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Lecture 8: Historical Developments 900-1303 (Middle Ages) Ann T. Orlando March 15, 2011 Lecture 8 ATO 1 Introduction Review 600 – 900 Theme 1: Internal European Political Developments Theme 2: Popes and Kings Theme 3: Crusades Theme 4: East-West Relations Review Readings: How to Read Summa Theologiae Lecture 8 ATO 2 Review History 600 - 900 Muslim Arab armies conquer much of Eastern Empire, Southern Mediterranean, North Africa, Spain Charlemagne United Western Europe Crowned by Pope Leo III in 800 After Charlemagne Expansion into Europe stopped by Charles Martel (Charlemagne’s grandfather) and Pepin the Short (Charlemagne's father) Kingdom divided between his sons Infighting among them led to fracturing of political unity in Europe Papal claims to political control in West Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) Lost its southern Mediterranean territory to Arab armies Increasingly unhappy with Western claims to be the ‘Roman’ Empire Lecture 8 ATO 3 Four Themes in Political History 1. Internal European Developments Vikings, Normans England France Holy Roman Empire (Germany, Austria) 2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as: ‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’ 3. Crusades 4. Eastern and Western Christianity at odds Lecture 8 ATO 4 Theme 1. Vikings in Europe Viking invasions: Last barbarians in Europe Started during Charlemagne’s rule Terrorized Ireland, England, Western Europe, and Russia for 150 years Viking (aka Northman, Norman, Rus) settled some of territory they conquered Western France Southern England Sicily, southern Italy Western Russia Iceland, Greenland Lecture 8 ATO 5 Theme 1. Routes of Viking Invasions Lecture 8 ATO 6 Theme 1. Europe in 11th C www.fordham.edu/halsall/maps/1090map.htm Lecture 8 ATO 7 Theme 1. Political Developments in England Anglo Saxons initially able to fend off Viking raiders William the Conqueror from Normandy 1066 defeated Anglo-Saxons at Battle of Hastings Established Norman rule in England King Alfred Great, d. 899 being most famous Because local barons were defeated, setup a strong national governing system in England Set stage for sporadic battles and wars between England and France; Normans in England claimed much of France Culminated in the Hundred Years War, 1339-1453 Lecture 8 ATO 8 Theme 1. Political Developments in France France subdivided into numerous independent duchies (Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine, Burgundy, etc.) Ruling families from these duchies vied with each other for power There was a king, but his power was based upon the land holdings of his duchy. Other duchies owed him troops and support for mutual defense Lecture 8 ATO 9 Theme 1. Developments in Holy Roman Empire (Germany, Austria, Northern Italy) Otto I, the Great, (912-973) established a strong kingdom in the center of Europe on the Carolingian model Conquered northern Italy 951 Defeated Magyar invasions 955 Crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII Beginning of a concept last until 1806 (or maybe 1918) Henry III (ruled 1039-1056) powerful enough to control papacy But his son, Henry IV was not Lecture 8 ATO 10 Four Themes in Political History 1. Internal European Developments Normans England France Holy Roman Empire (Germany) 2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as: ‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’ 3. Western Christendom attempts to recapture Holy Land from the Muslims to guarantee safety of Christian pilgrimages (Crusades) 4. Eastern and Western Christianity become increasingly at odds with each other Lecture 8 ATO 11 Theme 2. Pope and Holy Roman Emperor Otto the Great, King of East Franks (Germans), King/Emperor ruled 936973 Made bishops civil officials within his kingdom http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h2/h2_1 7.190.229.jpg Emperor gives the bishop the civil and religious symbols of his office Beginning of ‘lay investiture’ controversy Celibacy of bishops meant Otto did not have to worry about competing families to his own Otto crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope, in return agreement that no Pope could be elected without consent of Holy Roman Emperor Lecture 8 ATO 12 Theme 2. Pope and HRE (cont.) Pontificate of Gregory VII (1073-1085) Assertion of Papal primacy, Dictatus Papae; Church reform; Gregory had been a monk at Cluny Opposed simony (sale of religious offices) Emperor cannot invest bishops with symbols of office, or participate in election