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Lecture 8: Historical
Developments 900-1303
(Middle Ages)
Ann T. Orlando
March 15, 2011
Lecture 8 ATO
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Introduction
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Review 600 – 900
Theme 1: Internal European Political
Developments
Theme 2: Popes and Kings
Theme 3: Crusades
Theme 4: East-West Relations
Review Readings: How to Read Summa
Theologiae
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Review History 600 - 900
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Muslim Arab armies conquer much of Eastern Empire, Southern
Mediterranean, North Africa, Spain
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Charlemagne
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United Western Europe
Crowned by Pope Leo III in 800
After Charlemagne
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Expansion into Europe stopped by Charles Martel (Charlemagne’s
grandfather) and Pepin the Short (Charlemagne's father)
Kingdom divided between his sons
Infighting among them led to fracturing of political unity in Europe
Papal claims to political control in West
Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)
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Lost its southern Mediterranean territory to Arab armies
Increasingly unhappy with Western claims to be the ‘Roman’ Empire
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Four Themes in Political History
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1. Internal European Developments
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Vikings, Normans
 England
 France
 Holy Roman Empire (Germany, Austria)
2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this
period as: ‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’
3. Crusades
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4. Eastern and Western Christianity at odds
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Theme 1. Vikings in Europe
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Viking invasions: Last barbarians in Europe
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Started during Charlemagne’s rule
Terrorized Ireland, England, Western Europe, and Russia
for 150 years
Viking (aka Northman, Norman, Rus) settled some
of territory they conquered
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Western France
Southern England
Sicily, southern Italy
Western Russia
Iceland, Greenland
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Theme 1. Routes of Viking Invasions
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Theme 1. Europe in 11th C
www.fordham.edu/halsall/maps/1090map.htm
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Theme 1. Political Developments in
England
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Anglo Saxons initially able to fend off Viking raiders
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William the Conqueror from Normandy 1066
defeated Anglo-Saxons at Battle of Hastings
Established Norman rule in England
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King Alfred Great, d. 899 being most famous
Because local barons were defeated, setup a strong
national governing system in England
Set stage for sporadic battles and wars between
England and France;
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Normans in England claimed much of France
Culminated in the Hundred Years War, 1339-1453
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Theme 1. Political Developments in
France
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France subdivided into numerous
independent duchies (Normandy, Anjou,
Aquitaine, Burgundy, etc.)
Ruling families from these duchies vied with
each other for power
There was a king, but his power was based
upon the land holdings of his duchy. Other
duchies owed him troops and support for
mutual defense
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Theme 1. Developments in Holy Roman
Empire (Germany, Austria, Northern Italy)
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Otto I, the Great, (912-973) established a strong
kingdom in the center of Europe on the Carolingian
model
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Conquered northern Italy 951
Defeated Magyar invasions 955
Crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII
Beginning of a concept last until 1806 (or maybe
1918)
Henry III (ruled 1039-1056) powerful enough to
control papacy
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But his son, Henry IV was not
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Four Themes in Political History
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1. Internal European Developments
 Normans
 England
 France
 Holy Roman Empire (Germany)
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2. Pope-King relations summarized
throughout this period as: ‘Who’s in
charge, Pope or King?’
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3. Western Christendom attempts to recapture Holy Land from
the Muslims to guarantee safety of Christian pilgrimages
(Crusades)
4. Eastern and Western Christianity become increasingly at odds
with each other
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Theme 2. Pope and Holy Roman Emperor
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Otto the Great, King of East Franks
(Germans), King/Emperor ruled 936973
Made bishops civil officials within his
kingdom
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http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h2/h2_1
7.190.229.jpg
Emperor gives the bishop the civil and
religious symbols of his office
Beginning of ‘lay investiture’ controversy
Celibacy of bishops meant Otto did not
have to worry about competing families
to his own
Otto crowned Holy Roman Emperor by
Pope, in return agreement that no
Pope could be elected without consent
of Holy Roman Emperor
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Theme 2. Pope and HRE (cont.)
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Pontificate of Gregory VII (1073-1085)
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Assertion of Papal primacy, Dictatus
Papae;
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Church reform; Gregory had been a monk at Cluny
Opposed simony (sale of religious offices)
Emperor cannot invest bishops with symbols of
office, or participate in election of Pope
Henry IV refuses to accept Dictatus Papae
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Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Emperor Henry
IV;
Henry repents at Canossa and is forgiven
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Theme 2: Pope and HRE (cont.)
