kennedy took office in 1961, he was determined to prevent the spread of
communism at all costs. This meant strengthening and protecting the government that the United
States had helped create in South Vietnam. Kennedy sent Vice President Lyndon Johnson to Vietnam
to assess the situation there. Diem told Johnson that South Vietnam would need even more aid if it was
to survive. In response, Kennedy increased the number of American military advisors to Vietnam. By
1963, that number had grown to more than 16,000. But military aid by itself could not ensure success.
Diem lacked support in his own country. He imprisoned people who criticized his government and filled
many government positions with members of his own family. United States aid sent to Diem that was
supposed to be use to help the country's poor went instead to the military and into the pockets of
Diem’s family and corrupt officials.
Diem's Downfall
Diem was growing less popular among the people of South Vietnam. Diem was a Catholic in a largely
Buddhist country. When Diem insisted that Buddhists obey Catholic religious laws, serious opposition
developed. In protest, a Buddhist monk burned himself to death on the streets of Saigon. Photographs
showing his silent, grisly death appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world, showing
Diem's flaws as a leader. Other monks followed the example, but their sacrifices did not budge Diem.
Kennedy finally realized that the struggle against communism in Vietnam could not be won under
Diem's rule. United States officials told South Vietnamese military leaders that the United States would
not object to Diem's overthrow. With that encouragement, military leaders staged an overthrow in
November 1963. They seized control of the government and assassinated Diem as he tried to flee.
McNamara's Role
One of the American officials who helped create the Kennedy administration's Vietnam policy was
Robert McNamara, President Kennedy's Secretary of Defense. McNamara became one of Kennedy's
closest advisors on Vietnam, and later he helped shape the policies that drew the United States deeper
into the war. Later, under Lyndon Johnson, McNamara pushed for direct American involvement in the
war. In 1963, however, he still questioned whether a complete withdrawal was not the better alternative.
Looking back on that period later, McNamara revealed his feelings:
" I believed that we had done all the training we could. Whether the South Vietnamese were qualified or
not to turn back the North Vietnamese, I was certain that if they weren't, it wasn't for lack of our training.
More training wouldn't strengthen them; therefore we should get out. The President (Kennedy) agreed."
-Robert McNamara
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Johnson Commits to Containment
But the United States did not withdraw. Three weeks after Diem's assassination, President Kennedy
himself fell to an assassin's bullet in Dallas, Texas. Lyndon Johnson assumed the presidency and
faced an escalating crisis in Vietnam. Johnson believed in the need for containment as well. He
continued to back South Vietnam and the military leaders who took over the government, and later
increased involvement to include hundreds of thousands of American troops. The troops would stay in
Indochina for a decade.
Johnson did not want the Southeast Asian "dominoes" to be set in motion by the fall of Vietnam. But
released taped conversations between Johnson and his advisors revealed that Johnson was skeptical
about the war. While he did not wish to pursue a full-scale war, he also did not want to risk damaging
the authority of the United States by pulling out. In the end, Johnson was convinced of the need to
escalate the war by his advisors.
The Vietcong
The newly established military government in South Vietnam proved to be both unsuccessful and
unpopular. The generals bickered among themselves and failed to direct the South Vietnamese army
effectively. A group of guerilla fighters emerged and began to attack the new government. They were
communists who lived in the south but secretly fought for the north. This group, known as the Viet
Cong, gained control of more territory and earned the loyalty of an increasing number of South
Vietnamese people, who were concerned about growing American involvement. Ho Chi Minh and the
North Vietnamese aided the Viet Cong throughout the struggle by sending them weapons from the
Soviet Union. The VC, as they became known, also began to attack American military advisers.
Direct U.S. Involvement
As more Americans were attacked by the VC in South Vietnam, President Johnson's advisers tried to
encourage him to increase the American military presence there. In August 1964, Johnson made a
dramatic announcement: North Vietnamese torpedo boats had attacked United States ships in the
international waters of the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of North Vietnam. This announcement would
change the course of the war.
Although details at the time were sketchy, it was later shown that the attacks did not occur. In any case,
Johnson used the Gulf of Tonkin incident to deepen American involvement in Vietnam. Based on his
version of the attack, President Johnson asked Congress for and received a resolution giving him
authority to "take all necessary measures to repel any attack against the forces of the United States
and to prevent further aggression." Congress passed this Gulf of Tonkin Resolution by a vote of 416
to 0 in the House of Representatives and 88 to 2 in the Senate. Johnson had been waiting for some
time for an opportunity to propose the resolution, which, he noted, "covered everything." The President
now had complete control over what the United States did in Vietnam, even without an official
declaration of war from Congress.
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Section 2: America's War in Vietnam
Daily Life at War in Vietnam
After the incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War. These soldiers
found themselves thousands of miles from home, fighting under conditions that were far different from
those they had seen in war films:
" We moved through the boiling heat with 60 pounds of weapons and gear. When we stopped we dug
chest-deep fighting holes and slit trenches for toilets. We slept on the ground...Sleep itself was never
more than an hour or two at a stretch for months at a time as we mixed daytime patrolling with nighttime ambushes, listening posts, foxhole duty, and radio watches. Ringworm, hookworm, malaria, and
dysentery were common, as was trench foot when the monsoons came." -James Webb, U.S. Marine
When Americans first started arriving in Vietnam in large numbers, they encountered all the frustrations
of guerrilla warfare that the French dealt with the previous decade. American forces had incredibly
superior arms and supplies. The Viet Cong, however, had some advantages of their own. For one
thing, they were familiar with the swamps and jungles of Vietnam. In addition, they could find protection
across the border in Cambodia and Laos. Finally, the Viet Cong could often count on the support of the
local population.
Many American soldiers found the war confusing and disturbing. They were trying to defend the
freedom of the South Vietnamese, but the people seemed indifferent to the Americans' effort. The
corrupt South Vietnamese government in Saigon hurt America as well. "We are the unwilling working
for the unqualified to do the unnecessary for the ungrateful," Kit Bowen a U.S. soldier wrote to his
father in Oregon. American troops never knew what to expect next, and they never could be sure who
was a friend and who was an enemy. The Vietnamese woman selling soft drinks by the roadside might
be a Viet Cong ally, counting soldiers as they passed. A child riding a bicycle might be concealing a live
grenade.
The Air War
Americans used the B-52 bomber, a huge plane carrying hundreds of bombs, to smash roads and
bridges in North Vietnam. During air raids, these planes could drop thousands of tons of explosives
over large areas. This saturation bombing tore North Vietnam apart. Many of the bombs used in
these raids threw pieces of their metal casings in all directions when they exploded. These
fragmentation bombs were not confined to the north alone. They were also used in the south, where
they killed and maimed countless civilians in an attempt to harm the VC.
United States forces also used chemical weapons from the air against the North Vietnamese and VC.
Pilots dropped an herbicide known as Agent Orange on dense jungle landscapes. By killing the leaves
and thick undergrowth, the herbicide exposed Viet Cong hiding places. But Agent Orange also killed
crops, including the rice many South Vietnamese farmed to live. Later it was discovered that Agent
Orange caused various health problems in livestock and cancer in humans, affecting Vietnamese
civilians and American soldiers. Another destructive chemical used in Vietnam was called napalm.
When dropped from airplanes, this jellylike substance splattered and burned uncontrollably. It was
used to destroy jungles where the VC met, but it also stuck to people's bodies and seared off their
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flesh. Although the air war was destructive, it did not help win the war, and may have created more
members of the VC by killing innocent civilians in South Vietnam and destroying their crops and homes.
As part of the air war, President Johnson authorized Operation Rolling Thunder - the relentless
bombing campaign of both Viet Cong and North Vietnamese targets. Although the bombing produced
damage, it failed to stop the Viet Cong. The enemy dug thousands of miles of tunnels through which
troops and supplies moved south from North Vietnam. A lack of significant military targets also
hampered the success of the bombings. The U.S. was winning the "body count war" by killing
thousands of enemies, but this failed to have a significant effect on the overall course of the war.
Nothing seemed to diminish the enemy's willingness or ability to continue fighting. When the Viet Cong
suffered heavy losses, North Vietnam sent new troops.
The Ground War
When the air war did not produce the desired results, the U.S. relied more heavily on the war on the
ground to defeat the North. General William Westmoreland, the commander of United States forces
in Vietnam, requested more soldiers. Johnson agreed to the request, beginning a rapid buildup of
American combat troops. This was known as Johnson's escalation of the war. At the start of 1965,
some 25,000 American soldiers were stationed in Vietnam. By the end of the year, the number had
risen to 184,000. Despite this large buildup of American troops, between 1965 and 1967 the war was
at a stalemate. The American objective was not to conquer North Vietnam but rather to force the enemy
to stop fighting and preserve the democracy in South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese, however,
refused to break and continued to withstand the American military.
But it was the VC, not the North, who was the more frustrating enemy. The Viet Cong lacked the
sophisticated equipment of the United States troops, so they avoided head-on clashes. Instead they
used guerrilla warfare tactics, working in small groups to launch sneak attacks and practice sabotage.
They often frustrated American search parties by hiding themselves in elaborate underground tunnels.
Some of these were equipped with running water and electricity. The largest contained hospitals,
stores, and weapons storage facilities. The various booby traps set by the guerrilla fighters posed
constant hazards to the Americans as well. A soldier might step into a punji trap-a camouflaged pit
filled with razor-sharp stakes that were sometimes poisoned. The pressure of a footstep could set off a
land mine-an explosive device planted in the ground. Many soldiers were wounded or killed by
grenades, which were triggered by concealed trip wires. The jungles contained untold numbers of Viet
Cong snipers. GIs could go weeks without making contact with the enemy, but there was always the
possibility of sudden danger and death.
The war was also devastating for Vietnamese civilians. Because American soldiers were never sure
who might be sympathetic to the Viet Cong, civilians suffered as much as soldiers. As the struggle
intensified, the destruction worsened. The war affected everyone in Vietnam. Le Thanh, a young boy in
Vietnam during the War, recalled the horrors he had witnessed:
" Nobody could get away from the war. It didn't matter if you were in the countryside or the city. While I
was living in the country I saw terrible things ... I saw children who had been killed, pagodas and
churches that had been destroyed, monks and priests dead in the ruins, schoolboys who were killed
when schools were bombed." -Le Thanh
The Tet Offensive: A Turning Point
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In what was supposed to be a short and one-sided war, American involvement continued for years.
Month after month the fighting continued. United States planes bombed North Vietnam, and the flow of
American soldiers into the south increased, but the communists fought on. Westmoreland asked for
more troops, and Johnson would provide them. U.S. troop numbers climbed to 385,000 by the end of
1966, to 470,000 by the end of 1967, and to 586,000 by the end of 1968. Despite the large United
States presence in South Vietnam, the communist forces intensified their efforts. It appeared that as
more American soldiers arrived in Vietnam, more Vietnamese joined the Viet Cong.
Early in 1968, during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese coordinated
to launch a major attack. The Tet Offensive included surprise attacks on major cities and towns and
American military bases throughout South Vietnam. In Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital, the Viet
Cong attacked the American embassy and the presidential palace. Fierce fighting continued in Saigon
for several weeks. During the Tet Offensive, communists were uncommonly brutal, slaughtering anyone
they labeled an enemy, including government officials, teachers, and doctors. Eventually, the U.S.
retook the cities and bases, but it shed a light on what was happening in Vietnam. The American
people watched on television as the U.S. helplessly lost ground. This was different from what President
Johnson had been saying about Vietnam: that the VC and North were almost defeated and ready to
surrender.
The Tet Offensive became a turning point in the war. Even though the Viet Cong were turned back,
they had won a psychological victory. The Tet Offensive demonstrated that the Viet Cong could launch
a massive attack on targets throughout South Vietnam. Many Americans were discouraged with LBJ
and the war as a whole. President Johnson saw his popularity drop quickly.
Massacre at My Lai
Surrounded by brutality and under extreme stress, some American soldiers also committed atrocities
(extremely cruel and violent acts). Such brutality came into sharp focus at My Lai ("me lie"), a small
village in South Vietnam. In response to rumor that My Lai was sheltering 250 members of the Viet
Cong, a United States infantry company moved in to clear out the village in March 1968. Rather than
enemy soldiers, the company found women, children, and elderly people. Lieutenant William Calley
was in charge. He shockingly gave the command for the people to be killed. One soldier later
described what happened to one group of Vietnamese in My Lai:
" We huddled them up. We made them squat down . . . . I poured about four clips [about 68 shots] into
the group . ... Well, we kept right on firing.... I still dream about it. ... Some nights, I can 't even sleep. I
just lay there thinking about it. " -Private Paul Meadlo
504 Vietnamese died in the My Lai massacre. Even more would have perished without the heroic
actions of a U.S. helicopter crew that stepped in to halt the slaughter. At great risk to himself and his
crew, pilot Hugh Thompson landed the helicopter between the soldiers and the fleeing survivors of My
Lai. He ordered his door gunner, 18-year-old Lawrence Colburn, to fire his machine gun at the
American troops if they began shooting the villagers. Thompson got out, confronted the soldiers, and
then arranged to evacuate the surviving civilians. Thompson's crew chief, Glenn Andreotta, pulled a
child from a ditch full of dead bodies.