of Pope Henry IV refuses to accept Dictatus Papae Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Emperor Henry IV; Henry repents at Canossa and is forgiven Lecture 8 ATO 13 Theme 2: Pope and HRE (cont.) Concordat of Worms (1122) Compromise resolves (temporarily) issues between Pope and Holy Roman Emperor Agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Henry V Pope selects bishops and abbots, and invests them with symbols of spiritual office Emperor can invest bishops and abbots with lay responsibilities and be present at installation Lecture 8 ATO 14 Theme 2. Pope and English King Thomas Becket murdered by Henry II in 1170; Henry forced to do penance by Pope Alexander III Note Becket’s body destroyed in 1538 Pontificate of Innocent III (1198-1216) Maintained that all kings were vassals of Pope Challenged by King John in England; Innocent placed an interdict on England, saying that people were not obliged to acknowledge John as King Note: John younger brother of Richard Lionhearted, on Crusade during this time John repents and acknowledges his position as vassal to Pope John, in a now weakened position, is forced by his barons to sign the Magna Carta (1215) Lecture 8 ATO 15 Theme 2. Pope and French King Pontificate of Boniface VIII (1294-1303) Philip the Fair of France refuses to acknowledge ultimate Papal authority Boniface responds with ‘The two swords of religious and political power belong to Pope’ Unam Sanctam Philip burns the encyclical Boniface prepares to excommunicate Philip, when Philip’s supporters capture Boniface VIII; parade him sitting backward on a horse Boniface dies shortly thereafter French select next Pope, Clement V. This begins the ‘Avignon Papacy”; under French control Lecture 8 ATO 16 Four Themes in Political History 1. Internal European Developments Normans England France Holy Roman Empire (Germany) 2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as: ‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’ 3. Western Christendom attempts to recapture Holy Land from the Muslims to guarantee safety of Christian pilgrimages (Crusades) 4. Eastern and Western Christianity become increasingly at odds with each other Lecture 8 ATO 17 Theme 3. The Crusades Initially driven by desire to secure places of pilgrimage in Holy Land Pilgrimage was important from time of Constantine Undertaken as an act of penance Popular places of pilgrimage: Santiago, Tours, Canterbury, Rome, Holy Land; anyplace where saints were buried Also fear of Seljuk Turks (Moslems) Invaders from Russian steppes Defeat Fatimids for control of most of Arabic Empire Defeat Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071 for control of much of what is now Turkey Lecture 8 ATO 18 Theme 3. Major Crusading Movements First Crusade called by Urban II in 1095, Jerusalem captured in 1099 Second Crusade preached by Bernard of Clairvaux in 1146; military disaster for Europeans; Jerusalem recaptured by Muslim armies Third Crusade 1189-1192, inconclusive militarily Fourth Crusade, 1204, proclaimed by Innocent III, stopped with sack of Constantinople, never reached Palestine Children’s Crusade of 1212; pre-teenage children went to Holy Land and were slaughtered or taken as slaves; led by 10 year olds Fifth Crusade, 1228-1229, led by Emperor Fredrick II; briefly retook Jerusalem Sixth and last Crusade, 1248-1254, led by King Louis IX of France (later proclaimed saint) who was taken captive and eventually ransomed Lecture 8 ATO 19 Theme 3. European Route and Conquests During First Crusade http://www2.div.ed.ac.uk/courses/Animated_Maps/Divinity2/images/C1still.gif Lecture 8 ATO 20 Theme 3. The Internal Crusade: The Inquisition Starts as Church opposition to Albingensian (Cathars) in Southern France Similar to (a type of?) Manichaeism Spread with Muslim invasions through Spain 1208 Innocent III declares ‘crusade’ against Albingensians Barons and bishops of northern France mount bloody and successful conquest of Southern France Asks St. Dominic 1233 Inquisition established to find heretics Both a religious and a political institution Remember: political and religious unity not distinguished Example: St. Jean D’Arc executed by English Inquisition (1431) Lecture 8 ATO 21 Theme 3. The Church Reflects on Inquisition Tertio Milennio Advente 35 Another painful chapter of history to which the sons and daughters of the Church must return with a spirit of repentance is that of the acquiescence given, especially in certain centuries, to intolerance and even the use of violence in the service of truth. It is