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ANNEX
II
Technical Guidelines:
Common terms, definitions
and units used in GEA
Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
Annex II
Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units
used in GEA
This document provides technical guidelines for common terms, definitions, and units used in various chapters of the Global Energy Assessment
(GEA). Additionally, it covers the proposed spatial resolution (definition
of regional aggregates), base year values, units and definition of energy,
and sectorial definitions.
Definition and aggregation of GEA Regions
Three different levels of regional aggregations are used in GEA, each of
which serves for different purposes and levels of analysis.
1. 5 regions: This aggregation is the common, consistent denominator across the different models proposed to be used in GEA. Thus, it
represents the minimum level of spatial disaggregation for all analytical input/output data within GEA that involved modeling work. For
instance, data for the GEA pathways are available systematically for the
5 GEA regions only. This is the highest (i.e., minimum) level of spatial
disaggregation across all GEA chapters.
2. 11 Regions: This is the spatial resolution available for all IIASA models used in GEA, which provided the backbone especially for the GEA
scenario work for developing the pathways. Input data used in GEA
modeling work (e.g., resource potentials, present energy use patterns,
technology characteristics that are regionally different, etc.) have been
provided at least at the level of these 11 world regions. The 11 regional
Figure 1 | Minimum GEA regional detail (5 regions).
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Table 1 | 5 Regions.
Regional acronyms
Regional definition
OECD90
UNFCCC Annex I countries
REF
Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union
ASIA
Asia excl. OECD90 countries
MAF
Middle East and Africa
LAC
Latin America and the Caribbean
OECD90 = Includes the OECD90 countries, therefore encompassing the countries
included below (11 region) in the regions WEU, NAM and PAO.
REF = Countries undergoing economic reform, i.e. countries listed under the regions
EEU and FSU below (11 regions).
ASIA = The countries included in the regions SAS, PAS and CPA are aggregated into this
region.
MAF = This region includes the Middle East and African countries that make up the
regions AFR and MEA above.
LAC = This region includes the Latin American countries that make up the LAC region
above.
aggregations represent just an approximate denominator across all
models used within GEA. Data for 11 regions are available for specific
scenarios and for a limited set of models only. The results of the GEA
pathways are documented in detail at the interactive web-based GEA
scenario database hosted by IIASA: www.iiasa.ac.at/web-apps/ene/
geadb.
Annex II
Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
Figure 2 | GEA Scenario Model Regions (11 regions).
Figure 3 | Detailed GEA Regions (18 regions).
3. 18 regions: This is the minimum spatial disaggregation needed to
reconcile the regional definition differences across models used within
GEA (e.g., including IMAGE models). This regional definition was used
for all salient analytical work within GEA, e.g., for describing base year
patterns of energy end-use and supply, energy access, resource potentials (fossil and renewable), technology deployment, policy implementation, etc. When available data did not permit the representation of all 18
regions, the 11 regions defined above was used, or alternatively at least
the 5 GEA Regions. Base year (2005) proportional scaling techniques are
suggested in cases where only 5-regional input data are available but
finer regional detail is required.
Base Year: 2005
A common GEA base year is 2005. This is the year for which most critical
energy statistics were available in time for GEA’s analytical work. More
recent data where provided wherever available.
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Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
Table 2 | 11 Regions.
Annex II
Table 3 | 18 Regions.