Such breaches of the rules of military combat did not go unpunished. Thompson testified about
Calley's conduct at My Lai. Although at first his testimony was covered up, three years later Lieutenant
Calley began serving a sentence of life in prison. Many Americans saw him as a scapegoat, however,
because many senior officers went unpunished. As a result, the President reduced his sentence and
Calley served only three years of house arrest. The heroics of the helicopter crew also did not go
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unnoticed. In 1998, (thirty years after the massacre), the United States honored all three men with the
Soldier's Medal, the highest award for bravery unrelated to fighting an enemy.
Section 3: The Home Front During the Vietnam War
Two Groups at Home - Hawks and Doves
As the war in Vietnam unfolded, many Americans favored increasing the war effort in order to bring
about victory more quickly Others believed that the war was morally wrong and urged immediate
withdrawal of U.S. troops. Eventually, almost everyone in the country had a strong opinion about
Vietnam, and often times these opinions grew hot and clashed publically. Opposing viewpoints created
deep divisions within the United States as the war waged on. The two groups had informal nicknames.
Those who opposed the war were called doves. Those who supported the war and even further
escalation of it were known as hawks. At the beginning of the war, there were many more hawks than
there were doves, but as the war wore on, doves began to outnumber hawks.
Generation Gap
Most hawks were middle-aged and older Americans. These people had been part of the "World War II
generation," and were used to supporting their government and its military. They believed that was the
only patriotic thing to do. They saw communism as wrong, and trusted that the president and Congress
would do the right thing to combat it. Many young Americans, baby boomers, were doves. They were
not as trusting of the government as their parents and grandparents. Many were morally opposed to
the war, and many were against it because it was their generation who was being sent to fight it. This
led to a widening of the generation gap between baby boomers and their parents.
Student Activism
Many young people went beyond just opposing the war, and actively protested against it. Often, these
protests occurred on college campuses. College were filled with young people, who tended to oppose
the war, and also professors, who tended to be politically liberal, and therefore, against the war. At the
University of Michigan, an official group began to oppose the war and promote change in the U.S.
known as SDS (Students for a Democratic Society). SDS was a tiny organization at the start, but its
ideas and popularity rapidly spread, and it had soon had a chapter on hundreds of college campuses.
This youth organization encouraged Americans to oppose the war, vote out politicians who supported it,
and even to refuse to serve in the war if drafted.
Draft Resistance
The War needed millions of troops, but since it was not wholly popular, not enough men were
volunteering. A Selective Service Act (draft) allowing the government to draft men between the ages
of 18 and 26 had been in place since 1951. The government activated the draft to keep pace with
Johnson's and Westmoreland's demands for escalation. As the war went on, and became less popular,
a draft-resistance movement that urged young men not to cooperate with their local draft boards was
born.
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As more and more young men were called into service and sent to fight in Vietnam, Americans began
to question the morality and fairness of the draft. College students could receive a deferment, or official
postponement of their call to serve. Usually this meant they would not have to go to war. Those who
could not afford college did not have this avenue open to them. Members of some religions were
exempt from the draft as well. These people were called conscientious objectors, people who
opposed fighting in the war on moral or religious grounds. By 1967, resistance to the military draft
began to sweep the country. Many young men tried to avoid the draft by claiming that they had physical
disabilities. Others applied falsely for conscientious objector status. Still others left the country. By the
end of the war an estimated 100,000 draft resisters were believed to have gone to countries such as
Canada. Hundreds of anti-draft public protests were held across the nation, where some young men
burned their draft cards as a sign of their distaste for the war. Not reporting for duty after being drafted
was illegal. Tens of thousands of men went to jail instead of Vietnam.
Johnson Decides Not to Run
Continuing protests and a growing list of American casualties had steadily increased public opposition
to Johnson's handling of the war. By 1967, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara had lost faith in the
war effort. Privately, he urged the President to turn more of the fighting over to the South Vietnamese
and to stop the bombing of North Vietnam. Johnson, fearful of risking defeat on the battlefield, and
therefore a major political embarrassment, ignored the proposal. As a result of the Tet Offensive in
1968, polls showed for the first time that a majority of Americans opposed the war. After the Tet
Offensive, Johnson rarely left the White House for fear of being assaulted by angry crowds of
protesters.
Johnson was due to run for re-election in 1968, but his popularity was at an all-time low. He heard
other Democrats talking about running against him. One of them was Robert Kennedy, who pledged to
end the war if he were elected. Kennedy's campaign gained steam and Johnson's popularity continued
to drop. The writing was on the wall, Johnson couldn't win. On March 31, 1968, President Johnson
declared dramatically in a nationally televised speech that he would not run for another term as
President: "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your
president. " -Lyndon Johnson
Replacing Johnson
Once Johnson announced he would not run, the Democrats began to officially look for his replacement.
Robert Kennedy seemed to be the obvious choice. He was well-liked by young people, opposed the
war, and had experience in the White House from the time he worked for his brother, John. However,
on his way to winning the Democratic nomination and possibly the presidential election that fall, Robert
Kennedy was assassinated in June of 1968. The party then reluctantly supported Johnson's Vice
President, Hubert Humphrey as their candidate.
The Democratic Convention
Delegates to the Democratic convention met in Chicago that summer to nominate candidates for
President and Vice President. By the time the Democrats convened, their party was in shreds. Robert
Kennedy had been assassinated, and Humphrey was hurt by his defense of Johnson's policies on
Vietnam. In the face of growing antiwar protest, he hardly seemed the one to bring the party together.
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The scene was more dramatic outside the hotel where the convention was being held. As thousands of
protesters from several different dissatisfied groups gathered for a rally, the police moved in, using their
nightsticks to club anyone on the street, including bystanders, hotel guests, and reporters. Much of the
violence took place in front of television cameras, while crowds chanted "The whole world is watching."
In the end, Humphrey was nominated, but the Democratic Party had been further torn apart.
The Republicans and the Nation Choose Nixon
The Republicans had already held their convention in early August. They had chosen Richard M.
Nixon, who had narrowly lost the presidential election of 1960 to John Kennedy. During his campaign,
Nixon backed law and order and boasted of a secret plan to end the war in Vietnam. Nixon quickly took
the lead over Humphrey in public opinion polls. Adding to the Democrats' problems was a third-party
candidate for President. Alabama governor George Wallace, who had been a lifelong Democrat, had
gained national fame for playing on racial tensions among southerners. Wallace was well known
around the country for his fierce resistance to integration in Birmingham and at the University of
Alabama. He gathered support in the south, but most others found his views outdated.
Nixon won the popular vote, and gained 302 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 45 for Wallace.
The war significantly influenced the election of 1968, and significantly damaged the Democratic party.
Nixon's win marked the start of a Republican hold on the presidency that would last, with only one
interruption, for 24 years. Four of the next five presidents would come from that party. This political
shift reflected how unsettling the 1960s had become for mainstream Americans, a group sometimes
called Middle America. In an era of chaos and confrontation, Middle America turned to the Republican
Party for stability.
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Section 4: The End of the Vietnam War
Nixon's Vietnam Policy
Richard Nixon's claim that he had a secret plan to end the war in Vietnam helped him win the
presidency in November. He promised "peace with honor" during the campaign. Something that
seemed impossible to most Americans. They could have peace if Nixon brought American troops
home, but that would be considered a loss, and therefore there would be no honor. They would have
honor if America stayed and fought, but then there would be no peace. After the election, Nixon
revealed his plan for both.
Vietnamization
In 1969, President Nixon announced a new policy known as Vietnamization. This involved gradually
removing American forces and replacing them with even more South Vietnamese soldiers, who the
U.S. would train. This would give the U.S. peace, because the troops were coming home, but would
also preserve our honor, because South Vietnam would continue to fight communism. By 1972, after
three years of Vietnamization, American troop strength had dropped from over half a million in 1968 to
just 24,000. As much as Nixon wanted to defuse antiwar sentiment at home, he was determined not to
lose the war. Therefore, as he withdrew American troops, he ordered increased bombing raids in North
Vietnam. Peace talks were going on in Paris at the time, and he hoped this bombing would increase
American negotiating power.
Henry Kissinger
While Nixon was credited for coming up with the idea of Vietnamization, it actually came from the mind
of his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger. Kissinger was a brilliant man and was one of the
very few people Nixon trusted. After giving Nixon this idea, Kissinger went to Paris represent the U.S. in
the Paris Peace Talks, where peace was negotiated between the U.S., North Vietnam, and South
Vietnam.
The War Spreads to Cambodia
President Nixon also widened the war beyond the borders of Vietnam. In April 1970, Nixon publicly
announced that United States and South Vietnamese ground forces had moved into neighboring
Cambodia. Their goal was to clear out Viet Cong camps there, from which the enemy was mounting
attacks on South Vietnam. Nixon knew that the invasion of Cambodia would not win the war, but he
thought it would help at the bargaining table. He was willing to intensify the war in order to strengthen
the American position at the peace talks.
Kent State
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Tensions between antiwar activists and law-and-order supporters reached a peak in 1970. The U.S.
invasion of Cambodia in 1970 fueled the protest movement on college campuses in the United States.
At Kent State University in Ohio, students reacted angrily to the President's actions. They protested and
burned the army Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) building, which had become a hated symbol
of the war. In response, the governor of Ohio ordered the National Guard to Kent State. Tension
mounted. When students threw rocks at them, the guardsmen loaded their guns and donned gas
masks. They hurled tear gas at the students, ordering them to disperse. Then the guardsmen retreated
to another position. At the top of a hill, they suddenly turned and began firing on the students below.
Seconds later, four students lay dead, with nine others wounded. It seemed America was more divided
than ever.
The Silent Majority
President Nixon recognized that student protestors, other doves, and the counterculture in general had
never appealed to many Americans. While these people were often the topic of new stories and
conversation, the vast majority of Americans did not act in such a manner. Some firmly supported
American involvement in Vietnam. Others questioned the war but were troubled by the lawlessness and
radicalism of many antiwar protests. These people did not receive the media coverage of their more
outspoken neighbors. But Nixon knew those people were still a force in America.
Many of these adults held student protesters responsible for rising crime, growing drug use, and
permissive attitudes toward sex. Some of these Americans expressed their patriotism by putting flag
decals on their car windows or by attaching bumper stickers that read "My Country, Right or Wrong"
and "Love It or Leave It." Nixon referred to this large group of Americans as the silent majority. To
strengthen his position on law and order, Nixon aimed to discourage protest, especially against the war.
The Paris Peace Treaty
The war dragged on into the 1970s, as did the Paris peace talks. Just days before the 1972 election,
Henry Kissinger announced, "Peace is at hand." After Nixon's reelection in November and another
round of B-52 bombings of Hanoi in December, peace finally arrived. In January 1973, the United
States, South Vietnam, and North Vietnam, signed a formal agreement in Paris. Among the provisions
in the agreement were these:
1. The United States would withdraw all its forces from South Vietnam within 60 days.
2. The 17th parallel would continue to divide North and South Vietnam.
3. All parties to the agreement would end military activities in Laos and Cambodia.
4. All prisoners of war would be released.
South Vietnam Falls
American involvement in the war came to an end in 1973, but the fighting between North and South
Vietnam continued for another two years. Americans had believed that they could defend the world
from communism anywhere, at any time. American technology and money, they assumed, could
always bring victory. Vietnam proved that assumption to be false. After the withdrawal of American
forces, South Vietnamese soldiers steadily lost ground to their North Vietnamese enemies. In the spring
of 1975, the North Vietnamese launched a campaign of strikes against strategic cities throughout South
Vietnam, the final objective being the government in Saigon.
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Without American support, South Vietnamese forces crumpled in the face of this campaign. On April
29, 1975, with communist forces surrounding Saigon, the United States carried out a dramatic lastminute evacuation. American helicopters airlifted more than 1,000 Americans and nearly 6,000
Vietnamese from the city to aircraft carriers waiting offshore. The next day, North Vietnam completed its
conquest of South Vietnam, and the Saigon government officially surrendered. After decades of
fighting, Vietnam was a single nation under a communist government.