true that an accurate historical judgment cannot prescind from careful study of the cultural conditioning of the times… Lecture 8 ATO 22 Four Themes in Political History 1. Internal European Developments Normans England France Holy Roman Empire (Germany) 2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as: ‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’ 3. Western Christendom attempts to recapture Holy Land from the Muslims to guarantee safety of Christian pilgrimages (Crusades) 4. Eastern and Western Christianity become increasingly at odds with each other Lecture 8 ATO 23 Theme 4. Political Relations between Eastern and Western Christendom Back to Charlemagne (800) In East, an Empress, Irene, takes control of Constantinople Pope Leo refuses to recognize her ascendancy to throne; strikes her name from prayers at Mass; last Eastern Emperor to be included in liturgy Charlemagne and Irene consider marrying, but falls through Throughout this period, East insists that there is only one Roman Emperor: the one in Constantinople Lecture 8 ATO 24 Theme 4. Relations East and West (cont.) Mutual excommunication of Pope Leo IX and Patriarch in 1054 Lifted by Pope Paul IV and Patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1964 Fourth Crusade, 1204, invades and sacks Constantinople (Istanbul); rule until 1294 Many art works and relics are taken to Venice and Rome Pope John Paul II returned the relics of St. John Chrysostom and St. Gregory Nazianzus to Patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 2004 Lecture 8 ATO 25 Reading: St. Thomas Aquinas and Theory of Law St. Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274) Influences Dominican Student and professor at University of Paris Church Fathers Aristotle Works Commentaries Summas Hymns and poems, especially Eucharistic poetry Lecture 8 ATO 26 Readings: Aquinas ST Ia IIae Q90 – 97 Summa Theologiae (ST) highly structured Divided into Three Parts; the Second Part further divided Part I and Part II Each Part divided into Questions Each Question divided into Articles Each Article included a Statement, Objections and Replies Read the “ On the contrary” and “I answer that” sections carefully Lecture 8 ATO 27 Ia IIae Q90 a1 (in English: First Part of Second Part, Question 90, Article 1) Whether law is something pertaining to reason? Objection 1. It would seem that law is not something pertaining to reason. For the Apostle says (Rm. 7:23)… Objection 2. Further, in the reason there is nothing else but power, habit, and act. But law is not the power itself of reason… Objection 3. Further, the law moves those who are subject to it to act aright But it belongs properly to the will to move to act… Lecture 8 ATO 28 Ia IIae Q90 a1 (cont.) On the contrary, It belongs to the law to command and to forbid. But it belongs to reason to command, as stated above (17, 1). Therefore law is something pertaining to reason. I answer that, Law is a rule and measure of acts, whereby man is induced to act or is restrained from acting: for "lex" [law] is derived from "ligare" [to bind], because it binds one to act. Now the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts, as is evident from what has been stated above (1, 1, ad 3); since it belongs to the reason to direct to the end, which is the first principle in all matters of action, according to the Philosopher (Phys. ii). Now that which is the principle in any genus, is the rule and measure of that genus: for instance, unity in the genus of numbers, and the first movement in the genus of movements. Consequently it follows that law is something pertaining to reason. Lecture 8 ATO 29 Ia IIae Q90 a1 (cont.) Reply to Objection 1. Since law is a kind of rule and measure, it may be in something in two ways…. Reply to Objection 2. Just as, in external action, we may consider the work and the work done, for instance the work of building and the house built; so in the acts of reason, we may consider the act itself of reason, i.e. to understand and to reason, and something produced by this act… Reply to Objection 3. Reason has its power of moving from the will, as stated above (17, 1): for it is due to the fact that one wills the end, that the reason issues its commands as regards things ordained to the end… Lecture 8 ATO 30 Remaining Readings Primary Sources Aquinas Ia IIae Q90 – 97 Gregory VII Dictatus Papae Against Lay Investiture Concordat of Worms Boniface VIII Unam Sanctam Secondary Sources Vidmar, 111-154 McManners Ch.5 (170-195) Jeremy Johns CCC 2244-2246; 1954-1960 Lecture 8 ATO 31