Regional acronyms
Regional definition
Regional acronyms
Regional definition
NAM
North America
USA
United States of America
WEU
Western Europe
CAN
Canada
PAO
Pacific OECD
WEU
Western Europe, incl. Turkey
EEU
Central and Eastern Europe
EEU
Central and Eastern Europe
FSU
Former Soviet Union
FSU
Former Soviet Union
CPA
Centrally Planned Asia and China
NAF
Northern Africa
SAS
South Asia
EAF
Eastern Africa
PAS
Other Pacific Asia
WCA
Western and Central Africa
MEA
Middle East and North Africa
SAF
Southern Africa
LAC
Latin America and the Caribbean
MEE
Middle East
AFR
Sub-Saharan Africa
CHN
China
OEA
Other East Asia
IND
India
NAM = North America (Canada, Guam, Puerto Rico, United States of America, British
Virgin Islands)
WEU = Western Europe (Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Holy See, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein,
Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom)
PAO = Pacific OECD (Australia, Japan, New Zealand)
EEU = Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Czech Republic, Estonia, The former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia)
OSA
Other South Asia
JPN
Japan
PAS
Other Pacific Asia
OCN
Australia, New Zealand, and other Oceania
LAC
Latin America and the Caribbean
USA = Unites States (Guam, Puerto Rico, United States of America, British Virgin
Islands)
CAN = Canada
FSU = Newly independent states of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan)
CPA = Centrally planned Asia and China (Cambodia, China (incl. Hong Kong and
Macao), Korea (DPR), Laos (PDR), Mongolia, Viet Nam)
WEU = Western Europe (Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Holy See, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein,
Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom)
SAS = South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka)
EEU = Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Czech Republic, Estonia, The former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia)
PAS = Other Pacific Asia (American Samoa, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, French Polynesia,
Kiribati, Indonesia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, New
Caledonia, Palau, Papua, New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Samoa, Singapore,
Solomon Islands, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu)
FSU = Newly independent states of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan)
MEA = Middle East and North Africa (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt (Arab Republic), Iraq, Iran
(Islamic Republic), Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya/SPLAJ, Morocco, Occupied
Palestine Territory, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Syria (Arab Republic),
Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Yemen)
NAF = North Africa (Algeria, Egypt (Arab Republic), Libya/SPLAJ, Morocco, Sudan,
Tunisia)
EAF = Eastern Africa (Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Seychelles, Somalia, Uganda)
LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada,
Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Miartinique, Mexico,
Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Santa
Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay,
Venezuela)
WCA = Western and Central Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde,
Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Congo (DR), Djibouti, Equatorial
Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo)
AFR = Sub-Saharan Africa (Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon,
Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Congo (DR),
Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaBissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Reunion, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe,
Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Saint Helena, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe)
MEE = Middle East (Bahrain, Iraq, Iran (Islamic Republic), Israel, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Occupied Palastine Territory, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria (Arab Republic),
United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Yemen)
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SAF = Southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia,
Reunion, Rwanda, Saint Helena, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe)
CHN = China (incl. Hong Kong and Macao)
OEA = Other East Asia (Cambodia, Korea (DPR), Laos (PDR), Mongolia, Viet Nam)
Annex II
Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
Economic data are expressed in 2005 US$. GDP at constant (2005)
prices in US$ was calculated using the following equations:
price in national currencyi (t )
=
GDP aat current pricei (t )
GDP deflatorri (t )
GDP deflatorri (2005)
GDP in constant
s
(2005)
GDP at constant (2005)
price in national currency (t)
price in US$i (t ) =
XRATEi (2005)
Table 4 | Sample XRATE for major currencies.
Local Currency
XRATE [Local Currency / US$] in 2005
Euro
0.803
British Pound
0.549
Japanese Yen
108.9
Chinese Yuan
8.195
Canadian Dollar
1.211
Australian Dollar
1.309
Where, i = country indicator, t = year indicator, XRATEi(2005) = annual
average market exchange rate in 2005 [Local currency / US$].
GDP at local currency (t = 2005)
GDP-PPP in nternation $ (t = 2005)
For example, 272 [billion 2007 Euro] GDP in Austria can be converted in
326 [billion 2005 US$] as follows:
The relevant statistics are available from the World Development
Indicators (World Bank, 2007).
262 [2005 Euro] =
272 [2007 Euro]
⎛ 112.93 [GDP deflator (2007)]⎞
⎜⎝
⎟
108.51 [GDP deflator (2005)]⎠
262 [2005 Euro]
326 [2005 US$] =
0 803 [XRATE (2005)])
(0.803
All relevant data series for each country is from the World Economic
Outlook (WEO) database by IMF at: www.imf.org/external/data.htm.
Depending on the specific context, economic indicators were presented
in purchasing power parity (PPP) or market exchange rates (MER). In
either case, the choice of PPP or MER should be clearly stated in the
text and figures. The equations above are given for market exchange
rates (XRATE). For using PPPs, above XRATE needs to be replaced by the
following term:
Table 3 | (cont.)
IND = India
OSA = Other South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka)
Discount Rate
The discount rate represents the annual rate at which the effects of
future events are reduced so as to be comparable to the effect of present events. Assumptions in regard to the discount rate adopted have
important implications when considering medium- to long-term scenarios. However, there is no rate universally accepted since it is laden
with value judgment. For practical reasons, GEA adopted a uniform rate
of 5% throughout. Other rates are used in specific cases (e.g. from the
literature) whenever possible with a clear reference to the rate used is
made in such instances.
Energy Flows (Joules)
Both final and primary energy use levels are reported systematically in
GEA using SI units (i.e., Joules or multiples thereof, and to allow for
additional units, e.g., kWh if so desired, but always keeping the Joules
common denominator). Often alternative units from original sources in
the literature are shown in addition to the SI units. For the sectorial enduse chapters, only final energy is reported to avoid the risk of double
counting.