Southeast Asia After the War
One reason for American involvement in Vietnam was the belief in the domino theory. As you recall,
this was the assumption that the entire region would collapse if the Communists won in Vietnam. With
the North Vietnamese victory, two additional dominoes did topple-Laos and Cambodia. The rest of the
region, however, did not fall. The suffering of the Cambodian people was one of the most tragic effects
of the war in Vietnam. In April 1975, Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, a group of communists led by
the dictator Pol Pot. The Khmer Rouge declared war on anyone "tainted" with Western ways, and they
killed as many as 1.5 million Cambodians -a quarter of the population. Many were shot, while the rest
died of starvation, from disease, from mistreatment in labor camps, or on forced marches. Although not
so extreme, Vietnam's new leaders also forced hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese soldiers,
civil servants, and other professionals into "re-education camps." Meanwhile, more than 1.5 million
Vietnamese fled their country by boat, leaving behind all personal possessions in their determination to
escape. In addition to these refugees, hundreds of thousands of Cambodians and Laotians also fled
their homelands, many making their way to the United States.
Counting the Costs
The Vietnam War resulted in almost 59,000 Americans dead and 300,000 more wounded. In addition,
more than 2,500 Americans were listed as POWs (prisoners of war) and MIAs (missing in action) at the
end of the war. Many of them remain unaccounted for. After Vietnam, soldiers came home to a
reception that was quite different than the ones their fathers and grandfathers had received following
the World Wars. There were no welcoming celebrations and parades. Many veterans believed that
Americans did not appreciate the sacrifices they had made for their country. The Vietnam War was the
longest and the least successful war in American history. The costs of the war were enormous. The
United States spent billions of dollars on the war. This expense resulted in growing inflation and
economic instability.
The costs of the war were high for Vietnam as well. More bombs rained down on Vietnam than had
fallen on all the Axis powers during World War II. The number of dead and wounded Vietnamese
soldiers ran into the millions, with countless civilian casualties. The landscape itself would long bear the
scars of war. In the mid-1990s, the United States announced an end to the long-standing American
trade embargo against Vietnam, and soon after agreed to restore full diplomatic relations with its former
enemy.
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial
Aside from the Civil War, the Vietnam War divided the nation more than any other conflict in American
history. The issues were so difficult and emotional that for many years something was neglected - that
the Americans who died in Vietnam should be honored with a national monument. In 1979, a group of
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veterans began making plans for a Vietnam Veterans Memorial. They wanted to recognize the courage
of American GIs during the Vietnam ordeal and to help heal the wounds the war had caused. A group
of veterans began a fund to pay for the project, taking no government money to help. Congress agreed
to allow a monument to be built in Washington, D.C., near the Lincoln Memorial. The question quickly
arose: How could the memorial honor the people who gave their lives, while avoiding the hard political
issues surrounding the war?
The veteran's committee held a contest. Famous architects and artists submitted their ideas. Many
were surprised when the winner was a 21 -year-old college student named Maya Lin. Her idea was to
build a long wall of black granite, cut down into the ground. This wall would display the names of every
American man and woman who died in the Vietnam War. Lin had a reason for each element of the
memorial. She chose black granite because it reflects light like a mirror, allowing visitors to see
reflections of themselves and the nature around them. She put the memorial on a slope that led below
ground level to create a quiet place where visitors could think about life and death. She placed the
names in the order people died, rather than in alphabetical order, so that the individual passing of each
life would be emphasized. The memorial was to be long, but not tall, so that visitors could easily see
and touch every name. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial was completed in 1982, and ever since,
people have added to it by leaving personal notes and items at the wall in memory of their loved ones.
‘
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Unit 6:
The 70s and 80s
Section 1:
Richard Nixon
p.88
Section 2:
Gerald Ford
p.93
Section 3:
Jimmy Carter
p.95
Section 4:
Ronald Reagan
p.98
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Section 1: Richard Nixon (1969-1974)
Nixon’s Comeback
Richard Nixon's victory in the 1968 presidential election was, for him, particularly sweet. His earlier bid
for the presidency, in 1960, had failed. Two years later he had lost another election, for governor of
California. Deeply unhappy, Nixon had vowed to retire from politics. Instead, he came back from those
bitter defeats to win the nation's highest office at a time when the country sorely needed strong
leadership.
Nixon’s Personality
Nixon grew up in a low-income family in California. He never got over his sense of being an outsider.
Unlike most politicians, Richard Nixon was a remote man who enjoyed being alone. Uncomfortable with
people, he often seemed stiff and lacking in humor and charm. But many Americans looked beyond
Nixon's personality traits. They respected him for his experience and his service as Vice President
under Dwight Eisenhower. Many others, though, neither trusted nor liked him. According to Patrick
Buchanan, then a Nixon speech writer, there was "a mean side to his nature." He was willing to say or
do anything to defeat his enemies. Those enemies included his political opponents, the media, and
leaders of the antiwar movement. Nixon was fully prepared to confront these forces. Insulating himself
from people and the media, Nixon had few close friends. He found support and security in his family:
his wife Pat and their two daughters.
Nixon's Staff
Nixon established a small group of trusted advisers who shielded him from the outside world and
carried out his orders without hesitation. His top aide was H. R. Haldeman, an advertising executive
who had campaigned for Nixon. Haldeman once summarized how he served the President: "I get done
what he wants done and I take the heat instead of him." Haldeman stood between the President and
anybody else who wanted to speak to him, fiercely protecting his privacy. Another of Nixon's closest
advisors did not fit the mold of the others. Henry Kissinger, a Harvard professor, had no previous ties to
Nixon. Still, he acquired tremendous power in the Nixon White House. Nixon first appointed Kissinger to
be his national security advisor on Vietnam, and then to be Secretary of State. Kissinger played a major
role in shaping foreign policy, both as an advisor to the President and in behind-the-scenes diplomacy,
and won Nixon's trust.
Domestic Policy
The Vietnam War and domestic policy had both been important in the 1968 political campaign. As you
have read, restoring law and order was one element of Nixon's domestic policy. Other domestic issues
also required attention, and on these, Nixon broke with many of the policies of Presidents Kennedy
and Johnson. For example, Nixon helped begin two government agencies to deal with growing
American problems, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency.
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Gasoline Crisis
In some ways, the United States had been heading toward an energy crisis long before Nixon took
office. The nation's growing population and economy used more energy each year, but the nation's oil
production had begun to decline. Americans turned to cheap, imported oil for about a third of their
energy needs. Nixon placed price controls on oil, hoping to lower inflation. However, the controls
limited profits and discouraged companies from producing the product, creating a shortage and making
the problem worse. Long lines at gas stations were common, as were signs placed in front of the
stations, saying, "NO GAS."
Unrest in the Middle East turned the energy problem into a crisis. In 1973, Israel and the Arab nations
of Egypt and Syria went to war. The United States backed its ally Israel. In response, the Arab
members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed an embargo on
the shipping of oil to the United States. OPEC, a group of oil-producing nations that cooperate with
each other to set oil prices and production levels, quadrupled its prices when the embargo ended. The
cost of foreign oil skyrocketed. Higher foreign oil prices, and the lack of production of oil in the U.S.
worsened inflation. A loaf of bread that had cost 28 cents in 1971 cost 89 cents in 1973. Americans had
paid 25 cents a gallon for gas but now paid 65 cents just one year later. Consumers reacted to the
higher prices by cutting back on spending. The result was a recession.
Social Programs
President Nixon hoped to halt the growth of government spending by cutting back or shutting down
some of the social programs that had grown under Johnson's Great Society. Critics claimed that these
programs were wasteful, encouraged "welfare cheaters," (people who took advantage of War on
Poverty programs), and discouraged people from seeking work.
The First Moon Landing
The Nixon years witnessed the fulfillment of President Kennedy's commitment in 1961 to achieve the
goal, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon." That man was Apollo 11 astronaut Neil
Armstrong. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong descended from the Eagle lunar landing craft and set foot on
the moon's surface. Armstrong radioed back the famous message: "That's one small step for man, one
giant leap for mankind." Television viewers around the world witnessed this triumph of the Apollo
program, carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Apollo 11
crew included Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, who landed with Armstrong in the Eagle, and Michael Collins, who
remained in the Apollo 11 command module circling the moon. Aldrin joined Armstrong on the
moonwalk during which they collected rock and soil samples and set up scientific instruments to
monitor conditions on the moon, and photographed the landing site. The Eagle and its crew stayed on
the moon for 21 hours and 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Collins for the return trip. After a safe
splashdown, the astronauts were quarantined for 18 days to ensure that they had not picked up any
unknown lunar microbes. They emerged to a hero's welcome.
Nixon’s Foreign Policy
As President, Richard Nixon's greatest achievements came in the field of foreign policy. In his first
Inaugural Address, Nixon set the stage for a new direction in foreign relations:
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" After a period of confrontation, we are entering an era of negotiation. Let all nations know that during
this administration our lines of communication will be open. We seek an open world. Open to ideas,
open to the exchange of goods and people." - Nixon's First Inaugural Address, January 20, 1969
Nixon's creative approach to foreign affairs helped ease Cold War tensions. Not since the Cold War
began had a U.S. president spoke in such optimistic phrases. Aided by the skillful diplomacy of Henry
Kissinger, Nixon helped establish ties with China and crafted stronger relations with the Soviet Union.
While Nixon had a keen understanding of foreign policy, he relied heavily on Henry Kissinger in
charting his course. The two spoke five or six times a day, sometimes in person, sometimes by phone,
and often for hours at a time. Kissinger's efforts in ending the Vietnam War and easing Cold War
tensions made him a celebrity. He won the 1973 Nobel peace prize, he appeared on 21 Time magazine
covers, and in a 1973 Gallup poll, he led the list of the most-admired Americans. Kissinger's efforts in
the Nixon administration left a lasting mark on American foreign policy.
Easing Tensions
Nixon and Kissinger's greatest accomplishment was in bringing about detente, ("day-taunt"), or a
relaxation in tensions, between the United States and the world's two communist giants. Because of the
events of the early Cold War, China and the Soviet Union were sworn enemies of the United States.
Nixon's willingness to conduct talks with them stunned many observers. As President, Nixon dealt
creatively with both China and the Soviet Union.
A New Approach to China
The most surprising policy shift was toward China. As you read in the Cold War unit, in 1949,
Communists had taken power and established the People's Republic of China. Many Americans saw all
Communists as part of a united plot to dominate the world. As a result, the United States did not
formally recognize the new Chinese government. In effect, the United States officially pretended that it
did not exist. But quietly, Nixon and Kissinger began to prepare the way for a renewal of relations with
the communist nation. The administration undertook a series of moves designed to improve the
relationship between the United States and China.
First, in 1970, in a first for an American President, Nixon referred to China by its official title, the
People's Republic of China. A few months later, an American table-tennis team accepted a Chinese
invitation to visit the country, beginning what was called "ping-pong diplomacy." Two months after that,
the United States ended its 21-year embargo on trade with the People's Republic of China. Finally,
Nixon made the dramatic announcement that he planned to visit China the following year. He would be
the first United States President ever to travel to that country. Nixon understood that the communists
were an established government that would not simply disappear; other nations had recognized the
government, and it was time for the United States to do the same.
Nixon traveled to China in February 1972. He met with Mao Zedong, the Chinese leader who had led
the revolution in 1949. Nixon and his wife Pat toured the Great Wall and other Chinese sights, all in
front of television cameras that sent the historic pictures home. While some members of Congress
remained outspoken in their opposition to Communist China, most members -and most Americansapplauded Nixon for taking a more realistic approach to Asia and attempting to turn an enemy into an
ally.
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Nixon Deals with the Soviets
Several months after his 1972 China trip, Nixon visited the Soviet Union. He received as warm a
welcome in Moscow as he had in China. In a series of friendly meetings between Nixon and Soviet
leader Leonid Brezhnev, the two nations reached several positive decisions. They agreed to work
together to explore space, eased trade limits, and completed negotiations on a weapons pact.
Like many Americans, he was worried about the superpowers' growing stockpiles of nuclear weapons.
The two countries were making bigger and more powerful weapons all the time. Some people feared
that the world might be destroyed unless these weapons were brought under control. Nixon was
determined to address the nuclear threat. He had taken office with the intention of building more
nuclear weapons to keep ahead of the Soviet Union, but he came to believe that this kind of arms race
made little sense. Each nation already had more than enough weapons to destroy its enemy many
times over. The nuclear age demanded balance between the superpowers.
To address the issue, the United States and the Soviet Union began a serious negotiation. In 1972, the
talks produced a treaty that would limit nuclear weapons. This treaty was ready for Nixon to sign during
his visit to Moscow. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, known as SALT I, included a five-year
agreement that froze the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched
ballistic missiles (SLBMs) at 1972 levels. In showing that arms control agreements between the
superpowers were possible, SALT I paved the way for more progress in the future.