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Concordat of Worms (1122)
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Compromise resolves (temporarily) issues
between Pope and Holy Roman Emperor
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Agreement between Pope Calixtus II and
Henry V
Pope selects bishops and abbots, and invests
them with symbols of spiritual office
Emperor can invest bishops and abbots with
lay responsibilities and be present at
installation
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Theme 2. Pope and English King
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Thomas Becket murdered by Henry II in 1170;
 Henry forced to do penance by Pope Alexander III
 Note Becket’s body destroyed in 1538
Pontificate of Innocent III (1198-1216)
 Maintained that all kings were vassals of Pope
Challenged by King John in England; Innocent placed an interdict
on England, saying that people were not obliged to acknowledge
John as King
 Note: John younger brother of Richard Lionhearted, on Crusade
during this time
 John repents and acknowledges his position as vassal to Pope
 John, in a now weakened position, is forced by his barons to sign
the Magna Carta (1215)
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Theme 2. Pope and French King
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Pontificate of Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
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Philip the Fair of France refuses to acknowledge ultimate
Papal authority
Boniface responds with ‘The two swords of religious and
political power belong to Pope’ Unam Sanctam
Philip burns the encyclical
Boniface prepares to excommunicate Philip, when Philip’s
supporters capture Boniface VIII; parade him sitting backward
on a horse
Boniface dies shortly thereafter
French select next Pope, Clement V. This begins the
‘Avignon Papacy”; under French control
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Four Themes in Political History
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1. Internal European Developments
 Normans
 England
 France
 Holy Roman Empire (Germany)
2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as:
‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’
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3. Western Christendom attempts to
recapture Holy Land from the Muslims
to guarantee safety of Christian
pilgrimages (Crusades)
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4. Eastern and Western Christianity become increasingly at odds
with each other
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Theme 3. The Crusades
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Initially driven by desire to secure places of
pilgrimage in Holy Land
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Pilgrimage was important from time of Constantine
Undertaken as an act of penance
Popular places of pilgrimage: Santiago, Tours, Canterbury,
Rome, Holy Land; anyplace where saints were buried
Also fear of Seljuk Turks (Moslems)
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Invaders from Russian steppes
Defeat Fatimids for control of most of Arabic Empire
Defeat Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071 for control of much
of what is now Turkey
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Theme 3. Major Crusading Movements
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First Crusade called by Urban II in 1095, Jerusalem captured in
1099
Second Crusade preached by Bernard of Clairvaux in 1146;
military disaster for Europeans; Jerusalem recaptured by Muslim
armies
Third Crusade 1189-1192, inconclusive militarily
Fourth Crusade, 1204, proclaimed by Innocent III, stopped with
sack of Constantinople, never reached Palestine
Children’s Crusade of 1212; pre-teenage children went to Holy
Land and were slaughtered or taken as slaves; led by 10 year
olds
Fifth Crusade, 1228-1229, led by Emperor Fredrick II; briefly
retook Jerusalem
Sixth and last Crusade, 1248-1254, led by King Louis IX of
France (later proclaimed saint) who was taken captive and
eventually ransomed
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Theme 3. European Route and
Conquests During First Crusade
http://www2.div.ed.ac.uk/courses/Animated_Maps/Divinity2/images/C1still.gif
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Theme 3. The Internal Crusade: The
Inquisition
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Starts as Church opposition to Albingensian (Cathars) in
Southern France
 Similar to (a type of?) Manichaeism
 Spread with Muslim invasions through Spain
1208 Innocent III declares ‘crusade’ against Albingensians
 Barons and bishops of northern France mount bloody and
successful conquest of Southern France
 Asks St. Dominic
1233 Inquisition established to find heretics
 Both a religious and a political institution
 Remember: political and religious unity not distinguished
 Example: St. Jean D’Arc executed by English Inquisition (1431)
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Theme 3. The Church Reflects on
Inquisition
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Tertio Milennio Advente 35
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Another painful chapter of history to which
the sons and daughters of the Church must
return with a spirit of repentance is that of the
acquiescence given, especially in certain
centuries, to intolerance and even the use of
violence in the service of truth.