JPN = Japan
OCN = Oceania (Australia, New Zealand)
PAS = Other Pacific Asia (American Samoa, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, French Polynesia,
Gilbert-Kiribati, Indonesia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru,
New Caledonia, Palau, Papua, New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore,
Solomon Islands, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Samoa)
LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Santa Lucia, Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela)
Table 5 | Units based on SI.
Physical quantity
Unit
Symbol
Length
meter
m
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
s
Thermodynamic temperature
Kelvin
K
Energy
Joule
J
Power
Watt
W
Temperature
Degree Celsius
ºC
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Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
Table 6 | Selected SI prefix.
Symbol
10n
exa-
E
1018
peta
P
1015
tera
T
1012
giga
G
109
mega
M
106
kilo
k
103
hector
h
102
deca
Prefix
da
10
-
-
100
deci
d
10–1
centi
c
10–2
milli
m
10–3
micro
μ
10–6
nano
n
10–9
pico
p
10–12
femto
f
10–15
Accounting of Primary Energy
A consistent methodology was used for converting non-combustible
and non-fossil energy (e.g., renewable and nuclear energy for electricity generation) to primary energy equivalent across the assessment.
A widely accepted method for the accounting of primary energy from
these sources does not exist. Studies in the past have either used
the substitution equivalent method, assuming specific efficiencies for
renewable sources, or they have applied the direct equivalent method,
which accounts the energy output (e.g., electricity) of above energy
sources as their primary energy. The SRES (IPCC, 2000) have used the
direct equivalent method, while e.g., Nakicenovic et al. (1998) and the
IPCC (2007) have applied uniform conversion efficiencies across different sources (38.6% and 33%, respectively). Other assessments, such as
the World Energy Assessment (UNDP, 2004) or the World Energy Outlook
(IEA, 2007a), combine both methods, and assume different conversion
factors for different conversion technologies (in the WEA, for instance,
nuclear: 3, hydro, wind and solar: 1, geothermal: 10).
It was decided to keep the accounting methodology transparent and as
simple as possible in GEA given that a widely accepted and consistent
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Annex II
method across different studies does not exist. As a guide for the selection of the conversion efficiency, a global average efficiency of electricity and heat generation for the year 2005 was used. This corresponds
to an average efficiency of 35% for electricity generation, and 85% for
heat generation (IEA, 2007b). For example, 1[EJ] of electricity generated
by wind or nuclear at the secondary energy level is accounted as 2.86
[EJ] (i.e., 1/0.35) at the primary energy level. Likewise, 1[EJ] of heat generated (and used as heat) by solar or geothermal is accounted as 1.17
[EJ] at the primary energy level (i.e., 1/0.85). See Chapter 1 for further
discussion of primary energy accounting methods.
Accounting of Heating Values
To maintain clarity and consistency throughout the report, the heating
value of a substance, i.e., the amount of heat released during combustion of a specified amount, is expressed in J/kg.
Heating values are clearly defined in the text as either HHV (Higher
Heating Value) or LHV (Lower Heating Value). It is assumed that heating
values are given as LHV unless explicitly noted in the text as HHV. The
difference is that HHV includes the energy of condensation of the water
vapor contained in the combustion products.
Sectorial Definitions
The reporting and analysis within GEA’s sectorial chapters adheres
strictly to the principle of mutual exclusiveness.
Therefore, efficiency improvement (or carbon reduction) potentials for
end-use sectors (e.g., industry) are always strictly separated from corresponding “upstream” energy systems/sectors (e.g., electricity generation). For example, emissions reductions (e.g., from the electricity
generation sector) at the supply side need to be discussed/accounted
in the “upstream” GEA chapter, while the end-use demand chapters
should report emission/energy reduction potentials due to fuel substitution and energy conservation in that end-use sector only. Thus, sectorial
assessments were not “inflated” by accounting for (often unrelated)
“upstream” energy systems changes that should be reported separately. The GEA energy modeling framework enabled a rigorous and consistent accounting across sectors and the impacts of policy measures at
the sector level.
Annex II
Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA
References
IPCC, 2007: Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. International Panel on
IEA, 2007a: World Energy Outlook 2007: China and India Insights. International
Nakicenovic, N., A. Grubler and A. McDonald (eds.), 1998: Global Energy
Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
IEA, 2007b: Energy Balances, 2007 Edition. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
Perspectives. International Institute for Applied System Analysis (IIASA), World
Energy Council.
IPCC, 2000: Emissions Scenarios. Special Report of Working Group III of the
UNDP, 2004: World Energy Assessment: 2004 Update. United Nations Development
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press,
Programme (UNDP), United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Cambridge.
(UNDESA), World Energy Council.
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