1972 Re-election
Because of the success of Nixon’s foreign policy, and the way Americans believed he was helping to
solve problem at home, Nixon easily cruised to victory in the 1972 presidential election. He defeated
Democrat challenger George McGovern in a landslide, winning 49 of the 50 states in the electoral
college. Nixon now had the mandate to make even bigger decisions in his second term.
The Watergate Scandal
The President's suspicious and secretive nature caused the White House to operate as if it were
surrounded by political enemies. Nixon's staff tried to protect him at all costs from anything that
might weaken his political position. Nixon had campaigned as a man who believed in law and order.
Sometimes, however, he was willing to take illegal actions. Nixon ordered Henry Kissinger to install
wiretaps, or listening devices, on the telephones of several members of his own staff. These wiretaps
would lead to other illegal moves by Nixon
Determined to ensure Nixon's victory in 1972, a group of men known as the Committee to Reelect the
President, (CREEP), used similarly questionable tactics. Attempts to sabotage Nixon's political
opponents included sending hecklers to disrupt Democratic campaign speeches and meetings, and
assigning spies to join the campaigns of major candidates.
Within the Committee to Reelect the President, a group formed to gather intelligence. The group
masterminded several outlandish plans. One was an idea Nixon approved. The men would wiretap
phones at the Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. An
attempt to do just that early on the morning of June 17, 1972, ended with the arrest of the five men
involved.
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When the FBI traced the break-in to the reelection committee, Nixon tried to persuade the FBI to stop
its investigation on the grounds that the matter involved "national security." This action would come
back to haunt the President. The break-in and the cover-up became known as the Watergate scandal.
In the months following the Watergate break-in, the incident barely reached the public’s notice. Behind
the scenes in the White House, some of the President's closest aides worked feverishly to keep the
truth hidden.
The Scandal Unfolds
The Watergate story refused to go away. The Washington Post continued to ask probing questions of
administration officials. Nixon himself had proclaimed publicly that "no one in the White House staff, no
one in this administration, was involved in this very bizarre incident." Not everyone believed him. Two
Washington Post reporters were following a trail of leads. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, both
young and eager, sensed that the trail would lead to the White House. Even before the election,
Woodward and Bernstein had learned about some of the secrets of the Committee to Reelect the
President from an otherwise anonymous source who claimed to be close to Nixon. They had written
about the political spying and sabotage in their newspaper articles.
The Senate Investigates
Based on these articles, the Senate began to investigate the Watergate affair. In May 1973, the Senate
committee began televised public hearings on Watergate. Millions of Americans watched, fascinated,
as the story unfolded like a mystery thriller. Leaks and rumors developed as White House workers
described illegal activities at the White House. The most dramatic moment came when a former
presidential assistant revealed the existence of a secret taping system in the President's office that
recorded all meetings and telephone conversations. Those tapes could show whether or not Nixon had
been involved in the break-in and cover-up.
Nixon Resigns
Nixon had to make another move. Congress had begun the process to help them determine if they
should impeach the President-to charge him with misconduct while in office. The House Judiciary
Committee voted to impeach the President on charges of obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and
refusal to obey a congressional order to turn over his tapes. To remove him from office, a majority of
the full House of Representatives would have to vote for impeachment, and the Senate would then
have to hold a trial, with two thirds of the senators present voting to convict. The outcome seemed
obvious.
On August 5, after a brief delay, Nixon finally obeyed a Supreme Court ruling and released the tapes.
They gave clear evidence of Nixon's involvement in the cover-up. Three days later, Nixon appeared on
television and painfully announced that he would leave the office of President the next day. On August
9, 1974, Nixon resigned, the first President ever to do so. That same day, in a smooth constitutional
transition, Vice President Gerald Ford was sworn in. "Our long national nightmare is over," he said. The
Watergate scandal still stands as a low point in American political history. Government officials abused
the powers granted to them by the people. A President was forced to resign in disgrace. Many
Americans lost a great deal of faith and trust in their government.
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Section 2: Gerald Ford (1974-1977)
Ford Becomes President
During the Watergate Scandal in 1973, Richard Nixon's Vice President, Spiro Agnew, was facing
unrelated criminal charges. Agnew was forced to resign, and Nixon had a choice of whom to appoint to
be his new vice president. It was clear that whomever he picked might soon become the president, as
the nation knew Nixon might be impeached or resign over Watergate. Nixon picked Gerald Ford, one
of the most popular politicians in Washington. Ford had been a long-time Representative of Michigan,
and had earned a trustworthy image in the House, exactly what Nixon needed at the time.
Ford had been a football star at the University of Michigan, where he earned a law degree. After
serving in World War II, he entered politics. He believed in hard work and self-reliance. Over the years,
he had opposed increased government spending on many programs, but he had supported defense
spending. Despite Ford's three decades of experience in Congress, he had little experience as an
administrator or in foreign affairs.
The Nixon Pardon
Ford became President at the end of a turbulent time in the country's history. The nation was rattled by
Watergate. Although Nixon resigned, he was still facing criminal charges. Few people looked forward
to Nixon's trial. When Ford assumed the presidency, the nation needed a leader who could take it
beyond the ugliness of Watergate. In response to this public mood, President Ford declared that it was
a time for "communication, compromise and cooperation."
All too quickly, Ford lost some popular support. A month after Nixon had resigned, Ford pardoned the
former President for "all offenses" he might have committed, avoiding further investigation, trials, and
punishments. On national television, Ford explained that he had looked to God and his own conscience
in deciding "the right thing" to do about Nixon:
" It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do
that, and if I can I must. ... My conscience tells me that only I, as President, have the constitutional
power to firmly shut and seal this book." -Gerald R. Ford, September 8, 1974
Ford expected criticism of the pardon, because he knew many in the country wanted to see Nixon
punished. But he underestimated the widespread negative reaction. Many of Nixon's staffers received
prison time for their role in Watergate. The former President, however, walked away without a penalty.
Although some people supported Ford's action, his generous gesture backfired. Many criticized the
new President's judgment. Ford was occasionally booed when he made public speeches after the
pardon.
Economic Problems
While focusing on the Watergate scandal, the nation had paid less attention to other issues. In the
meantime, some conditions had grown worse. Months of scandal over Watergate had kept Nixon from
dealing with the economy. By 1974, inflation was at about 11 percent, much higher than it had been in
the past. Unemployment climbed from about 5 percent in January to over 7 percent by the year's end.
Stock prices dropped, and loan interest rates rose. By the time Ford assumed the presidency, the
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country was in a recession. Not since Franklin Roosevelt took office during the Great Depression had a
new President faced such harsh economic troubles.
Ford's approach was to try to restore public confidence in the economy. He sent Congress an
economic program called "WIN," or "Whip Inflation Now." The President asked Americans to wear red
and white "WIN" buttons; to save money, not spend it; to conserve fuel; and to plant vegetable gardens
to counter high grocery store prices. The WIN campaign did not work. Job layoffs were widespread.
Unemployment soared to over 8 percent in 1975. Congress then backed an anti-recession spending
program. Despite his belief in less government spending, Ford backed an increase in unemployment
benefits; he also supported a multibillion-dollar tax cut. While the economy did recover slightly, inflation
and unemployment remained high throughout his time in office.
Foreign Policy Actions
In foreign policy, Ford generally followed Nixon's approach and worked for detente. He kept Henry
Kissinger on as Secretary of State. And Ford, like Nixon, made a series of trips abroad. He met with
European leaders and was the first American President to visit Japan. Ford also visited China in order
to continue improving the political and trade ties that Nixon had initiated.
In Vietnam, where Nixon had eventually removed all U.S. troops through Vietnamization, the war
continued. After American troops withdrew, the North violated the Paris Peace Treaty by crossing the
17th parallel and attacking the South. Ford asked for military aid to help South Vietnam meet the attack,
but Congress rejected his request. Most Americans had no wish to become involved in Vietnam again,
and Congress was willing to do anything to make sure the United States stayed out of the war. By
1975, the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, was about to fall. Ford agreed to an American airlift that
helped evacuate thousands of Americans and Vietnamese.
The Nation's Birthday
One bright spot of Ford's time in office came when Americans held a nationwide birthday party to mark
July 4, 1976, the bicentennial, the 200th anniversary of the approval of the Declaration of
Independence. Throughout the summer, people in small towns and big cities across the country
celebrated with parades, concerts, air shows, political speeches, and fireworks. With so many
Americans discouraged by Watergate, Vietnam, and the recession, the celebrations could not have
been better timed. On the Fourth of July, hundreds of sailing ships paraded into New York City's harbor
while millions watched from many countries. Many observers saw in the bicentennial celebrations a
revival of optimism and patriotism after years of gloom.
The 1976 Election
After just two years in office, a rough two years, Gerald Ford ran for re-election in 1976. Even though
Ford was the incumbent - the current office holder - he faced strong opposition from conservative
fellow Republicans inside his own party. The Democrats nominated a candidate few Americans had
even heard of at the start of the campaign: James Earl ("Jimmy") Carter, a former governor of Georgia.
Carter went on to defeat Ford by a narrow margin. The poor economy and Ford's pardon of Nixon
certainly played a role in Ford's defeat.
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Section 3: Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)
Carter's Background
Jimmy Carter, a southerner with no national political experience, was different from his recent
predecessors in the White House. His family had lived for generations in the rural South. A graduate of
the United States Naval Academy, Carter served as an engineering officer on nuclear submarines.
When his father died, he took over management of the family's peanut farm. He entered local politics
relatively late in life, and was elected governor of Georgia in 1970. Carter was a born-again Baptist
whose deep religious faith was central to his view of the world. While holding his own strong religious
beliefs, though, Carter respected those of others.
At first, people responded warmly to Carter's "down home" approach. They loved it when he and his
wife Rosalynn dismissed their limousine after the inauguration and strolled on foot down Pennsylvania
Avenue with their young daughter. He spoke to the nation on television wearing a cardigan sweater
instead of a business suit. He eliminated many of the ceremonial details of White House life, such as
trumpets to announce his entrance at official receptions.
Carter's lack of connections to Washington had helped him in the election campaign, since he had not
been tarnished by failure or scandal. Once he became President, though, the "Washington outsider"
role had disadvantages. The White House staff and other close advisors were also southerners, mostly
Georgians. They had little sense of how crucial it was for the President to work with Congress. Carter
himself was uneasy with Congress's demands and found it difficult to get legislation passed.
Economic Issues
Carter inherited an unstable economy. Like his predecessors, he had trouble controlling inflation
without hurting economic growth. To prevent another recession, Carter tried to stimulate the economy
with deficit spending. However, inflation then rose even higher to about 10 percent. In an attempt to
stop inflation and reduce the deficit, Carter then cut federal spending. At the same time, the slowdown
in the economy increased unemployment and the number of business closures. Americans lost
confidence in Carter and his economic advisors as the economy worsened in the late 1970s.
Energy Issues
In the late 1970s, almost half of the oil used in the United States came from other countries. OPEC, the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, had been raising oil prices steadily since 1973. In April
1977, Carter presented his energy program to Congress and the public. He asked people to save fuel
by driving less and using less heat and air conditioning in their homes and offices. He also created a
new Cabinet department, the Department of Energy, to promote conservation and research new energy
sources, like solar and nuclear power.
Carter's energy plan also included the National Energy Act, which included the following proposals:
1. Higher taxes will be placed on the sale of inefficient, "gas-guzzling," cars.
2. Public facilities should try to convert new utilities to fuels other than oil or natural gas.
3. Provide tax credits or loans to homeowners for using solar energy and improving the insulation in
their homes.
4. Fund research for alternative energy sources such as solar energy and synthetic fuels.
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Nuclear power seemed to be a promising alternative energy source. Serious questions remained about
its cost and safety, however. In March 1979, people's doubts appeared to be confirmed by an accident
at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island, near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. A partial meltdown of
the reactor core occurred, releasing some radiation. About 140,000 people who lived near the plant
fled their homes, terrified by the idea of a radioactive leak. Despite no deaths from the meltdown, the
story made headlines around the world, and misinformation about nuclear power spread quickly,
causing many to question its use in the U.S.
Civil Rights Issues
Carter's concern for moral values influenced his approach to domestic questions. Soon after taking
office, he carried out his promise to grant amnesty-a pardon-to those who had evaded the draft during
the Vietnam War. Because that war still divided Americans, reactions were mixed. As governor of
Georgia, Carter had had a good civil rights record. As President, Carter tried to move beyond the civil
rights battles of the 1950s and 1960s. Many of Carter's staff appointments went to women and racial
minorities, a sign that the Civil Rights Movement of the previous two decades had worked.
Carter's Foreign Policy
Carter's commitment to finding ethical solutions to complicated problems was visible in the Middle East.
In that unstable region, Israel and the Arab nations like Egypt and Syria had fought several recent wars.