It is true that an accurate historical judgment
cannot prescind from careful study of the
cultural conditioning of the times…
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Four Themes in Political History
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1. Internal European Developments
 Normans
 England
 France
 Holy Roman Empire (Germany)
2. Pope-King relations summarized throughout this period as:
‘Who’s in charge, Pope or King?’
3. Western Christendom attempts to recapture Holy Land from
the Muslims to guarantee safety of Christian pilgrimages
(Crusades)
4. Eastern and Western Christianity
become increasingly at odds with
each other
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Theme 4. Political Relations between
Eastern and Western Christendom
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Back to Charlemagne (800)
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In East, an Empress, Irene, takes control of
Constantinople
Pope Leo refuses to recognize her ascendancy to
throne; strikes her name from prayers at Mass; last
Eastern Emperor to be included in liturgy
Charlemagne and Irene consider marrying, but falls
through
Throughout this period, East insists that there
is only one Roman Emperor: the one in
Constantinople
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Theme 4. Relations East and West (cont.)
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Mutual excommunication of Pope Leo IX and
Patriarch in 1054
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Lifted by Pope Paul IV and Patriarch of
Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1964
Fourth Crusade, 1204, invades and sacks
Constantinople (Istanbul); rule until 1294
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Many art works and relics are taken to Venice and
Rome
Pope John Paul II returned the relics of St. John
Chrysostom and St. Gregory Nazianzus to Patriarch
of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 2004
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Reading: St. Thomas Aquinas and
Theory of Law
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St. Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274)
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Influences
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Dominican
Student and professor at University
of Paris
Church Fathers
Aristotle
Works
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Commentaries
Summas
Hymns and poems, especially
Eucharistic poetry
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Readings: Aquinas ST Ia IIae Q90 – 97
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Summa Theologiae (ST) highly structured
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Divided into Three Parts; the Second Part further
divided Part I and Part II
Each Part divided into Questions
Each Question divided into Articles
Each Article included a Statement, Objections and
Replies
Read the “ On the contrary” and “I answer
that” sections carefully
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Ia IIae Q90 a1 (in English: First Part of
Second Part, Question 90, Article 1)
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Whether law is something pertaining to
reason?
Objection 1. It would seem that law is not
something pertaining to reason. For the Apostle
says (Rm. 7:23)…
Objection 2. Further, in the reason there is
nothing else but power, habit, and act. But law is
not the power itself of reason…
Objection 3. Further, the law moves those who
are subject to it to act aright But it belongs
properly to the will to move to act…
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Ia IIae Q90 a1 (cont.)
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On the contrary, It belongs to the law to command and to forbid.
But it belongs to reason to command, as stated above (17, 1).
Therefore law is something pertaining to reason.
I answer that, Law is a rule and measure of acts, whereby man is
induced to act or is restrained from acting: for "lex" [law] is derived
from "ligare" [to bind], because it binds one to act. Now the rule and
measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of
human acts, as is evident from what has been stated above (1, 1, ad
3); since it belongs to the reason to direct to the end, which is the
first principle in all matters of action, according to the Philosopher
(Phys. ii). Now that which is the principle in any genus, is the rule
and measure of that genus: for instance, unity in the genus of
numbers, and the first movement in the genus of movements.
Consequently it follows that law is something pertaining to reason.
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Ia IIae Q90 a1 (cont.)
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Reply to Objection 1. Since law is a kind of rule and
measure, it may be in something in two ways….
Reply to Objection 2. Just as, in external action, we
may consider the work and the work done, for instance
the work of building and the house built; so in the acts of
reason, we may consider the act itself of reason, i.e. to
understand and to reason, and something produced by
this act…
Reply to Objection 3. Reason has its power of moving
from the will, as stated above (17, 1): for it is due to the
fact that one wills the end, that the reason issues its
commands as regards things ordained to the end…
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Remaining Readings
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Primary Sources
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Aquinas Ia IIae Q90 – 97
Gregory VII
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Dictatus Papae
Against Lay Investiture
Concordat of Worms
Boniface VIII Unam Sanctam
Secondary Sources
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Vidmar, 111-154
McManners Ch.5 (170-195) Jeremy Johns
CCC 2244-2246; 1954-1960
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