In 1977, though, Egypt's President made a historic visit to Israel to begin negotiations with the Israeli
Prime Minister. The two men had such different personalities, however, that they had trouble
compromising. Carter intervened, inviting them to Camp David, the presidential retreat in the Maryland
hills.
At Camp David, Carter assumed the role of peacemaker. He practiced highly effective personal
diplomacy to bridge the gap between the two men. They agreed on a treaty for peace that became
known as the Camp David Accords. Under the resulting peace agreement, Israel would withdraw from
Egypt. Egypt, in return, became the first Arab country to recognize Israel's existence as a nation, and
promised not to attack Israel. The Camp David Accords, of course, did not solve all the problems in the
Middle East, but did offer hope that the U.S. could successfully negotiate peace in the future of that
region.
Soviet-American Relations
Several issues complicated the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. Detente
was at a high point when Carter took office thanks to positive actions of Nixon and Ford. However,
Carter's stand on human rights angered Soviet leaders. The Soviets were especially annoyed when the
President spoke in support of Soviet dissidents-writers and other activists who criticized the actions of
their government. Soviet citizens were denied the right to speak freely or to criticize their political
leaders. Carter believed that such rights were essential and was outspoken in defending them, even
when such a defense caused international friction.
In spite of the tension between Carter and the Soviets, a second round of Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks led Carter and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to sign a new treaty (SALT II) in June 1979. Like
SALT I, this agreement again limited the number of nuclear warheads and missiles held by each
superpower.
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Late in 1979, before the Senate could ratify SALT II, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, a country
on its southern border, to defend a Soviet-supported government there that was under attack by rebels.
Carter telephoned Brezhnev and told him that the invasion was "a clear threat to peace." A United
Nations resolution also called for Soviet withdrawal. Realizing that SALT II surely would be turned
down, Carter removed the treaty from Senate consideration. Carter also imposed a boycott on the 1980
summer Olympic Games to be held in Moscow. Eventually, some 60 other nations joined the Olympic
boycott. Detente was effectively dead.
The Iran Hostage Crisis
Iran, Afghanistan's neighbor to the west, was the scene of the worst foreign policy crisis of the Carter
administration. For years the United States had supported the shah (or king) of Iran. The shah had
taken many steps to modernize Iran. He was also a reliable supplier of oil and a pro-Western force in
the region. But in January 1979, revolution broke out in Iran. It was led by Muslim fundamentalists,
many of them college students, who wanted to remove the shah and his Western influence and bring
back traditional ways. As the revolution spread, the shah fled to the U.S. He was replaced by an elderly
Islamic leader, the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini. Khomeini and his followers were aggressively antiWestern and planned to make Iran a strict Islamic state. Angry followers of Khomeini seized the
American embassy in the capital city of Tehran and took Americans, mostly embassy workers, hostage.
For 444 days, revolutionaries imprisoned 52 hostages. The prisoners were blindfolded and moved from
place to place. Some were tied up and beaten. Others spent time in solitary confinement and faced
mock executions intended to terrorize them.
Meanwhile, the American public became more impatient for the hostages' release. President Carter
tried many approaches to secure the hostages' freedom. He broke diplomatic relations with Iran and
froze all Iranian assets in the United States. Khomeini held out, insisting that the shah be sent back for
trial. In April 1980, Carter authorized a risky commando rescue mission. It ended in disaster when
several helicopters broke down in the desert. In the retreat, two aircraft collided, killing eight American
soldiers. The government was humiliated, and Carter's popularity dropped further. Even after the shah
died in July, the standoff continued. Carter's chances for reelection appeared slim.
The 1980 Election
Despite Carter's achievements in the Middle East and his sincere desire to improve America, his
administration had lost the confidence of many Americans. Rising inflation in early 1980 dropped his
approval rating to under 30 percent in public opinion polls. Unemployment was still high. At times Carter
himself seemed to have lost confidence. Many people were ready for the optimism of the Republican
candidate, Ronald Reagan. A leading conservative with strong communication skills, Reagan won the
nomination, and went on to win the election over Carter by a landslide. After months of secret talks, the
Iranians agreed to release the 52 hostages in early 1981. Not until the day Carter left office, however,
were they allowed to come home.
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Section 4: Ronald Reagan (1981-1989)
Reagan's Popularity
During the campaign of 1980, Reagan capitalized on the growing frustration of the American people.
His attacks on incumbent Jimmy Carter's handling of the economy were particularly effective. The
continuing hostage crisis in Iran, as well as other issues, hurt Carter, and Reagan won in a landslide.
Carter won only 49 electoral votes while Reagan picked up 489, the largest loss an incumbent
president had ever suffered. Swept along by Reagan's popularity, the Republicans gained control of the
Senate for the first time since Eisenhower's first term thirty years earlier. Conservative Republicans
now controlled the nation's agenda, and the country's government shifted to the “right wing” of the
political spectrum.
During the 1980 campaign, Ronald Reagan stressed three broad policies that he would pursue if
elected President: cutting taxes, eliminating unnecessary government programs, and
strengthening the military of the United States. His goals included restoring the country's economy,
as well as increasing the confidence of the American people in their country. In his first term, Reagan
moved aggressively to put his principles into action. His optimism and humor earned him a great deal
of popularity early in his first term. That popularity only increased when he survived an assassination
attempt just two months after taking office.
Changing the Economy
To improve the economy, Reagan wanted to cut taxes so as to put more money back into people's
pockets, in the hopes that they would use it to expand businesses, thereby lowering unemployment and
inflation. The theory assumed that businesses would then hire more people and produce more goods
and services, making the economy grow faster. The real key, therefore, was encouraging business
leaders to invest in their companies. This plan was called "Reaganomics."
Cutting Taxes
Reagan's first priority was a tax cut. In 1981, a 5 percent cut went into effect, followed by 10 percent
cuts in 1982 and 1983. In 1986, during Reagan's second term, Congress passed the most sweeping
tax reform in history. It simplified the tax system by reducing the number of income brackets that
determined how much tax a person paid.
Changing the Government
As you read in the previous section, for generations' conservatives had criticized government growth.
Now, however, they had a Chief Executive committed to limiting both the size and the role of the federal
government. Reagan wanted to begin a period of deregulation (reducing the power of government to
control businesses). Reagan wanted to eliminate government regulations that he believed stifled
business growth in the economy. By the time of Reagan's presidency, regulation had been expanding
for nearly a century. Reagan argued that regulations made life difficult for companies, which meant
fewer jobs for workers and higher prices for consumers. The more that businesses spent to comply with
government rules, he claimed, the less they could spend on new factories and equipment.
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Recession and Recovery
During Reagan's first two years in office, the United States experienced a sharp economic downturn.
By 1982, unemployment had reached a postwar high of 10.8 percent and several hundred businesses
were going bankrupt each week. The recession did, however, pave the way for a healthier economy.
Inflation slowed and as Reagan's tax cuts took effect, and consumer spending began to rise. By 1983,
both inflation and unemployment had already dropped below 10 percent. Business leaders gained new
confidence and increased their investments. The stock market pushed upward. Republicans claimed
that the recovery demonstrated the wisdom of "Reaganomics."
During the 1980 campaign, Reagan had vowed to balance the federal budget if elected. But, the
combination of tax cuts and increased defense spending pushed the deficit up, not down. The deficit
ballooned from nearly $80 billion in 1980 to a peak of $221 billion in 1986. Even though the government
cut back on domestic spending, deficits drove the nation as a whole deeper into debt. The national
debt, the total amount of money owed by the government, tripled from $1 trillion in 1980 to $3 trillion in
1990.
Reagan's Foreign Policy
While taking decisive measures to change the direction of domestic policy, Reagan was equally
determined to defend American interests in the Cold War. He believed in a tough approach toward the
Soviet Union, which he called an "evil empire." He favored large defense budgets to strengthen both
conventional military forces and the nuclear arsenal.
Military Buildup
The costs of the buildup were enormous. Over a five-year period, the United States spent an
unprecedented $1.1 trillion on defense. Much of this money went into new weapons and new
technology. Reagan also explored ways to protect American territory against nuclear attack. In 1983,
Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as "Star Wars" after the
1977 film. SDI proposed the creation of a massive satellite shield in space to intercept and destroy
incoming Soviet missiles. Reagan believed that if the U.S. spent trillions on defense, the Soviets would
have to try to keep up. He also knew that if they did, their unstable economy would probably collapse.
The Soviets noticed his large military buildup, and took the bait. More on that later.
Fighting Communism in the Americas
Reagan feared that Communist forces would gain power and threaten American interests in the
Western Hemisphere. He sent military aid and money to rebels in several nearby countries in the hopes
that they would topple communist governments there. These countries included El Salvador,
Nicaragua, and Grenada.
Reagan’s Second Term
Campaigning for re-election in 1984, Ronald Reagan asked voters if they were better off than they had
been four years before. Reagan faced Democrat Walter Mondale, former Vice President under Carter.
Mondale's running mate was New York Representative Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman ever on a
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major party's presidential ticket. The strength of the economy and Reagan's popularity gave the
President a landslide victory over Mondale. Reagan took 59 percent of the popular vote and all the
electoral votes except those of Mondale's home state of Minnesota and Washington D.C.
Gay Rights Movement Gains Steam
The campaign for homosexual rights became a national issue in the 1980s. Contributing to the
backlash was the sudden spread of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, known simply as AIDS.
Most victims of the virus were intravenous drug users and homosexual men. Some people contracted
the virus through contaminated blood transfusions. By the late 1980s, the rising costs associated with
researching a cure and treating and caring for AIDS patients caused alarm among some Americans.
Many people believed the government should promote abstinence as the best way to prevent AIDS,
rather than providing controversial information on alternative forms of prevention. Even as AIDS spread
into the general community, the resistance to gay rights grew more vocal.
Conservatives on the Supreme Court
Reagan's appointees to the federal courts were fairly conservative. In 1981, he selected Arizona judge
Sandra Day O'Connor as the nation's first female Supreme Court justice. In 1986, Reagan chose
another conservative, Antonin Scalia, for the Supreme Court and raised conservative Justice William
Rehnquist to the post of Chief Justice.
The Iran-Contra Affair
In Nicaragua, the Reagan administration tried to help overthrow the communist government that had
seized power. The ruling group, the Sandinistas, was considered an enemy of American interests.
Reagan feared that the Sandinistas' revolution would spread upheaval to other Latin American
countries. The Central Intelligence Agency trained and armed Nicaraguan guerrillas known as Contras
in an attempt to get them to overthrow the Sandinistas. Congress discovered these secret missions and
in 1984 banned military aid to the Contras, hoping to avoid another Vietnam-like situation. Some
members of the Reagan administration still believed that aid to the Contras was justified.
These officials took the profits from secret arms sales to Iran and then sent the profits to the Contras.
The arms sales were meant to encourage the release of American hostages held by pro-Iranian
terrorists. When the secret actions became public in 1986, the media called it the Iran-Contra affair.
While this affair caused the most serious criticism that the Reagan administration ever faced, he was
not formally charged with any crimes. Instead, Oliver North, the marine officer who had made the
arrangements for the weapons sales, took the blame. The President himself claimed no knowledge of
North's operations. North was jailed and Reagan’s second term continued with only a minor drop in his
popularity.
Foreign Policy Success
One reason for the President's continued popularity was the improvement in relations between the
United States and the Soviet Union during Reagan's second term. Despite his fierce anti-communist
stance, Reagan developed a close relationship with Mikhail Gorbachev, who became the Soviet
leader in 1985.
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Gorbachev was much more open to change than previous Soviet dictators. He had to be, as the Soviet
Union’s economy was collapsing. Since they had tried to match Reagan’s military buildup earlier in the
decade, the government was spending less on its peoples’ schools, roads, food, housing, and
medicine. Citizens grew frustrated. In an attempt to help, Gorbachev proposed a program of glasnost,
a Russian word meaning "political openness," allowing freedoms not seen in that country since before
the communist revolution. He also initiated perestroika, or "restructuring," an economic policy to allow
limited free enterprise. These moves paved the way toward better relations between the United States
and the Soviet Union, and eventually, the end of the Cold War. Reagan and Gorbachev also signed
the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987. The INF Treaty called for the destruction
of 2,500 Soviet and American missiles.
The Reagan Legacy
When Reagan left office in 1989, polls showed that 64 percent of the American people gave him high
marks for his overall performance, a remarkably high number for an outgoing president. (George W.
Bush left office in 2009 with an approval rating of just 29 percent.) For most Americans, Ronald
Reagan's two-term presidency was marked by his vigorous emphasis on restoring national pride, and
the force of his own optimistic personality. Reagan's presidency made many Americans feel confident
for the first time since the end of World War II.
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Unit 7:
The 1990s and 2000s
Section 1:
George H.W. Bush
p.103
Section 2:
Bill Clinton
p.106
Section 3:
George W. Bush
p.110
Section 4:
Barack Obama
p.114
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Section 1: George H.W. Bush (1989-1993)
George H.W. Bush
Ronald Reagan remained enormously popular as he left office in 1989, and George H.W. Bush sought
to continue the “conservative revolution” Reagan had begun. But he lacked Reagan's charismatic
appeal and found that it was not always easy to measure up. The son of a Connecticut senator, Bush
served in World War II as a bomber pilot in the Pacific and was awarded the Distinguished Flying
Cross. After the war, he had a profitable career in the Texas oil industry. In 1966, he began a long and
distinguished political career, serving in many roles: member of Congress from Texas; ambassador to
the United Nations under Nixon, ambassador to China under Ford; and head of the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA). Bush then served eight years as Reagan’s Vice President.
The 1988 Election
Bush ran for president in 1988, hoping to capitalize on Reagan’s popularity. His Democratic opponent,
Michael Dukakis, was the Governor of Massachusetts. One part of Bush’s campaign was a pledge that
there would be "no new taxes" if he became president. President Reagan's popular tax cuts had
contributed to the huge budget deficit and national debt. Whoever won the 1988 election would be
under great pressure to raise taxes in order to reduce the deficit. Yet Bush publicly committed himself
to holding the line on taxes. Bush won a solid 54 percent of the popular vote and carried 40 states in a
426-111 electoral vote win. But Democrats controlled both houses of Congress.
The Cold War Ends
Bush's major triumphs came in foreign policy. Like Reagan, Bush benefited from the historic changes in
the communist world that were unleashed by Mikhail Gorbachev. The Soviet leader started a chain
reaction that caused Europe's "Iron Curtain" to fall and dissolve the Soviet Union. It began with
Gorbachev's public statements encouraging Eastern European leaders to adopt perestroika and
glasnost. The suggestion was unthinkable in a region where dictatorships efficiently smothered all
opposition, and had done so since World War II.
In Poland, the stage was set for the downfall of Soviet communism. Electrician Lech Walesa became
involved in anti-communist protests, and soon led the movement to replace the oppressive government
there. Facing enormous public pressure from the movement, the communist-led government agreed to
schedule free elections for June 1989. In Poland's first free elections in half a century, voters chose
Walesa as their new president. While Poland was the first iron curtain country to rebel against
communism, it would not be the last. Surrounding countries like Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Romania, and Albania, all used Walesa and Poland as examples of how to begin democracies.
The Berlin Wall Falls
But the most dramatic events of 1989 took place in East Germany. East Germany's communist rulers
tried to maintain a strong grip on the state, symbolized by the Berlin Wall that divided East Germans
from the democratic West. As Soviet and communist influence was weakening all over Europe, the
government announced that East Germans could travel freely to West Germany. East Germans flooded
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around and over the hated Berlin Wall. Germans scaled it from both sides and stood atop the structure,
cheering and chanting and waving signs. They came with sledgehammers and smashed it with glee.
Soon after, East and West Germany reunified as Germany under democracy.
The Soviet Union Breaks Up
Gorbachev hoped to reform the Soviet system while keeping the communist Party in power, but events
slipped beyond his control. In 1991, the Soviet Union's 15 republics sensed weakness in the central
government and began to move toward independence. Gorbachev resigned the presidency of the
Soviet Union on December 25, 1991. One week later the Soviet Union no longer existed. It had been
replaced by an alliance of former Soviet republics called the Commonwealth of Independent States.
The CIS included 12 states, the largest and most powerful of which was Russia. Russia's new
president, Boris Yeltsin, emerged as the dominant leader in this fragmented land.
As the Soviet Union disintegrated, Bush continued arms-control talks with Russia. The first Strategic
Arms Reduction Treaty, known as START I, called for dramatic reductions in the two nations' supplies
of long-range nuclear weapons. It was signed in 1991. After the Soviet Union collapsed, Bush
continued to negotiate with President Boris Yeltsin of Russia. "The Cold War is now behind us,"
Gorbachev declared. The United States was now the world's lone superpower.
Tiananmen Square
The People's Republic of China occupied much of America's attention in 1989. As Communist
governments began to crumble in Eastern Europe, Chinese students gathered in the capital, Beijing, to
march for democracy and reform in their country. In May, protesters occupied Tiananmen Square in
the heart of the city, despite official orders to leave. Their numbers soon swelled to more than one
million across the city, all hoping for more freedom in their country. But the government was
unimpressed. China's leaders ordered the army to attack the protester camps. Thousands of
demonstrators died and others quickly scattered in the face of overwhelming military force. The
government cracked down on the democracy movement after the attack and many more people were
imprisoned and executed.
The Invasion of Panama
Bush enjoyed more support later that year when he acted against the Central American nation of
Panama. Bush suspected General Manuel Noriega, Panama's dictator, of smuggling cocaine into the
United States. Noriega had once been an ally of the US due to his anti-communist leanings, but the end
of the Cold War made the foundation of the alliance crack. After Noriega declared war on the United
States, Bush launched a lightning attack against Panama in December 1989 and quickly won control of
the country. Noriega surrendered to American forces and was convicted by a U.S. court. The invasion
demonstrated Bush's willingness to act boldly to stop the flow of drugs into the United States.
The Persian Gulf War
In August 1990, the Arab nation of Iraq, headed by a brutal dictator, Saddam Hussein, launched a
sudden invasion of neighboring Kuwait. He had his sights on Kuwait's substantial oil wealth, and had
his troops take over and control its oil wells. Kuwait had been a supplier of oil to the U.S. for years.
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Bush viewed the protection of those oil reserves as an issue of national security. He was also
concerned about the security of Saudi Arabia, a key U.S. ally in the region. Americans at first seemed
reluctant to get involved in a territorial matter between Arab nations. As the weeks passed, however,
rising oil prices and reports of Iraqi atrocities against Kuwaiti civilians drew increasing concern. Bush
tried to convince Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait. He refused. Finally, the United States, working
through the United Nations, mobilized an alliance of 28 UN countries to launch the Persian Gulf War. It
was a military operation to drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.
A series of massive air strikes, known as "Operation Desert Storm," began on January 16, 1991. UN
forces, directed by General Colin Powell and led by Norman Schwarzkopf of the U.S., liberated Kuwait
in just six weeks of war. The allies had lost fewer than 300 soldiers, while tens of thousands of Iraqi
troops had died. Kuwaiti civilians celebrated the victory with American troops. Bush opted not to send
soldiers deep into Iraq to oust Hussein, expecting that his opponents would soon overthrow him. Yet
Hussein's opposition proved weaker than Bush's advisors had thought, and he remained in power - for
now.
Recession After the War
America’s positive feelings over the success of the war would be short-lived. The percentage of
Americans who approved of Bush's job performance plunged from a record high of 89 percent just after
the Gulf War to only 29 percent leading up to the election the following year. The drop can be
attributed to an economic recession that again saw high inflation and unemployment rates. To combat
the recession, Bush went against his campaign promise of "no new taxes." When the tax increase
failed to solve the recession, his victory for a second term in 1992 was in serious doubt.
The 1992 Campaign
The 1992 presidential campaign was a three-way race. On the Republican side, President George H.
W. Bush sought a second term. The Republicans praised President Bush for his role in overseeing the
end of the Cold War and winning the Gulf War. However, the recession of the early 1990s continued,
and economic issues dominated the campaign. Independent candidate Ross Perot, a billionaire Texas
businessman, entered the race out of frustration over government policies dealing with the budget and
the economy. Perot ran as a Washington "outsider." He said that he had no ties to special interest
groups or either political party and pledged that he would consider the needs of the country as a whole.
The Democrats nominated Arkansas governor Bill Clinton as their candidate. Clinton promised to end
the recession and deal with the nation's other economic problems. He also pledged to address the
federal budget deficit and the problems in the healthcare system.
The Election
Clinton, a baby-boomer at 46, was a full generation younger than the 68-year-old Bush, which helped
him appeal to younger voters. On Election Day, Clinton received 43 percent of the votes, while Bush
collected 38 percent. Perot's strong showing of 19 percent meant that Clinton became President with
well less than a majority of the popular vote. In the Electoral College, Clinton won 370 votes versus 168
for Bush. Perot won no electoral votes, but had a major impact on the outcome of the election, as most
of his voters were republicans or conservative-leaning independents, who probably would have voted
for Bush had Perot not been in the race.
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Section 2: Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
Economic Reform
When Bill Clinton began his first term as President, he was helped by the fact that Democratic
majorities existed in both the House and the Senate; the executive and legislative branches would be in
the hands of the same political party.
In dealing with the economy, Clinton tried to follow a middle course. He wanted to end the lingering
recession by raising spending or cutting taxes. At the same time he needed to reduce the budget
deficit, which meant cutting spending or raising taxes. To reduce the deficit, Clinton’s budget included
both spending cuts and tax increases. Neither action was well received by the public, but deficit
spending was reduced, and in his second term Clinton would accomplish a balanced budget.
The Battle Over Healthcare
When Clinton took office, an estimated 37 million Americans had no health insurance. For years this
number had been rising, along with the costs of healthcare. Many Americans found it increasingly
difficult to afford medical care. "This healthcare system of ours is badly broken, and it is time to fix it,"
Clinton declared to a national TV audience in 1993. His wife, Hillary, an accomplished lawyer, helped
Clinton create a proposal to help the uninsured. The proposal he presented to Congress called for the
creation of a government-supervised health insurance program that would guarantee affordable
coverage to every American (very similar to President Obama's Affordable Care Act twenty years later.)
A number of insurance, professional, and small-business groups vigorously opposed Clinton's program.
Republicans attacked it as an example of big government. Democrats, too, disagreed on how far the
program should go. After a year of debate, Clinton's plan for healthcare reform failed to gain the
necessary support in Congress.
The Republicans' “Contract With America”
The failure of his healthcare plan signaled trouble for the President. During the 1994 midterm elections,
Georgia Representative, and future Speaker of the House, Newt Gingrich called on Republican
candidates to endorse what he called a "Contract with America". This contract was a pledge to scale
back the role of the federal government, eliminate some regulations, and cut taxes. Many voters,
feeling that the Democratic-controlled Congress had lost touch with their concerns, responded
enthusiastically. In November 1994, voters elected Republicans in large numbers, giving them
majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time in more than four decades, making President
Clinton's job much more difficult.
Congress Versus the President
The Republicans quickly became a potent force in the House. For leadership they looked to Gingrich,
who was elected Speaker of the House. There was talk of a new era in American politics in which
Congress, not the President, would set the nation's course. The Federal Government, and the nation as
well, were divided. Democrats supported for President Clinton, while Republicans backed Congress.
The effects of this division are still felt today.
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Welfare Reform
In 1996, Congress and Clinton agreed on a sweeping reform of the nation's welfare system. The law,
called the Personal Responsibility Act, established a lifetime limit of five years of financial aid per
family and required most adults to work within two years of receiving aid. The historic policy change
reversed six decades of increased social welfare legislation. Within five years, over six million
Americans stopped receiving welfare because they found jobs.
Terrorism and the United States
During Clinton's time in office, Americans began experiencing a new threat to the nation: terrorism.
Terrorism is defined as organized, politically-motivated violence against civilians. Two major attacks
took place on American soil. In February 1993, a bomb exploded in the World Trade Center in New
York City, leaving six people dead and more than 1,000 injured. Six men were later convicted for the
crime. The bombers had links to larger terrorist organizations based in the Middle East who were angry
about America's role in world affairs.
Two years later, in April 1995, a bomb exploded outside a federal building in Oklahoma City. The
explosion killed 168 people, 19 of whom were young children in a daycare center. Investigators soon
learned that this act was not carried out by foreign terrorists, but by Americans angry about the
increasing size of the federal government. Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols were both convicted for
their roles in the bombing. McVeigh was executed in 2001.
The United States also faced terrorist attacks overseas. In 1998, bombs planted at United States
embassies in Kenya and Tanzania killed more than 200 people in Africa. In 2000, terrorists attacked the
USS Cole, an American warship that was refueling in a port in Yemen in the Middle East. Seventeen
American sailors died. Federal officials linked the attacks to a terrorist organization called Al Qaeda,
headed by Osama bin Laden. Neither bin Laden nor Al Qaeda were finished attacking the United
States.
The 1996 Election
When the Republicans took control of both houses of Congress halfway through Clinton's first term, his
chances for reelection seemed slim. The Republican message appeared to have great appeal to
voters. In the months that followed, Clinton worked hard to counter that message. The Republican
nominee for President in 1996 was Bob Dole. A wounded World War II veteran, he became Senate
Majority Leader and a respected member of Congress from Kansas for 35 years. As the election
approached, the economy, which had been an important factor in the 1992 campaign, became strong.
Again, the economy worked in Clinton's favor. On Election Day, voters returned Clinton to office with 49
percent of the popular vote. Dole received 41 percent. In the Electoral College, Clinton gathered 379
votes to 159 for Dole.
Clinton’s Second Term
Bill Clinton’s second term included both tremendous highs and devastating lows. The economy not
only rebounded from the 1991 recession, it had grown to incredible levels. However, as the economy
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reached new heights in the late 1990s, Bill Clinton also became only the second president in American
history to be impeached.
The “dot com” Boom
As the 1990s wore on, the internet found its way in to more and more American homes. At the start of
the decade, most Americans had never heard the word “internet,” but by the end of the decade, half of
all American households had a personal computer with internet access in their homes. This quick rise
in the popularity of the internet led to what is known as the “dot com” economic boom. Thousands of
new business emerged centered around the internet. Business that had already been established hired
more workers to create and manage their websites. Unemployment fell, and average salaries and the
stock market reached all-time highs. While Bill Clinton was not directly responsible for the boom, he, as
the president, benefited. He was responsible, however, for working with Congress to balance the
federal budget in 1998 and 1999.
Clinton Is Impeached
When he first ran for president in 1992, rumors circulated about Clinton’s possibly engaging in extramarital affairs. Republicans produced several women between 1992 and 1998 who claimed to have
had relationships with Clinton, but other than the word of the women, there was no evidence, and
Clinton denied all allegations. But in the summer of 1998, another rumor surfaced. This one was about
a romantic relationship between Clinton and a young White House intern. While under oath in a
separate sexual harassment lawsuit, Clinton had denied having sexual relations with the intern. He
repeated this denial again to a grand jury. Eventually, only after evidence of the affair surfaced, Clinton
admitted to having had an "inappropriate relationship" and to having "misled" his family and the country.
Republicans sent a report listing numerous grounds for impeachment to the House of Representatives.
This report led to a bitter debate in the House and throughout the country. Polls showed that while most
Americans criticized Clinton's actions, a majority believed that he was doing a good job as President
and should not be impeached. In December, the House voted to have the Senate impeach Clinton on
charges of perjury and obstruction of justice. The Senate trial that followed opened in January 1999.
Many senators believed that Clinton had committed offenses, but debate centered on whether these
offenses qualified as "high crimes and misdemeanors," the constitutional requirement for conviction of a
President in an impeachment trial. In February, the Senate voted to acquit the President. Most
Republicans voted to impeach, most Democrats voted to acquit. Support for Clinton throughout the
process was no doubt bolstered by the economic boom.
Other Events from the 1990s
The 1990s was an eventful decade both in the United States and around the world. What follows are
brief descriptions of some of these events that don’t necessarily have to do with Bill Clinton, but
happened just before or during his time in office.
The Los Angeles Riots
In 1991, a black motorist was pulled over by the Los Angeles Police Department for speeding and
drunk driving. When Rodney King got out of his car, a group of white police officers tased him, then
beat him with clubs as he lay unconscious on the side of the road. According to many black citizens,
this kind of police brutality had been common in L.A. for decades. This time was different.
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Unbeknownst to the police, another citizen had been videoing the beating with his home movie camera.
He turned the video over to the media and four police officers were arrested. However, one year later, a
jury of 11 whites and one Asian found the police officers not guilty, despite seeing the videotape. The
four days that followed were complete chaos in L.A. Angry black citizens began to attack police officers
and white citizens. Eventually, police officers were told to stay out of neighborhoods that were primarily
black, for their own safety. This led to widespread rioting in America’s second largest city. 58 people
were killed, thousands were injured, and billions of dollars of property was damaged. It took military
soldiers to finally stop the rioting four days later.
Africa
Conflicts in Africa demonstrated how hard it was to maintain this balance. In the early 1990s, the East
African nation of Somalia suffered from a devastating famine, made worse by a civil war. President
George H. W. Bush sent American troops to Somalia in 1992 to assist a United Nations (UN) relief
effort. The food crisis eased, but Somalia's government remained unable to control the armed groups
that ruled the countryside. The following year, after more than a dozen U.S. soldiers were killed in a
battle with Somali rebels, President Clinton recalled the troops without having restored order. To this
day, Somalia is considered to be in a state of civil war.
In 1994, the government of the central African nation of Rwanda set out to exterminate a minority
group. The government, run by the Hutu people, had a longstanding rivalry with the Tutsi minority.
Haunted by the Somalia episode, the United States failed to intervene. Almost one million Tutsis died in
the genocidal rampage by Hutu militias, soldiers, and ordinary citizens.
Russia and the Former Soviet Union
As the old Soviet empire crumbled, the United States tried to promote the move toward Western-style
democracy in the former Soviet republics. For example, it applauded the election that brought Boris
Yeltsin to power as president of Russia. To help Russia create a free market economy, the international
community offered billions in aid, but it was far from enough. Goods remained in short supply and the
Russian economy remained unstable. Yeltsin, in poor health, resigned his post. In the next presidential
election, Russian voters officially elected Vladmir Putin their new president. Putin worked to
strengthen Russia's ties with the international community. In general, the United States remained on
friendly terms with the Russian leadership. Several factors led to conflict between the United States and
Russia in the early twenty-first century however. Relations were strained when Russia opposed the
United States invasion of Iraq in 2003. The two countries also have sparred over the spread of nuclear
technology to Iran and political events in former Soviet republics.
South Africa
Just as stunning as the collapse of communism was South Africa's rejection of apartheid, the system
that separated people of different racial backgrounds. South Africa's white population, which made up
only about 15 percent of the population, had long denied equal rights to the black population. Apartheid
was a much more severe version of the segregation that plagued the United States following the Civil
War. To encourage reform, the United States and other nations had used economic sanctions, or
trade restrictions intended to punish another nation. Finally, in 1990, Prime Minister F. W. de Klerk
released anti-apartheid leader Nelson Mandela from jail. Mandela had been held prisoner for 27 years
for his leadership of an equality movement. Former rivals de Klerk and Mandela worked together to
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end apartheid. In 1994, South Africa held its first elections in which blacks as well as whites voted. The
elections produced a new government, led by President Nelson Mandela.
Section 3: George W. Bush (2001-2009)
The 2000 Election
Leading up to the election, polls showed that the Republican candidate, Texas Governor George W.
Bush (son of former President George H.W. Bush), was virtually tied with the Democratic candidate,
Bill Clinton’s Vice President Al Gore. On election night, the votes in several states were too close to
call; neither candidate had captured the 270 electoral votes needed to win the presidency. One
undecided state, Florida, could give either candidate enough electoral votes to win the presidency.
Bush won the Florida majority initially, but because the difference there was so close, state law required
a recount of the ballots. Florida became a battleground for the presidency as lawyers, politicians, and
the media swarmed there to monitor the recount.
After over a month of argument and legal battles, matters reached the U.S. Supreme Court in the case
of Bush v. Gore. Like the nation, the nine justices were sharply divided about how to remedy the
election crisis. By a majority of five to four (each justice siding with the political party that appointed
him/her), they issued a ruling that discontinued all recounts in Florida. This ruling effectively secured
the presidency for George W. Bush. Although Gore won the national popular vote, Bush won 271
electoral votes to Gore's 266.
George W. Bush's First Term
After being sworn in as President in January 2001, George W. Bush faced many challenges. Early in
his presidency, Bush focused on a few central issues. In particular, he succeeded in gaining
congressional approval of a major tax cut, the largest in history. By 2001, many of the “dot com” boom
start-up companies had failed, and a recession was on the horizon. Bush argued that by returning
money to the taxpayers, he would jumpstart a faltering economy. With the wars that were to follow, this
tax policy would end up drastically increasing the national debt.
Bush also pushed for the passage of a major education reform bill, No Child Left Behind. The
President's plan called for increased accountability for student performance and teacher quality through
increased standards. Despite these successes, domestic policy soon faded into the background. Before
the end of his first year in office, President Bush would be forced to devote much of his time and energy
to foreign affairs as the result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
Attack on America
In the 1990s, most Americans believed that their country was immune to the kind of violence that
affected Israel and other parts of the world. That opinion changed radically with an attack launched
against the United States. On September 11, 2001, Americans reacted with horror when terrorists
struck at targets in New York City and just outside Washington, D.C. Using hijacked commercial
airplanes as their weapons, the terrorists crashed into both towers of New York City’s World Trade
Center and plowed into part of the Pentagon. A fourth plane crashed in a field near Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. A total of 266 passengers and crew on the four planes lost their lives. The attack on the
Pentagon took place less than an hour after the first plane hit New York. More than 180 people in the
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Pentagon were killed. In New York, the impact of the fully fueled jets caused both towers to burst into
flames. Debris rained down on employees evacuating the buildings and on emergency workers rushing
to respond to the scene. The fires led to the collapse of both 110-story buildings as well as other
buildings in the World Trade Center complex. Tragically, the speedy response to the disaster led to the
deaths of hundreds of firefighters and police officers who were in and around the buildings when they
collapsed. 2,999 victims died in the four attacks.
The U.S. Responds
Americans were horrified. Many schools, businesses, government offices, and professional sports
remained shut down as life was put on hold and the country tried to regroup. President Bush appeared
on television the night of the attacks, and for several nights after, in an attempt to calm the fears of
Americans and to reassure them that anyone who helped the terrorists would be held responsible and
punished harshly. Across the country, Americans donated thousands of hours and millions of dollars in
a relief effort to help those affected by the tragedy.
Law-enforcement agencies immediately began an intensive investigation. Countries around the world
pledged to support to the effort to hunt down the criminals responsible for the attacks. Within days,
government officials named Osama bin Laden, a wealthy Saudi who had a history of organizing
terrorist attacks against the U.S., as "a prime suspect" for masterminding the plot. Bin Laden, the head
of a terrorist network of Muslim extremists known as Al Qaeda, was believed to be hiding in
Afghanistan. Soon, al Qaeda publicly claimed responsibility for the attack, and bin Laden released
videos praising the sacrifice of the hijackers.
The War on Terrorism
During one of Bush’s televised addresses, he made clear that the U.S. would begin to hunt antiAmerican organizations like Al Qaeda all over the world to prevent any future terrorist attacks against
the U.S., its military, or its allies. His administration called this tactic "The War on Terrorism." Bush
added that the U.S. was not declaring war on any particular country or government, but that the
American military would search any country for signs of terrorism, and if found, would fight it.
War in Afghanistan
President Bush's War on Terrorism began three weeks after 9/11 in Afghanistan. Not only was al
Qaeda active in Afghanistan, but a group of Islamic radicals called the Taliban had taken over the
government there. Taliban leaders sought to set up their version of a pure Islamic state, banning such
things as television and music. The Taliban also provided sanctuary for Osama bin Laden, who
established terrorist training camps in the countryside. After the attacks of September 11, the United
States demanded that the Taliban shut down the training camps and turn over bin Laden and other
terrorist leaders. The Taliban refused to meet those demands. As a result, President Bush vowed that
they would "pay a price."
The United States, along with Great Britain, launched a bombing campaign known as "Operation
Enduring Freedom" on Taliban military and communications bases in Afghanistan. After just two
months, United States and rebel Afghan forces defeated the Taliban, ending their five-year rule. By the
end of the year, those forces had established an interim government in Kabul, the capital. This war,
according to Bush, would not be limited to "instant retaliation and isolated strikes" but would be "a
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lengthy campaign, unlike any other we have seen." The President stressed the importance of global
cooperation in this campaign. "Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make," Bush
warned. "Either you are with us or you are with the terrorists." However, bin Laden escaped from
Afghanistan and the Taliban ended up rallying to continue the war. The U.S. continued to fight for the
people of Afghanistan against the Taliban. Still today, the government of Afghanistan is unstable.
War With Iraq
As part of the War on Terrorism, President Bush sent a warning to hostile nations to stop developing
weapons of mass destruction. He classified these "WMDs" as nuclear, chemical or biological
weapons. "The United States of America," Bush said, "will not permit the world's most dangerous
regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons."
With the conflict in Afghanistan seemingly winding down, President Bush turned his attention to Iraq,
where he claimed U.S. intelligence had provided him evidence of WMDs. Despite Iraq's defeat in the
Gulf War, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein continued his brutal oppression of the Iraqi people. Congress
passed a resolution authorizing the President to use force against Iraq. However, UN weapons
inspectors reported that they had found no banned chemical or biological weapons or any sign of a
nuclear weapons program. Bush continued to argue that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. He
also prepared the country for war. Few American allies agreed to help, with only Great Britain, Poland,
and a handful other nations providing soldiers and other support.
Without UN approval, the war, called "Operation Iraqi Freedom," started in March 2003. U.S. missiles
and bombs struck key targets, paving the way for ground troops. Those troops moved toward Baghdad.
Tanks and armored personnel carriers rumbled north out of Kuwait, while U.S. Special Operations
forces slipped quietly into Iraq from the west. The Iraqi military put up only slight resistance. Three
weeks after the start of the fighting, U.S. tanks arrived in Baghdad. Hussein's regime had fallen.
Hussein initially escaped from Baghdad, but was captured hiding in the Iraqi desert in December 2003.
Peace, however, had not come to Iraq. Insurgents made frequent attacks. Insurgents were fighters
who opposed the U.S., including religious militants and foreign fighters (including al Qaeda). The year
following President Bush's announcement of "Mission Accomplished in Iraq", the end of official combat
operations, thousands of Americans and Iraqis were killed. Meanwhile, the U.S. worked with the Iraqi
people to establish a new democratic government and to rebuild the nation. In June 2004, the
Americans handed governing authority to a new Iraqi government. This was followed in January 2005
by a national election in which citizens chose members of an assembly that would write a new
constitution. But the insurgent attacks continued. In the United States, President Bush urged ongoing
support for the mission in Iraq, but there was growing criticism of his handling of the war from the media
and the American people. The criticism grew when the U.S. failed to find weapons of mass destruction
in Iraq, raising questions about the decision to go to war.
The 2004 Election
The 2004 presidential campaign took place during two wars and an uncertain economy at home.
President Bush and his Democratic challenger, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, stayed locked in a
close campaign. Neither candidate enjoyed a clear lead in the polls in the weeks leading up to the
election. Senator Kerry pointed to Iraq and the shaky economy as areas where he could improve on
Bush's performance. Election night in November 2004 closely resembled election night in 2000. People
in the United States and around the world intently watched televisions and the internet, eagerly awaiting
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the outcome. In another close election, Bush gained the electoral votes he needed to win. By a narrow
margin, the voters had decided to send Bush back to the White House for a second term. Despite
seeing his approval rating decline and the economy get worse during his first term, George W. Bush
won reelection.
Second Term Issues
In addition to the ongoing issues from his first term, Bush would face new challenges after the election.
As Bush's second term continued, the American economy again struggled. His tax relief strategy from
the 2001 recession had offered a short-term solution, ending the recession. However, the increase in
government spending due to the War on Terror had added a tremendous amount to the American debt,
harming consumer confidence and starting a second recession in 2007. This second recession led to a
serious collapse in the American real estate market, harming the economy even further.
In August of 2005, a major tropical storm struck the Gulf coast of the United States. Hurricane Katrina
struck Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida, killing almost 2,000 Americans and causing
over $100 billion in damage. Much of the damage and death occurred in the city of New Orleans,
directly in the center of the storm's path. President Bush was criticized by many in the media and the
city for what they saw as a slow response to use the federal government to help those affected by
Katrina.
The two hotspots for the War on Terrorism also proved difficult for President Bush in his second term.
While Iraq received democracy and was ridded of its dictator, insurgents continued to target American
troops and members of the new government, and no WMDs were found. As of 2014, almost 5,000
Americans have been killed and over 30,000 have been wounded fighting in Iraq. Afghanistan too, was
a struggle for the President. The Taliban remained strong, and Osama bin Laden, the primary target
for the War on Terrorism, would not be captured until after Bush left office. Almost 2,500 U.S. troops
have died there.
Legacy
Bush holds two distinctions of note: 1. The highest approval rating in U.S. history, and 2. The lowest
approval rating in U.S. history. While he was highly regarded for his immediate handling of the
September 11th attacks, most Americans criticized his long-term management of the War on Terrorism
and the economy. This attitude was shown in the 2006 midterm elections, when Democrats won a
majority of seats in both the House and Senate for the first time since 1994. When he left office, only
about 25% of the American people responded that he had been a “good” president.
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Section 4: Barrack Obama (2009-2017)
The Campaign of 2008
In 2007 a major financial crisis developed. Millions of Americans found themselves unable to make
payments on their home mortgages due to the recession. As the 2008 election approached, the
economy had replaced the war in Iraq as the most important issue for most Americans. Senator John
McCain of Arizona, a widely admired hero of the Vietnam War, won the Republican nomination for
president. He chose Sarah Palin, the conservative governor of Alaska, as his running mate. Illinois
senator Barack Obama bested New York senator Hillary Clinton to win the Democratic nomination.
Obama had delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. His speech
impressed Democrats and made him a national political figure. Senator Joe Biden of Delaware was his
running mate. Biden's 35 years in the Senate helped balance criticism of Obama's relative
inexperience.
Obama Wins
With the approval ratings of the president and Congress at all-time lows, McCain and Obama both
promised change. Obama made good use of the internet and formed a strong network of young
supporters. On Election Day, Obama won 53 percent of the popular vote and 364 electoral votes. It was
the biggest victory for a Democratic candidate since Lyndon Johnson beat Barry Goldwater in 1964.
Obama, the first African American to win the presidency, said after his win:
"This is our moment…to open doors of opportunity for our kids; to restore prosperity and promote the
cause of peace; to reclaim the American Dream. Here we are met with those who tell us that we can't,
we will respond with that timeless creed that sums up the spirit of a people: Yes We Can."
- Barack Obama, November 4, 2008
The Economy
Before he left office, President Bush authorized billions of dollars in bailouts to failing businesses.
Bailouts are government funds given to companies to stay in business. Despite the Bush
administration's efforts to end the recession, the American economy continued to weaken into 2009.
More Americans lost their homes, and banks closed. Many large companies reported record losses.
They laid-off workers, contributing to a spike in unemployment. With fewer workers, less tax money was
collected, adding to the country's already growing debt. As the economic crisis spread across the
world, global trade lessened and the world economy shrank. When Americans voted President Obama
into office, many expected him to improve the shaky economy. Obama's domestic agenda included
proposals to create jobs, relieve families suffering from unemployment, assist home owners in paying
their mortgages, and ease the financial crisis.
In response to the failing economy, President Obama signed the American Recovery Act in February
2009. The act aimed to stimulate the economy by providing tax cuts to working families and small
businesses. It provided billions in federal funds for growth and investment as well as for education,
health, and other entitlement programs. Yet as the economy worsened, Obama's specific plans to solve
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the nation's problems drew criticism. Some people believed he was not doing enough, while others
argued that he was misusing government authority by doing too much.
By the end of 2009, there were signs that some of Obama's measures were working. The nation's
gross domestic product (GDP) had climbed throughout that year, his first in office. Most large
businesses were reporting gains. The unemployment rate, however, continued to rise, as did the
federal deficit. And many Americans were uncomfortable with what they viewed as a rapidly growing
role for the federal government in the economy.
Health Care Reform
Obama's health care reform plan aimed to lower health care costs and to ensure that all Americans
were covered by some type of health insurance that would help them pay for medical bills, including
office visits, prescriptions, surgeries, and rehabilitation. In a speech to Congress delivered in 2009, he
said, "We are the only advanced democracy on Earth-the only wealthy nation-that allows such
hardships for millions of its people. There are now more than thirty million American citizens who
cannot get coverage."
Obama wanted to pay for the plan through higher taxes on the wealthy. Yet some Americans opposed
what they saw as another expensive government intrusion. Months of heated partisan debate took
place within Congress. No Republican voted for the final bill that passed in March 2010, and many
vowed to overturn it. The bill, known as the Affordable Care Act, contained many important provisions:
1. All Americans must be covered under some type of health insurance by 2015, or face financial
penalties.
2. Americans who are not covered by health insurance given to them by their employers or the federal
government, and who cannot afford to buy it from a private company, may use “healthcare exchanges”
to purchase health insurance. These exchanges are set up by the federal government and use tax
dollars to help Americans purchase relatively low-cost insurance.
3. Health insurance companies that offer coverage to children of covered parents must offer families to
right to choose to keep those children covered until age 26.
4. Americans who have been denied insurance by private companies because they had “preexisting
medical conditions” may also purchase insurance from health-care exchanges.
Medicare and Medicaid remained unchanged by the Affordable Care Act. Between October 2013,
when the exchanges opened, and April 2014, over seven million previously uninsured Americans
bought coverage. President Obama and Democrats in Congress trumpeted “ObamaCare”, as the Act
came to be known, as a success. Republicans and many healthcare professionals, however, continue
to debate the benefits of the plan, and call for its revision or removal.
Energy Policy and the Environment
President Obama's energy plan called for strong enforcement of limits on the amount of pollution
companies could emit. Conservatives opposed the plan, saying it would hurt businesses and possibly
force companies to outsource jobs to countries with fewer environmental regulations. Then, an
environmental disaster struck the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010. A British Petroleum (BP) oil rig
exploded, sending nearly 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf. It was the worst marine oil spill in history.
Commercial fishing and tourism in the Gulf region suffered. Obama required BP to create a $20 billion
fund to assist people affected by the oil spill. Federal agencies directed the recovery, and support for
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the President’s environmental policy increased. He also encouraged companies and citizens to
develop and purchase products that used alternative energy sources.
Marriage Equality
Throughout the first two decades of the twenty-first century, the gay rights movement gained
momentum and began to demand that states offer equal marriage rights to gay citizens. When gay
rights activists tried to push for marriage equality in the 1990s, Congress responded by passing a
federal law that defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman. But pressure for
equality slowly led states to change their laws to accommodate gay citizens. In 2004, Massachusetts
became the first to state to allow same-sex marriages. Despite protests from some Americans, many
states followed. In 2014, Pennsylvania became the 19th state to legalize homosexual marriage.
2010 Midterm Elections
As the 2010 midterm elections approached, Obama's approval rating dipped below 50 percent for the
first time. Many Americans felt that the economic and health care bills had been too expensive and had
not strengthened the economy. A conservative movement called the "Tea Party" sprang up to protest
the Obama administration. The movement took its name from a reference to the Boston Tea Party
protests against British taxation in the 1700s. Most in the movement opposed what they called "big
government" - including higher taxes, health care reform, and the economic plans. The Tea Party
gained support and encouraged Americans to vote out Democrats in the midterms.
Republicans gained a rousing win in the midterm elections. Republicans gained 60 seats in the House
of Representatives and took back control of that House of Congress. The Republicans also captured
six Senate seats, though the Democrats maintained the majority. President Obama was humble the
following day, accepting blame for the Democrats’ defeat. He admitted that many members of
Congress who lost their jobs did so because they voted for his economic and healthcare bills. President
Obama said, "Over the last two years, we've made progress. But, clearly, too many Americans haven't
felt that progress yet, and they told us that yesterday."
Foreign Policy
President Obama ended U.S. involvement in Iraq by slowly removing U.S. forces throughout 2010 and
2011. By December 2011, almost all American troops had left Iraq, effectively ending the nine-year
conflict. Part of the reason Obama pushed for ending involvement in Iraq was his desire to refocus U.S.
efforts to fight against the Taliban in Afghanistan and to expand the search for Osama bin Laden, who
was still at large nearly a decade after the attacks of 2001.
In May of 2011, U.S. Special Forces launched a daring raid on a compound in Pakistan that
intelligence reports indicated was home to bin Laden. The Navy Seal team was successful in killing
bin Laden and the al Qaeda associates located at the compound. President Obama addressed the
nation on television shortly before midnight, breaking the news:
“Good evening. Tonight, I can report to the American people and to the world that the United States has
conducted an operation that killed Osama bin Laden, the leader of al-Qaeda, and a terrorist who was
responsible for the murder of thousands of innocent men, women, and children.”
– Barack Obama, televised speech to the American public, May 2, 2011
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As Americans celebrated the death of bin Laden, Obama also authorized the use of deadly force
against al Qaeda members, even without the need of due process. This authorization was highlighted
in the military’s increased use of drone strikes to target al Qaeda members in the Middle East. Drones
are unmanned aircraft armed with cameras and weapons.
Much change came to the Middle East during the Obama years through the protests of the Arab
Spring. In the spring of 2011, the dictators of Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya were removed from power by
freedom movements of citizens. Many experts gave credit to the internet, and social networking sites
like Facebook and Twitter in helping to bring down the totalitarian regimes in the Middle East.
Protestors used the sites to spread idea of freedom and to pass information about the protests. The
future of these countries is uncertain. While democracy could flourish, some analysts worry that
extremists may use the upheaval as an opportunity to seize power.
Election of 2012
After a primary battle, the Republicans nominated Mitt Romney, the former governor of Massachusetts,
to challenge Obama in the general election. This election shined a spotlight on the divisive partisanship
that exists today. Economically, Romney was a follower of Reagan’s style of economics while Obama
subscribed to a more government-regulated model. Socially, Romney favored having morality be
regulated by the government, while Obama favored a society of individual choice. Obama defeated
Romney, 332 electoral votes to 206, and won over 51 percent of the popular vote to Romney’s 47.
Congressionally, Democrats held control of the Senate, while Republicans continued their majority in
the House.
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